Diplomatic History (1919-1990)Lecture 6

Dr. S. BARIŞ GÜLMEZhttps://ku.academia.edu/SeckinBarisGulmez

Email: baris.gulmez.2009@live.rhul.ac.uk

Civil WarDefinition: war between two or more portions of a country or state, each contending for the mastery of the whole, and each claiming to be the legitimate government

• Main determinant of Civil War:• two warring parties with the aim of being the ruler of the country• there should be an incumbent, desiring to preserve the existing rule and an

insurgent aspiring to establish its own rule

Civil Warthe 1949 Geneva Conventions underline some features of Civil War:

1. The belligerent party against the authority should be well organized and under the command of a certain leader. (Powers more or less equal)

2. The party should have sovereignty over some part of the country (territorial division)

3. It should have the ability that the rules of the convention could be applied properly (No bandits, or terrorists, but proper political authority)

Main Characteristics of Civil War• Violence is the primary weapon used by both sides: Massacre, civilian

casualties...

• Civil Wars last longer than Interstate wars: Average civil war lasts 120 months while int. War lasts 20 months.

• Negotiated peace is a rare outcome: Mostly ends with the victory of one side

• negotiated settlement is not a permanent solution: Half of the settlements were violated

(Charles King, Ending Civil Wars, 1997)

Internationalization of Civil Wars• Civil Wars, being an internal phenomenon, in fact are prone to become

internationalized.• For Modelski, internationalization of civil wars is threefold:1. The insurgent’s search for outside aid to become more powerful than the

existing government.2. The government’s effort to counteract by getting its own material assistance

in order to prevent the insurgent from becoming too powerful.3. Intervention of the third parties through mediation and reconciliation

(George Modelski “The International Relations of Internal War”, 1964)

Internationalization of Civil WarsSimilarly, outside powers can do three things during Civil Wars according to Modelski:1) They can support insurgents militarily and/or economically • E.g. German and Italian aid to Nationalists)2) They can support incumbents in the same way • E.g. The Soviet aid to the Republicans3) They side with nobody but perform mediation in order to reach a peaceful solution • E.g. Britain, France and, to some extent, the US.

(George Modelski “The International Relations of Internal War”, 1964)

Spanish Civil War• Internationalized Civil War• Nationalists vs Republicans• Nationalist rebelion against the Republican government• Considerable foreign assistance to each side

• Weapons of latest technology used in combat • Germany and Italy tested their military technology and strategic capabilities in

Spanish civil war as a preparation to a much bigger war. • No negotiated settlement. The winner took it all....

Origins of the War• Troubling political climate in Spain• No stability: 33 cabinet change between 1902-1923• 1923 Coup d’etat: Dictatorship of (Fascist) General Primo de Rivera• Six years of dictatorship: extreme rigt and left flourished• Rivera forced to resign in 1930 after losing the support of the Army• Republic was proclaimed in 1931.• (Leftist) Republicans won the elections• However, Republicans inherited a bankrupt and politically polarized state

without functioning democratic institutions

Origins of the War• January 1932: Failed coup against Republican government• Formation of fascist and ultra-nationalist groups against the Republican

regime• Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups (CEDA)• The ultra-traditionalist, Catholic, monarchist Carlists• Falange Española movement led by the son of Rivera; similar to the Italian

Fascists• Social and Political environment ripe for a civil war: Societal polarization

Origins of the War• In 1936 elections, the republicans gained a narrow victory under the Popular

Front by Manuel Azana, leader of the Left Republican party• Leftist reforms on clerics (confiscated church properties) and landowners.

• This created havoc in nation, leading to attacks, strikes on churches and farms of landowners.• A number of clerics killed, churches burned down • Poverty-stricken rural peasants seized land from wealthy estate-owners

Origins of the War• Aleading right-wing politician, José Calvo Sotelo, was assassinated by

government Assault Guards• Mutiny within the Spanish army against the Republican regime• General Franco came to Spanish Morocco to lead the Rebellion• Many army officers joined him.

• The Nationalists did not mean to launch a civil war• Acquiring sizeable portion of the Army, they aimed for quick victory.• No swift victory at all...

Origins of the War• The Republican revolution promised equality and fairness to nation• The Republican government made use of it.

• It distributed weapons to peasants and workers and convinced them that they would fight for their liberty and equality.

• Gained assistance from the Soviets• Escalated into a civil war to last 3 years

Origins of the War• Main justification of the Nationalist rebellion in the eyes of the public: • crusade against the destruction of Catholicism in Spain• 60.000 local men enlisted in the first months.• Rebellion started with 160.000 men to more than 1 million troops (1939)

• 70.000 KIA and 300.000 wounded.• Reflects the extent of impact of Catholicism on local people

Nationalist Justifications for revolting against the Republican

government• Holy war against infidels (preventing the destruction of Catholic Church in

Spain)• Burning of churches and murder of clerics blamed on Republicans

• Aim to prevent the spread of Communism in Spain (Europe in general)• Huge Nazi and Fascist influence on nationalists to bring down communism

and establish a nationalist domination in Spain

Falangist militia: Does it Look familiar?

German Military involvement• The Condor Legion: 7000 volunteers from the German Air Force and Army

from August 1936 to March 1939• Mainly served as supervisors, trainers rather than actually fighting in combat • Trained tens of thousands of Spanish troops• Provided air transport, air bombings and gave (sold) 100 tanks and artillery• Around 800.000 rifles, revolvers donated to Nationalists• The German experience in flying combat missions over Spain proved priceless

in WWII.

German Military involvement

• German merchant ships carried military equipment and supplies• 35 German warships and U-boats patrolled off the Spanish coasts to

prevent Republican attack

• German navy presence to enforce the embargo imposed by the League of Nations Non-Intervention Committee• However, Both Germans and Italians broke the embargo many times

to aid Nationalists

Italian military involvement• The Italian Corpo Truppe Volontarie• Largest foreign military assistance to Nationalists• 78,500 men, 750 aircraft and 150 armoured vehicles• Italians had recent combat experience from their invasion of Abyssinia

(Ethiopia) in October 1935–May 1936.• 3,819 killed and about 12,000 wounded• Armoured vehicles failed to Soviet tanks

Other forces aiding the Nationalists• The Portuguese Viriatos • between 8,000 and 12,000 men• Volunteers directly enlisted in the Spanish nationalist army

• The Salazar Dictatorship (1928-1968) had to declare neutrality as drect involvement would destabilize Portugal. • Important Republican faction in Portugal• The Air force pariticpated in some combat missions

Other forces aiding the Nationalists• The ‘Irish Brigade’• Composed of Irish Roman Catholics, IRA officers, quasi-fascist

‘Blueshirts’ movement• Joined the war in response to the massacres of Spanish clerics

• 1300 untrained men • Franco did not necessarily use them.• After a failed mission (15 KIA), the Irish Brigade was pulled back home

Other forces aiding the Nationalists

• Volunteers from different countries without the approval of the governments:

• 500 Frenchmen

• Around 1000 men from Spanish Guinea, Brazil, Belgium, Norway, Finland, Great Britain, Turkey, the United States and Australia.

Foreign asistance to the Republicans• France sided wiith the Republicans but did not send troops • Instead sponsored a non-intervention agreement among all the European

states in the hope of discouraging Italian and German aid to Franco • Britain devised a series of non-intervention schemes• All failed... • International brigades: Around 40.000 volunteers from various countries to

fight for the Republicans• Mexico sent 2 million $ and a number of airplanes• The Soviet Union and its international Communist agency, the Comintern,

sent aid to the Republic to restore the military balance.

Soviet Assistance to the Republicans• Humanitarian aid: food and other supplies for the civilian population• Money donated: Around 65 million Roubles.• the Soviet government adhered to the Agreement on 'Non-Intervention' in

Spanish Affairs, but still provided assistance • sent 806 military aircraft, 362 tanks, 120 armoured cars, 1555 artillery pieces,

about 500,000 rifles, 340 grenade launchers, 15,113 machine-guns, more than 110,000 aerial bombs, about 3.4 million rounds of ammunition, 500,000 grenades, 862 million cartridges, 1500 tons of gunpowder etc...

• 2000 Soviet volunteers – mostly trainers...

Germany in Spanish Civil War• Hitler's involvement in the Spanish war: • Aimed at diverting British and French attention from Central and Eastern

Europe • so that he would be unhindered in his plans for eastern expansion.• Germany also used the Spanish war as a chance to improve its image with the

democracies.• The Soviet Union became the only nation to give outright support to the

Republicans, • Therefore, Germany used the Propaganda Ministry to pose as the 'defenders

of Western civilization' against the Communists.

Germany in Spanish Civil War• Spain became a prime vehicle for Hitler's anti-Bolshevik propaganda campaigns

throughout the period

• According to Hitler: the Spanish war provided the opportunity for 'the gradual formation of a group of powers which are willing to make common front with Germany and Italy under the banner of anti-Bolshevism',

• thus obliging Great Britain to come to terms with German and Italian expansion.• Sending message to the West: If you want to get rid of the Communists, I am the

man; but I come with a price...

Germany in Spanish Civil War• Germany gained the valuable raw materials from Spain

• The Spanish Civil War also undermined British and French credibility to Hitler, encouraging him to make more dramatic eastern expansion moves

• The war helped drive the USSR away from Britain and France and was one of the reasons why Stalin reluctantly concluded that an accommodation with Hitler was necessary.

Italy in Spanish Civil War• Italy invested much more heavily than Germany.• Deployed forces and involved in actual battles unlike Germany• Lost soldiers.• Italy became exhausted militarily and economically after the war ended• Italian fascism gained reputation over Europe,• However, the real winner was Germany: Impact without much to lose• Italian war fatigue: Increased Italian dependence on Germany in the event

of a greater war.• WWII started only 5 months after the Spanish Civil war ended

The US and the Spanish Civil War• The war divided public opinion and reinforced isolationist sentiment in the US.• It caused the US government to strengthen its neutrality legislation.

• Roosevelt's peace initiative of early 1938:• meeting of ambassadors and sponsor an international effort to draw up

'essential and fundamental principles' of international behaviour.• The US initiative was rejected by Britain as useless.

• This caused the United States to further distance from the security needs of the European democracies.

Aftermath• Nationalist victory under Franco’s leadership• Franco became the dictator of Spain until his death in November 1975• Considerable German and Italian assistance• However, Franco chose to remain neutral during the WWII.• Did not let German troops to pass its borders to invade British Gibraltar• Let Axis powers to use its ports • Sent around 15000 Falangist militia in Germany’s campaign for Stalingrad; 13000

KIA. • In October 1943, Franco withdrew the rest of his troops upon the pressures of

the Allied forces.

Implications of the Spanish Civil War

• More than a civil war: The struggle between greater ideologies (Fascists and Communists)

• «Little World War»

• Increased solidarity among fascists and ultra-nationalists all over Europe

• Encouraged Fascists/Nazi for more revisionism

Implications of the Spanish Civil War

• Gave Nazis more courage and self-confidence to invade Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland.

• Drew the Fascist Italy completely away from the Democratic Western front and tied it to the Nazis.

• Crystallized the division between democratic and authoritarian/dictatorial states

Implications of the Spanish Civil War

• Western Democracies failed to act

• Appeasement policy of Britain and France during the civil war became 'the final issue which convinced Hitler that his policy of expansion could continue and succeed without recourse to war’

• The death of Appeasement

Implications of the Spanish Civil War

• The last step before the WWII (ended 5 months before the WWII started)

• The rehearsal of the WWII..• Prepared German and Italian armies to the WWII

• Japan used the troubling climate in Europe due to Spanish civil war as an opportunity to invade China

Round up• What is a civil war?• Was the Spanish civil war only a domestic incident or did it have an

international dimension?

• What was the significance of the Spanish civil war for international relations of the time?

• What were the results of the Spanish Civil War regarding World Politics?

Next Week...

The origins of the Second world warThe initial years