cross-border connectivity through social network sites

Journal of Social Media Studies !"#$; #(#): %&–&! 35

1. Introduction

Social network sites (SNSs) are increasingly popular around the world. As of June 2013, the US-

based site Facebook had 1.15 billion monthly active users worldwide, and in many countries has

become much more successful than domestic SNSs in terms of numbers of members (Comscore,

2011). Not only are SNSs a worldwide phenomenon, but due to their digital nature each SNS is

also potentially global. As such, SNSs allow for cross-border connectivity between users from

different countries and cultures. Yet, SNSs represent merely the network technologies which

are, in Castells’ (2009:24) words, ‘only the means that enact the trend described in the social

structure.’ Whether, and to what extent, the worldwide phenomenon of SNSs actually leads

to increasing cross-border connectivity between internet users from different countries and

cultures depends to a large extent on the users themselves.

This paper is based on research aiming to understand cross-border connectivity through

SNSs by studying the SNS behavior of German, Estonian, and Russian-Estonian SNS users.

For this, it introduces a model of cross-border connectivity through SNSs which is used as an

analytical framework for the empirical part of this paper. The empirical part includes focus

group interviews with representatives of each case group. The focus groups were used to help

formulate hypotheses regarding the case groups’ manifestations of cross-cultural and cross-

national connectivity through SNSs. These hypotheses were then tested with the three case

groups through a large-scale online survey.

2. Cross-border connectivity

Connectivity between people across geographic and cultural borders has been at the core of

many accounts of globalization. McGrew (1992:65), for instance, speaks of globalization as

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Journal of Social Media Studies !"#$; #(#): %&-&!ISSN: !#$'-%%((DOI: #".#&%$"/!#$'%%((##'(#

Research Article

Cross-Border Connectivity through Social Network Sites

Ulrike RohnUniversity of Tartu, Estonia

Abstract The increasing popularity of Social Network Sites (SNSs), and especially the international success of Facebook, raises questions about a possible connectivity between SNS users from different cultural or national backgrounds. Whereas recent research mostly considers connectivity in terms of a direct connection between users via their personal networks in SNSs, this paper proposes a multidimensional and multifaceted model of possible connectivity that takes into account various forms of direct and indirect connectivity through SNSs. Based on focus group interviews and a large-scale survey of German, Estonian and Russian-Estonian SNS users, this paper presents the results in terms of the characteristics of the various suggested features of connectivity, that is, cross-border success of SNSs; cross-border standardization of SNSs; cross-border contacts; and cross-border distribution of online content via SNSs. The results demonstrate varying degrees of cross-border connectivity both for different connectivity features and for different user groups.

Keywords Social network sites, connectivity, culture, SNS users, standardization, viral effects

Ulrike Rohn, University of Tartu, Institute of Journalism and Communication Lossi 36, 51014 Tartu Estonia

E-mail: [email protected]

36 Journal of Social Media Studies !"#$; #(#): %&–&!

AUIF� JOUFOTJkDBUJPO� PG� HMPCBM� JOUFSDPOOFDUFEOFTT�� )FODF � UIF� QSPDFTTFT� BOE� DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT�that constitute cross-border connectivity has always been one of the central study areas for

those attempting to understand current societies. For Tomlinson (1999), modern social life is

characterized by a ‘complex connectivity’, which expresses itself through a ‘rapidly developing

BOE� FWFS�EFOTFOJOH� OFUXPSL� PG� JOUFSDPOOFDUJPOT� BOE� JOUFSEFQFOEFODFT�� )BSWFZ� �� meanwhile, emphasizes the shrinking of distances between people through the reduction of the

time that it takes to cross distances, either physically through travelling or representationally

through the transmission of electronically mediated information. Furthermore, Giddens (1990,

1994a, b) stresses the way social ties are increasingly moving beyond local contexts.

The discussion about connectivity as an empirical element of globalization is much older

than the recent phenomenon of SNSs. The nature of SNSs as digital networks, however, may

facilitate and make obvious connectivity between people from different backgrounds in an

VOQSFDFEFOUFE�XBZ��)BZUIPSOUIXBJUF�� GPS�FYBNQMF �IBT�XSJUUFO�BCPVU�UIF�XBZT�CZ�XIJDI�new information and communication technologies open up new pathways of connectivity

between individuals who otherwise would not have the opportunity to connect with each other.

'VSUIFSNPSF �&MMJTPO �4UFJOkFME�BOE�-BNQF�� &MMJTPO �-BNQF�BOE�4UFJOkFME� ��BOE�Notley (2009) emphasize that connectivity is a key dimension of user engagement in SNSs.

The question, however, is how are people from different geographic and cultural backgrounds

connected with each other through SNSs?

.VDI�PG�UIF�SFTFBSDI�PO�4/4T�IBT�CFFO�JOlVFODFE�CZ�UIF�JEFB�UIBU�4/4�VTFST�BSF�DPOOFDUFE�by being members of a ‘virtual community’. The characteristic of a virtual community is that there

is no physical proximity between its members (Willson, 2006). The term ‘virtual community’

was popularized by Rheingold (1993) at the time when the Internet emerged. Parks (2011),

meanwhile, points out that the idea of a virtual community is ever more relevant with the more

recent phenomenon of SNSs as virtual social venues. MySpace, for instance, has been described

as an ‘imagined egocentric community’ (boyd, 2006).

Besides abstract descriptions of SNSs as virtual communities, there are many studies that

analyze how SNS users from different backgrounds are connected to their lists of contacts in

real life (e.g., Liben-Nowell, Novak, & Kumar, 2005; Rosen, Stefanone & Lackaff, 2010; Rui &

4UFGBOPOF �� 5JMMFNB �%JKTU ��4DIXBOFO ��)FSF � SFTFBSDI�GPVOE�UIBU�EFTQJUF�4/4T�being characterized as virtual communities in which there is no physical proximity, individuals

tend to connect in such networks with people not only from their own cultural but also from their

own geographic environment (e.g., Liben-Nowell, Novak et al., 2005; Tillema et al., 2010).

With the aim of understanding how SNSs facilitate connectivity between SNS users from

different geographic and cultural backgrounds, this paper sees the ‘befriending’ of people from

different cultural and geographic backgrounds via SNSs as one, but not the only, way by which

connectivity between users from different backgrounds may occur. Instead of focus only on this

aspect of SNSs, this paper examines connectivity through SNSs in a much broader sense. Based

on various different perspectives on SNSs that can be found in the literature, including that

which may not necessarily aim explicitly at understanding potential cross-border connectivity

between SNS users, this paper develops a model of cross-border connectivity through SNSs.

The perspectives considered include, for instance, views regarding the international success

of SNSs as presented in market reports (e.g., by Nielsen) or discussed in the context of the

network effects of SNSs (e.g., Rohn, 2011b, 2013). Furthermore, the paper will consider the

digital distribution of online content among SNS users via ‘word-of mouth’ and ‘viral content’

NPEFT�PG�EJTUSJCVUJPO�F�H� �%PCFMF�FU�BM� ��1FOFOCFSH ��The proposed model, which will be introduced in detail in the next section of this paper,

serves as an analytic framework for studying potential areas and manifestations of cross-border

connectivity through SNSs within a singly study. The model takes into account both a direct and

an indirect dimension of possible connectivity, and within these dimensions it distinguishes

two different features of connectivity. The model is innovative as it helps to integrate various

aspects of cross-border connectivity in a single study, and this paper thus differs from previous

research that has tended to focus on single aspects of connectivity. With its multidimensional

and multifaceted logic, the model attempts to contribute to a further understanding of what

Tomlinson (1999) called ‘complex connectivity’.

3. Model of cross-border connectivity through SNSs

The model proposed by this paper encompasses two dimensions of connectivity through SNSs,


one direct and one indirect. As Figure 1 shows, each of the dimensions contains two connectivity

features: in terms of the direct dimension of connectivity, the model sees cross-border contacts

and the cross-border distribution of online media content via SNSs as connectivity features;

BOE� JO� UFSNT�PG� JOEJSFDU� DPOOFDUJWJUZ � UIF�NPEFM� JEFOUJkFT� UIF� DSPTT�CPSEFS� TVDDFTT� PG�4/4T�and cross-border standardization of SNSs as important factors. The following will present these

suggested dimensions and features in detail.

Figure 1. Model of Cross-Border Connectivity through Social Network Sites

3.1. Direct and indirect connectivity

Direct cross-border connectivity occurs when SNS users from different cultural or national

backgrounds are directly connected with each other via their contact lists on a SNS; that is,

when they are ‘friends’ in such a network. Through such connections, users create a common

communication space in which they may exchange messages with each other, such as

recommendations regarding other online content. Due to their digital nature, SNSs make the

DSPTT�CPSEFS�lPX�PG�JOGPSNBUJPO�XJUIJO�B�VTFS�T�OFUXPSL�WFSZ�FBTZ�The notion of indirect connectivity takes into account that users of SNSs might be connected

in terms of sharing the same or similar experiences as other SNS users. Thus, even when users

are not connected through their lists of contacts on a SNS they might be members of the same

SNS and, therefore, experience, for instance, the same layout, design or functions of that

OFUXPSL��'VSUIFSNPSF �FWFO�XIFO�4/4�VTFST�BSF�OPU�NFNCFST�PG�UIF�TBNF�4/4 �UIFZ�NJHIU�kOE�themselves in a similar digital environment due to cross-border standardization of SNSs.

3.2 Indirect connectivity: Cross-border success of SNSs

One aspect of the cross-border connectivity of SNS users studied in this paper is when

people from different national or cultural backgrounds are members of the same SNSs. That

is, according to this paper, there is connectivity between SNS users when they are exposed to

the same platform and experience the same interface and standards within this platform, even

if they are not directly connected with each other through their lists of contacts. Where users

from different backgrounds use the same SNSs, they share the same ‘framework’ for their SNS

DPNNVOJDBUJPO �FWFO�UIPVHI�UIF� AkMMJOH��PG� UIJT� GSBNFXPSL� JO� UFSNT�PG� UIFJS�DPOUBDU� MJTUT�BOE�other user-generated content is different (Rohn, 2011b; 2013).

Many users are attracted to becoming members of a large, international SNS, such as Facebook,

by the openness of these networks to members from different cultures and countries (Ahn,

2009; Cusumano, 2011; Rohn, 2011b; 2013). Extensive, international SNSs have the potential

to reach a membership base that is larger than any local or domestic SNS could potentially

reach. With their size, these SNSs attract users through so-called network effects. Due to these

effects, the more members a network has, the more valuable it is to each of its members (Rohlfs,

��"MUIPVHI�OPU�BMM�NFNCFST�PG�BO�JOUFSOBUJPOBM�4/4�NBZ�CF�SFMFWBOU�UP�B�VTFS �BDDPSEJOH�UP�Reed’s Law (Reed, 2001), the utility of a social network increases exponentially with the size of

the network, even if the direct number of contacts a user has is very small.

5IF�JOUFSOBUJPOBM�TVDDFTT�PG�4/4T�JT�JEFOUJkFE�CZ�VTFS�TUBUJTUJDT�HBUIFSFE�CZ�NBSLFU�SFTFBSDI�

Dimensions of Connecvity

Indirect Connecvity SNS users are connected through the same or similar experience as SNS users.

Features of Connecvity

Cross-border standardizaon of SNS

Cross-border success of SNS

Cross-border distribuon of online content via SNS

Cross-border contacts in SNS

Direct Connecvity SNS users are directly connected in SNS; a common communicaon space is created.


agencies, such as Nielsen. Such statistics demonstrate the exceptional international success of

Facebook, though they do not analyze this phenomenon in terms of the cross-border connectivity

of SNS users.

3.3. Indirect connectivity: Cross-border standardization of SNSs

This paper also conceives one aspect of cross-border connectivity as existing when SNS users

from different cultural or national backgrounds use SNSs that offer the same or similar SNS

framework. Is this the case, users are exposed to the same or similar features and content, and

operate in the same or similar SNS environment.

Through the cross-border standardization of SNSs, SNS platforms that target users from

different countries or cultures offer a similar ‘framework’ (Rohn, 2011b; 2013) to their users,

thereby providing them with a similar environment for their SNS experience. This framework

includes, for instance, the layout, design and functions of the SNS, as well as the language

versions a SNS offers its users. Furthermore, a SNS’ framework includes the advertising that is

visible on the platform. Cross-border standardization may also occur within a SNS that targets

an international membership, such as Facebook, and which chooses to standardize its service

across countries instead of adapting it to local users; for example, by offering different language

versions of the platform or displaying different advertising.

5IFSF�JT�B�EFkDJU�PG�SFTFBSDI�JO�UFSNT�PG�UIF�QPTTJCMF�DSPTT�CPSEFS�TUBOEBSEJ[BUJPO�PG�4/4T��Although there is a large amount of research on how Internet users from different cultures

perceive the same web designs differently (e.g., Gevorgyan & Manucharova, 2009), research

still needs to be conducted on how SNS users from different countries and cultures are actually

exposed to the same features and standards used in different SNS platforms.

3.4. Direct connectivity: Cross-border contacts

Another feature of cross-border connectivity through SNSs considered in the proposed model is

when people from different cultural or national backgrounds connect directly with one another

via their personal networks on SNSs.

.BOZ�TDIPMBST�F�H� �&MMJTPO�FU�BM� ��$PSSFB�FU�BM� ��IBWF�FNQIBTJ[FE�UIBU�4/4�VTFST�VTVBMMZ�DPOOFDU�XJUI�QFPQMF�XJUI�XIPN�UIFZ�BMTP�IBWF�BO�PGlJOF�SFMBUJPOTIJQ��4JNJMBSMZ �TUVEJFT�of network structures (e.g., Liben-Nowell et al., 2005; Tillema et al., 2010) have found that cultural

and geographic distance between individuals negatively correlates with the likelihood of their

being connected in a SNS. As Park (2011:120) states: ‘Virtual communities are often simply

UIF�POMJOF�FYUFOTJPO�PG�PGlJOF�HFPHSBQIJDBMMZ� TJUVBUFE�DPNNVOJUJFT�� 'VSUIFSNPSF �BDDPSEJOH�to Vrasidas and Veletsasiona (2010:5): ‘Common metaphors such as the global village may not

always work when applied to experiences of marginalized people in online communication.’

The formation of cross-border contacts is the feature of connectivity that has received most

attention in terms of research out of all of the suggested features of connectivity in the proposed

model, and research has found little connectivity between users from different geographic and

cultural backgrounds through SNS (e.g., Liben-Nowell, Novak et al. 2005; Tillema et al. 2010).

3.5. Direct connectivity: Cross-border distribution of online media content

TIF�kOBM�BTQFDU�PG�DSPTT�CPSEFS�DPOOFDUJWJUZ�WJB�4/4T�DPOTJEFSFE�JO�UIF�QSPQPTFE�NPEFM�JT�UIF�way in which SNS users consume foreign media content, such as online articles from foreign

newspapers, when they are recommended it by one of their contacts on a SNS. According to

+FOLJOT�� XF�MJWF�JO�B�gQBSUJDJQBUPSZ�NFEJB�DVMUVSFu�JO�XIJDI�UIFSF�BSF�SFMBUJWFMZ�MPX�CBSSJFST�to sharing content. The digital nature of SNSs makes the forwarding of links to online content

within one’s personal network especially easy. In terms of cross-border acceptance of media

content, previous studies (Rohn 2010, 2011a; Straubhaar, 1991) have found that audiences

prefer content from their own environment over content from elsewhere; a phenomenon which

Straubhaar (1991) described as ‘cultural proximity’.

The distribution of online media content via personal networks on the Internet or SNSs is

VTVBMMZ�EJTDVTTFE� JO� UFSNT�PG� AXPSE�PG�NPVUI��PS� AWJSBM�NBSLFUJOH�� F�H� �%PCFMF�FU�BM� ��Penenberg, 2010), but with little or no reference to possible cross-border connectivity through

the distribution of such content.


4. Method

The empirical study, aimed at understanding the real-life prevalence of the suggested dimensions

and features of cross-border connectivity through SNSs, was conducted through case studies of

German, Estonian and Russian-Estonian SNS users. The methodological design included focus

group interviews and a quantitative online survey with SNS users in these groups.

The aims of the focus group interviews were to formulate questions for the online survey as

well as hypotheses regarding the real-life characteristics of the suggested elements of cross-

border connectivity in the case groups.

Three focus group interviews were conducted in April and May 2010. Each consisted of seven

or, respectively, eight SNS users as representatives of the case groups. The participants were

recruited through a random selection of users who had responded to an advertisement in local

newspapers in Germany and from people who had stated in a previous study in Estonia that

UIFZ�IBE�B�QSPkMF� JO�B�4/4�� *O� UFSNT�PG� TPDJP�EFNPHSBQIJD� DSJUFSJB � UIF�QBSUJDJQBOUT�PG� FBDI�group were very mixed, suggesting a great diversity in terms of their behavior and attitudes

towards SNS. The age of the ten female and 13 male participants ranged from 19-39 years and

their professions were varied, comprising, for example, students, a marketing specialist and

housewives. At the beginning of the interviews, participants were encouraged to report on their

SNS usage. This included, for instance, what SNSs they used, how culturally and internationally

diverse their lists of contacts were, and what kind of online media content they or their contacts

had ever forwarded through their SNS. The discussions in the groups proceeded openly, and

participants had enough time to elaborate on their thoughts and introduce new relevant topics.

The interviews were conducted in the participants’ native languages, transcribed and then

analyzed through open coding (Emerson et al., 1995).

Following these focus group interviews, the online survey was conducted in three different

languages simultaneously in Estonia and Germany in late 2010 and beginning of 2011. In order

UP�QBSUJDJQBUF�JO�UIF�TVSWFZ �QFPQMF�IBE�UP�GVMkMM�UIF�GPMMPXJOH�DSJUFSJB��UIFZ�IBE�UP�TQFBL�FJUIFS�German, Estonian or Russian as their mother tongue; they had to have lived in either Germany or

&TUPOJB�GPS�UIF�MBTU��ZFBST��BOE�UIFZ�IBE�UP�IBWF�B�QSPkMF�JO�B�4/4 �XIJDI�UIFZ�WJTJUFE�BU�MFBTU�PODF�B�NPOUI��*O�UPUBM �� 4/4�VTFST�DPNQMFUFE�UIF�TVSWFZ��0G�UIFTF ��XFSF�(FSNBOT ��were Estonians and 299 were Russian-Estonians.

The participants of the online survey in Estonia were recruited through a panel of SNS users

QSPWJEFE� CZ� UIF� NBSLFU� SFTFBSDI� DPNQBOZ � /PSTUBU�� 4JY� IVOESFE� PG� UIF� �� QBSUJDJQBOUT� PG�the German-language online survey were recruited through the online panel provided by the

research company, Globalpark; the remaining 104 were recruited through mouth-to-mouth

advertising. In order to increase the representativeness of the survey samples, admission to

the survey was regulated by quota in terms of age, gender and place of living. The quota was

consistent with the results of the MA 2009 Online II study for Germany and the Mina Meedia

Maailm study for Estonia that were retrieved for the Internet population in these countries1. The

survey, which the participants took an average of twelve minutes to answer, included questions

regarding the users’ SNS behavior in order to test the hypotheses that were formulated from the

focus group interviews.

5. Estonia and Germany as case countries

EsUPOJB�BOE�(FSNBOZ�XFSF�DIPTFO�GPS�TFWFSBM�SFBTPOT��5IF�kSTU�PG�UIFTF�DPODFSOT�TJ[F��(FSNBOZ �XJUI� B� QPQVMBUJPO� PG� OFBSMZ� �� NJMMJPO� BOE� &TUPOJB� XJUI� �� NJMMJPO� QSPWJEF� WFSZ� EJGGFSFOU�FOWJSPONFOUT �XIJDI�JODSFBTFT�UIF�QSPCBCJMJUZ�UIBU�kOEJOHT�GSPN�CPUI�DPVOUSJFT�NBZ�SFQSFTFOU�a universal character. Whereas German users can choose from a great number of domestic and

local SNSs, only a very few SNSs are of Estonian origin. This primarily includes the SNS rate.

Statistics show similarities between Estonian and German SNS users as Facebook has become

more popular than any domestic network with users of these two groups.

Estonia is, furthermore, interesting for a study on cross-border connectivity through SNS as it

allows the examination of two different cultures within one country. Estonia, as a country of the

former Soviet Union, has a Russian-speaking minority, which accounts for 26.3% of the total

population (ES, 2011). The majority of Russian-Estonians feel very connected to the Russian

culture, which is mirrored in the facts that many do not speak Estonian (Maimone, 2004) and

they consume a lot of media from Russia (Vihalemm, 2006;Vihalemm, Lauristin and Kõuts,

2012). Including both ethnic Estonians and Russian-Estonians in the study, and analyzing

them separately, allows for a differentiation between connectivity across different cultures on


one hand and territories, that is, country borders, on the other hand. The lack of connectivity

between the Russian-language community and the Estonian community has been of great

concern in recent years, and the division between Estonians and Russian-Estonians has been

TUVEJFE�JOUFOTJWFMZ�F�H��-BVSJTUJO�BOE�)FJENFUT ��

6. Results of the focus group interviews

The following section will present hypotheses regarding the characteristics of connectivity for

the case groups of SNS users, formulated based upon the focus group interviews.

6.1 Hypotheses regarding the cross-border success of SNSs

User data show that an increasing number of both German (Nielsen, 2010) and Estonian (Turu-

uuringute, 2011) SNS users use Facebook, and that Facebook’s popularity comes at the cost of

domestic SNSs losing members. The focus group interviews with the German and Estonian SNS

VTFST�DPSSPCPSBUFE�UIFTF�kOEJOHT��"�(FSNBO�QBSUJDJQBOU�FYQMBJOFE�UIF�BQQFBM�PG�'BDFCPPL�BT�follows:

‘Sooner or later you meet someone from another country who you want to stay in touch

with. Or your friends do. Then you switch to Facebook, because it is international.’

Facebook, with its large and international membership base, seems to attract German and

&TUPOJBO�4/4�VTFST�EVF�UP�UIF�BCPWF�NFOUJPOFE�OFUXPSL�FGGFDUT�3PIMGT ��'VSUIFSNPSF �both user statistics (Turu-uuringute, 2011) and the focus group interviews suggest that

the Russian SNS Odnoklassniki, a network that is popular with Russian-language speakers

XPSMEXJEF �BUUSBDUT�MBSHF�OVNCFST�PG�3VTTJBO�&TUPOJBOT��)FODF �UIF�GPDVT�HSPVQ�JOUFSWJFXT�MFE�to the following hypotheses:

)�B: German and Estonian SNS users are increasingly connected across borders through

SNSs, as they increasingly use Facebook that attracts users from different geographic

and cultural backgrounds.

)�C: The motivation to use Facebook is to stay in touch with international contacts.

)�: Due to their attraction to SNSs from Russia, Russian-Estonian SNS users are more

connected across country borders than across cultural, that is, language, borders2.

6.2. Hypotheses regarding the cross-border standardization of SNSs

In order to detect cross-border standardization of SNSs, a content analysis of the frameworks of

SNSs from different countries, or of the framework(s) that an internationally attractive SNS offers

to its users across countries and cultures, is needed. Interviews and surveys with users only

allow for an approximation of the possible standardization of SNS frameworks. Despite this,

the focus group interviews suggested that users do not pay much attention to the framework of

a SNS. Layout, design, advertising and even functions are not of much interest to users, whose

main interest in a SNS is its members and possible connections they can make. As an Estonian

interviewee said:

‘When on a SNS, I focus on my friends and not on the layout of the site or the advertise

ments on it.’

In terms of functionality, some German interviewees even reported that although they liked

the functions of the German SNS StudiVZ more than those of Facebook, they had switched from

StudiVZ to Facebook as this was the network that more and more of their friends used. Thus, a

4/4�T�BCJMJUZ�UP�BUUSBDU�VTFST�TFFNT�UP�CF�NPSF�EFkOFE�CZ�UIF�BCPWF�NFOUJPOFE�OFUXPSL�FGGFDUT�3PIMGT ��UIBO�CZ�UIF�GSBNFXPSL�PGGFSFE�GPS�NBOBHJOH�POF�T�QFSTPOBM�OFUXPSL��)FODF �UIF�characteristics of the framework, which includes its possible cross-border standardization, play

MFTT�PG�B�SPMF�JO�EFkOJOH�B�4/4�FYQFSJFODF�UIBO�UIF�VTFS�HFOFSBUFE�DPOUFOU�PO�UIF�4/4��)PXFWFS �UIF�GSBNFXPSL�EFkOFT�UIF�FOWJSPONFOU�JO�XIJDI�UIF�4/4�BDUJWJUJFT�PG�UIF�VTFST�UBLF�QMBDF �BOE�cannot thus be discounted.

Though users may not be able to make statements about the similarities between layout,

design or functionality of different SNSs, as they may not be familiar with many different SNSs,


they may nevertheless notice whether the advertisements they see on a SNS are in their native

language and advertise products and services from their region or country, or whether these

aspects of the interface are internationally standardized. Furthermore, they are able to say

whether they use a SNS in their native language or in the internationally standardized English

language version. If Germans, Estonians and Russian-Estonians, for instance, use Facebook

in its English-language version instead of its German, Estonian or Russian versions, then they

operate in an internationally standardized environment.

Since all focus group interviewees reported that they did not pay any attention to advertisements

on their SNSs, the survey only included questions regarding the language versions of SNSs

VTFST�DIPTF�UP�VTF��5IJT�XBT�EPOF�JO�PSEFS�UP�kOE�PVU�XIFUIFS�4/4�VTFST�PQFSBUF�JO�B�TJNJMBS �standardized environment. The focus group interviews mirrored previous research results (e.g.,

)FSSJOH�FU�BM� �� JO�XIJDI�JU�XBT�GPVOE�UIBU�QFPQMF�GSPN�MBSHFS�MJOHVJTUJD�DPNNVOJUJFT �TVDI�as the Russian-language community, use SNSs in their own language more often than people

GSPN� TNBMMFS� MBOHVBHF� DPNNVOJUJFT � TVDI� BT� UIF� &TUPOJBO�MBOHVBHF� DPNNVOJUZ�� )FODF � UIF�focus group interviews led to the two following hypotheses:

)��&TUPOJBO�4/4�VTFST�VTF�UIF�&OHMJTI �JOUFSOBUJPOBMMZ�TUBOEBSEJ[FE�MBOHVBHF�WFSTJPOT�of their SNSs more than their German and Russian-Estonian counterparts, making them

more connected across language borders in terms of their use of SNSs.

)��3VTTJBO�MBOHVBHF�&TUPOJBO�4/4�VTFST�QSFGFS�UP�VTF�4/4T�JO�UIFJS�3VTTJBO�MBOHVBHF�versions, making them less connected across language borders in terms of their use of

SNSs.

6.3. Hypotheses regarding cross-border contacts

In contrast to the German and Estonian focus group interviews, all of the participants in the

Russian-speaking focus group interview reported that they shared with almost all of their

DPOUBDUT�JO�UIFJS�4/4�DPOUBDU�MJTUT�UIF�TBNF�NPUIFS�UPOHVF��)FODF �UIF�GPDVT�HSPVQ�JOUFSWJFX�MFE�to the following hypothesis:

)�: Russian-Estonian SNS users are less connected across different language barriers,

that is, cultures, in their SNS use than German and Estonian SNS users.

Since many of the contacts of the Russian-speaking focus group interviewees lived outside of

Estonia, the following hypothesis was also formulated:

)�: Russian-Estonian SNS users are more connected across national boundaries than

Estonian and German SNS users.

Furthermore, the focus group led to the following hypothesis:

)��5IFSF�JT�MJUUMF�DPOOFDUJWJUZ�CFUXFFO�&TUPOJBO�BOE�3VTTJBO�&TUPOJBO�4/4�VTFST�

6.4. Hypotheses regarding the cross-border distribution of online media content

As with the research on cross-border acceptance of media content (Rohn, 2010, 2011a;

Straubhaar, 1991), the focus group interviews suggested that cross-border connectivity through

the distribution of online media content exists only to the extent to which users are connected

with foreign contacts. Based upon this, the following hypotheses were formulated:

)�B��4/4�VTFST�QPTU�MJOLT�UP�POMJOF�NFEJB�DPOUFOU�GSPN�UIFJS�PXO�DVMUVSBM�BOE�HFPHSBQIJD�background only.

)�C��4/4�VTFST�GPMMPX�MJOLT�UP�POMJOF�NFEJB�DPOUFOU�UIFZ�SFDFJWF�WJB�UIFJS�4/4�DPOUBDUT�


6. Results of the online survey

6.1. Survey results: Cross-border success of SNSs

The participants of the survey were asked which SNSs they visited at least once a month. Figure 2

TIPXT�UIF�kWF�4/4T�UIBU�XFSF�NFOUJPOFE�UIF�NPTU�BDDPSEJOH�UP�FBDI�PG�UIF�DBTF�HSPVQT��0CWJPVT�differences appeared between the groups. Only Facebook is among the most popular SNSs

UISPVHIPVU�BMM�UISFF�HSPVQT �DPOkSNJOH�UIBU�'BDFCPPL�BUUSBDUT�VTFST�GSPN�EJGGFSFOU�HFPHSBQIJD�and cultural backgrounds. Figure 2 also shows that the Russian-speaking users mostly use SNSs

GSPN�3VTTJB �TVQQPSUJOH�)��UIBU�3VTTJBO�&TUPOJBO�4/4�VTFST�BSF�NPSF�DPOOFDUFE�BDSPTT�DPVOUSZ�borders and less across language, that is, cultural borders through their choice of SNSs. Similar

to the Russian-language SNS users, the German users mostly use SNSs from their own cultural

environment, indicating little cross-cultural connectivity. The Estonian users, however, use more

SNSs originating outside Estonia, an observation that may be explained by a limited choice of

SNSs from Estonia.

Question:� A8JUI�XIJDI�4/4�EP�ZPV�IBWF�B�QSPkMF�UIBU�ZPV�WJTJU�BU� MFBTU�PODF�B�NPOUI �� .VMUJQMF�BOTXFST�QPTTJCMF�� 5IF� DIBSU� TIPXT� UIF� kWF�NPTU� GSFRVFOUMZ�NFOUJPOFE�4/4T� BOE� UIF� DPVOUSZ� PG� PSJHJO� PG� UIFTF�networks. GER= Germany, EST= Estonia, BELG= Belgium, RUS= Russia.

*O� PSEFS� UP� kOE� PVU� XIFUIFS� (FSNBO� BOE� &TUPOJBO�4/4� VTFST� FYIJCJU� BO� JODSFBTJOH� DSPTT�border connectivity through their increasing use of Facebook, which attracts users from different

HFPHSBQIJD�BOE�DVMUVSBM�CBDLHSPVOET�)�B �VTFST�XFSF�BTLFE�XIJDI�4/4�UIFZ�VTFE�NPTU�BU�UIF�time of the survey, and which they used most two years before the survey. In fact, 35.5% of the

German respondents and 39.1% of the Estonian respondents answered that their preference for

a particular SNS had changed over the last two years. Among the Russian-speaking respondents,

UIJT�XBT�UIF�DBTF�GPS��$SBNFS�T�7��Q��0G�UIPTF�XIP�TUBUFE�UIBU�UIFZ�IBE�NPTUMZ�VTFE�B�EJGGFSFOU�4/4�UXP�ZFBST�CFGPSF�UIF�TVSWFZ ��PG�UIF�(FSNBOT ��PG�UIF�&TUPOJBOT�but only 59.4% of the Russian-Estonians said that they now preferred Facebook (Cramer’s V=

�� Q�� 'JHVSF� �� EJTQMBZT� UIF� 4/4T� UIFTF� VTFST� VTFE�NPTU� CFGPSF� 'BDFCPPL� CFDBNF�their favorite SNS. It is apparent that the domestic SNSs and the SNSs that target Russian-

speaking users, (that is, SNSs that are geographically and culturally more closed), have lost

their importance. The only exception is Orkut from the US, which a large number of Estonians

had left during the two years before the survey. Despite Estonia, however, Orkut does not enjoy

high popularity in Europe, making the network an unlikely place for cross-border connectivity

among European users. 5P�TVNNBSJ[F�UIF�TVSWFZ�DPOkSNFE�)�B �UIBU�(FSNBO�BOE�&TUPOJBO�4/4�users are increasingly indirectly connected across borders through their choice of Facebook that

attracts users from different geographic and cultural backgrounds.

Figure 2. Most popular Social Network Sites


5IF�kHVSF�TIPXT�UIF�4/4T�UIBU�BU�MFBTU��PG�UIFTF�TVSWFZ�QBSUJDJQBOUT�VTFE�UIF�NPTU�CFGPSF�UIFJS�preference switched to Facebook. GER= Germany, EST= Estonia, BELG= Belgium, RUS= Russia.n =

respective survey participants who mostly used Facebook at the time of the survey but had used a

different SNS the most two years before the survey.

In contrast to what the focus group interviews suggested, however, the switch to Facebook was

OPU�NPUJWBUFE�NBJOMZ�CZ�UIF�XJTI�UP�TUBZ�JO�UPVDI�XJUI�JOUFSOBUJPOBM�DPOUBDUT��)FODF �UIF�TVSWFZ�EJE� OPU� DPOkSN�)�C�� "T�5BCMF�� TIPXT � IPXFWFS � GPSFJHO� DPOUBDUT� IBWF�QMBZFE� B� TPNFXIBU�higher role for German SNS users than for users in the other two groups.

Table 1. Changing to Facebook because of foreign contacts

Germans Estonians Russian-Estonians

(n=210) (n=145) (O��

�� 2.03

Means. Answer options on a Likert scale from 1 – 4 with 1= I strongly disagree, 2= I disagree, 3= I agree

and 4 = I strongly agree to the following reason for the change of SNS preference: ‘I have met people from

BCSPBE�XJUI�XIPN�*�XBOUFE�UP�TUBZ�JO�UPVDI��&5"��Q��O��SFTQFDUJWF�TVSWFZ�QBSUJDJQBOUT�XIP�used Facebook the most at the time of the survey but had used a different SNS the most two years before

the survey.

6.2. Survey results: Cross-border standardization of SNSs

AT�NFOUJPOFE�BCPWF �JU�JT�EJGkDVMU�UP�EFUFSNJOF�UIF�FYUFOU�PG�QPTTJCMF�cross-border standardization

PG�4/4T�UISPVHI�B�VTFS�TVSWFZ��)FODF �UIF�RVFTUJPOT�JO�UIF�TVSWFZ�UIBU�BJNFE�BU�JOWFTUJHBUJOH�XIFUIFS� 4/4� VTFST� PG� EJGGFSFOU� DVMUVSBM� BOE� HFPHSBQIJD� CBDLHSPVOET� kOE� UIFNTFMWFT� JO� B�standardized environment when visiting their SNSs concentrated on the language versions

they chose to use in their SNSs. The more users use English as the internationally standardized

MBOHVBHF�WFSTJPO�JO�UIFJS�4/4T �UIF�NPSF�UIFZ�kOE�UIFNTFMWFT�JO�BO�JOUFSOBUJPOBMMZ�TUBOEBSEJ[FE�SNS environment.

The survey showed that using their SNSs in a foreign language version is most common among

Estonian SNS users and least common among Russian-Estonian SNS, though the association

JT�XFBL�$SBNFS�T�7�� Q��5IF�SFTVMUT�BMTP�TIPXFE�UIBU��PG�UIF�&TUPOJBOT�BOE��PG� UIF�(FSNBOT� BOE� POMZ� ��PG� UIF� &TUPOJBO� 3VTTJBO� QBSUJDJQBOUT� TUBUFE� UIBU� UIFZ�EJE�OPU�VTF�UIFJS�OBUJWF�MBOHVBHF�JO�UIF�4/4T�UIFZ�VTFE�UIF�NPTU��0G�UIFTF�(FSNBOT��O��&TUPOJBOT�� O�� 3VTTJBO�&TUPOJBOT�� O�� BT� NBOZ� BT� �� (FSNBOT � �� &TUPOJBOT�BOE��3VTTJBOT�TBJE�UIBU�UIFZ�VTFE�UIFJS�4/4T�JO�UIF�&OHMJTI�WFSTJPOT��)FODF �UIF�TVSWFZ�DPOkSNFE�)��BOE�)��UIBU�&TUPOJBOT�BSF�NPTU�DPOOFDUFE�BDSPTT�MBOHVBHF�CPSEFST�JO�UFSNT�PG�

Figure 3. Social Network Sites that have lost users to Facebook


their choice of language versions and Russian-Estonians are least connected.

Respondents were also asked why they did not choose to use their favorite SNSs in the version

of their mother tongue. For this, they could choose from a variety of answers that were formulated

with the help of the focus group interviews or they could provide their own reason under the

answer category ‘other reasons’. As Figure 4 shows, a frequently mentioned reason that is that

users had not yet bothered to look for a version in their native language. Most of the answers

in the category ‘other reasons’ were similar to the following response by a German respondent:

‘It is an American network, and I would like to use it in its original language, in the language

it was developed in.’

��$SBNFS�T�7��Q��$SBNFS�T�7��Q��$SBNFS�T�7��Q��$SBNFS�T�7�� Q��

6.3. Survey results: Cross-border contacts on SNSs

The survey respondents were asked how many of their contacts in their most used SNSs lived

in their country and with how many of their contacts they shared the same mother tongue. As

Table 2 shows, the Russian-Estonian SNS users exhibit a somewhat higher connectivity across

different countries and a slightly lower connectivity across different cultures, that is, languages

than their ethnic Estonian and German counterparts. $POTFRVFOUMZ � UIF�TVSWFZ�DPOkSNFE�)��BOE�)��

Table 2. Domestic contacts and contacts with same native language on Social Network Sites

GermanSNS usersW(n =

704)

Estonian SNS users1

(n = 461)

Russian-Estonian SNS users1

(n = 299)

)PX�NBOZ�PG�ZPVS�DPOUBDUT�JO�the SNS you use the most live

in Estonia/Germany?

4.14 4.25 3.53 &UB��Q��

)PX�NBOZ�PG�ZPVS�DPOUBDUT�JO�the SNS you use the most have

German/Estonian/Russian as

their mother tongue?

4.10 4.32 4.44 &UB��Q��

1Means; answer options on a scale from 1 = None to 5 = All.

5IF�TVSWFZ�BMTP�DPOkSNFE�)��BT�JU�TIPXFE�WFSZ�MJUUMF�DPOOFDUJWJUZ�CFUXFFO�UIF�&TUPOJBO�BOE�Russian- Estonian users. Asked how many of their contacts in their most used SNSs belonged

UP�UIF�PUIFS�HSPVQ �UIF�NFBO�WBMVFT�XFSF�POMZ��GPS�UIF�&TUPOJBOT�BOE��GPS�UIF�3VTTJBOT�(with 1 = none and 5= all).

6.4. Survey results: Cross-border distribution of media content via SNSs

The survey respondents were asked about their own as well as their contacts’ behavior in terms

Figure 4. Reasons for using a Social Network Site in a foreign language version


of forwarding to their SNS contacts links to online media content. The results show that both

DVMUVSBM�BOE�HFPHSBQIJD�QSPYJNJUZ�QMBZ�B�SPMF�JO�JOlVFODJOH�UIF�UZQF�PG�NFEJB�DPOUFOU�GPSXBSEFE��)FODF � UIF� FYUFOU� UP� XIJDI� DPOUFOU� DSPTTFT� DVMUVSBM� BOE� OBUJPOBM� CPVOEBSJFT� UISPVHI� 4/4T�depends on the extent to which users are connected across boundaries.

SNS users from different countries post links to different content. Table 3 shows four classic

media types, that is, newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, and reports the percentage

of survey respondents who said that they had forwarded a link to online content of the respective

type of media through their SNSs. As the table shows, the percentages of users who forwarded

a link to content of a foreign newspaper, magazine, radio channel or TV station is very small. The

percentages range from 0.0% to 5.0%, depending on the type of media and case group of users.

Table 3. Forwarding links to online media content via Social Network Sites

Type of content to which users have forwarded a

link to via their SNS

German

SNS users

(n = 704)

Estonian

SNS users

(n=461)

Russian-Estonian

SNS users

(n=299)

Newspaper article �� 25.2% 29.1%

Newspaper article by foreign newspaper 4.3% 3.9% 2.0%

Content from a radio station 5.3% 6.1% ��

Content from a foreign radio station 1.9% 0.0% 1.3%

Link to a TV program 14.6% 12.1% ��

Link to a TV program aired by a foreign TV station 2.6% ��

Magazine article 19.6% 6.5% ��

Magazine article by a foreign magazine 2.4% �� 5.0%

Similarly, Table 4 shows that the majority of SNS users who have contacts abroad and who

have received a link to online media content, stated that they agree or strongly agree that these

contacts post links to different media than their domestic contacts do. The percentages range

GSPN��UP��EFQFOEJOH�PO�UIF�UZQF�PG�NFEJB�BOE�DBTF�HSPVQ�PG�VTFST��

Table 4. Receiving links to online media content via foreign contacts on Social Network Sites

SNS users German Estonian Russian-Estonian

Users who have received a link to an online article by a

newspaper

31.5% 1 33.6% 1 ��1

‘I (strongly) agree that people from different countries post

links to different newspapers.’

��2 52.3% 2 ��2

Users who have received a link to online content by a radio

station

��1 6.3% 1 ��1


links to different radio stations.’

60.0% 2 69.2% 2 ��2

Users who have received a link to a TV program 25.0%1 16.3% 1 10.4%1


links to different TV programs.’

��2 ��2 64.0% 2

Users who have received a link to an online article by a

magazine

29.3% 1 ��1 12.0%1


links to different magazines’

��2 ��2 ��2

Answer options were: I strongly agree, I agree, I neither agree nor disagree, I disagree, I strongly disagree.1O�BMM�SFTQPOEFOUT��(FSNBOT��O��&TUPOJBOT��3VTTJBO�&TUPOJBOT��


2n= all respondents who have contacts abroad and who have received a link to the particular type of online

DPOUFOU��(FSNBOT��/FXTQBQFST��O��3BEJP��O��57�QSPHSBNT��O��NBHB[JOFT��O��&TUPOJBOT��/FXTQBQFST��O��3BEJP��O��57�QSPHSBNT��O��NBHB[JOFT��O��3VTTJBO�&TUPOJBOT��/FXTQBQFST��n=50; Radio: n=16: TV programs: n= 25; magazines: n= 36.

The results of the survey also suggested that users from different cultures post different links.

The ethnic Estonian and Russian-Estonians who said that they had contacts in each other’s group

and who had received links to online media content were also asked whether they thought that

their contacts in the other group forwarded links to different online media than contacts from

UIFJS�PXO�HSPVQ��5IJT�XBT�BHSFFE�PS�TUSPOHMZ�BHSFFE�CZ��UP��PG�UIF�VTFST �EFQFOEJOH�on type of the media and case group of the users, as Table 5 shows.

Table 5. Cross-cultural differences in forwarding links to online media content via Social Network Sites

I (strongly) agree that… Estonians Russian-Estonians

…Russian-language Estonians forward links to different newspapers than do ethnic Estonians

49.2% ��

…Russian-language Estonians forward links to different magazines than do ethnic Estonians

56.9% 64.5%

…Russian-language Estonians forward links to different radio channels than do ethnic Estonians

�� 60.0%

…Russian-language Estonians forward links to different TV programs than do ethnic Estonians

51.6% ��

Answer options were: I strongly agree, I agree, I neither agree nor disagree, I disagree, I strongly disagree.n=

all respondents who have contacts in the respective other group and who have been forwarded a link to the

respective type of media. For the Estonians the followingrefers to the newspapers: n=59, magazines: n=32,

radio channels: n=13, TV programs: n=31. For the Russian-Estonians the followingrefers to the newspapers:

O�� NBHB[JOFT��O��SBEJP�DIBOOFMT��O�� 57�QSPHSBNT��O��

Furthermore, from the example of online articles by newspapers as the most forwarded online

content (see Table 3) it is apparent that both cultural and geographic backgrounds matter in

terms of what content is being forwarded. Thus, the three most forwarded newspapers by the

Russian-Estonians were all Russian-language media from Estonia and not from Russia. Of the

Russian-language respondents who had forwarded a link to an online article by a newspaper via

UIFJS�4/4�O�� TBJE�UIBU�UIFZ�IBE�GPSXBSEFE�B�MJOL�UP�UIF�3VTTJBO�MBOHVBHF�FEJUJPO�of Postimees, 40.2% to Den za Dnjom� BOE�� UP�MK Estonia. The three most forwarded

newspapers by the ethnic Estonians (n=116), on the other hand, were Postimees�� Eesti

Päevaleht��BOE�Õhtuleht��)FODF �UIF�TVSWFZ�DPOkSNFE�)�B�UIBU�VTFST�QPTU�MJOLT�GSPN�UIFJS�PXO�DVMUVSBM�BOE�HFPHSBQIJD�

environment. Thus, users receive links to online content from different cultural and geographic

backgrounds proportionately to the extent they are connected with people from other cultures

and countries.

Table 6. Following links to online media content via foreign contacts on Social Network Sites

SNS users German Estonian Russian-Estonian

‘I (strongly) agree that through such links I have read newspapers that I would have not read otherwise.’

��1 66.5% 1 ��1

‘I (strongly) agree that through such links I consumed content from radio stations and their websites that I would have not consumed otherwise.’

��1 62.1% 1 ��1

‘I (strongly) agree that through such links I consumed TV programs that I would have not have watched otherwise.’

��1 ��1 ��1

‘I (strongly) agree that through such links I have read magazines that I would have not read otherwise.’

49.0%1 45.2% 1 ��1

1n =all respondents who have contacts abroad and who have received a link to the particular kind of online

DPOUFOU��(FSNBOT��/FXTQBQFST��O��3BEJP��O��57�QSPHSBNT��O��NBHB[JOFT��O��&TUPOJBOT��


/FXTQBQFST��O��3BEJP��O��57�QSPHSBNT��O��NBHB[JOFT��O��3VTTJBO�&TUPOJBOT��/FXTQBQFST��n=50; Radio: n=16: TV programs: n= 25; magazines: n= 36. The answer options were: I strongly agree, I

agree, I neither agree nor disagree, I disagree, I strongly disagree.

As Table 6 shows, large percentages of users who have contacts abroad say that, through the

links that they have received, they have consumed media which they not would have otherwise

BDDFTTFE��5IF�QFSDFOUBHFT�SBOHF�GSPN��UP�� EFQFOEJOH�PO�UIF�UZQF�PG�NFEJB�BOE�DBTF�HSPVQ�PG�VTFST��5IJT�DPOkSNT�)�C�UIBU�4/4�VTFST�GPMMPX�MJOLT�UP�POMJOF�NFEJB�DPOUFOU�UIFZ�receive via their SNSs. Thus, SNSs facilitate cross-border distribution of media content within

people’s networks. One needs to recognize, however, that the percentage of users who actually

post links to online media content is low (see Table 3).

7. Summary and discussion

The aim of this paper was to provide an account of how people from different cultural and

geographic backgrounds are connected with each other through SNSs. To this end, the paper

introduced a model of cross-border connectivity through SNSs to serve as an analytical

framework for studying potential areas and manifestations of cross-border connectivity within

a single study. This model was used to study the cross-border connectivity of German, Estonian

and Russian-Estonian SNS users.

The model proposed in this paper distinguishes between a direct and an indirect dimension

of connectivity between SNS users. The indirect connectivity of SNS users from different cultural

or geographic backgrounds occurs insofar as SNSs are successful with users across different

countries and/or cultures, or when SNSs are internationally standardized. Direct connectivity

occurs when SNS users from different backgrounds are directly connected with each other

through their personal networks on the SNSs they use. Through these connections, a common

communication space is created, which allows the cross-border distribution of online media

content through these networks. For both direct and indirect connectivity, the model conceives

two different features of connectivity: the cross-border success and cross-border standardization

of SNSs in the case of indirect connectivity, and the formulation of cross-border contacts and

the cross-border distribution of online media content via SNSs in terms of direct connectivity.

Based on this proposed model, this paper introduced the results of an online user survey

with the three user case groups. The survey tested hypotheses regarding the suggested

manifestations of connectivity for the case groups, as previously formulated through focus

group interviews with representatives of these three groups.

With regard to indirect connectivity achieved through the cross-border success of SNSs,

the results showed that German and Estonian SNS users increasingly use Facebook, a social

network which attracts users from many different geographic and cultural backgrounds. This

kOEJOH�JT�JO�MJOF�XJUI�FYJTUJOH�MJUFSBUVSF�UIBU�FNQIBTJ[FT�UIF�GBDU�UIBU�MBSHF�JOUFSOBUJPOBM�4/4T�attract additional users through network effects (e.g., Ahn, 2009; Cusumano, 2011; Rohn,

2011b; 2013). Facebook is especially notable for its cultural and geographic openness in terms

of its membership base, and for the way in which its large size helps it to attract users with

network effects in a way no smaller domestic network can.

Counter to what the focus group interviews suggested, however, the survey did not show that

users choose to switch from domestic SNSs to the international SNS Facebook based upon a

wish to connect with international contacts. Nevertheless, one should not conclude that the

possibility to connect with international contacts does not play any role in such migration of

users. For the dynamics of a network, it does not only matter what a user and his or her immediate

contacts do, but also what the contacts of his or her contacts do, as well as their contacts, and so

forth. If, for instance, a user has an immediate contact who him/herself has a contact who moves

his or her SNS activities increasingly to Facebook, because this is where his or her international

contacts are, then the user might then follow his or her immediate contact to this SNS in order

to stay closely connected with him or her. Analyses of network structures, especially those

focusing on community detection in networks (e.g., Ferrara, 2012), have attempted to identify

and visualize the clustering and social ties between users. Large international SNSs, such as

Facebook, provide users with reassurance that no change of network is required if a user or his

or her friends, who she or he might theoretically follow to a new SNS, ever wants to connect with

people from different countries and cultures. This reassurance is important as it can be assumed

that users will be very reluctant to leave years of accumulated connection and content behind.


Whereas the study found a growing indirect connectivity of German and Estonian SNS users

with users from different cultural and geographic backgrounds due to their increasing use of

Facebook, it revealed that Russian-Estonian SNS users mostly prefer large Russian SNSs,

especially Odnoklassniki, which targets the Russian-speaking community across various

countries. Like Facebook, Odnoklassniki attracts users from different geographic backgrounds,

QSPWJEJOH�JU�XJUI�B�MBSHF�FOPVHI�NFNCFSTIJQ�UP�DSFBUF�TJHOJkDBOU�OFUXPSL�FGGFDUT��5IF�GBDU�UIBU�3VTTJBO�MBOHVBHF�4/4�VTFST � IPXFWFS � QSFGFS�0EOPLMBTTOJLJ� PWFS� 'BDFCPPL� SFlFDUT� QSFWJPVT�SFTFBSDI�XIJDI�IBT�IJHIMJHIUFE�UIBU�UIF�DIPJDF�PG�4/4T�JT�JOlVFODFE�CZ�DVMUVSBM�GBDUPST�)BSHJUUBJ ��5IF�kOEJOHT�BMTP�DPSSPCPSBUF�MJUFSBUVSF�XIJDI�TUBUFT�UIBU�&TUPOJBOT�JEFOUJGZ�UIFNTFMWFT�more with the West and other European countries than with Russia (Aalto, 2003).

In terms of the cross-border standardization of SNSs as a feature of indirect connectivity, SNSs

users may not necessarily be able to make statements about the similarities of layout, design

PS�GVODUJPOBMJUJFT�BDSPTT�EJGGFSFOU�4/4T �BT�UIFZ�NBZ�OPU�CF�GBNJMJBS�XJUI�EJGGFSFOU�4/4T��)FODF �the survey focused on the language versions of SNSs preferred by SNS users. This was studied

on the basis that if Germans, Estonians and Russian-Estonians use Facebook, for instance, in

its internationally standardized English-language version instead of its locally adapted German,

Estonian or Russian versions, then they could be said to be operating in an internationally

standardized environment.

The survey results regarding this connectivity feature made obvious the importance of the

Russian language for the Russian-Estonians, which was evidenced by the fact that the Russian-

Estonian participants mostly reported using their SNSs in the Russian-language versions. The

Germans and, in particular, the Estonians, on the other hand, also often use the internationally

TUBOEBSEJ[FE� &OHMJTI�MBOHVBHF� WFSTJPOT� PG� UIFJS� QSFGFSSFE� 4/4T�� 5IJT� kOEJOH� JT� JO� MJOF� XJUI�QSFWJPVT� SFTFBSDI� F�H� � )FSSJOH� FU� BM� � �� XIJDI� IBT� EFNPOTUSBUFE� UIBU� MBSHFS� MBOHVBHF�communities use their own language more on the Internet than members of smaller language

communities. It also indicated that Russian-Estonian SNS users are less connected across

cultural (i.e., language) borders.

With regard to direct connectivity between contacts from different cultural or national

CBDLHSPVOET� PO� 4/4T � UIF� TVSWFZ� SFTVMUT� XFSF� BMTP� JO� MJOF� XJUI� UIF� kOEJOHT� PG� QSFWJPVT�research (e.g., Liben-Nowell et al., 2005; Tillema et al., 2010) which had shown that people

tend to connect most with users from their own cultural or geographic environment. The survey

BMTP�DPOkSNFE�UIF�IZQPUIFTJT�UIBU�UIF�3VTTJBO�&TUPOJBO�4/4�VTFST�IBWF�GFXFS�DPOUBDUT�XJUI�whom they do not share the same native language than German and Estonian SNS users. At

the same time, however, they are more connected with users outside their country of residence

than Germans and Estonians. Due to the high connectivity with other Russian-speaking SNS

users who live in different countries, the results for the Russian Estonian SNS users resembled

the typical online behavior of a diaspora (see also Brinkerhoff, 2009). The survey also showed

that there is only a small amount of connectivity between Estonian and Russian-Estonian SNS

VTFST�JO�UIFJS�QFSTPOBM�OFUXPSLT �XIJDI�DPOkSNT�DPODFSOT�BCPVU�UIF�EJWJTJPO�PG�UIFTF�UXP�TPDJBM�HSPVQT�JO�&TUPOJB�F�H� �-BVSJTUJO��)FJENFUT ��

In terms of the cross-border distribution of online media content via personal networks on

4/4T�BT�B�GFBUVSF�PG�EJSFDU�DPOOFDUJWJUZ �UIF�TVSWFZ�DPOkSNFE�UIF�QSFWBMFODF�PG�DVMUVSBM�QSPYJNJUZ�in such activities (Rohn, 2010, 2011a; Straubhaar, 1991), as users were seen to primarily post

links to media content originating from their own cultural environment. An interesting result of

the survey was that, although Russian-Estonians in general consume a lot of media from Russia

(Vihalemm, 2006; Vihalemm, Lauristin & Kõuts, 2012), the most popular newspapers to which

they forwarded links via their SNSs were all Russian-language newspapers from Estonia. This

suggests that it is not only linguistic proximity, but also geographic proximity in terms of the

origin of media content which plays a role in determining content distribution. As the survey

showed that users by and large follow the links they receive, there can be said to be cross-

border distribution of online content to the same extent that users are connected with users

from different cultural or geographic environments.

In sum, can we say that there is a cross-border connectivity through SNSs? The present study

has applied a multidimensional and multifaceted analysis of cross-border connectivity in an

attempt to further understand the complexity of connectivity that characterizes our modern social

MJGF�5PNMJOTPO ��#VU�JU�JT�QSFDJTFMZ�UIJT�DPNQMFYJUZ�PG�UIF�BOBMZTJT�UIBU�NBLFT�JU�EJGkDVMU�UP�QSPWJEF�B�TJNQMF�BOE�VOJkFE�BOTXFS�UP�UIJT�RVFTUJPO��*OTUFBE �UIF�TUVEZ�GPVOE�EJGGFSFOU�SFTVMUT�for different features of connectivity. Furthermore, the study showed that the nature and extent

of cross-border connectivity via SNSs also depends strongly on the user group studied. Overall,


the results suggest that users are more indirectly than directly connected through the use of

SNSs. Although the framework within which SNS activities take place may be the same or similar

BDSPTT�CPSEFST � UIF� AkMMJOH�� PG� TVDI� GSBNFXPSLT � JO� UFSNT�PG� DPOOFDUJPOT�CFUXFFO�VTFST� BOE�content shared, depends upon the users’ cultural and/or national background.

In the light of the increasing popularity of SNSs, understanding the occurrence and

characteristics of connectivity through SNSs is an important part of understanding connectivity

across cultures and geographies as an empirical element of globalization today (e.g., McGrew,

1992; Tomlinson, 1999). The pertinent question is whether SNSs lead to more cross-border

DPOOFDUJWJUZ� UIBO� POF� XPVME� kOE� XJUIPVU� 4/4T�� "DDPSEJOH� UP� $BTUFMMT� �� BOE� BT�discussed above, network technologies are ‘only the means that enact the trend described in

the social structure’. The present study supports this view in terms of cross-border connectivity

found among SNS users’ in terms of their contacts, in which SNS users show a strong preference

for contacts from their own cultural or national backgrounds, indicating that people are not

TJHOJkDBOUMZ�NPSF�DPOOFDUFE�BDSPTT�CPSEFST�UISPVHI�4/4T�UIBO�UIFZ�XPVME�CF�XJUIPVU�4/4T��In this sense, SNSs do not seem to lead to a global conversation, as suggested by the Cluetrain

Manifesto (Levine et al., 1999). On the other hand, the global nature of the phenomenon of

SNSs is leading to an increasing level of indirect connectivity between people, due to their

being exposed to the same new media practices and brands, which are shaping media and

communication spaces with what Chalaby (2005:32) calls ‘built-in transnational connectivity’.

The presented empirical study has some limitations. For example, only three SNS user groups

were included. In order to make more general statements about cross-border connectivity

achieved through SNSs, more national and/or cultural SNS user groups should be studied.

Furthermore, the choice to study user behavior and not to conduct a content analysis of SNS

platforms or interviews with the companies behind these platforms did not allow for in depth

study of the international standardization of such platforms in as comprehensive and thorough

a manner as is needed. Future research, therefore, should also include a content analysis and

company interviews in order to better understand the international approaches of internationally

successful SNS platforms in terms of global standardization and local adaptation. Furthermore,

the literature review made it evident that, with the exception of studies into cross-border contacts

in SNSs, there is a lack of up-to-date research on most of the suggested features of connectivity

JEFOUJkFE�JO�UIF�NPEFM�PG�DSPTT�CPSEFS�DPOOFDUJWJUZ�VTFE�JO�UIJT�TUVEZ��5IJT�QBQFS�UIVT�BJNFE�to introduce these largely overlooked features of connectivity, and though the empirical study

helped to further understand them, more research on the various indirect and direct connectivity

GFBUVSFT�JEFOUJkFE�JO�UIJT�QBQFS�JT�TUJMM�SFRVJSFE�

8. Endnotes

1 MA 2009 Online II was conducted by the Informationsdienstes der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Media-

Analyse e.V. ag.ma. in Germany and Mina, Meedia, Maailm was conducted by the Institute of

+PVSOBMJTN�BOE�$PNNVOJDBUJPO�BU�UIF�6OJWFSTJUZ�PG�5BSUV�JO�&TUPOJB�JO�UIF�'BMM�PG��

2 Underlying this article is the idea that language and culture are very closely connected (Whorf,

1964), and that language is the most clearly recognized part of any culture (Agar, 1994).


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