Chaotic Good Individuals

Contents

1 Robin Hood 11.1 Early ballads (i.e., surviving in 15th- or early-16th-century copies) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 List of traditional ballads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Historicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3.1 Robin as the Earl of Huntington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.2 Robin of Loxley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.3 Robin Hood of Wakefield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3.4 Robin Hood of York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3.5 Roger Godberd as Robin Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3.6 Robin Hood as an alias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4 Robin Hood, the high-minded Saxon yeoman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 A mythological Robin Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6 History of the legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.7 Locations associated with Robin Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.7.1 Sherwood Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.7.2 Nottinghamshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.7.3 Yorkshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.7.4 Barnsdale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.7.5 The Saylis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.7.6 Church of Saint Mary Magdalene at Campsall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.7.7 Abbey of Saint Mary at York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.7.8 Grave at Kirklees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.7.9 All Saints’ church at Pontefract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.7.10 Place-name locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.8 Early references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.9 References to Robin as Earl of Huntington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.10 Ballads and tales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.10.1 Ballads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.10.2 May Day and fairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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1.10.3 Robin Hood and King Richard the Lionheart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.10.4 New characters and new attributes for Robin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.10.5 New concepts from the 18th century onwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.10.6 Other literary references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.10.7 The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.10.8 20th century onwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.10.9 Movies, animations, new concepts and other adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.10.10 Ballads appearing in 17th-century Percy Folio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.10.11 Other ballads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.11 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.12 Main characters of the folklore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171.15 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Prometheus 212.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.2 Myths and legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.2.1 The oldest legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.2.2 The Athenian tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242.2.3 Other authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3 Late Roman antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272.4 The Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.5 The Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.6 The Post-Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.6.1 Post-Renaissance literary arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302.6.2 Post-Renaissance aesthetic tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 Socrates 373.1 The Socratic problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.1.1 Socrates as a figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.1.2 Socrates as a philosopher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.2 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.2.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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3.2.2 Military service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.2.3 Epistates at the trial of the six commanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.2.4 The arrest of Leon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.2.5 Trial and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.3 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413.3.1 Socratic method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413.3.2 Philosophical beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413.3.3 Socratic paradoxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.3.4 Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.3.5 Virtue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433.3.6 Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433.3.7 Covertness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.4 Satirical playwrights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.5 Prose sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.5.1 The Socratic dialogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.6.1 Immediate influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453.6.2 Later historical influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463.6.3 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463.6.4 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4 Jesus 524.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524.2 In the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.2.1 Canonical gospel accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534.2.2 Genealogy and nativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544.2.3 Early life, family, and profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554.2.4 Baptism and temptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554.2.5 Public ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564.2.6 Disciples and followers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564.2.7 Teachings, preachings, and miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574.2.8 Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584.2.9 Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584.2.10 Resurrection and ascension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.3 Historical views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

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4.3.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634.3.2 Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644.3.3 Historicity of events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644.3.4 Portraits of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654.3.5 Language, ethnicity, and appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654.3.6 Christ myth theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.4 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664.4.1 Christian views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664.4.2 Jewish views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674.4.3 Islamic views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684.4.4 Bahá'í views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684.4.5 Other views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.5 Depictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694.6 Associated relics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.9.1 Explanatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724.9.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5 Sigmund Freud 845.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5.1.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845.1.2 Early career and marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855.1.3 Development of psychoanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865.1.4 Early followers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875.1.5 Early psychoanalytic movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905.1.6 Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905.1.7 Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915.1.8 Escape from Nazism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915.1.9 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

5.2 Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925.2.1 Early work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935.2.2 Seduction theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935.2.3 Cocaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945.2.4 The Unconscious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945.2.5 Dreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955.2.6 Psychosexual development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

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5.2.7 Id, ego and super-ego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955.2.8 Life and death drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965.2.9 Femininity and female sexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965.2.10 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

5.3 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975.3.1 Psychotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975.3.2 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995.3.3 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005.3.4 Literary criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015.3.5 Feminism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.4 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025.4.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025.4.2 Case histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035.4.3 Papers on sexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035.4.4 Autobiographical papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035.4.5 The Standard Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.5 Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

6 Martin Luther King, Jr. 1156.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

6.1.1 Doctoral studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176.2 Ideas, influences, and political stances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6.2.1 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176.2.2 Nonviolence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176.2.3 Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186.2.4 Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196.2.5 The lack of attention given to family planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.3 Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196.4 Southern Christian Leadership Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

6.4.1 Albany Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216.4.2 Birmingham campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216.4.3 St. Augustine, Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1226.4.4 Selma, Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1226.4.5 New York City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

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6.5 March on Washington, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1226.6 Selma Voting Rights Movement and “Bloody Sunday”, 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246.7 Chicago Open Housing Movement, 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246.8 Opposition to the Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256.9 Poor People’s Campaign, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

6.9.1 After King’s death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276.10 Assassination and aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

6.10.1 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286.10.2 Allegations of conspiracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

6.11 FBI and King’s personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296.11.1 FBI surveillance and wiretapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296.11.2 NSA monitoring of King’s communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296.11.3 Allegations of communism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306.11.4 Adultery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306.11.5 Police observation during the assassination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

6.12 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316.12.1 Martin Luther King, Jr. Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336.12.2 Liturgical commemorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336.12.3 UK legacy and The Martin Luther King Peace Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

6.13 Awards and recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336.13.1 Memorials and eponymous places and buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

6.14 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366.15 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6.16.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366.16.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366.16.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1466.16.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

6.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

7 James Joyce 1487.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

7.1.1 1882–1904: Dublin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1487.1.2 1904–20: Trieste and Zurich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1517.1.3 1920–41: Paris and Zurich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1527.1.4 Joyce and religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537.1.5 Joyce and music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

7.2 Major works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557.2.1 Dubliners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

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7.2.2 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557.2.3 Exiles and poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557.2.4 Ulysses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1567.2.5 Finnegans Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

7.3 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1637.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

8 Mahatma Gandhi 1668.1 Early life and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1668.2 English barrister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688.3 Civil rights activist in South Africa (1893–1914) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

8.3.1 Gandhi and the Africans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1708.4 Struggle for Indian Independence (1915–47) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

8.4.1 Role in World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1718.4.2 Champaran and Kheda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1718.4.3 Khilafat movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728.4.4 Non-cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728.4.5 Salt Satyagraha (Salt March) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1738.4.6 Untouchables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1758.4.7 Congress politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1758.4.8 World War II and Quit India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768.4.9 Partition and independence, 1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

8.5 Assassination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778.5.1 Ashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

8.6 Principles, practices and beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788.6.1 Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788.6.2 Tolstoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798.6.3 Truth and Satyagraha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808.6.4 Nonviolence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808.6.5 Vegetarianism, food, and animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818.6.6 Fasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828.6.7 Brahmacharya, celibacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828.6.8 Nai Talim, basic education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828.6.9 Swaraj, self-rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

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8.6.10 Gandhian economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838.7 Literary works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838.8 Legacy and depictions in popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

8.8.1 Followers and international influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848.8.2 Global holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868.8.3 Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868.8.4 Film, theatre and literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1878.8.5 Current impact within India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

8.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1878.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888.11 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

8.11.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968.11.2 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

8.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

9 T. S. Eliot 1999.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

9.1.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1999.1.2 Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2009.1.3 Teaching, Lloyds, Faber and Faber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2019.1.4 Conversion to Anglicanism and British citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2019.1.5 Separation and remarriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2019.1.6 Death and honours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

9.2 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2039.2.1 The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2039.2.2 The Waste Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2039.2.3 The Hollow Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2049.2.4 Ash-Wednesday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2049.2.5 Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059.2.6 Four Quartets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

9.3 Plays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059.4 Literary criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2069.5 Critical reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

9.5.1 Responses to his poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2069.5.2 Allegations of anti-Semitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2079.5.3 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2089.5.4 Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

9.6 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2089.6.1 Earliest works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

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9.6.2 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2099.6.3 Plays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2099.6.4 Nonfiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2099.6.5 Posthumous publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2109.6.6 Critical editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

9.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2109.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

9.9.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2149.9.2 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2149.9.3 Web sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2149.9.4 Archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2149.9.5 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

10 Charles Darwin 21510.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

10.1.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21510.1.2 Voyage of the Beagle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21610.1.3 Inception of Darwin’s evolutionary theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21810.1.4 Overwork, illness, and marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21910.1.5 Geology books, Barnacles, evolutionary research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22110.1.6 Publication of the theory of natural selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22210.1.7 Responses to publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22310.1.8 Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22410.1.9 Death and funeral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

10.2 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22610.2.1 Commemoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

10.3 Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22810.4 Views and opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

10.4.1 Religious views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22810.4.2 Human society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

10.5 Evolutionary social movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22910.6 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23010.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23010.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23010.9 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23110.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23510.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

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11 Lyra Belacqua 23911.1 Background and life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23911.2 Pantalaimon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23911.3 Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24011.4 In other media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24011.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24011.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

12 Chelsea Manning 24212.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

12.1.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24212.1.2 Parents’ divorce, move to Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24312.1.3 Return to the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

12.2 Military service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24412.2.1 Enlistment in the Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24412.2.2 Move to Fort Drum, deployment to Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24412.2.3 Contact with gender counselor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24512.2.4 Release of material to WikiLeaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24512.2.5 Email to supervisor, recommended discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

12.3 Publication of leaked material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24712.3.1 WikiLeaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24712.3.2 Reykjavik13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24712.3.3 Baghdad airstrike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24712.3.4 Afghan War logs, Iraq War logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24812.3.5 Diplomatic cables, Guantanamo Bay files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24812.3.6 Granai airstrike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

12.4 Manning and Adrian Lamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24812.4.1 First contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24812.4.2 Chats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24912.4.3 Lamo approaches authorities, chat logs published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

12.5 Legal proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25012.5.1 Arrest and charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25012.5.2 Detention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25112.5.3 Evidence presented at Article 32 hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25112.5.4 Guilty plea, trial, sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25212.5.5 Request for presidential pardon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25312.5.6 United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

12.6 Reaction to disclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25312.7 Non-military tributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

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12.8 Gender transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25412.8.1 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25412.8.2 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25412.8.3 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

12.9 Prison life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25512.9.1 Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

12.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25612.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

12.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25612.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26412.11.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

12.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

13 Pierre Trudeau 26613.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26613.2 Education and the Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26613.3 Early career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26713.4 Law professor enters politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26813.5 Justice minister and leadership candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26813.6 Prime Minister, 1968–74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

13.6.1 Bilingualism and multiculturalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26913.6.2 October Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26913.6.3 Constitutional affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27013.6.4 World affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27013.6.5 1972 election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27013.6.6 1974 election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

13.7 Prime Minister, 1974–79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27013.8 Defeat and opposition, 1979–80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27113.9 Return to power, 1980–84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

13.9.1 Quebec referendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27113.9.2 Patriation of the constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27213.9.3 Economics/NEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

13.10Retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27313.11Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27313.12Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

13.12.1 Religious beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27313.12.2 Marriage and children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27413.12.3 Judo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

13.13Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

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13.13.1 Constitutional legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27413.13.2 Bilingualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27513.13.3 Multiculturalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27513.13.4 Cultural legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27513.13.5 Legacy with respect to western Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27513.13.6 Legacy with respect to Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27613.13.7 Intellectual contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

13.14Supreme Court appointments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27613.15Honours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

13.15.1 Honorary degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27813.15.2 Order of Canada Citation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

13.16Trudeau in film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27813.17Writings by Trudeau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27813.18See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27913.19References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

13.19.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27913.19.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

13.20Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28313.21External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

14 Florence Nightingale 28514.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28514.2 Crimean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

14.2.1 The Lady with the Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28814.3 Later career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28914.4 Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29014.5 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29014.6 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

14.6.1 Statistics and sanitary reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29114.6.2 Literature and the women’s movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29114.6.3 Theology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

14.7 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29214.7.1 Nursing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29214.7.2 Hospitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29314.7.3 Museums and monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29314.7.4 Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29414.7.5 Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29514.7.6 Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29514.7.7 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

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14.7.8 Banknotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29514.7.9 Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29514.7.10 Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29614.7.11 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

14.8 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29614.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29714.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

14.10.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30014.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30014.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

15 Monty Python 30215.1 Before Flying Circus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30215.2 Monty Python’s Flying Circus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

15.2.1 Development of the series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30315.2.2 Style of the show . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30415.2.3 Introduction to North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30515.2.4 Cleese departs; the circus closes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

15.3 Life after the Flying Circus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30615.3.1 Filmography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30615.3.2 Secret Policeman’s Ball benefit shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30815.3.3 Going solo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30815.3.4 Post-Python reunions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30915.3.5 Monty Python Live (Mostly): One Down, Five to Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

15.4 Python members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31115.4.1 Associate Pythons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31115.4.2 Other contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31215.4.3 Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

15.5 Cultural influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31315.5.1 Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31315.5.2 World records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31315.5.3 “Pythonesque” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31415.5.4 Things named after Monty Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

15.6 Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31515.6.1 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31515.6.2 Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31515.6.3 Albums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31515.6.4 Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31615.6.5 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

xiv CONTENTS

15.6.6 Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31615.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31715.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31715.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31915.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

16 Sherlock Holmes 32116.1 Inspiration for the character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32116.2 Fictional character biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

16.2.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32116.2.2 Life with Watson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32216.2.3 <span id=""Great Hiatus"">The Great Hiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32316.2.4 Retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

16.3 Personality and habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32316.3.1 Drug use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32516.3.2 Finances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32516.3.3 Attitudes towards women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

16.4 Methods of detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32716.4.1 Holmesian deduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32716.4.2 Disguises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32716.4.3 Combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32816.4.4 Knowledge and skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

16.5 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33016.5.1 Forensic science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33016.5.2 The detective story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33016.5.3 Scientific literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

16.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33116.6.1 “Elementary, my dear Watson” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33116.6.2 <span id=""The Great Game"">The Great Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33216.6.3 Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33216.6.4 Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33216.6.5 Other honours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

16.7 Adaptations and derived works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33316.7.1 Stage, screen and radio adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33316.7.2 Related and derivative works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

16.8 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33716.8.1 Novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33716.8.2 Short story collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

16.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

CONTENTS xv

16.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33716.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34016.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34116.13Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

16.13.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34316.13.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37316.13.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Chapter 1

Robin Hood

For other uses, see Robin Hood (disambiguation).Robin Hood is a heroic outlaw in English folklore

Robin Hood statue in Nottingham

who, according to legend, was a highly skilled archer andswordsman. Traditionally depicted as being dressed inLincoln green,[1] he is often portrayed as “robbing from therich and giving to the poor” alongside his band of MerryMen. Robin Hood became a popular folk figure in the late-medieval period, and continues to be widely represented inliterature, films and television.

1.1 Early ballads (i.e., survivingin 15th- or early-16th-centurycopies)

• A Gest of Robyn Hode

• Robin Hood and the Monk

• Robin Hood and the Potter

1.2 List of traditional ballads

Elizabethan song of Robin Hood

Ballads dating back to the 15th century are the oldest ex-isting form of the Robin Hood legends, although none of

1

2 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

them were recorded at the time of the first allusions to him,and many are from much later. They share many commonfeatures, often opening with praise of the greenwood andrelying heavily on disguise as a plot device, but include awide variation in tone and plot.[2] The ballads are sorted intothree groups, very roughly according to date of first knownfree-standing copy. Ballads whose first recorded version ap-pears (usually incomplete) in the Percy Folio may appear inlater versions[3] and may be much older than the mid-17thcentury when the Folio was compiled. Any ballad may beolder than the oldest copy that happens to survive, or de-scended from a lost older ballad. For example, the plotof Robin Hood’s Death, found in the Percy Folio, is sum-marised in the 15th-century A Gest of Robyn Hode, and italso appears in an 18th-century version.[4]

1.3 Historicity

The historicity of Robin Hood has been debated for cen-turies. Modern academic opinion maintains that the leg-end is based in part on a historical person, although thereis considerable scholarly debate as to his actual identity. Adifficulty with any such historical research is that "Robert"was in medieval England a very common given name, and“Robin” (or Robyn), was its very common diminutive, espe-cially in the 13th century.[5] The surname “Hood” (or Hudeor Hode etc.) was also fairly common because it referredeither to a Hooder, who was a maker of hoods; or alter-natively to somebody who wore a hood as a head-covering.Unsurprisingly, therefore, reference is made to a number ofpeople called “Robert Hood” or “Robin Hood” in medievalrecords. Some of these individuals are even known to havefallen afoul of the law.

1.3.1 Robin as the Earl of Huntington

In 1632, the ballad writer Martin Parker published a balladabout Robin Hood. He also sought to make him a histor-ical person. He titled his account, 'A True Tale of RobinHood' and claimed to present 'truth purged from falsehood'.Parker wrote of 'Robert Earle of Huntington vulgarly calledRobin Hood who lived and died in AD 1198'. Parker wrotean epitaph that he claimed to have seen on Robin Hood’sgravestone. It read:

Robert Earle of Huntington, Lies under this littlestone;No archer was like him so good: His wildnessenamed him Robin Hood.Ful thirteen years, and something more, Thesenortherne parts he vexed sore.

“Robin shoots with Sir Guy” by Louis Rhead

Such out-laws as he and his men, May Englandnever know again.

The inscription in question appears on a grave in thegrounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below).

1.3.2 Robin of Loxley

The antiquarian Roger Dodsworth (1585–1654) identifiedRobin Hood with 'Robert Loxley', and stated that he wasborn in Bradfield parish in Hallamshire (South Yorkshire).He believed that Robin was first outlawed for killing hisstepfather when ploughing. It is said that his mother gavehim aid while he was hiding in the forest. He met LittleJohn at Clifton upon Calder. Dodsworth believed that it wasLittle John rather than Robin Hood who was Earl of Hunt-ingdon. There is no way of knowing whether Dodsworthderived his material from some unknown source or sim-ply invented it. However, a record of the appearance ofa “Robert de Lockesly” in court is found, dated 1245. As“Robert” and its diminutives were among the most commonof names at the time, and also since it was usual for men toadopt the name of their hometown (“De Lockesly” means

1.4. ROBIN HOOD, THE HIGH-MINDED SAXON YEOMAN 3

simply, “Of [or from] Lockesly”), the record could just aseasily be referring to any man from the area named Robert.In consequence, it cannot be proven whether or not this isthe man himself. Roger Dodsworth’s commentary remainsan interesting, unconventional, account.

1.3.3 Robin Hood of Wakefield

The antiquarian Joseph Hunter (1783–1861) believed thatRobin Hood had inhabited the forests of Yorkshire duringthe early decades of the fourteenth century. Hunter pointedto two men whom, believing them to be the same person,he identified with the legendary outlaw:

1. Robert Hood who is documented as having lived in thecity of Wakefield at the start of the fourteenth century.

2. “Robyn Hode” who is recorded as being employed byEdward II of England during 1323.

Hunter developed a fairly detailed theory implying thatRobert Hood had been an adherent of the rebel Earl of Lan-caster, who was defeated by Edward II at the Battle of Bor-oughbridge in 1322. According to this theory, Robert Hoodwas thereafter pardoned and employed as a bodyguard byKing Edward, and in consequence he appears in the 1323court roll under the name of “Robyn Hode”. Hunter’s the-ory has long been recognised to have serious problems, oneof the most serious being that recent research has shownthat Hunter’s Robyn Hood had been employed by the kingbefore he appeared in the 1323 court roll, thus casting doubton this Robyn Hood’s supposed earlier career as outlaw andrebel.[6]

1.3.4 Robin Hood of York

The earliest known legal records mentioning a person calledRobin Hood (Robert Hod) are from 1226, found in the YorkAssizes, when that person’s goods, worth 32 shillings and 6pence, were confiscated and he became an outlaw. RobertHod owed the money to St Peter’s in York. The follow-ing year, he was called 'Hobbehod'. Robert Hod of Yorkis the only early Robin Hood known to have been an out-law. L. V. D. Owen in 1936 floated the idea that RobinHood might be identified with an outlawed Robert Hood, orHod, or Hobbehod, all apparently the same man, referred toin nine successive Yorkshire Pipe Rolls between 1226 and1234.[7][8] There is no evidence however that this RobertHood, although an outlaw, was also a bandit.[9] He remainsone of the strongest candidates to be the real Robin Hoodever found by historians.

1.3.5 Roger Godberd as Robin Hood

Dr David Baldwin identifies Robin Hood with the histori-cal outlaw Roger Godberd, who was a die-hard supporter ofSimon de Montfort, which would place Robin Hood aroundthe 1260s.[10] There are certainly parallels between God-berd’s career and that of Robin Hood as he appears in theGest. John Maddicott has called Godberd “that prototypeRobin Hood”.[11] Some problems with this theory are thatthere is no evidence that Godberd was ever known as RobinHood and no sign in the early Robin Hood ballads of thespecific concerns of de Montfort’s revolt.[12]

1.3.6 Robin Hood as an alias

It has long been suggested, notably by John Maddicott, that“Robin Hood” was a stock alias used by thieves.[13] Whatappears to be the first known example of “Robin Hood” asstock name for an outlaw dates to 1262 in Berkshire, wherethe surname “Robehod” was applied to a man apparentlybecause he had been outlawed.[14] This could suggest twomain possibilities: either that an early form of the RobinHood legend was already well established in the mid-13thcentury; or alternatively that the name “Robin Hood” pre-ceded the outlaw hero that we know; so that the “RobinHood” of legend was so called because that was seen as anappropriate name for an outlaw.

1.4 Robin Hood, the high-mindedSaxon yeoman

The idea of Robin Hood as an Anglo-Saxon freedom fighteropposing oppressive Norman lords found popular appeal inthe nineteenth century. The most notable contributions tothe idea are Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe (1819) and AugustinThierry's Histoire de la Conquête de l'Angleterre par les Nor-mands, A History of the Conquest of England by the Nor-mans (1825). Robin Hood appears as a character along withhis "merry men" in Ivanhoe, and the character that Scottgave to Robin Hood in Ivanhoe helped shape the modernnotion of this figure as a cheery noble outlaw. In the novelRobin is depicted as a follower of King Richard the Lion-heart and helps him and Wilfred Ivanhoe to fight against theKnights Templar. It is in this work that the modern RobinHood – “King of Outlaws and prince of good fellows!" – asRichard the Lionheart calls him – makes his debut.[15]

Academics indicate that there are a number of verifiablehistorical clues that allude to the legend’s Anglo-Saxon ori-gins. In particular, The Coucher Book of Selby Abbey,a manuscript dating from the eleventh century, recordsthat 'a certain Prince of Thieves by the name of Swain,

4 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

son of Sigge, constantly prowled around Yorkshire’s woodswith his band on perpetual raids.' The medieval chroniclerspeaks of how a 'cursed villain' in Swein’s gang robbed Ab-bot Benedict of Selby, mirroring a story telling how RobinHood robbed an abbot of York contained in the Gest.[16]

J. Green indicates that Hugh fitz Baldric, the late eleventhcentury Sheriff of Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire, held re-sponsibility for bringing Swein-son-of-Sicga to justice.[17]

William E. Kapelle indicates that Hugh fitz Baldric neededto travel around Yorkshire in the company of a small armybecause of the threat that was posed to his safety by theregion’s outlaws.[18]

Historians indicate that the deeds of Yorkshire’s eleventhcentury outlaws, men such as Swein-son-of-Siccga, andtheir battles against the Sheriff of Nottingham, merged toform the legend that is today universally known as TheAdventures of Robin Hood.[19] In identifying the legend’seleventh century origins, historians point to a number oftopographical clues contained within the medieval and Tu-dor sources that date directly to the late eleventh century.In particular, attention is brought to the Church of SaintMary Magdalene at Campsall, which was built in the lateeleventh century by Robert de Lacy II Baron on Pontefract.Local legend maintains that Robin and Marion married atthe Church of St. Mary Magdalene at Campsall. And, his-torians propose the site of Robin’s death as being the hospi-tal of St. Nicholas at Saxon Kirkby (modern Pontefract).[20]

1.5 A mythological Robin Hood

The Victorian folklorist Francis James Child declared that“Robin Hood is absolutely a creation of the ballad-muse”and this view has been neither proven nor disproven.[21] An-other view is that Robin Hood’s origins must be sought infolklore or mythology;[22] The “mythological theory” datesback to 1584, when Reginald Scot identified Robin Hoodwith the Germanic goblin “Hudgin” or Hodekin and as-sociated him with Robin Goodfellow.[23] The 1911 Ency-clopædia Britannica remarks that 'hood' was a common di-alectical form of 'wood'; and that the outlaw’s name hasbeen given as “Robin Wood”.[22] There are indeed a numberof references to Robin Hood as Robin Wood, or Whood,or Whod, from the 16th and 17th centuries. The earli-est recorded example, in connection with May games inSomerset, dates from 1518.[24] A. J. Pollard (2004) stressedthe symbolical significance of the “perpetual springtime” ofthe ballads.[25] Robin Hood has been claimed for the paganwitch-cult supposed by Margaret Murray to have existed inmedieval Europe.[26] Modern authors reject this line of ar-gument as untenable.[27] In rejecting Robin Hood’s mytho-logical origins historians note that while the outlaw oftenshows great skill in archery, swordplay and disguise, his

feats are no more exaggerated than those characters in otherballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on his-torical events.[28] Another theory is that Robin Hood origi-nates in the French medieval “Robin and Marian” folk play.Dobson and Taylor in their survey of the legend, in whichthey reject the mythological theory, nevertheless regard it as“highly probable” that this French Robin’s name and func-tions travelled to the English May Games where they fusedwith the Robin Hood legend.[29]

1.6 History of the legend

The first clear reference to “rhymes of Robin Hood” is fromLine 5396 of the late-14th-century poem Piers Plowman,but the earliest surviving copies of the narrative ballads thattell his story date to the 15th century, or the first decadeof the 16th century. In these early accounts, Robin Hood’spartisanship of the lower classes, his Marianism and asso-ciated special regard for women, his outstanding skill asan archer, his anti-clericalism, and his particular animos-ity towards the Sheriff of Nottingham are already clear.[30]

Little John, Much the Miller’s Son and Will Scarlet (as Will“Scarlok” or “Scathelocke”) all appear, although not yetMaid Marian or Friar Tuck. It is not certain what should bemade of these latter two absences as it is known that FriarTuck, for one, has been part of the legend since at least thelater 15th century.[31]

In popular culture, Robin Hood is typically seen as acontemporary and supporter of the late-12th-century kingRichard the Lionheart, Robin being driven to outlawry dur-ing the misrule of Richard’s brother John while Richard wasaway at the Third Crusade. This view first gained currencyin the 16th century.[32] It is not supported by the earliest bal-lads. The early compilation, A Gest of Robyn Hode, namesthe king as “Edward"; and while it does show Robin Hoodaccepting the King’s pardon, he later repudiates it and re-turns to the greenwood.The oldest surviving ballad, Robin Hood and the Monk,gives even less support to the picture of Robin Hood as apartisan of the true king. The setting of the early ballads isusually attributed by scholars to either the 13th century orthe 14th, although it is recognised they are not necessarilyhistorically consistent.[33]

The early ballads are also quite clear on Robin Hood’s so-cial status: he is a yeoman. While the precise meaning ofthis term changed over time, including free retainers of anaristocrat and small landholders, it always referred to com-moners. The essence of it in the present context was “nei-ther a knight nor a peasant or 'husbonde' but something inbetween”.[34] Artisans (such as millers) were among thoseregarded as “yeomen” in the 14th century.[35] From the 16th

1.7. LOCATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ROBIN HOOD 5

century on, there were attempts to elevate Robin Hood tothe nobility and in two extremely influential plays AnthonyMunday presented him at the very end of the 16th centuryas the Earl of Huntingdon, as he is still commonly presentedin modern times.[36]

As well as ballads, the legend was also transmitted by“Robin Hood games” or plays that were an important partof the late medieval and early modern May Day festivi-ties. The first record of a Robin Hood game was in 1426in Exeter, but the reference does not indicate how old orwidespread this custom was at the time. The Robin Hoodgames are known to have flourished in the later 15th and16th centuries.[37] It is commonly stated as fact that MaidMarian and a jolly friar (at least partly identifiable with FriarTuck) entered the legend through the May Games.[38]

1.7 Locations associated with RobinHood

1.7.1 Sherwood Forest

The Major Oak in Sherwood Forest

The early ballads link Robin Hood to identifiable realplaces. In popular culture, Robin Hood and his band of“merry men” are portrayed as living in Sherwood For-est, in Nottinghamshire. Notably, the Lincoln CathedralManuscript, which is the first officially recorded RobinHood song (dating from approximately 1420), makes an ex-plicit reference to the outlaw that states that “Robyn hodein scherewode stod.”[39] In a similar fashion, a monk ofWitham Priory (1460) suggested that the archer had 'in-fested shirwode'. His chronicle entry reads:

'Around this time, according to popular opin-ion, a certain outlaw named Robin Hood, with

his accomplices, infested Sherwood and otherlaw-abiding areas of England with continuousrobberies’.[40]

Nobody knows exactly what the monk’s source was, but thefact that he used the term 'according to popular opinion' hasled historians to conclude that his source may have beennothing more than simple word of mouth.

1.7.2 Nottinghamshire

Specific sites in the county of Nottinghamshire that aredirectly linked to the Robin Hood legend include RobinHood’s Well, located near Newstead Abbey (within theboundaries of Sherwood Forest), the Church of St. Maryin the village of Edwinstowe and most famously of all, theMajor Oak also located at the village of Edwinstowe.[41]

The Major Oak, which resides in the heart of SherwoodForest, is popularly believed to have been used by the MerryMen as a hide-out. Dendrologists have contradicted thisclaim by estimating the tree’s true age at around eight hun-dred years; it would have been relatively a sapling in Robin’stime, at best.[42]

1.7.3 Yorkshire

Nottinghamshire’s claim to Robin Hood’s heritage is dis-puted, with Yorkists staking a claim to the outlaw. Indemonstrating Yorkshire’s Robin Hood heritage, the histo-rian J. C. Holt drew attention to the fact that although Sher-wood Forest is mentioned in Robin Hood and the Monk,there is little information about the topography of the re-gion, and thus suggested that Robin Hood was drawn toNottinghamshire through his interactions with the city’ssheriff.[43] And, the linguist Lister Matheson has observedthat the language of the Gest of Robyn Hode is written ina definite northern dialect, probably that of Yorkshire.[44]

In consequence, it seems probable that the Robin Hood leg-end actually originates from the county of Yorkshire. RobinHood’s Yorkshire origins are universally accepted by pro-fessional historians.[45]

1.7.4 Barnsdale

A tradition dating back at least to the end of the 16th cen-tury gives Robin Hood’s birthplace as Loxley, Sheffield, inSouth Yorkshire. The original Robin Hood ballads, whichoriginate from the fifteenth century, set events in the me-dieval forest of Barnsdale. Barnsdale was a wooded areacovering an expanse of no more than thirty square miles,ranging six miles from north to south, with the River Went

6 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

Blue Plaque commemorating Wentbridge’s Robin Hood connections

at Wentbridge near Pontefract forming its northern bound-ary and the villages of Skelbrooke and Hampole forming thesouthernmost region. From east to west the forest extendedabout five miles, from Askern on the east to Badsworthin the west.[46] At the northern most edge of the forest ofBarnsdale, in the heart of the Went Valley, resides the vil-lage of Wentbridge. Wentbridge is a village in the Cityof Wakefield district of West Yorkshire, England. It liesaround 3 miles (5 km) southeast of its nearest township ofsize, Pontefract, close to the A1 road. During the medievalage Wentbridge was sometimes locally referred to by thename of Barnsdale because it was the predominant settle-ment in the forest.[47] Wentbridge is mentioned in what maybe the earliest Robin Hood ballad, entitled, Robin Hood andthe Potter, which reads, “Y mete hem bot at Went breg,' sydeLyttyl John”. And, while Wentbridge is not directly namedin A Gest of Robyn Hode, the poem does appear to make acryptic reference to the locality by depicting a poor knightexplaining to Robin Hood that he 'went at a bridge' wherethere was wrestling'.[48] A commemorative Blue Plaque hasbeen placed on the bridge that crosses the River Went byWakefield City Council.

1.7.5 The Saylis

The Gest makes a specific reference to the Saylis at Went-bridge. Credit is due to the nineteenth century antiquar-ian Joseph Hunter, who correctly identified the site of the

The site of the Saylis at Wentbridge

Saylis.[49] From this location it was once possible to lookout over the Went Valley and observe the traffic that passedalong the Great North Road. The Saylis is recorded as hav-ing contributed towards the aid that was granted to EdwardIII in 1346–47 for the knighting of the Black Prince. Anacre of landholding is listed within a glebe terrier of 1688relating to Kirk Smeaton, which later came to be called“Sailes Close”.[50] Professor Dobson and Mr. Taylor indi-cate that such evidence of continuity makes it virtually cer-tain that the Saylis that was so well known to Robin Hoodis preserved today as “Sayles Plantation”.[51] It is this loca-tion that provides a vital clue to Robin Hood’s Yorkshireheritage. One final locality in the forest of Barnsdale that isassociated with Robin Hood is the village of Campsall.

1.7.6 Church of Saint Mary Magdalene atCampsall

The historian John Paul Davis wrote of Robin’s connectionto the Church of Saint Mary Magdalene at Campsall.[20] AGest of Robyn Hode states that the outlaw built a chapel inBarnsdale that he dedicated to Mary Magdalene,

I made a chapel in Bernysdale,That seemly is to se,It is of Mary Magdaleyne,And thereto wolde I be.[52]

Davis indicates that there is only one church dedicated toMary Magdalene within what one might reasonably con-sider to have been the medieval forest of Barnsdale, andthat is the church at Campsall. The church was built inthe late eleventh century by Robert de Lacy, the 2nd Baronof Pontefract.[53][54] Local legend suggests that Robin Hoodand Maid Marion were married at the church.

1.7. LOCATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ROBIN HOOD 7

St. Mary Magdalene’s church, Campsall

1.7.7 Abbey of Saint Mary at York

The backdrop of Saint Mary’s Abbey at York plays a centralrole in the Gest as the poor knight who Robin aids owesmoney to the abbot.

1.7.8 Grave at Kirklees

At Kirklees Priory in Yorkshire stands an alleged grave witha spurious inscription, which relates to Robin Hood. Thefifteenth-century ballads relate that before he died, Robintold Little John where to bury him. He shot an arrow fromthe Priory window, and where the arrow landed was to bethe site of his grave. The Gest states that the Prioress was arelative of Robin’s. Robin was ill and staying at the Priorywhere the Prioress was supposedly caring for him. How-ever, she betrayed him, his health worsened, and he even-tually died there. The inscription on the grave reads,

Hear underneath dis laitl steanLaz robert earl of HuntingtunNe’er arcir ver as hie sa geud

Robin Hood’s Grave in the woods near Kirklees Priory

An pipl kauld im robin heudSick [such] utlawz as he an iz menVil england nivr si agenObiit 24 kal: Dekembris, 1247

The grave with the inscription is within sight of the ruins ofthe Kirklees Priory, behind the Three Nuns pub in Mirfield,West Yorkshire. Though local folklore suggests that Robinis buried in the grounds of Kirklees Priory, this theory hasnow largely been abandoned by professional historians.

1.7.9 All Saints’ church at Pontefract

A more recent theory proposes that Robin Hood died atKirkby, Pontefract. Drayton’s Poly-Olbion Song 28 (67–70) composed in 1622 speaks of Robin Hood’s death andclearly states that the outlaw died at 'Kirkby'.[55] Acknowl-edging that Robin Hood operated in the Went Valley, lo-cated three miles to the southeast of the town of Ponte-fract, historians today indicate that the outlaw is buried atnearby Kirkby. The location is approximately three milesfrom the site of Robin’s robberies at the now famous Saylis.In the Anglo-Saxon period, Kirkby was home to All Saints’Church. All Saints’ Church had a priory hospital attachedto it. The Tudor historian Richard Grafton stated that theprioress who murdered Robin Hood buried the outlaw be-side the road,

Where he had used to rob and spoyle thosethat passed that way ... and the cause why sheburyed him there was, for that common strangersand travailers, knowing and seeing him thereburyed, might more safely and without feare taketheir journeys that way, which they durst not doin the life of the sayd outlaes.[56]

8 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

In a similar fashion, the Gest reads,

Cryst have mercy on his soule, That dyed onthe rode! For he was a good outlawe, And dydepore men moch god.[57]

All Saints’ Church at Kirkby, modern Pontefract, which waslocated approximately three miles from the site of RobinHood’s robberies at the Saylis, accurately matches bothRichard Grafton’s and the Gest’s description because a roadran directly from Wentbridge to the hospital at Kirkby.[58]

The new church within the old. After All Saints’ church inPontefract was damaged during the civil war, a new one was builtwithin in 1967

1.7.10 Place-name locations

Within close proximity of Wentbridge reside several no-table landmarks relating to Robin Hood. One such place-name location occurred in a cartulary deed of 1422 fromMonkbretton Priory, which makes direct reference to alandmark named Robin Hood’s Stone, which resided uponthe eastern side of the Great North Road, a mile south ofBarnsdale Bar.[59] The historians Barry Dobson and JohnTaylor suggested that on the opposite side of the road oncestood Robin Hood’s Well, which has since been relocatedsix miles north-west of Doncaster, on the south-bound sideof the Great North Road. Over the next three centuries,the name popped-up all over the place, such as at RobinHood’s Bay near Whitby Yorkshire, Robin Hood’s Buttsin Cumbria, and Robin Hood’s Walk at Richmond Surrey.Robin Hood type place-names occurred particularly every-where except Sherwood. The first place-name in Sher-wood does not appear until the year 1700, demonstratingthat Nottinghamshire jumped on the bandwagon at leastfour centuries after the event.[60] The fact that the earliestRobin Hood type place-names originated in West Yorkshireis deemed to be historically significant because, generally,

place-name evidence originates from the locality where leg-ends begin.[61] The overall picture from the surviving earlyballads and other early references[62] indicate that RobinHood was based in the Barnsdale area of what is now SouthYorkshire (which borders Nottinghamshire), and that hemade occasional forays into Nottinghamshire.

1.8 Early references

The oldest references to Robin Hood are not historicalrecords, or even ballads recounting his exploits, but hintsand allusions found in various works. From 1228 onward,the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Robbehod' occur inthe rolls of several English Justices. The majority of thesereferences date from the late 13th century. Between 1261and 1300, there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod'in various regions across England, from Berkshire in thesouth to York in the north.[63]

The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood talesoccurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c. 1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: “I kan[know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preestit singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood and Randolf Erlof Chestre.”[64]

In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the nameis used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition citesone Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, “who having noliflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembledunto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, inmanere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that coun-trie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne.”[65]

The name was still used to describe sedition and treacheryin 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates were branded“Robin Hoods” by Robert Cecil.The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is givenin Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written inabout 1420. The following lines occur with little contextu-alisation under the year 1283:

Lytil Jhon and Robyne HudeWayth-men ware commendyd gudeIn Yngil-wode and BarnysdaleThai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.

The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, com-posed by John of Fordun between 1377 and 1384, and re-vised by Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower’smany interpolations is a passage that directly refers toRobin. It is inserted after Fordun’s account of the defeatof Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents.

1.10. BALLADS AND TALES 9

Robin is represented as a fighter for de Montfort’s cause.[66]

This was in fact true of the historical outlaw of SherwoodForest Roger Godberd, whose points of similarity to theRobin Hood of the ballads have often been noted.[67][68]

Bower writes:

Then [c. 1266] arose the famous murderer,Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together withtheir accomplices from among the disinherited,whom the foolish populace are so inordinatelyfond of celebrating both in tragedies and come-dies, and about whom they are delighted to hearthe jesters and minstrels sing above all other bal-lads.

The word translated here as “murderer” is the Latin siccar-ius (Eng: “knife-man” or “dagger-man”), from the Latin for“knife”. Bower goes on to tell a story about Robin Hoodin which he refuses to flee from his enemies while hearingMass in the greenwood, and then gains a surprise victoryover them, apparently as a reward for his piety.[69]

Another reference, discovered by Julian Luxford in 2009,appears in the margin of the "Polychronicon" in the EtonCollege library. Written around the year 1460 by a monkin Latin, it says:

Around this time, according to popular opin-ion, a certain outlaw named Robin Hood, withhis accomplices, infested Sherwood and otherlaw-abiding areas of England with continuousrobberies.[70]

William Shakespeare makes reference to Robin Hood inhis late-16th-century play The Two Gentlemen of Verona,one of his earliest. In it, the character Valentine is ban-ished from Milan and driven out through the forest wherehe is approached by outlaws who, upon meeting him, desirehim as their leader. They comment, “By the bare scalp ofRobin Hood’s fat friar, This fellow were a king for our wildfaction!"[71] Robin Hood is also mentioned in As You LikeIt. When asked about the exiled Duke Senior, the characterof Charles says that he is “already in the forest of Arden,and a many merry men with him; and there they live likethe old Robin Hood of England”.

1.9 References to Robin as Earl ofHuntington

A reference to Robin as Earl of Huntington is providedby Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c. 1635–1702),[72] but

this comes nearly four hundred years after the events it de-scribes:

[Robin Hood’s] death is stated by Ritson to havetaken place on 18 November 1247, about the87th year of his age; but according to the fol-lowing inscription found among the papers of theDean of York...the death occurred a month later.In this inscription, which bears evidence of highantiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl ofHuntington – his claim to which title has beenas hotly contested as any disputed peerage uponrecord.

Hear undernead dis laitl steanLais Robert Earl of HuntingunNear arcir der as hie sa geudAn pipl kauld im Robin HeudSic utlaws as hi an is menVil England nivr si agen.

Obiit 24 Kal Dekembris1247

In Modern English:

Here underneath this little stoneLies Robert Earl of HuntingtonNever archer there as he so goodAnd people called him Robin HoodSuch outlaws as him and his menWill England never see again

This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds ofKirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below).

1.10 Ballads and tales

1.10.1 Ballads

The earliest surviving text of a Robin Hood ballad is the15th century "Robin Hood and the Monk".[73] This is pre-served in Cambridge University manuscript Ff.5.48. Writ-ten after 1450,[74] it contains many of the elements still as-sociated with the legend, from the Nottingham setting tothe bitter enmity between Robin and the local sheriff.The first printed version is A Gest of Robyn Hode (c. 1475),a collection of separate stories that attempts to unite theepisodes into a single continuous narrative.[75] After thiscomes "Robin Hood and the Potter",[76] contained in a

10 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

Douglas Fairbanks as Robin Hood; the sword he is depicted withwas common in the oldest ballads

manuscript of c. 1503. “The Potter” is markedly differ-ent in tone from “The Monk": whereas the earlier tale is“a thriller”[63] the latter is more comic, its plot involvingtrickery and cunning rather than straightforward force. Thedifference between the two texts recalls Bower’s claim thatRobin-tales may be both 'comedies and tragedies’.Other early texts are dramatic pieces such as the fragmen-tary Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notyngham[77] (c. 1472).These are particularly noteworthy as they show Robin’s in-tegration into May Day rituals towards the end of the Mid-dle Ages; Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notyngham, amongother points of interest, contains the earliest reference toFriar Tuck.The plots of neither “the Monk” nor “the Potter” are in-cluded in the Gest; and neither is the plot of "Robin Hoodand Guy of Gisborne", which is probably at least as old asthose two ballads although preserved in a more recent copy.Each of these three ballads survived in a single copy, so itis unclear how much of the medieval legend has survived,and what has survived may not be typical of the medievallegend. It has been argued that the fact that the surviv-ing ballads were preserved in written form in itself makesit unlikely they were typical; in particular stories with aninterest for the gentry were by this view more likely to bepreserved.[78] The story of Robin’s aid to the “poor knight”that takes up much of the Gest may be an example.

The character of Robin in these first texts is rougher edgedthan in his later incarnations. In “Robin Hood and theMonk”, for example, he is shown as quick tempered and vi-olent, assaulting Little John for defeating him in an archerycontest; in the same ballad Much the Miller’s Son casuallykills a “little page" in the course of rescuing Robin Hoodfrom prison.[79] No extant ballad actually shows RobinHood “giving to the poor”, although in a “A Gest of RobynHode” Robin does make a large loan to an unfortunateknight, which he does not in the end require to be repaid;[80]

and later in the same ballad Robin Hood states his intentionof giving money to the next traveller to come down the roadif he happens to be poor.

Of my good he shall haue some,Yf he be a por man.[81]

As it happens the next traveller is not poor, but it seems incontext that Robin Hood is stating a general policy. Fromthe beginning Robin Hood is on the side of the poor; theGest quotes Robin Hood as instructing his men that whenthey rob:

loke ye do no husbonde harmeThat tilleth with his ploughe.No more ye shall no gode yemanThat walketh by gren-wode shawe;Ne no knyght ne no squyerThat wol be a gode felawe.[82]

And in its final lines the Gest sums up:

he was a good outlawe,And dyde pore men moch god.

Within Robin Hood’s band medieval forms of courtesyrather than modern ideals of equality are generally in evi-dence. In the early ballads Robin’s men usually kneel beforehim in strict obedience: in A Gest of Robyn Hode the kingeven observes that “His men are more at his byddynge/Thenmy men be at myn.” Their social status, as yeomen, is shownby their weapons; they use swords rather than quarterstaffs.The only character to use a quarterstaff in the early balladsis the potter, and Robin Hood does not take to a staff untilthe 18th century Robin Hood and Little John.[83]

The political and social assumptions underlying the earlyRobin Hood ballads have long been controversial. It hasbeen influentially argued by J. C. Holt that the Robin Hoodlegend was cultivated in the households of the gentry, andthat it would be mistaken to see in him a figure of peasant

1.10. BALLADS AND TALES 11

revolt. He is not a peasant but a yeoman, and his tales makeno mention of the complaints of the peasants, such as op-pressive taxes.[84] He appears not so much as a revolt againstsocietal standards as an embodiment of them, being gener-ous, pious, and courteous, opposed to stingy, worldly, andchurlish foes.[85] Other scholars have by contrast stressedthe subversive aspects of the legend, and see in the me-dieval Robin Hood ballads a plebeian literature hostile tothe feudal order.[86]

"Little John and Robin Hood” by Frank Godwin

Although the term “Merry Men” belongs to a later pe-riod, the ballads do name several of Robin’s companions.[87]

These include Will Scarlet (or Scathlock), Much theMiller’s Son, and Little John – who was called “little” asa joke, as he was quite the opposite.[88] Even though theband is regularly described as being over a hundred men,usually only three or four are specified. Some appear onlyonce or twice in a ballad: Will Stutely in Robin Hood Res-cuing Will Stutly and Robin Hood and Little John; David ofDoncaster in Robin Hood and the Golden Arrow; Gilbertwith the White Hand in A Gest of Robyn Hode; and Arthura Bland in Robin Hood and the Tanner.[88]

Printed versions of the Robin Hood ballads, generally based

on the Gest, appear in the early 16th century, shortly afterthe introduction of printing in England. Later that centuryRobin is promoted to the level of nobleman: he is styledEarl of Huntingdon, Robert of Locksley, or Robert FitzOoth. In the early ballads, by contrast, he was a memberof the yeoman classes, which included common freeholderspossessing a small landed estate.[89]

1.10.2 May Day and fairs

By the early 15th century at the latest, Robin Hood had be-come associated with May Day celebrations, with revellersdressing as Robin or as members of his band for the festivi-ties. This was not common throughout England, but in someregions the custom lasted until Elizabethan times, and dur-ing the reign of Henry VIII, was briefly popular at court.[90]

Robin was often allocated the role of a May King, presidingover games and processions, but plays were also performedwith the characters in the roles,[91] sometimes performed atchurch ales, a means by which churches raised funds.[92]

A complaint of 1492, brought to the Star Chamber, ac-cuses men of acting riotously by coming to a fair as RobinHood and his men; the accused defended themselves onthe grounds that the practice was a long-standing custom toraise money for churches, and they had not acted riotouslybut peaceably.[93]

It is from the association with the May Games that Robin’sromantic attachment to Maid Marian (or Marion) appar-ently stems. A “Robin and Marion” figured in 13th-centuryFrench "pastourelles" (of which Jeu de Robin et Marion c.1280 is a literary version) and presided over the FrenchMay festivities, “this Robin and Marion tended to preside,in the intervals of the attempted seduction of the latter bya series of knights, over a variety of rustic pastimes.”[29]

In the Jeu de Robin and Marion, Robin and his compan-ions have to rescue Marion from the clutches of a “lustfulknight”.[94] The naming of Marian may have come from theFrench pastoral play of c. 1280, the Jeu de Robin et Marion,although this play is distinct from the English legends.[90]

Both Robin and Marian were certainly associated with MayDay festivities in England (as was Friar Tuck), but thesemay have been originally two distinct types of performance– Alexander Barclay in his Ship of Fools, writing in c. 1500,refers to “some merry fytte of Maid Marian or else of RobinHood” – but the characters were brought together.[87] Mar-ian did not immediately gain the unquestioned role; in RobinHood’s Birth, Breeding, Valor, and Marriage, his sweetheartis 'Clorinda the Queen of the Shepherdesses’.[95] Clorindasurvives in some later stories as an alias of Marian.[88]

12 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

Robin Hood and Maid Marian

1.10.3 Robin Hood and King Richard theLionheart

In the 16th century, Robin Hood is given a specific his-torical setting. Up until this point there was little inter-est in exactly when Robin’s adventures took place. Theoriginal ballads refer at various points to “King Edward”,without stipulating whether this is Edward the Elder (900–924), Edward the Martyr (975–978), Edward the Con-fessor (1042–1066), Edward I, Edward II, or EdwardIII.[96][97][98][99]

Robin Hood may thus have been active during the reign ofany of these Edwards. However, during the 16th centurythe stories become fixed to the 1190s, the period in whichKing Richard was absent from the country, fighting in theThird Crusade.[100] This date is first proposed by John Mairin his Historia Majoris Britanniæ (1521), and gains popularacceptance by the end of the century.Giving Robin an aristocratic title and female love interest(Maid Marian), and placing him in the historical contextof the true king’s absence, all represent moves to domesti-cate his legend and reconcile it to ruling powers. In this,

King Richard the Lionheart marrying Robin Hood and Maid Mar-ian on a plaque outside Nottingham Castle

his legend is similar to that of King Arthur, which morphedfrom a dangerous masculine story to a more comfortable,chivalrous romance under the troubadours serving Eleanorof Aquitaine. From the 16th century on, the legend ofRobin Hood is often used to promote the hereditary rulingclass, romance, and religious piety. The “criminal” elementis retained to provide dramatic colour, rather than as a realchallenge to convention.[101]

1.10.4 New characters and new attributesfor Robin

In 1598, Anthony Munday wrote a pair of plays on theRobin Hood legend, The Downfall and The Death of RobertEarl of Huntington (published 1601). The 17th century in-troduced the minstrel Alan-a-Dale. He first appeared in a17th-century broadside ballad, and unlike many of the char-acters thus associated, managed to adhere to the legend.[95]

This is also the era in which the character of Robin becamefixed as stealing from the rich to give to the poor.[102]

1.10. BALLADS AND TALES 13

1.10.5 New concepts from the 18th centuryonwards

In the 18th century, the stories began to develop a slightlymore farcical vein. From this period there are a numberof ballads in which Robin is severely “drubbed” by a suc-cession of tradesmen including a tanner, a tinker and aranger.[100] In fact, the only character who does not get thebetter of Hood is the luckless Sheriff. Yet even in these bal-lads Robin is more than a mere simpleton: on the contrary,he often acts with great shrewdness. The tinker, setting outto capture Robin, only manages to fight with him after hehas been cheated out of his money and the arrest warrant heis carrying. In Robin Hood’s Golden Prize, Robin disguiseshimself as a friar and cheats two priests out of their cash.Even when Robin is defeated, he usually tricks his foe intoletting him sound his horn, summoning the Merry Men tohis aid. When his enemies do not fall for this ruse, he per-suades them to drink with him instead (see Robin Hood’sDelight).

1.10.6 Other literary references

The continued popularity of the Robin Hood tales is at-tested by a number of literary references. In As You LikeIt, the exiled duke and his men “live like the old RobinHood of England”, while Ben Jonson produced the (in-complete) masque The Sad Shepherd, or a Tale of RobinHood[103] as a satire on Puritanism. Somewhat later, theRomantic poet John Keats composed Robin Hood. To AFriend[104] and Alfred Lord Tennyson wrote a play TheForesters, or Robin Hood and Maid Marian,[105] which waspresented with incidental music by Sir Arthur Sullivan in1892. Later still, T. H. White featured Robin and his bandin The Sword in the Stone – anachronistically, since thenovel’s chief theme is the childhood of King Arthur.[106]

1.10.7 The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood

The Victorian era[107] generated its own distinct versions ofRobin Hood. The traditional tales were often adapted forchildren, most notably in Howard Pyle's The Merry Adven-tures of Robin Hood, which influenced accounts of RobinHood through the 20th century.[108] These versions firmlystamp Robin as a staunch philanthropist, a man who takesfrom the rich to give to the poor. Nevertheless, the ad-ventures are still more local than national in scope: whileKing Richard’s participation in the Crusades is mentionedin passing, Robin takes no stand against Prince John, andplays no part in raising the ransom to free Richard. Thesedevelopments are part of the 20th century Robin Hoodmyth.

The title page of Howard Pyle's 1883 novel, The Merry Adventuresof Robin Hood

The idea of Robin Hood as a high-minded Saxon fight-ing Norman lords also originates in the 19th century.The most notable contributions to this idea of Robin areJacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry's Histoire de la Conquêtede l'Angleterre par les Normands (1825) and Sir WalterScott's Ivanhoe (1819). In this last work in particular, themodern Robin Hood – “King of Outlaws and prince of goodfellows!" as Richard the Lionheart calls him – makes hisdebut.[15]

1.10.8 20th century onwards

The 20th century grafted still further details on to the orig-inal legends. The 1938 film, The Adventures of RobinHood, starring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland, por-trayed Robin as a hero on a national scale, leading the op-pressed Saxons in revolt against their Norman overlordswhile Richard the Lionheart fought in the Crusades; thismovie established itself so definitively that many studios re-sorted to movies about his son (invented for that purpose)rather than compete with the image of this one.[109]

14 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

1.10.9 Movies, animations, new conceptsand other adaptations

Walt Disney’s Robin Hood

Main article: Robin Hood (1973 film)

In the 1973 animated Disney film, Robin Hood, the titlecharacter is portrayed as an anthropomorphic fox voicedby Brian Bedford. Years before Robin Hood had even en-tered production, Disney had considered doing a projecton Reynard the Fox. However, due to concerns that Rey-nard was unsuitable as a hero, animator Ken Anderson liftedmany elements from Reynard into Robin Hood, thus makingthe titular character a fox.

Robin and Marian

The 1976 British-American film Robin and Marian, star-ring Sean Connery as Robin Hood and Audrey Hepburn asMaid Marian, portrays the figures in later years after Robinhas returned from service with Richard the Lionheart in aforeign crusade and Marian has gone into seclusion in a nun-nery. This is the first in popular culture to portray KingRichard as less than perfect.

AMuslim among the Merry Men

Since the 1980s, it has become commonplace to include aSaracen (Muslim) among the Merry Men, a trend that beganwith the character Nasir in the 1984 ITV Robin of Sherwoodtelevision series. Later versions of the story have followedsuit: the 1991 movie Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves and2006 BBC TV series Robin Hood each contain equivalentsof Nasir, in the figures of Azeem and Djaq, respectively.[109]

The latest movie version, 2010’s Robin Hood, did not in-clude a Saracen character. The character Azeem in the1991 movie Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves was originallycalled Nasir, until a crew member who worked on Robin ofSherwood pointed out that the Nasir Character was not partof the original legend and was created for the show Robin ofSherwood. The name was immediately changed to Azeemto avoid any potential copyright issues.

Robin Hood in France

Between 1963 and 1966, French television broadcast amedievalist series entitled Thierry La Fronde (Thierry theSling). This successful series, which was also shown inCanada, Poland (Thierry Śmiałek), Australia (The King’sOutlaw), and the Netherlands (Thierry de Slingeraar), trans-

poses the English Robin Hood narrative into late medievalFrance during the Hundred Years’ War.[110]

Evolution of concepts

The Robin Hood legend has been subject to numerous shiftsand mutations throughout its history. Robin himself hasevolved from a yeoman bandit to a national hero of epicproportions, who not only supports the poor by taking fromthe rich, but heroically defends the throne of England itselffrom unworthy and venal claimants.A record of the appearance of a “Robert de Lockesly” incourt is found, dated 1245. As “Robert” and its diminu-tives were among the most common of names at the time,and also since it was usual for men to adopt the name of theirhometown (“De Lockesly” means simply, “Of [or from]Lockesly”), the record could just as easily be referring toany man from the area named Robert. Although it cannotbe proven whether or not this is the man himself, it is furtherbelieved by some that Robin had a brother called Thomas– an assertion with no documentary evidence whatsoeverto support it in any of the stories, tales or ballads. If theRobert mentioned above was indeed Robin Hood, and if hedid have a brother named Thomas, then consideration ofthe following reference may lend this theory a modicum ofcredence:

24) No. 389, f0- 78. Ascension Day, 29 H. III.,Nic Meverill, with John Kantia, on the one part,and Henry de Leke. Henry released to Nicholasand John 5 m. rent, which he received from Nico-las and John and Robert de Lockesly for his lifefrom the lands of Gellery, in consideration of re-ceiving from each of them 2M (2 marks). only, thesaid Henry to live at table with one of them and toreceive 2M. annually from the other. T., Samp-son de Leke, Magister Peter Meverill, Roger deLockesly, John de Leke, Robert fil Umfred, Ricode Newland, Richard Meverill. (25) No. 402, p.80 b. Thomas de Lockesly bound himself that hewould not sell his lands at Leke, which NicolasMeveril had rendered to him, under a penalty ofL40 (40 pounds).

A pound was 240 silver pence, and a mark was 160 silverpence (i.e., 13 shillings and fourpence).It is again, however, equally likely that Nicolas, John,Robert and Thomas were simply members of a family thatcame from the area.There have been further claims made that he is fromSwannington in Leicestershire[111] or Loxley, Warwick-shire.

1.10. BALLADS AND TALES 15

Robin Hood Tree aka Sycamore Gap, Hadrian’s Wall, UK. Thislocation was used in the 1991 film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves.

The Sheriff of Nottingham also had jurisdiction in Der-byshire that was known as the “Shire of the Deer”, andthis is where the Royal Forest of the Peak is found, whichroughly corresponds to today’s Peak District National Park.The Royal Forest included Bakewell, Tideswell, Castleton,Ladybower and the Derwent Valley near Loxley. The Sher-iff of Nottingham possessed property near Loxley, amongother places both far and wide including Hazlebadge Hall,Peveril Castle and Haddon Hall. Mercia, to which Notting-ham belonged, came to within three miles of Sheffield CityCentre. But before the Law of the Normans was the Lawof the Danes, The Danelaw had a similar boundary to thatof Mercia but had a population of Free Peasantry that wereknown to have resisted the Norman occupation. Many out-laws could have been created by the refusal to recogniseNorman Forest Law.[112] The supposed grave of Little Johncan be found in Hathersage, also in the Peak District.Further indications of the legend’s connection with WestYorkshire (and particularly Calderdale) are noted in the factthat there are pubs called the Robin Hood in both nearbyBrighouse and at Cragg Vale; higher up in the Pennines be-yond Halifax, where Robin Hood Rocks can also be found.Robin Hood Hill is near Outwood, West Yorkshire, not farfrom Lofthouse. There is a village in West Yorkshire calledRobin Hood, on the A61 between Leeds and Wakefield andclose to Rothwell and Lofthouse. Considering these refer-ences to Robin Hood, it is not surprising that the peopleof both South and West Yorkshire lay some claim to RobinHood, who, if he existed, could easily have roamed betweenNottingham, Lincoln, Doncaster and right into West York-shire.There are also modern theories that Robin Hood was in factWelsh, and was called Rybyn Hod. In fact, the Welsh city ofSwansea has in recent years been known as “Hodsville” inreference to the mythical figure. Sites around Swansea that

lend credence to this theory include Rybyn Hod’s Hatshop,Rybyn Hod’s Stoop, Rybyn Hod’s Wad (a thicket of trees lo-cated off Rifleman’s Row) and Rybyn Hod’s Fortress, whichaccording to local legend was on the site of the currentMorriston Tabernacle.A British Army Territorial (reserves) battalion formed inNottingham in 1859 was known as The Robin Hood Battal-ion through various reorganisations until the “Robin Hood”name finally disappeared in 1992. With the 1881 ChildersReforms that linked regular and reserve units into regimen-tal families, the Robin Hood Battalion became part of TheSherwood Foresters (Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg-iment).A Neolithic causewayed enclosure on Salisbury Plain hasacquired the name Robin Hood’s Ball, although had RobinHood existed it is doubtful that he would have travelled sofar south.

1.10.10 Ballads appearing in 17th-centuryPercy Folio

NB. The first two ballads listed here (the “Death” and “Gis-borne”), although preserved in 17th century copies, are gen-erally agreed to preserve the substance of late medieval bal-lads. The third (the “Curtal Friar”) and the fourth (the“Butcher”), also probably have late medieval origins.[113]

• Robin Hood’s Death

• Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne

• Robin Hood and the Curtal Friar

• Robin Hood and the Butcher

• Robin Hood Rescuing Will Stutly

• Robin Hood Rescuing Three Squires

• The Jolly Pinder of Wakefield

• Robin Hood and Queen Katherine

1.10.11 Other ballads

• A True Tale of Robin Hood

• Robin Hood and the Bishop

• Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford

• Robin Hood and the Golden Arrow

• Robin Hood and the Prince of Aragon

• Robin Hood and the Ranger

16 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

• Robin Hood and the Scotchman

• Robin Hood and the Tanner

• Robin Hood and the Tinker

• Robin Hood and the Valiant Knight

• Robin Hood Newly Revived

• Robin Hood’s Birth, Breeding, Valor, and Marriage

• Robin Hood’s Chase

• Robin Hood’s Delight

• Robin Hood’s Golden Prize

• Robin Hood’s Progress to Nottingham

• The Bold Pedlar and Robin Hood

• The King’s Disguise, and Friendship with Robin Hood

• The Noble Fisherman

Some ballads, such as Erlinton, feature Robin Hood in somevariants, where the folk hero appears to be added to a balladpre-existing him and in which he does not fit very well.[114]

He was added to one variant of Rose Red and the WhiteLily, apparently on no more connection than that one heroof the other variants is named “Brown Robin”.[115] FrancisJames Child indeed retitled Child ballad 102; though it wastitled The Birth of Robin Hood, its clear lack of connectionwith the Robin Hood cycle (and connection with other, un-related ballads) led him to title it Willie and Earl Richard’sDaughter in his collection.[116]

1.11 In popular culture

Main articles: Robin Hood in popular culture and List offilms and television series featuring Robin Hood

1.12 Main characters of the folklore• Robin Hood (a.k.a. Robin of Loxley or Locksley)

• The band of "Merry Men"

• Little John• Friar Tuck• Will Scarlet• Alan-a-Dale• Much the Miller’s Son

• Maid Marian

• King Richard the Lionheart

• Prince John

• Sir Guy of Gisbourne

• The Sheriff of Nottingham

1.13 See also

• Chucho el Roto

• Eustace Folville

• Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd

• Hajduk

• Iancu Jianu

• Im Kkeokjeong

• Juraj Jánošík

• Kobus van der Schlossen

• Mike the Knight

• Ned Kelly

• Nezumi Kozō

• Redistribution of wealth

• Redmond O'Hanlon

• Robin Hood tax

• Rummu Jüri

• Schinderhannes

• Tadas Blinda

• Trysting Tree

• Ustym Karmaliuk

• Utuwankande Sura Saradiel

• Verysdale

• William de Wendenal

• William Tell

1.14. REFERENCES 17

1.14 References[1] The Child Ballads 117 "A Gest of Robyn Hode" (c. 1450)

“Whan they were clothed in Lincoln Green”

[2] Holt, pp. 34–35

[3] Dobson and Taylor, Appendix 1

[4] Dobson and Taylor, p. 133

[5] Oxford Dictionary of Christian Names, EG Withycombe,1950.

[6] Hunter, Joseph, “Robin Hood”, in Robin Hood: An Anthol-ogy of Scholarship and Criticism, ed. by Stephen Knight(Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1999) pp. 187–196. Holt, pp.75–76, summarised in Dobson & Taylor, p. xvii.

[7] Crook, David “The Sheriff of Nottingham and Robin Hood:The Genesis of the Legend?" In Peter R. Coss, S. D. Lloyd,ed Thirteenth Century England University of Newcastle –1999.

[8] E372/70, rot. 1d, 12 lines from bottom.

[9] Dobson & Taylor, p. xvii.

[10] See BBC website, accessed 19 August 2008 on the Godberdtheory. The real Robin Hood.

[11] J. R. Maddicott, “Edward the First and the Lessons of Baro-nial Reform” in Coss and Loyd ed, Thirteenth century Eng-land:1 Proceedings of the Newcastle Upon Tyne Conference1985, Boydell and Brewer, p. 2.

[12] Dobson & Taylor, introduction.

[13] Dobson & Taylor, pp. xxi–xxii.

[14] D. Crook English Historical Review XCIX (1984) pp. 530–34; discussed in Dobson & Taylor, pp. xxi–xxii.

[15] Allen W. Wright, “Wolfshead through the Ages Revolutionsand Romanticism”

[16] Historia Selebiensis Monasterii, ed. by Janet Burton andLynda Lockyer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2013) Chapter17 p. 45. For the topographical significance of Yorkshiresee locations associated with Robin Hood' above

[17] Green, Judith A., English Sheriffs to 1154, Public RecordsHandbook No. 24 (London: HMSO, 1990), pp. 67, 89

[18] William E., The Norman Conquest of the North: The Regionand Its Transformation, 1000–1135 (London: Croom Helm,1979)

[19] La' Chance, A. S., “The Origins and Development of RobinHood”. Thierry, Augustine, History of the Norman Conquestof England by the Normans, Vol. 1 (London: George Bell,1891)

[20] Davis, John Paul, Robin Hood: The Unknown Templar (Lon-don: Peter Owen Publishers, 2009) See locations associatedwith Robin Hood below for further details.

[21] Dobson & Taylor, p. ix

[22] A number of such theories are mentioned at 1911 Britannicaarticle on “Robin Hood” at LoveToKnow Robin Hood.

[23] Reginald Scot “Discourse upon divels and spirits” Chapter21, quoted in Charles P. G. Scott “The Devil and His Imps:An Etymological Investigation” p. 129 Transactions of theAmerican Philological Association (1869–1896) Vol. 26,(1895), pp. 79–146 Published by: The Johns Hopkins Uni-versity Press jstor.org

[24] Dobson & Taylor, p. 12, 39n, and chapter on place-names.

[25] 2004, Imagining Robin Hood: The Late-Medieval Stories inHistorical Context, Routledge ISBN 0-415-22308-3.

[26] Robert Graves English and Scottish Ballads. London:William Heinemann, 1957; New York: Macmillan, 1957.See, in particular, Graves’ notes to his reconstruction ofRobin Hood’s Death.

[27] Dobson & Taylor, p. 63, also quoting Francis Child to thesame effect

[28] Holt, p. 57.

[29] Dobson & Taylor, p. 42.

[30] A Gest of Robin Hood stanzas 10–15, stanza 292 (archery)117A: The Gest of Robyn Hode. Retrieved 15 April 2008.

[31] Dobson & Taylor, p. 203. Friar Tuck is mentioned inthe play fragment Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notynghamdated to c. 1475.

[32] Dobson & Taylor, pp. 5, 16.

[33] Dobson & Taylor, pp. 14–16.

[34] Dobson & Taylor, p. 34.

[35] Dobson & Taylor, pp. 34–35.

[36] Dobson & Taylor, pp. 33, 44, 220–223.

[37] Singmam, 1998, Robin Hood; The Shaping of the Legend p.62.

[38] Dobson & Taylor, p. 41. “It was here [the May Games]that he encountered and assimilated into his own legend thejolly friar and Maid Marian, almost invariably among theperformers in the 16th century morris dance,” Dobson andTaylor have suggested that theories on the origin of FriarTuck often founder on a failure to recognise that “he was theproduct of the fusion between two very different friars,” a“bellicose outlaw”, and the May Games figure.

[39] Thomas H. Ohlgren, Robin Hood: The Early Poems, 1465–1560, Texts, Contexts and Ideology (Newark: The Universityof Delaware Press, 2007) p. 18.

18 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

[40] Luxford, Julian. “An English Chronicle entry on RobinHood”, Journal of Medieval History, 35 (2009) pp. 70–76.

[41] “Edwinstowe”. Edwinstowe Parish Council. Retrieved 2August 2009.

[42] “BBC - Nottingham 360 Images - Where to go : Inside theMajor Oak”. bbc.co.uk.

[43] Holt, Robin Hood pp. 90–91.

[44] Matheson, Lister, “The Dialects and Language of SelectedRobin Hood Poems”, in Robin Hood: The Early Poems,1465–1560 Texts, Contexts and Ideology ed. by ThomasOhlgren (Delaware: University of Delaware Press, 2007 pp.189–210).

[45] Bellamy, John, Robin Hood: An Historical Enquiry (London:Croom Helm, 1985). Bradbury, Jim, Robin Hood (Stroud:Amberley Publishing: 2010). Dobson, R. B., “The Gene-sis of a Popular Hero” in Robin Hood in Popular Culture:Violence, Transgression and Justice, ed. by Thomas Hahn(Woodbridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000) pp. 61–77. Keen, Mau-rice, The Outlaws of Medieval Legend, 2nd edn (London andHenley: Routledge and Kegan Paul; Toronto and Buffalo:University of Toronto Press, 1977). Maddicot, J. R., Si-mon De Montfort (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1994)

[46] Bradbury, p. 180

[47] Dr Eric Houlder, PontArch Archaeological Society.

[48] The Gest, Stanza 135 p. 88

[49] Joseph Hunter, “The Great Hero of the Ancient Minstrelsyof England”, Critical and Historical Tracts, 4 (1852) (pp.15–16).

[50] Borthowick Institute of Historical Research, St Anthony’sHall, York: R.III. F I xlvi b; R. III. F.16 xlvi (Kirk SmeatonGlebe Terriers of 7 June 1688 and 10 June 1857).

[51] Dobson, Dobson and Taylor, p. 22.

[52] The Gest, Stanza 440 p. 111.

[53] http://list.englishheritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1151464

[54] http://www.heritageinspiredbyorg.uk/partner?partner_ID=97

[55] David Hepworth, “A Grave Tale”, in Robin Hood: Medievaland Post-Medieval, ed. by Helen Phillips (Dublin: FourCourts Press, 2005) pp. 91–112 (p. 94.)

[56] Grafton, Richard, A Chronicle at Large (London: 1569) p.84 in Early English Books Online

[57] The Gest, Stanza 456 p. 112.

[58] La' Chance, A, “The Origins and Development of RobinHood”. Kapelle, William E., The Norman Conquest ofthe North: The Region and Its Transformation, 1000–1135(London: Croom Helm, 1979)

[59] Monkbretton Priory, Abstracts of the Chartularies of the Pri-ory of Monkbretton, Vol. LXVI, ed. by J. W. Walker (Leeds:The Yorkshire Archaeological Society, 1924) p. 105.

[60] Dobson and Taylor, p. 18

[61] Dobson and Taylor, p. 22

[62] Dobson & Taylor, p. 18: “On balance therefore these 15th-century references to the Robin Hood legend seem to suggestthat during the later Middle Ages the outlaw hero was moreclosely related to Barnsdale than Sherwood.”

[63] Holt

[64] “V.396 in Schmidt’s ed”. Hti.umich.edu. Retrieved 12March 2010.

[65] Rot. Parl. v. 16.

[66] Dobson & Taylor, p. 5

[67] J. R. Maddicott, “Sir Edward the First and the Lessons ofBaronial Reform” in Coss and Loyd ed, Thirteenth centuryEngland:1 Proceedings of the Newcastle Upon Tyne Confer-ence 1985, Boydell and Brewer, p. 2

[68] Maurice Hugh Keen The Outlaws of Medieval England,1987, Routledge

[69] Passage quoted and commented on in Stephen Knights,Robin Hood; A Mythic Biography, Cornell University Press,2003, p. 5

[70] Luxford, Julian M. (2009). “An English chronicle entry onRobin Hood”. Journal of Medieval History 35 (1): 70–76.doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2009.01.002.

[71] Act IV, Scene 1, line 36–7

[72] The Annotated Edition of the English Poets – Early ballads(London, 1856, p. 70)

[73] “Robin Hood and the Monk”. Lib.rochester.edu. Retrieved12 March 2010.

[74] Introduction accompanying Knight and Ohlgren’s 1997 ed.

[75] Ohlgren, Thomas, Robin Hood: The Early Poems, 1465–1560, (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2007), FromScript to Print: Robin Hood and the Early Printers, pp. 97–134

[76] “Robin Hood and the Potter”. Lib.rochester.edu. Retrieved12 March 2010.

[77] “Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notyngham”.Lib.rochester.edu. Retrieved 12 March 2010.

1.15. BIBLIOGRAPHY 19

[78] Singman, Jeffrey L. Robin Hood: The Shaping of the LegendPublished 1998, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 51 ISBN0-313-30101-8

[79] Robin Hood and the Monk. From Child’s edition of theballad, online at Sacred Texts, 119A: Robin Hood and theMonk Stanza 16:

Then Robyn goes to Notyngham,Hym selfe mornyng allone,And Litull John to mery Scherwode,The pathes he knew ilkone.

[80] Holt, p. 11

[81] Child Ballads 117A:210, ie A Gest of Robyn Hode stanza210

[82] “The Child Ballads: 117. The Gest of Robyn Hode”. sacred-texts.com.

[83] Holt, p. 36

[84] Holt, pp. 37–38

[85] Holt, p. 10

[86] Singman, Jeffrey L Robin Hood: The Shaping of the Legend,1998, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 46, and first chapteras a whole. ISBN 0-313-30101-8

[87] Jeffrey Richards, Swordsmen of the Screen: From DouglasFairbanks to Michael York, p. 190, Routledge & Kegan Paul,Lond, Henly and Boston, 1988

[88] Allen W. Wright, “A Beginner’s Guide to Robin Hood”

[89] Holt, p. 159

[90] Hutton, 1997, pp. 270–1

[91] Hutton, 1996, p. 32

[92] Hutton, 1996, p. 31

[93] Holt, pp. 148–9

[94] Maurice Keen The Outlaws of Medieval England Appendix1, 1987, Routledge, ISBN 0-7102-1203-8.

[95] Holt, p. 165

[96] Holt, p. 37

[97] Ohlgren, Thomas H. ; Lister M. Matheson (2007) RobinHood: The Early Poems, 1465-1560 : Texts, Contexts, andIdeology pg 147

[98] Dixon-Kennedy, Mike (2013) The Robin Hood Handbook:The Outlaw in History, Myth and Legend The History Press

[99] Waltz, Robert B. (2013) The Gest of Robyn Hode: A Criticaland Textual Commentary pg 267

[100] Holt, p. 170

[101] The Times (London), 11 July 1999

[102] Holt, p. 184

[103] “Johnson’s “The Sad Shepherd"". Lib.rochester.edu. Re-trieved 12 March 2010.

[104] “Keats’ “Robin Hood. To a friend"". Lib.rochester.edu. Re-trieved 12 March 2010.

[105] “Tennyson’s “The Foresters"". Lib.rochester.edu. Retrieved12 March 2010.

[106] W.R. Irwin, The Game of the Impossible, p. 151, Universityof Illinois Press, Urbana Chicago London, 1976

[107] Egan, Pierce the Younger (1846). Robin Hood and LittleJohn or The Merry Men of Sherwood Forest. Pub. GeorgePeirce. London.

[108] “Robin Hood: Development of a Popular Hero". From TheRobin Hood Project at the University of Rochester. Re-trieved 22 November 2008.

[109] Allen W. Wright, "Wolfshead through the Ages Films andFantasy"

[110] See Richard Utz, “Robin Hood, Frenched”, in: Medieval Af-terlives in Popular Culture, ed. by Gail Ashton and DanielT. Kline (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012): 145–58.

[111] “Big It Up Bulletin-May issue”. .le.ac.uk. 29 April 2007.Retrieved 12 March 2010.

[112] “According to Ancient Custom: Research on the possibleOrigins and Purpose of Thynghowe Sherwood Forest”. Is-suu.com. 9 March 2012. Retrieved 23 March 2012.

[113] Dobson & Taylor, see introduction to each individual ballad.

[114] Child, v. 1, p. 178

[115] Child, v. 2, p. 416

[116] Child, v. 2, p. 412

1.15 Bibliography

• Baldwin, David (2010). Robin Hood: The English Out-law Unmasked. Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84868-378-5.

• Barry, Edward (1832). Sur les vicissitudes et les trans-formations du cycle populaire de Robin Hood. Rig-noux.

• Blamires, David (1998). Robin Hood: A Hero for AllTimes. J. Rylands Univ. Lib. of Manchester. ISBN0-86373-136-8.

20 CHAPTER 1. ROBIN HOOD

• Child, Francis James (1997). The English and ScottishPopular Ballads 1–5. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-43150-5.

• Coghlan, Ronan (2003). The Robin Hood Companion.Xiphos Books. ISBN 0-9544936-0-5.

• Deitweiler, Laurie, Coleman, Diane (2004). RobinHood Comprehension Guide. Veritas Pr Inc. ISBN 1-930710-77-1.

• Dixon-Kennedy, Mike (2006). The Robin HoodHandbook. Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3977-X.

• Dobson, R. B.; Taylor, John (1977). The Rymes ofRobin Hood: An Introduction to the English Outlaw.Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-1661-3.

• Doel, Fran, Doel, Geoff (2000). Robin Hood: Outlawand Greenwood Myth. Tempus Publishing Ltd. ISBN0-7524-1479-8.

• Green, Barbara (2001). Secrets of the Grave. PalmyraPress. ISBN 0-9540164-0-8.

• Hahn, Thomas (2000). Robin Hood in PopularCulture: Violence, Transgression and Justice. D.S.Brewer. ISBN 0-85991-564-6.

• Harris, P. V. (1978). Truth About Robin Hood. Lin-ney. ISBN 0-900525-16-9.

• Hilton, R.H., The Origins of Robin Hood, Past andPresent, No. 14. (Nov. 1958), pp. 30–44. Availableonline at JSTOR.

• Holt, J. C. (1982). Robin Hood. Thames & Hudson.ISBN 0-500-27541-6.

• Holt, J.C. (1989). “Robin Hood”, Perspectives on cul-ture and society, vol. 2, 127–144

• Hutton, Ronald (1997). The Stations of the Sun: AHistory of the Ritual Year in Britain. Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 0-19-288045-4.

• Hutton, Ronald (1996). The Rise and Fall of MerryEngland: The Ritual Year 1400–1700. Oxford Uni-versity Press. ISBN 0-19-285327-9.

• Knight, Stephen Thomas (1994). Robin Hood: AComplete Study of the English Outlaw. Blackwell Pub-lishers. ISBN 0-631-19486-X.

• Knight, Stephen Thomas (2003). Robin Hood: AMythic Biography. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3885-3.

• Phillips, Helen (2005). Robin Hood: Medieval andPost-medieval. Four Courts Press. ISBN 1-85182-931-8.

• Pollard, A. J. (2004). Imagining Robin Hood: The LateMedieval Stories in Historical Context. Routledge, animprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd. ISBN 0-415-22308-3.

• Potter, Lewis (1998). Playing Robin Hood: The Leg-end as Performance in Five Centuries. University ofDelaware Press. ISBN 0-87413-663-6.

• Pringle, Patrick (1991). Stand and Deliver: HighwayMen from Robin Hood to Dick Turpin. Dorset Press.ISBN 0-88029-698-4.

• Ritson, Joseph (1832). Robin Hood: A Collection ofAll the Ancient Poems, Songs, and Ballads, Now ExtantRelative to That Celebrated English Outlaw: To Whichare Prefixed Historical Anecdotes of His Life. WilliamPickering. ISBN 1-4212-6209-6.

• Rutherford-Moore, Richard (1999). The Legend ofRobin Hood. Capall Bann Publishing. ISBN 1-86163-069-7.

• Rutherford-Moore, Richard (2002). Robin Hood: Onthe Outlaw Trail. Capall Bann Publishing. ISBN 1-86163-177-4.

• Vahimagi, Tise (1994). British Television: An Illus-trated Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-818336-4.

• Wright, Thomas (1847). Songs and Carols, now firstimprinted. Percy Society.

1.16 External links• International Robin Hood Bibliography

• Robin Hood at DMOZ

• Robin Hood – from Internet Archive, Project Guten-berg and Google Books (scanned books original edi-tions color illustrated)

Chapter 2

Prometheus

This article is about the Greek mythological figure. Forother uses, see Prometheus (disambiguation).Prometheus (/prəˈmiːθiːəs/ prə-MEE-thee-əs; Greek:

Prometheus depicted in a sculpture by Nicolas-Sébastien Adam,1762 (Louvre)

Προμηθεύς [promɛːtʰeús], meaning “forethought”)[1] is aTitan in Greek mythology, best known as the deity in Greekmythology who was the creator of mankind and its great-est benefactor, who gifted mankind with fire stolen fromMount Olympus. Prometheus sided with Zeus and the as-cending Olympian gods in the vast cosmological struggleagainst Cronus (Kronos) and the other Titans. Prometheuswas therefore on the conquering side of the cataclysmic warof the Greek gods, the Titanomachy, where Zeus and the

Olympian gods ultimately defeated Cronus and the otherTitans.Ancient myths and legends relate at least four versions of thenarratives describing Prometheus, his exploits with Zeus,and his eternal punishment as also inflicted by Zeus. Thereis a single somewhat comprehensive version of the birthof Prometheus and several variant versions of his subjec-tion to eternal suffering at the will of Zeus. The most sig-nificant narratives of his origin appear in the Theogony ofHesiod which relates Prometheus as being the son of theTitan Iapetus by Clymene, one of the Oceanids. Hesiodthen presents Prometheus as subsequently being a lowlychallenger to Zeus’s omnipotence. In the trick at Mecone,Prometheus tricks Zeus into eternally claiming the inedi-ble parts of cows and bulls for the sacrificial ceremonies ofthe gods, while conceding the nourishing parts to humansfor the eternal benefit of humankind. The two remainingcentral episodes regarding Prometheus as written by Hes-iod include his theft of fire from Olympus for the benefitof humanity against the will of Zeus, and the eternal pun-ishment which Prometheus would endure for these acts asinflicted upon him by the judgment of Zeus. For the greaterpart, the pre-Athenian ancient sources are selective in whichof these narrative elements they chose by their own prefer-ences to honor and support, and which ones they chose toexclude. The specific combinations of these relatively in-dependent narrative elements by individual ancient authors(Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, Pythagoras), and specific exclu-sions among them, are often influenced by the particularneeds and purposes of the larger myths and legends whichthey are depicting. Each individual ancient author selec-tively preferred certain crucial stories depicting Prometheusover others.The intensive growth and expansion of Greek literature andphilosophy in the classical fourth and fifth century Athe-nian period would greatly affect both the interpretation andinfluence which the myth of Prometheus would exert uponAthenian culture. This influence would extend beyond itsdramatic and tragic form in the Athenian period, and in-fluence large portions of the greater Western literary tradi-

21

22 CHAPTER 2. PROMETHEUS

tion which would follow it for over two millennia. All threeof the major Athenian tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophoclesand Euripides, were affected by the myth of Prometheus.The surviving plays and fragments of Aeschylus regard-ing Prometheus retain a special place of prominence withinmodern scholarship for their having survived the ravages oftime. The majority of plays written by Aeschylus, Sopho-cles and Euripides have been lost to literary antiquity, in-cluding many of their writings on Prometheus.Both during and after the Renaissance, Prometheus wouldagain emerge as a major inspiration for his literary and po-etic significance as a symbol and archetype to inspire newgenerations of artists, sculptors, poets, musicians, novelists,playwrights, inventors, technologists, engineers, and film-makers. His literary and mythological personage remainsprominently portrayed in contemporary sculpture, art andliterary expression including Mary Shelley’s portrayal ofFrankenstein as The Modern Prometheus. The influence ofthe myth of Prometheus extends well into the 20th and 21stcentury as well.

2.1 Etymology

The etymology of the theonym prometheus is debated. Theclassical view is that it signifies “forethought,” as that of hisbrother Epimetheus denotes “afterthought”.[1] It has beentheorized that it derives from the Proto-Indo-European rootthat also produces the Vedic pra math, “to steal,” hencepramathyu-s, “thief”, cognate with “Prometheus”, the thiefof fire. The Vedic myth of fire’s theft by Mātariśvan is ananalog to the Greek account. Pramantha was the tool usedto create fire.[2]

2.2 Myths and legends

2.2.1 The oldest legends

The four most ancient sources for understanding the originof the Prometheus myths and legends all rely on the imagesrepresented in the Titanomachy, or the cosmological strug-gle between the Greek gods and their parents, the Titans.[3]

Prometheus, himself a Titan, managed to avoid being inthe direct confrontational cosmic battle between Zeus andthe other Olympians against Cronus and the other Titans.[4]

Prometheus therefore survived the struggle in which theoffending Titans were eternally banished by Zeus to thechthonic depths of Tartarus, only to survive to confrontZeus on his own terms in subsequent climactic struggles.The greater Titanomachia depicts an overarching metaphorof the struggle between generations, between parents and

their children, symbolic of the generation of parents need-ing to eventually give ground to the growing needs, vitality,and responsibilities of the new generation for the perpetua-tion of society and survival interests of the human race as awhole. Prometheus and his struggle would be of vast meritto human society as well in this mythology as he was to becredited with the creation of humans and therefore all ofhumanity as well. The four most ancient historical sourcesfor the Prometheus myth are Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, andPythagoras.

Hesiod and the Theogony andWorks and Days

The Prometheus myth first appeared in the late 8th-centuryBC Greek epic poet Hesiod's Theogony (lines 507–616).He was a son of the Titan Iapetus by Clymene, oneof the Oceanids. He was brother to Menoetius, Atlas,and Epimetheus. In the Theogony, Hesiod introducesPrometheus as a lowly challenger to Zeus's omniscience andomnipotence.[5] In the trick at Mekone, a sacrificial mealmarking the “settling of accounts” between mortals and im-mortals, Prometheus played a trick against Zeus (545–557).He placed two sacrificial offerings before the Olympian: aselection of beef hidden inside an ox’s stomach (nourish-ment hidden inside a displeasing exterior), and the bull’sbones wrapped completely in “glistening fat” (somethinginedible hidden inside a pleasing exterior). Zeus chose thelatter, setting a precedent for future sacrifices.[5]

Henceforth, humans would keep that meat for themselvesand burn the bones wrapped in fat as an offering to the gods.This angered Zeus, who hid fire from humans in retribution.In this version of the myth, the use of fire was already knownto humans, but withdrawn by Zeus.[6] Prometheus, how-ever, stole fire back in a giant fennel-stalk and restored itto humanity. This further enraged Zeus, who sent Pandora,the first woman, to live with humanity.[5] Pandora was fash-ioned by Hephaestus out of clay and brought to life by thefour winds, with all the goddesses of Olympus assembledto adorn her. “From her is the race of women and femalekind,” Hesiod writes; “of her is the deadly race and tribe ofwomen who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble,no helpmeets in hateful poverty, but only in wealth.”[5]

Prometheus, in eternal punishment, is chained to a rock inthe Caucasus, Kazbek Mountain or Mountain of Khvamli,where his liver is eaten daily by an eagle,[7] only to beregenerated by night, due to his immortality. The eagleis a symbol of Zeus himself. Years later, the Greek heroHeracles (Hercules) slays the eagle and frees Prometheusfrom the eagle’s torment.[8]

Hesiod revisits the story of Prometheus in the Works andDays (lines 42–105). Here, the poet expands upon Zeus’sreaction to Prometheus’s deception. Not only does Zeus

2.2. MYTHS AND LEGENDS 23

Prometheus Brings Fire by Heinrich Friedrich Füger. Prometheusbrings fire to mankind as told by Hesiod, with its having been hiddenas revenge for the trick at Mecone.

withhold fire from humanity, but “the means of life,” as well(42). Had Prometheus not provoked Zeus’s wrath (44–47),“you would easily do work enough in a day to supply you fora full year even without working; soon would you put awayyour rudder over the smoke, and the fields worked by oxand sturdy mule would run to waste.” Hesiod also expandsupon the Theogony's story of the first woman, now explic-itly called Pandora ("all gifts"). After Prometheus’ theft offire, Zeus sent Pandora in retaliation. Despite Prometheus’warning, Epimetheus accepted this “gift” from the gods.Pandora carried a jar with her, from which were released(91–92) “evils, harsh pain and troublesome diseases whichgive men death”.[9] Pandora shut the lid of the jar too lateto contain all the evil plights that escaped, but foresight re-mained in the jar, depriving humanity from hope.Angelo Casanova,[10] Professor of Greek Literature at theUniversity of Florence, finds in Prometheus a reflection ofan ancient, pre-Hesiodic trickster-figure, who served to ac-count for the mixture of good and bad in human life, andwhose fashioning of humanity from clay was an Easternmotif familiar in Enuma Elish; as an opponent of Zeus hewas an analogue of the Titans, and like them was punished.

As an advocate for humanity he gains semi-divine statusat Athens, where the episode in Theogony in which he isliberated[11] is interpreted by Casanova as a post-Hesiodicinterpolation.[12]

According to the German classicist Karl-Martin Dietz, inHesiod’s scriptures, Prometheus represents the “descentof mankind from the communion with the gods into thepresent troublesome life.”[13]

Homer and the Homeric Hymns

The banishment of the warring Titans by the Olympians tothe chthonic depths of Tartoros was documented as early asHomer’s Iliad and the Odyssey where they are also identifiedas the hypotartarioi, or, the “subterranean.” The passagesappear in the Iliad (XIV 279)[14] and also in the Homerichymn to Apollo (335).[15] The particular forms of violenceassociated especially with the Titans are those of hybristesand atasthalie as further found in the Iliad (XIII 633-34).They are used by Homer to designate an unlimited, violentinsolence among the warring Titans which only Zeus wasable to ultimately overcome. This text finds direct parallel inHesiod’s reading in the Theogony (209) and in Homer’s ownOdyssey (XIX 406). In the words of Kerenyi, “Autolykos,the grandfather, is introduced in order that he may give hisgrandson the name of Odysseus.”[16] In a similar fashion,the origin of the naming of the Titans as a group has beendisputed with some voicing a preference for reading it asa combination of titainein (to exert), and, titis (retribution)usually rendered as “retribution meted out to the exertionof the Titans.”[17] It should be noted in studying materialconcerning Prometheus that Prometheus was not directlyamong the warring Titans with Zeus though Prometheus’sassociation with them by lineage is a recurrent theme ineach of his subsequent confrontations with Zeus and withthe Olympian gods

Pindar and the Nemean Odes

The duality of the gods and of humans standing as polaropposites is also clearly identified in the earliest traditionsof Greek mythology and its legends by Pindar. In the sixthNemean Ode, Pindar states: “There is one/race of men, onerace of gods; both have breath/of life from a single mother.But sundered power/holds us divided, so that one side isnothing, while on the other the brazen sky is established/asure citadel forever.”[18] Although this duality in strikinglyapparent in Pindar, it also has paradoxical elements wherePindar actually comes quite close to Hesiod who before himhad said in his Works and Days (108) “how the gods andmortal men sprang from one source.”[19] The understand-ing of Prometheus and his role in the creation of humans

24 CHAPTER 2. PROMETHEUS

and the theft of fire for their benefit is therefore distinctlyadapted within this distinguishable source for understand-ing the role of Prometheus within the mythology of the in-teraction of the Gods with humans.

Pythagoras and the Pythagorean Doctrine

In order to understand the Prometheus myth in its most gen-eral context, the Late Roman author Censorinus states inhis book titled De die natali that, “Pythagoras of Samos,Okellos of Lukania, Archytas of Tarentum, and in generalall Pythagoreans were the authors and proponents of theopinion that the human race was eternal.”[20] By this theyheld that Prometheus’s creation of humans was the creationof humanity for eternity. This Pythagorean view is fur-ther confirmed in the book On the Cosmos written by thePythagorean Okellos of Lukania. Okellos, in his cosmol-ogy, further delineates the three realms of the cosmos as allcontained within an overarching order called the diakosme-sis which is also the world order kosmos, and which alsomust be eternal. The three realms were delineated by Okel-los as having “two poles, man on earth, the gods in heaven.Merely for the sake of symmetry, as it were, the daemons--not evil spirits but beings intermediate between God andman -- occupy a middle position in the air, the realm be-tween heaven and earth. They were not a product of Greekmythology, but of the belief in daemons that had sprung upin various parts of the Mediterranean world and the NearEast.”[21]

2.2.2 The Athenian tradition

The two major authors to have a distinctive influence on thedevelopment of the myths and legends surrounding the Ti-tan Prometheus during the Socratic era of greater Athenswere Aeschylus and Plato. The two men wrote in highlydistinctive forms of expression which for Aeschylus cen-tered on his mastery of the literary form of Greek tragedy,while for Plato this centered on the philosophical expres-sion of his thought in the form of the various dialogues hehad written and recorded during his lifetime.

Aeschylus and the ancient literary tradition

Prometheus Bound, perhaps the most famous treatment ofthe myth to be found among the Greek tragedies, is tradi-tionally attributed to the 5th-century BC Greek tragedianAeschylus.[22] At the center of the drama are the resultsof Prometheus’ theft of fire and his current punishment byZeus; the playwright’s dependence on the Hesiodic sourcematerial is clear, though Prometheus Bound also includes anumber of changes to the received tradition.[23]

Before his theft of fire, Prometheus played a decisive rolein the Titanomachy, securing victory for Zeus and the otherOlympians. Zeus’s torture of Prometheus thus becomesa particularly harsh betrayal. The scope and character ofPrometheus’ transgressions against Zeus are also widened.In addition to giving humankind fire, Prometheus claimsto have taught them the arts of civilization, such as writ-ing, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and science. TheTitan’s greatest benefaction for humankind seems to havebeen saving them from complete destruction. In an appar-ent twist on the myth of the so-called Five Ages of Manfound in Hesiod’s Works and Days (wherein Cronus and,later, Zeus created and destroyed five successive races ofhumanity), Prometheus asserts that Zeus had wanted toobliterate the human race, but that he somehow stoppedhim.

Heracles freeing Prometheus from his torment by the eagle (Atticblack-figure cup, c. 500 BC)

Moreover, Aeschylus anachronistically and artificially in-jects Io, another victim of Zeus’s violence and ancestor ofHeracles, into Prometheus’ story. Finally, just as Aeschylusgave Prometheus a key role in bringing Zeus to power, healso attributed to him secret knowledge that could lead toZeus’s downfall: Prometheus had been told by his motherThemis, who in the play is identified with Gaia (Earth), ofa potential marriage that would produce a son who wouldoverthrow Zeus. Fragmentary evidence indicates that Her-acles, as in Hesiod, frees the Titan in the trilogy’s sec-ond play, Prometheus Unbound. It is apparently not untilPrometheus reveals this secret of Zeus’s potential downfallthat the two reconcile in the final play, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer or Prometheus Pyrphoros, a lost tragedy by Aeschy-lus.Prometheus Bound also includes two mythic innovationsof omission. The first is the absence of Pandora's storyin connection with Prometheus’ own. Instead, Aeschylus

2.2. MYTHS AND LEGENDS 25

includes this one oblique allusion to Pandora and her jarthat contained Hope (252): "[Prometheus] caused blindhopes to live in the hearts of men.” Second, Aeschylusmakes no mention of the sacrifice-trick played against Zeusin the Theogony.[22] The four tragedies of Prometheus at-tributed to Aeschylus, most of which are sadly lost tothe passages of time into antiquity, are Prometheus Bound(Desmotes), Prometheus Delivered (Lyomens), Prometheusthe Fire Bringer (Pyrphoros), and Prometheus the FireKindler (Pyrkaeus).The larger scope of Aeschylus as a dramatist revisiting themyth of Prometheus in the age of Athenian prominence hasbeen discussed by William Lynch.[24] Lynch’s general the-sis concerns the rise of humanist and secular tendencies inAthenian culture and society which required the growth andexpansion of the mythological and religious tradition as ac-quired from the most ancient sources of the myth stemmingfrom Hesiod. For Lynch, modern scholarship is hamperedby not having the full trilogy of Prometheus by Aeschy-lus, the last two parts of which have been lost to antiq-uity. Significantly, Lynch further comments that althoughthe Prometheus trilogy is not available, that the Orestia tril-ogy by Aeschylus remains available and may be assumed toprovide significant insight into the overall structural inten-tions which may be ascribed to the Prometheus trilogy byAeschylus as an author of significant consistency and ex-emplary dramatic erudition.[25]

Harold Bloom, in his research guide for Aeschylus, hassummarized some of the critical attention that has been ap-plied to Aeschylus concerning his general philosophical im-port in Athens.[26] As Bloom states, “Much critical attentionhas been paid to the question of theodicy in Aeschylus. Forgenerations, scholars warred incessantly over 'the justice ofZeus,' unintentionally blurring it with a monotheism im-ported from Judeo-Christian thought. The playwright un-doubtedly had religious concerns; for instance, Jacquelinede Romilly[27] suggests that his treatment of time flows di-rectly out of his belief in divine justice. But it would be anerror to think of Aeschylus as sermonizing. His Zeus doesnot arrive at decisions which he then enacts in the mortalworld; rather, human events are themselves an enactmentof divine will.”[28]

According to Thomas Rosenmeyer regarding the religiousimport of Aeschylus, “In Aeschylus, as in Homer, the twolevels of causation, the supernatural and the human, areco-existent and simultaneous, two way of describing thesame event.” Rosenmeyer insists that ascribing portrayedcharacters in Aeschylus should not conclude them to be ei-ther victims or agents of theological or religious activity tooquickly. As Rosenmeyer states: "[T]he text defines their be-ing. For a critic to construct an Aeschylean theology wouldbe as quixotic as designing a typology of Aeschylean man.The needs of the drama prevail.”[29]

In a rare comparison of Prometheus in Aeschylus withOedipus in Sophocles, Harold Bloom with more than sim-ple irony has quoted Freud as stating that, “Freud calledOedipus an 'immoral play,' since the gods ordained incestand paracide. Oedipus therefore participates in our uni-versal unconscious sense of guilt, but on this reading so dothe gods. I (states Bloom) sometimes wish that Freud hadturned to Aeschylus instead, and given us the Prometheuscomplex rather than the Oedipus complex.”[30]

Karl-Martin Dietz states that in contrast to Hesiod’s, inAeschylus’ oeuvre, Prometheus stands for the “Ascent ofhumanity from primitive beginnings to the present level ofcivilization.”[13]

Plato and philosophy

Olga Raggio in her study “The Myth of Prometheus” forthe Courtauld Institute attributes Plato in the Protago-ras as an important contributor to the early developmentof the Prometheus myth.[31] Raggio indicates that manyof the more challenging and dramatic assertions whichAeschylean tragedy explores are absent from Plato’s writ-ings about Prometheus.[32] As summarized by Raggio, “Af-ter the gods have moulded men and other living creatureswith a mixture of clay and fire, the two brothers Epimetheusand Prometheus are called to complete the task and dis-tribute among the newly born creatures all sorts of naturalqualities. Epimetheus sets to work, but, being unwise, dis-tributes all the gifts of nature among the animals, leavingmen naked and unprotected, unable to defend themselvesand to survive in a hostile world. Prometheus then stealsthe fire of creative power from the workshop of Athena andHephaistos and gives it to mankind.” Raggio then goes onto point out Plato’s distinction of creative power (techne)which is presented as superior to merely natural instincts(physis). For Plato, only the virtues of “reverence and jus-tice can provide for the maintenance of a civilized society-- and these virtues are the highest gift finally bestowed onmen in equal measure.”[33] The ancients by way of Platobelieved that the name Prometheus derived from the Greekpro (before) + manthano (intelligence) and the agent suf-fix -eus, thus meaning “Forethinker”. In his dialogue titledProtagoras, Plato contrasts Prometheus with his dull-wittedbrother Epimetheus, “Afterthinker”.[34] In Plato’s dialogueProtagoras, Protagoras asserts that the gods created humansand all the other animals, but it was left to Prometheus andhis brother Epimetheus to give defining attributes to each.As no physical traits were left when the pair came to hu-mans, Prometheus decided to give them fire and other civi-lizing arts.[35]

26 CHAPTER 2. PROMETHEUS

Athenian religious dedication and observance

It is understandable that since Prometheus was considered aTitan and not one of the Olympian gods that there would bean absence of evidence, with the exception of Athens, forthe direct religious devotion to his worship. Despite his im-portance to the myths and imaginative literature of ancientGreece, the religious cult of Prometheus during the Archaicand Classical periods seems to have been limited.[36] Writ-ing in the 2nd century AD, the satirist Lucian points out thatwhile temples to the major Olympians were everywhere,none to Prometheus is to be seen.[37]

Heracles freeing Prometheus, relief from the Temple of Aphroditeat Aphrodisias

Athens was the exception. The altar of Prometheus in thegrove of the Academy was the point of origin for severalsignificant processions and other events regularly observedon the Athenian calendar. For the Panathenaic festival, ar-guably the most important civic festival at Athens, a torchrace began at the altar, which was located outside the sacredboundary of the city, and passed through the Kerameikos,the district inhabited by potters and other artisans who re-garded Prometheus and Hephaestus as patrons.[38] The racethen traveled to the heart of the city, where it kindled thesacrificial fire on the altar of Athena on the Acropolis toconclude the festival.[39] These footraces took the form ofrelays in which teams of runners passed off a flaming torch.

According to Pausanias (2nd century AD), the torch re-lay, called lampadedromia or lampadephoria, was first in-stituted at Athens in honor of Prometheus.[40] By the Clas-sical period, the races were run by ephebes also in honor ofHephaestus and Athena.[41] Prometheus’ association withfire is the key to his religious significance[36] and to thealignment with Athena and Hephaestus that was specific toAthens and its “unique degree of cultic emphasis” on hon-oring technology.[42] The festival of Prometheus was thePrometheia. The wreaths worn symbolized the chains ofPrometheus.[43]

Pausanias recorded a few other religious sites in Greece de-voted to Prometheus. Both Argos and Opous claimed to bePrometheus’ final resting place, each erecting a tomb in hishonor. The Greek city of Panopeus had a cult statue thatwas supposed to honor Prometheus for having created thehuman race there.[35]

The Aesthetic tradition in Athenian art

Prometheus’ torment by the eagle and his rescue by Hera-cles were popular subjects in vase paintings of the 6th to4th centuries BC. He also sometimes appears in depictionsof Athena’s birth from Zeus’ forehead. There was a re-lief sculpture of Prometheus with Pandora on the base ofAthena’s cult statue in the Athenian Parthenon of the 5thcentury BC. A similar rendering is also found at the greataltar of Zeus at Pergamon from the second century BC.The event of the release of Prometheus from captivity wasfrequently revisited on Attic and Etruscan vases betweenthe sixth and fifth centuries BC. In the depiction on displayat the Museum of Karlsruhe and in Berlin, the depictionis that of Prometheus confronted by a menacing large bird(assumed to be the eagle) with Hercules approaching frombehind shooting his arrows at it.[44] In the fourth centurythis imagery was modified to depicting Prometheus boundin a cruciform manner, possibly reflecting an Aeschylus in-spired manner of influence, again with an eagle and withHercules approaching from the side.[45]

2.3. LATE ROMAN ANTIQUITY 27

2.2.3 Other authors

Creation of humanity by Prometheus as Athena looks on(Roman-era relief, 3rd century AD)

Prometheus watches Athena endow his creation withreason (painting by Christian Griepenkerl, 1877)

Some two dozen other Greek and Roman authors retoldand further embellished the Prometheus myth from as earlyas the 5th century BC (Diodorus, Herodorus) into the 4thcentury AD. The most significant detail added to the mythfound in, e.g., Sappho, Aesop and Ovid[46] — was the cen-tral role of Prometheus in the creation of the human race.According to these sources, Prometheus fashioned humansout of clay.Although perhaps made explicit in the Prometheia, laterauthors such as Hyginus, the Bibliotheca, and Quintus ofSmyrna would confirm that Prometheus warned Zeus notto marry the sea nymph Thetis. She is consequently mar-ried off to the mortal Peleus, and bears him a son greaterthan the father — Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War.Pseudo-Apollodorus moreover clarifies a cryptic statement(1026–29) made by Hermes in Prometheus Bound, iden-tifying the centaur Chiron as the one who would take onPrometheus’ suffering and die in his place.[35] Reflecting amyth attested in Greek vase paintings from the Classical pe-riod, Pseudo-Apollodorus places the Titan (armed with anaxe) at the birth of Athena, thus explaining how the goddesssprang forth from the forehead of Zeus.[35]

Other minor details attached to the myth include: the du-ration of Prometheus’ torment;[47][48] the origin of the ea-gle that ate the Titan’s liver (found in Pseudo-Apollodorusand Hyginus); Pandora’s marriage to Epimetheus (foundin Pseudo-Apollodorus); myths surrounding the life ofPrometheus’ son, Deucalion (found in Ovid and Apollonius

of Rhodes); and Prometheus’ marginal role in the myth ofJason and the Argonauts (found in Apollonius of Rhodesand Valerius Flaccus).[35]

2.3 Late Roman antiquity

The three most prominent aspects of the Prometheus mythhave parallels within the beliefs of many cultures through-out the world; see creation of man from clay, theft of fire,and references for eternal punishment. It is the first of thesethree which has drawn attention to parallels with the bibli-cal creation account related in the religious symbolism ex-pressed in the book of Genesis.As stated by Olga Raggio,[49] “The Prometheus myth of cre-ation as a visual symbol of the Neoplatonic concept of hu-man nature, illustrated in (many) sarcophagi, was evidentlya contradiction of the Christian teaching of the unique andsimultaneous act of creation by the Trinity.” This Neo-platonism of late Roman antiquity was especially stressedby Tertullian[50] who recognized both difference and sim-ilarity of the biblical deity with the mythological figure ofPrometheus.The imagery of Prometheus and the creation of man usedfor the purposes of the representation of the creation ofAdam in biblical symbolism is also a recurrent theme inthe artistic expression of late Roman antiquity. Of the rel-atively rare expressions found of the creation of Adam inthose centuries of late Roman antiquity, one can single outthe so-called “Dogma sarcophagus” of the Lateran Museumwhere three figures are seen (in representation of the theo-logical trinity) in making a benediction to the new man. An-other example is found where the prototype of Prometheusis also recognizable in the early Christian era of late Ro-man antiquity. This can be found upon a sarcophagus ofthe Church at Mas d'Aire[51] as well, and in an even moredirect comparison to what Raggio refers to as “a courselycarved relief from Campli (Teramo)[52] (where) the Lordsits on a throne and models the body of Adam, exactly likePrometheus.” Still another such similarity is found in the ex-ample found on a Hellenistic relief presently in the Louvrein which the Lord gives life to Eve through the imposition ofhis two fingers on her eyes recalling the same gesture foundin earlier representations of Prometheus.[53]

In Georgian mythology, Amirani is a culture hero who chal-lenged the chief god, and like Prometheus was chainedon the Caucasian mountains where birds would eat his or-gans. This aspect of the myth had a significant influenceon the Greek imagination. It is recognizable from a Greekgem roughly dated to the time of the Hesiod poems, whichshow Prometheus with hands bound behind his body andcrouching before a bird with long wings.[54] This same im-

28 CHAPTER 2. PROMETHEUS

age would also be used later in the Rome of the Augustanage as documented by Furtwangler.[55]

In the often cited and highly publicized interview betweenJoseph Campbell and Bill Moyers on Public Television, theauthor of The Hero with a Thousand Faces presented hisview on the comparison of Prometheus and Jesus.[56] Moy-ers asked Campbell the question in the following words,“In this sense, unlike heroes such as Prometheus or Jesus,we're not going on our journey to save the world but to saveourselves.” To which Campbell’s well-known response wasthat, “But in doing that, you save the world. The influenceof a vital person vitalizes, there’s no doubt about it. Theworld without spirit is a wasteland. People have the no-tion of saving the world by shifting things around, changingthe rules [...] No, no! Any world is a valid world if it’salive. The thing to do is to bring life to it, and the onlyway to do that is to find in your own case where the life isand become alive yourself.” For Campbell, Jesus mortallysuffered on the Cross while Prometheus eternally sufferedwhile chained to a rock, and each of them received punish-ment for the gift which they bestowed to humankind, forJesus this was the gift of propitiation from Heaven, and, forPrometheus this was the gift of fire from Olympus.[56]

Significantly, Campbell is also clear to indicate the limitsof applying the metaphors of his methodology in his bookThe Hero with a Thousand Faces too closely in assessing thecomparison of Prometheus and Jesus. Of the four symbolsof suffering associated with Jesus after his trial in Jerusalem(i) the crown of thorns, (ii) the scourge of whips, (iii) thenailing to the Cross, and (iv) the spearing of his side, it isonly this last one which bears some resemblance to the eter-nal suffering of Prometheus’ daily torment of an eagle de-vouring a replenishing organ, his liver, from his side.[57] ForCampbell, the striking contrast between the New Testamentnarratives and the Greek mythological narratives remains atthe limiting level of the cataclysmic eternal struggle of theeschatological New Testament narratives occurring only atthe very end of the biblical narratives in the Apocalypse ofJohn (12:7) where, “Michael and his angels fought againstthe dragon. The dragon and his angels fought back, but theywere defeated, and there was no longer any place for themin heaven.” This eschatological and apocalyptic setting of aLast Judgement is in precise contrast to the Titanomachiaof Hesiod which serves its distinct service to Greek mythol-ogy as its Prolegomenon, bracketing all subsequent mythol-ogy, including the creation of humanity, as coming after thecosmological struggle between the Titans and the Olympiangods.[56]

It remains a continuing debate among scholars of compar-ative religion and the literary reception[58] of mythologicaland religious subject matter as to whether the typology ofsuffering and torment represented in the Prometheus mythfinds its more representative comparisons with the narra-

tives of the Hebrew scriptures or with the New Testamentnarratives. In the Book of Job, significant comparisons canbe drawn between the sustained suffering of Job in compar-ison to that of eternal suffering and torment represented inthe Prometheus myth. With Job, the suffering is at the ac-quiescence of heaven and at the will of the demonic, whilein Prometheus the suffering is directly linked to Zeus as theruler of Olympus. The comparison of the suffering of Jesusafter his sentencing in Jerusalem is limited to the three days,from Thursday to Saturday, and leading to the culminatingnarratives corresponding to Easter Sunday. The symbolicimport for comparative religion would maintain that suf-fering related to justified conduct is redeemed in both theHebrew scriptures and the New Testament narratives, whilein Prometheus there remains the image of a non-forgivingdeity, Zeus, who nonetheless requires reverence.[56]

Writing in late antiquity of the fourth and fifth century, theLatin commentator Marcus Servius Honoratus explainedthat Prometheus was so named because he was a manof great foresight (vir prudentissimus), possessing the ab-stract quality of providentia, the Latin equivalent of Greekpromētheia (ἀπὸ τής πρόμηθείας).[59] Anecdotally, theRoman fabulist Phaedrus (c.15BC - c.50AD) attributes toAesop a simple etiology for homosexuality, in Prometheus’getting drunk while creating the first humans and misapply-ing the genitalia.[60]

2.4 The Middle Ages

Perhaps the most influential book of the Middle Ages uponthe reception of the Prometheus myth was the mythologicalhandbook of Fulgentius Placiades. As stated by Raggio,[61]

“The text of Fulgentius, as well as that of (Marcus) Servius[...] are the main sources of the mythological handbookswritten in the ninth century by the anonymous Mythogra-phus Primus and Mythographus Secundus. Both were usedfor the more lengthy and elaborate compendium by the En-glish scholar Alexander Neckman (1157-1217), the Scin-tillarium Poetarum, or Poetarius.”[61] The purpose of hisbooks was to distinguish allegorical interpretation from thehistorical interpretation of the Prometheus myth. Continu-ing in this same tradition of the allegorical interpretationof the Prometheus myth, along with the historical inter-pretation of the Middle Ages, is the Genealogiae of Gio-vanni Boccaccio. Boccaccio follows these two levels ofinterpretation and distinguishes between two separate ver-sions of the Prometheus myth. For Boccaccio, Prometheusis placed “In the heavens where all is clarity and truth,[Prometheus] steals, so to speak, a ray of the divine wisdomfrom God himself, source of all Science, supreme Light ofevery man.”[62] With this, Boccaccio shows himself movingfrom the medieval sources with a shift of accent towards the

2.6. THE POST-RENAISSANCE 29

attitude of the Renaissance humanists.Using a similar interpretation to that of Boccaccio, Mar-silio Ficino in the fifteenth century updated the philosoph-ical and more somber reception of the Prometheus mythnot seen since the time of Plotinus. In his book written in1476-77 titled Quaestiones Quinque de Mente, Ficino indi-cates his preference for reading the Prometheus myth as animage of the human soul seeking to obtain supreme truth.As Olga Raggio summarizes Ficino’s text, “The torture ofPrometheus is the torment brought by reason itself to man,who is made by it many times more unhappy than the brutes.It is after having stolen one beam of the celestial light [...]that the soul feels as if fastened by chains and [...] onlydeath can release her bonds and carry her to the source of allknowledge.”[62] This somberness of attitude in Ficino’s textwould be further developed later by Charles de Bouelles’Liber de Sapiente of 1509 which presented a mix of bothscholastic and Neoplatonic ideas.

2.5 The Renaissance

Mythological narrative of Prometheus by Piero di Cosimo (1515)

After the writings of both Boccaccio and Ficino in the lateMiddle Ages about Prometheus, interest in the Titan shiftedconsiderably in the direction of becoming subject matter forpainters and sculptors alike. Among the most famous exam-ples is that of Piero di Cosimo from about 1510 presently ondisplay at the museums of Munich and Strasburg (see Inset).Raggio summarizes the Munich version[63] as follows; “TheMunich panel represents the dispute between Epimetheusand Prometheus, the handsome triumphant statue of thenew man, modeled by Prometheus, his ascension to the skyunder the guidance of Minerva; the Strasburg panel showsin the distance Prometheus lighting his torch at the wheelsof the Sun, and in the foreground on one side, Prometheusapplying his torch to the heart of the statue and , on theother, Mercury fastening him to a tree.” All the details areevidently borrowed from Boccaccio's Genealogiae.The same reference to the Genealogiae can be cited as the

source for the drawing by Parmigianino presently locatedin the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City.[64] Inthis drawing, a very noble rendering of Prometheus is pre-sented which evokes the memory of Michelangelo’s worksportraying Jehovah. This drawing in the Morgan Libraryis perhaps one of the most intense examples of the visu-alization of the myth of Prometheus from the Renaissanceperiod.Writing in the late British Renaissance, William Shake-speare uses the Promethean allusion in the famous deathscene of Desdemona in his tragedy of Othello. Othello incontemplating the death of Desdemona asserts plainly thathe cannot restore the “Promethean heat” to her body onceit has been extinguished. For Shakespeare, the allusion isclearly to the interpretation of the fire from the heat asthe bestowing of life to the creation of man from clay byPrometheus after it was stolen from Olympus. The analogybears direct resemblance to the biblical narrative of the cre-ation of life in Adam through the bestowed breathing of thecreator in Genesis. Shakespeare’s symbolic reference to the“heat” associated with Prometheus’s fire is to the associationof the gift of fire to the mythological gift or theological giftof life to humans.

2.6 The Post-Renaissance

Chained Prometheus by Jacques de l'Ange, c. 1640-1650

See also: Prometheus in popular culture

The myth of Prometheus has been a favorite theme ofWestern art and literature in the post-renaissance and post-Enlightenment tradition, and occasionally in works pro-duced outside the West.

30 CHAPTER 2. PROMETHEUS

2.6.1 Post-Renaissance literary arts

For the Romantic era, Prometheus was the rebel whoresisted all forms of institutional tyranny epitomized byZeus — church, monarch, and patriarch. The Roman-tics drew comparisons between Prometheus and the spiritof the French Revolution, Christ, the Satan of John Mil-ton's Paradise Lost, and the divinely inspired poet or artist.Prometheus is the lyrical “I” who speaks in Goethe's Sturmund Drang poem “Prometheus” (written c. 1772–74, pub-lished 1789), addressing God (as Zeus) in misotheist ac-cusation and defiance. In Prometheus Unbound (1820), afour-act lyrical drama, Percy Bysshe Shelley rewrites thelost play of Aeschylus so that Prometheus does not submitto Zeus (under the Latin name Jupiter), but instead sup-plants him in a triumph of the human heart and intellectover tyrannical religion. Lord Byron's poem “Prometheus”also portrays the Titan as unrepentant. As documented byOlga Raggio, other leading figures among the great Roman-tics included Byron, Longfellow and Nietzsche as well.[65]

Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein is subtitled “TheModern Prometheus”, in reference to the novel’s themes ofthe over-reaching of modern humanity into dangerous areasof knowledge.

Goethe’s poems

"Prometheus" is a poem by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,in which a character based on the mythic Prometheus ad-dresses God (as Zeus) in a romantic and misotheist tone ofaccusation and defiance. The poem was written between1772 and 1774. It was first published fifteen years later in1789. It is an important work as it represents one of thefirst encounters of the Prometheus myth with the literaryRomantic movement identified with Goethe and with theSturm und Drang movement.The poem has appeared in Volume II of Goethe’s poems(in his Collected Works) in a section of Vermischte Ge-dichte (assorted poems), shortly following the Harzreise imWinter. It is immediately followed by “Ganymed”, and thetwo poems are written as informing each other accordingto Goethe’s plan in their actual writing. Prometheus (1774)was originally planned as a drama but never completed byGoethe, though the poem is inspired by it. Prometheus isthe creative and rebellious spirit rejected by God, and whoangrily defies him and asserts himself; Ganymede, by di-rect contrast, is the boyish self who is both adored and se-duced by God. As a high Romantic poet and a humanistpoet, Goethe presents both identities as contrasting aspectsof the Romantic human condition.The poem offers direct biblical connotations for thePrometheus myth which was unseen in any of the ancientGreek poets dealing with the Prometheus myth in either

drama, tragedy, or philosophy. The intentional use of theGerman phrase "Da ich ein Kind war..." (“When I was achild”): the use of Da is distinctive, and with it Goethe di-rectly applies the Lutheran translation of Saint Paul's FirstEpistle to the Corinthians, 13:11: "Da ich ein Kind war, daredete ich wie ein Kind..." (“When I was a child, I spake as achild, I understood as a child, I thought as a child: but whenI became a man, I put away childish things”). Goethe’sPrometheus is significant for the contrast it evokes with thebiblical text of the Corinthians rather than for its similari-ties.In his book titled Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Hu-man Existence, C. Kerenyi states the key contrast betweenGoethe’s version of Prometheus with the ancient Greekversion.[66] As Kerenyi states, “Goethe’s Prometheus hadZeus for father and a goddess for mother. With this changefrom the traditional lineage the poet distinguished his herofrom the race of the Titans.” For Goethe, the metaphoricalcomparison of Prometheus to the image of the Son from theNew Testament narratives was of central importance, withthe figure of Zeus in Goethe’s reading being metaphoricallymatched directly to the image of the Father from the NewTestament narratives.

Percy Bysshe Shelley

Percy Shelley published his four-act lyrical drama titledPrometheus Unbound in 1820. His version was written inresponse to the version of myth as presented by Aeschylus(described in the Section above) and is oriented to the highBritish Idealism and high British Romanticism prevailing inShelley’s own time. Shelley, as the author himself discusses,admits the debt of his version of the myth to Aeschylus andthe Greek poetic tradition which he assumes is familiar toreaders of his own lyrical drama. For example, it is nec-essary to understand and have knowledge of the reason forPrometheus’s punishment if the reader is to form an under-standing of whether the exoneration portrayed by Shelleyin his version of the Prometheus myth is justified or un-justified. The quote of Shelley’s own words describing theextent of his indebtedness to Aeschylus has been publishedin numerous sources publicly available.The literary critic Harold Bloom in his book Shelley’s Myth-making expresses his high expectation of Shelley in the tra-dition of mythopoeic poetry. For Bloom, Percy Shelley’srelationship to the tradition of mythology in poetry “culmi-nates in 'Prometheus’; the poem provides a complete state-ment of Shelley’s vision.”[67] Bloom devotes two full chap-ters in this book to Shelley’s lyrical drama Prometheus Un-bound which was among the first books Bloom had everwritten, originally published in 1959.[68] Following his 1959book, Bloom edited an anthology of critical opinions on

2.6. THE POST-RENAISSANCE 31

Shelley for Chelsea House Publishers where he conciselystated his opinion as, “Shelley is the unacknowledged ances-tor of Wallace Stevens’ conception of poetry as the SupremeFiction, and Prometheus Unbound is the most capable imag-ining, outside of Blake and Wordsworth, that the Romanticquest for a Supreme Fiction has achieved.”[69]

Within the pages of his Introduction to the Chelsea Houseedition on Percy Shelley, Harold Bloom also identifies thesix major schools of criticism opposing Shelley’s idealizedmythologizing version of the Prometheus myth. In se-quence, the opposing schools to Shelley are given as: (i)The school of “common sense”, (ii) The Christian ortho-dox, (iii) The school of “wit”, (iv) Moralists, of most vari-eties, (v) The school of “classic” form, and (vi) The Pre-cisionists, or concretists.[70] Although Bloom is least in-terested in the first two schools, the second one on theChristian orthodox has special bearing on the reception ofthe Prometheus myth during late Roman antiquity and thesynthesis of the New Testament canon. The Greek ori-gins of the Prometheus myth have already discussed theTitanomachia as placing the cosmic struggle of Olympusat some point in time preceding the creation of humanity,while in the New Testament synthesis there was a strong as-similation of the prophetic tradition of the Hebrew prophetsand their strongly eschatological orientation. This contrastplaced a strong emphasis within the ancient Greek con-sciousness as to the moral and ontological acceptance of themythology of the Titanomachia as an accomplished mytho-logical history, whereas for the synthesis of the New Tes-tament narratives this placed religious consciousness withinthe community at the level of an anticipated eschaton not yetaccomplished. Neither of these would guide Percy Shelleyin his poetic retelling and reintegration of the Prometheusmyth.[71]

To the Socratic Greeks, one important aspect of the discus-sion of religion would correspond to the philosophical dis-cussion of 'becoming' with respect to the New Testamentsyncretism rather than the ontological discussion of 'being'which was more prominent in the ancient Greek experienceof mythologically oriented cult and religion.[72] For PercyShelley, both of these reading were to be substantially dis-counted in preference to his own concerns for promotinghis own version of an idealized consciousness of a societyguided by the precepts of High British Romanticism andHigh British Idealism.[73]

Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus

The author of Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus, MaryShelley, wrote the famous version of her short novel in the19th century. It was published in 1818; two years beforePercy Shelley’s above mentioned play. It has endured as

one of the most frequently revisited literary themes in twen-tieth century film and popular reception with few rivals forits sheer popularity among even established literary worksof art. The primary theme is a parallel to the aspect ofthe Prometheus myth which concentrates on the creationof man by the Titans, transferred and made contemporaryby Shelley for British audiences of her time. The subjectis that of the creation of life by a scientist, thus bestowinglife through the application and technology of medical sci-ence rather than by the natural acts of reproduction. Theshort novel has been adapted into many films and produc-tions ranging from the early versions with Boris Karloff tolater versions featuring Kenneth Branagh, among others.

The twentieth century

Prometheus (1909) by Otto Greiner

Franz Kafka (d. 1924) wrote a short piece on Prometheus,outlining what he saw as his perspective on four aspects ofhis myth:

According to the first, he was clamped to arock in the Caucasus for betraying the secrets ofthe gods to men, and the gods sent eagles to feed

32 CHAPTER 2. PROMETHEUS

on his liver, which was perpetually renewed.According to the second, Prometheus, goaded bythe pain of the tearing beaks, pressed himselfdeeper and deeper into the rock until he becameone with it.According to the third, his treachery was forgottenin the course of thousands of years, forgotten bythe gods, the eagles, forgotten by himself.According to the fourth, everyone grew weary ofthe meaningless affair. The gods grew weary, theeagles grew weary, the wound closed wearily.There remains the inexplicable mass of rock. Thelegend tried to explain the inexplicable. As it cameout of a substratum of truth it had in turn to endin the inexplicable.[74]

This short piece by Kafka concerning his interest inPrometheus was supplemented by two other mythologicalpieces written by him. As stated by Reiner Stach, “Kafka’sworld was mythical in nature, with Old Testament and Jew-ish legends providing the templates, and it was only log-ical (even if Kafka did not state it openly) that he wouldtry his hand at the canon of antiquity, reinterpreting it andincorporating it into his own imagination in the form ofallusions, as in 'The Silence of the Sirens,' 'Prometheus,'and 'Poseidon.'"[75] Among contemporary poets, the Britishpoet Ted Hughes wrote the a 1973 collection of poems titledPrometheus On His Crag. The Nepali poet Laxmi PrasadDevkota (d. 1949) also wrote an epic titled Prometheus(प्रमीथस).In his 1952 book, Lucifer and Prometheus, Zvi Werblowskypresented the speculatively derived Jungian construction ofthe character of Satan in Milton’s celebrated poem ParadiseLost. Werblowsky applied his own Jungian style of interpre-tation to appropriate parts of the Prometheus myth for thepurpose of interpreting Milton. A reprint of his book in the1990s by Routledge Press included an introduction to thebook by Carl Jung. Some Gnostics have been associatedwith identifying the theft of fire from heaven as embodiedby the fall of Lucifer “the Light Bearer”.[76]

2.6.2 Post-Renaissance aesthetic tradition

Classical music, opera, and ballet

Works of classical music, opera, and ballet directly or indi-rectly inspired by the myth of Prometheus have includedrenderings by some of the major composers of both thenineteenth and twentieth centuries. In this tradition, the or-chestral representation of the myth has received the mostsustained attention of composers. These have included thesymphonic poem by Franz Liszt titled Prometheus from1850, among his other Symphonic Poems (No. 5, S.99).[77]

Alexander Scriabin composed Prometheus: Poem of Fire,Opus 60 (1910),[78] also for orchestra.[79] In the same yearGabriel Fauré composed his three-act opera Prométhée(1910).[80] Charles-Valentin Alkan composed his Grandesonate 'Les quatre âges’ (1847), with the 4th movemententitled “Prométhée enchaîné" (Prometheus Bound).[81]

Beethoven composed the score to a ballet version of themyth titled The Creatures of Prometheus (1801).[82]

An adaptation of Goethe’s poetic version of the myth wascomposed by Hugo Wolf, Prometheus (Bedecke deinenHimmel, Zeus, 1889), as part of his Goethe-lieder for voiceand piano,[83] later transcribed for orchestra and voice.[84]

An opera of the myth was composed by Carl Orff titledPrometheus (1968),[85][86] using Aeschylus’ Greek languagePrometheia.[87]

In film

The 2012 science fiction fantasy film titled Prometheus byRidley Scott has a resemblance to the myth largely through acoincidence of name.[88] Of the three principal mythologi-cal themes associated with the myth of the titan Prometheus,that is, the eternal punishment, the theft of fire, and the cre-ation of man, it is with this latter theme that the film seemsto be at least partially concerned. In the science fiction film,one of the wealthy lead characters in the future spends vastsums of money in order to locate the extraterrestrials whohe believes were responsible for the creation of man. Hishope is that if he finds his 'creators,' they will be able some-how to extend his life. In this belief he is straightforwardlydisappointed.Benji Taylor writing in an extensive three-part essay on thescience fiction film titled Prometheus, published between 22June 2012 and 17 July 2012, identified the eight key themesin understanding the film as including: “Aliens Seeded LifeOn Earth,” “Insignificance and Futility,” “Interwoven No-tions of Creation and Destruction,” “Parental Issues,” “TheNature of the Soul,” “Existential Loss,” and “Science andReligion.”[89][90][91] Of these themes covered in the film,Taylor identifies that only the theme of “Parental Issues”appears to have a general reference point to the myth ofPrometheus stating that in the “mythology between the Ti-tan Prometheus and the chief Olympian Zeus but on a moreglobal level it’s an echo of the tribulation embodied in theTitanomachy -- the archetypal war between parent and childwhich was the great 'War of the Titans and Olympians’ thatshook the Greek mythological world to its core.”[92]

2.7 Notes

[1] Smith, “Prometheus”.

2.7. NOTES 33

[2] Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Languageand Culture: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing, p.27.; Williamson 2004, 214–15; Dougherty, Carol (2006).Prometheus. p. 4.

[3] Reinhardt, Karl. Aischylos als Regisseur und Theologe, p.30.

[4] Philippson, Pauls. Untersuchungen uber griechischenMythos: Genealogie als mythische Form.

[5] Hesiod, Theogony 590-93.

[6] M.L. West commentaries on Hesiod, W.J. Verdenius com-mentaries on Hesiod, and R. Lamberton’s Hesiod, pp.95–100.

[7] “The Aetos Kaukasios (or Caucasian Eagle) in thePrometheus Myth”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.

[8] “Hesiod, ''Theogony''". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.

[9] Hesiod, WORKS AND DAYS Translation By H. G. Evelyn-White

[10] Casanova, La famiglia di Pandora: analisi filologica dei mitidi Pandora e Prometeo nella tradizione esiodea (Florence)1979.

[11] Hesiod, Theogony, 526-33.

[12] In this Casanova is joined by some editors of Theogony.

[13] Karl-Martin Dietz: Metamorphosen des Geistes. Band 1.Prometheus – vom Göttlichen zum menschlichen Wissen.Stuttgart 1989, p. 66.

[14] Homer. The Iliad. Trans. E.V. Rieu. Penguin Classics.Harmondsworth and Baltimore, 1960.

[15] Homeri opera. Edited by Thomas W. Allen. 2nd edn., Ox-ford, 1908-12, 5 vols. (V.)

[16] Kerenyi, C. Prometheus: Archetypal image of Human Exis-tence, p. 27.

[17] Kerenyi, p.28.

[18] Pindar, Nemean Ode VI (cf. tr. Lattimore, p. 111.)

[19] Hesiod. The Evelyn-White translation, pp. 10-11.

[20] De die natali IV 3. Eng. trans. “On Birthdays.”

[21] Kernyi, C. (1963). Prometheus: Archetypal Image of HumanExistence. Pantheon Books for Random House, Inc.

[22] “Aeschylus, ''Prometheus Bound''". Theoi.com. Retrieved2012-05-18.

[23] Some of these changes are rather minor. For instance, ratherthan being the son of Iapetus and Clymene Prometheus be-comes the son of Themis who is identified with Gaia. Inaddition, the chorus makes a passing reference (561) toPrometheus’ wife Hesione, whereas a fragment from Hes-iod’s Catalogue of Women fr. 4 calls her by the name ofPryneie, a possible corruption for Pronoia.

[24] William Lynch, S.J. Christ and Prometheus. University ofNotre Dame Press.

[25] Lynch, p. 4-5.

[26] Bloom, Harold (2202). Bloom’s Major Dramatists: Aeschy-lus. Chelsea House Publishers, 2002.

[27] de Romilly, Jacqueline (1968). Time in Greek Tragedy.(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), pp. 72-73, 77-81.

[28] “Bloom’s Major Dramatists,” p.14-15.

[29] Rosenmeyer, Thomas (1982). The Art of Aeschylus.Berkekley: University of California Press, 1982, pp. 270-71, 281-83.

[30] Harold Bloom. Bloom’s Guides: Oedipus Rex, Chelsea Press,New York, 2007, p. 8.

[31] Raggio, Olga (1958). London: Warburg and Courtauld In-stitutes.

[32] Plato (1958). Protagoras, p. 320ff.

[33] Raggio, p. 45.

[34] Plato, Protagoras; Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 159.

[35] “Theoi Project: “Prometheus:". Theoi.com. Retrieved2012-05-18.

[36] Dougherty, Prometheus, p. 46.

[37] Lucian, Prometheus 14.

[38] On the association of the cults of Prometheus and Hephaes-tus, see also Scholiast to Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 56,as cited by Robert Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens(Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 472.

[39] Pausanias 1.30.2; Scholiast to Plato, Phaedrus 231e;Dougherty, Prometheus, p. 46; Peter Wilson, The Athe-nian Institution of the Khoregia: The Chorus, the City andthe Stage (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 35.

[40] Pausanias 1.30.2.

[41] Possibly also Pan; Wilson, The Athenian Institution of theKhoregia, p. 35.

[42] Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, vol. 1, p. 277; Parker,Polytheism and Society at Athens, p. 409.

[43] Aeschylus, Suppliants frg. 202, as cited by Parker, Polythe-ism and Society at Athens, p. 142.

[44] O. Jahn, Archeologische Beitrage, Berlin, 1847, pl. VIII(Amphora from Chiusi).

[45] Milchhofer, Die Befreiung des Prometheus in BerlinerWinckelmanns-Programme, 1882, p. 1ff.

[46] Cf. Ovid, Metamorphoses, I, 78ff.

34 CHAPTER 2. PROMETHEUS

[47] “30 Years”. Mlahanas.de. 1997-11-10. Retrieved 2012-05-18.

[48] “30,000 Years”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.

[49] Raggio, p48.

[50] Tertullian. Apologeticum XVIII,3.

[51] Wilpert, J. (1932), I Sarcofagi Christiani, II, p. 226.

[52] Wilpert, I, pl CVI, 2.

[53] Raggio, p. 48.

[54] Furtwangler, Die Antiken Gemmen, 1910, I, pl. V, no. 37.

[55] Furtwangler, op. cit., pl. XXXVII, nos. 40, 41, 45, 46.

[56] Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces.

[57] Lynch, William. Christ and Prometheus.

[58] Dostoevski, Fyodor. The Brothers Karamazov, chapter on“The Grand Inquisitor.”

[59] Servius, note to Vergil's Eclogue 6.42: Prometheus vir pru-dentissimus fuit, unde etiam Prometheus dictus est ἀπὸ τήςπρόμηθείας, id est a providentia.

[60] “Dionysos”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.

[61] Raggio, p.53.

[62] Raggio, p.54.

[63] Munich, Alte Pinakothek, Katalog, 1930, no. 8973. Stras-burg, Musee des Beaux Arts, Catalog, 1932, no. 225.

[64] Parmigianino: The Drawings, Sylvie Beguin et al. ISBN 88-422-1020-X.

[65] Raggio, Olga (1958). The Myth of Prometheus, London:Warburg Institute.

[66] Kerenyi, C. (1963).Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Hu-man Existence, Bollingen Foundation, Random House, Inc.,p. 11.

[67] Bloom, Harold (1959). Shelley’s Mythmaking, Yale Univer-sity Press, New Haven, Connecticut, p. 9.

[68] Bloom (1959), Chapter 3.

[69] Bloom, Harold (1985). Percy Bysshe Shelley. Modern Crit-ical Editions, p.8. Chelsea House Publishers, New York.

[70] Bloom, Harold (1985). Percy Bysshe Shelley. Modern Crit-ical Editions, p. 27. Chelsea House Publishers, New York.

[71] Bloom, Harold (1959). Shelley’s Mythmaking, Yale Univer-sity Press, New Haven, Connecticut, p. 29.

[72] Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time.

[73] Bloom, Harold (1985). Percy Bysshe Shelley. Modern Crit-ical Editions, p. 28. Chelsea House Publishers, New York.

[74] Translated by Willa and Edwin Muir. See Glatzer, NahumN., ed. “Franz Kafka: The Complete Stories” SchockenBook, Inc.: New York, 1971.

[75] Stach, Reiner (3013). Kafka: The years of Insight, PrincetonUniversity Press, English translation.

[76] R.J. Zwi Werblowsky, Lucifer and Prometheus, as summa-rized by Gedaliahu G. Stroumsa, “Myth into Metaphor: TheCase of Prometheus,” in Gilgul: Essays on Transformation,Revolution and Permanence in the History of Religions, Ded-icated to R.J. Zwi Werblowsky (Brill, 1987), p. 311; StevenM. Wasserstrom, Religion after Religion: Gershom Scholem,Mircea Eliade, and Henry Corbin at Eranos (Princeton Uni-versity Press, 1999), p. 210

[77] Liszt: Les Preludes / Tasso / Prometheus / Mephisto WaltzNo. 1 by Franz Liszt, Georg Solti, London PhilharmonicOrchestra and Orchestre de Paris (1990).

[78] Scriabin: Symphony No. 3 The Divine Poem, PrometheusOp. 60 The Poem of Fire by Scriabin, Richter and Svetlanov(1995).

[79] Scriabin: Complete Symphonies/Piano Con-certo/Prometheus/Le Poeme de l'extase by A. Scriabin(2003), Box Set.

[80] Prométhée; Tragédie Lyrique En 3 Actes De Jean Lorrain &F.a. Hérold (French Edition) by Fauré, Gabriel, 1845-1924,Paul Alexandre Martin, 1856-1906. Prométhée, . Duvaland A.-Ferdinand (André-Ferdinand), b. 1865. Prométhée,Herold (Sep 24, 2012).

[81] Grand Sonata, Op. 33, “Les quatre ages” (The four ages):IV. 50 ans Promethee enchaine (Prometheus enchained):Extrement lent, Stefan Lindgren.

[82] Beethoven: Creatures of Prometheus by L. von Beethoven,Sir Charles Mackerras and Scottish Chamber Orchestra(2005).

[83] Goethe lieder. Stanislaw Richter. Audio CD (July 25,2000), Orfeo, ASIN: B00004W1H1.

[84] Orff, Carl. Prometheus. Voice and Orchestra. AudioCD (February 14, 2006), Harmonia Mundi Fr., ASIN:B000BTE4LQ.

[85] Orff, Carl (2005). Prometheus, Audio CD (May 31, 2005),Arts Music, ASIN: B0007WQB6I.

[86] Orff, Carl (1999). Prometheus, Audio CD (November 29,1999), Orfeo, ASIN: B00003CX0N.

[87] Prometheus libretto in modern Greek and German transla-tion, 172 pages, Schott; Bilingual edition (June 1, 1976),ISBN 3795736412.

[88] Prometheus (4 Disc 3D/Blu-ray/DVD/Ultraviolet Collec-tor’s Limited Edition) (2012).

[89] Taylor, Benji (2012). WC magazine, 17 July 2012.

2.9. FURTHER READING 35

[90] Taylor, Benji (2012). WC magazine, 22 June 2012.

[91] Taylor, Benji (2012). WC magazine, 5 July 2012.

[92] Taylor, 17 July 2012, p. 4.

2.8 References

• Alexander, Hartley Burr. The Mythology of All Races.Vol 10: North American. Boston, 1916.

• Beall, E.F., Hesiod’s Prometheus and Development inMyth, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 52, No. 3(Jul. – Sep., 1991), pp. 355–371

• Dougherty, Carol. Prometheus. Taylor & Fran-cis, 2006. ISBN 0-415-32406-8, ISBN 978-0-415-32406-9

• Erdoes, Richard and Alfonso Ortiz, edds. AmericanIndian Myths and Legends. New York, 1984.

• Fortson, Benjamin. Indo-European Language andCulture: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing, 2004.

• Judson, Katharine B. Myths and Legends of the PacificNorthwest. Chicago, 1912.

• Lamberton, Robert. Hesiod, Yale University Press,1988. ISBN 0-300-04068-7

• Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Bi-ography and Mythology, London (1873).

• Swanton, John. “Myths and Tales of the SoutheasternIndians.” Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 88:1929.

• Verdenius, Willem Jacob, “A Commentary on Hesiod:Works and Days, Vv. 1–382”, Brill, 1985, ISBN 90-04-07465-1

• West, M.L., “Hesiod, Theogony, ed. with prolegom-ena and commentary”, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1966

• West, M.L., “Hesiod, Works and Days, ed. with prole-gomena and commentary”, Oxford: Clarendon Press1978

• Westervelt, W.D. Legends of Maui – a Demigod ofPolynesia, and of His Mother Hina. Honolulu, 1910.

• Williamson, George S. The Longing for Myth in Ger-many: Religion and Aesthetic Culture from Romanti-cism to Nietzsche (Chicago, 2004)....

2.9 Further reading• Alcman. Fragments. In: Lyra graeca. Edited and

translated the J.M.Edmonds. (LCL.) 1922-27. 3 Vols.(I.)

• Appolodorus. The Library. With an English transla-tion by James Frazer. (LCL.) 1912-21. 2 vols. (I.)

• Appolonius Rhodius. Argonautica. With an Englishtranslation by R.C. Seaton, (LCL.) 1912.

• -−. Scholia in Apollonius Rhodium vetera. Edited byKarl Wendel. (Bibliotechecae graecae et latinae auc-tarium Weidmannianum, IV.) Berlin, 1935.

• Athenaeus. The Deipnosophists. With an Englishtranslation by Charles Burton Gulick. (LCL.) 1927-41. 7 Vol. (IV, VII).

• Beazley, J.D. “Prometheus Fire-Lighter,” AJA, XLIII(1939).

• Boll, Franz. “Kronos-Helios.” Arch RW, XIX (1916–19).

• Catullus, Gaius Valerius. Poems. Translated by Fran-cis Warre Cornish. In: “Catullus, Tibullus, and Per-vigilium Veneris”. (LCL.) 1913.

• Censorinus. De die natali liber. Edited by FriedrichHultsch. (Bibliotheca Teubneriana.) Leipzig. 1867.

• Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Tuscalan Disputations. Withan English translation by J.E. King. (LCL.) 1927.

• Diels, Hermann (ed.) Die Fragmente der Vor-sakratiker. 6th edn., Berlin, 1951-52. 3 vols.

• Doerig, J., and Olof Gigon. Der Kampf der Gotter undTitanene. Olten and Lausanne. 1961.

• Eckhart, Lothar. “Prometheus in der bildendenKunst.” In: RE, ser. 2, XLV, s.v. “Prometheus,” cols.702-30.

• Eitrem, Samson. “De Prometheo.” Eranos (Goete-gorg), XLIV (1946).

• Euphorion. Scholia. In: John Undershell Powell(ed.). Collectanea Alexandria: reliquiae minotes po-etarum graecorum aetatis Ptolemaicae 323-146 A.C.,epicorum, elegiacorum, lyricorum, ethicorum. Oxford,1925.

• Fernandes, Ângela, “Human values and spiritual val-ues: Traces of Prometheus in Portuguese literatureand criticism”, in journal Neohelicon, Akadémiai Ki-adó, co-published with Springer Science+BusinessMedia B.V., Volume 34, Number 1 / June, 2007, pp.41–49. doi:10.1007/s11059-007-1004-z

36 CHAPTER 2. PROMETHEUS

• Freeman, Kathleen (tr.). Ancilla ato the Pre-SocraticPhilosophers. Cambridge, Mass, 1948.

• Gardi, Rene. Der schwarze Hephaestus, Bern, 1954.

• Gerhard, Eduard. Etruskische Spiegel (Miroirsetrusques). Berlin. 1841-97, 5 vols. (II, nos 138, 139).

• Hederich, Benjamin. Reales Schullexicon. Leipzig.1731.

• Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerics. With anEnglish translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. (LCL.)1920.

• Hesychios of Alexandria. Hesychii Alexandrini lexiconpost Ioannem Albertum. Jena, 1858-62. 4 vols. (II).

• Hippolytus. Refutatio omnium haeresium [Philosophy-mena, or Elenchos]. In: Philoosophymena; or, TheRefutation of All Heresies. London, 1921, 2 vols. (I.)

• Hyginus. Astronomica. Leipzig, 1875.

• -−. Fabulae. Jena, 1872.

• Inscriptiones graeca. Consilio et autoritate AcademiaeLitterarum Regiae Borussicae editum. 2nd edn.,Berlin, 1873 ff. 14 vols. (XII).

• Jacoby, Felix. FGrHist. (Duris of Samos in II;Hekataios in I.)

• Kerényi, Carl, (Translated by Ralph Manheim)“Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Human Exis-tence”, Princeton University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-691-01907-X.

• Kraus, Walther. “Prometheus,” IN: RE, ser. 2, XLV.

• Kretschmer, Paul. “Die protindogermanischeSchicht.” Glotta (Gottingen), XIV (1925).

• Lobel, Edgar; E.P. Wegener; and C.H. Roberts. TheOxyrhynchus Papyri. (Egypt Exploratin Society.)London, 1952. (XX.)

• Lykophron. Scolia. In: Isaac and John Tzetzes.Likophonos Alexandra to skoteinon poinma. Editedby; M.C. Gottfried Muller. Leipzig. 1811. 3 vols. (I.)

• Malinowski, Bronislaw. Myth in Primitive Psychology.(The New Science Series, I.) New York, 1926. (Psy-che Miniatures, General Series, 6; London, 1926.)

• Menodotos. Cited by Athenaeus (q.v.).

• Montfaucon, Bernard de. L'Antique expliquee et repre-sent en figures. Paris, 1719. 5 vols. in 10. (I.)

• Mysteries, The. (Papers from he Eranos Yearbooks,2; ed. Joseph Campbell.) New York (Bolligen SeriesXXX) and London, 1955.

• Nauck, August. See Aeschylus, Fragments.

• Ocellus [Okellos]. Okellos o Lenkanos peri tou pan-tos, oder des Ocellus von Lukanien Betrachtungenuber die Welt. Leipzig, 1795.

• Onomakritos. Fragments. In: Otto Kern (ed.). Or-phicorum fragmenta. Berlin, 1922.

• Otto, Walter F. The Homeric Gods: The Spiritual Sig-nificance of Greek Religion. : London, 1955.

• Tischbein, William (ed.). Collection of Engravingsfrom Ancient Vases of Greek Workmanship ... in thePossession of Sir Wm. Hamilton. Naples, 1791-95. 3vols. (III, Pl. 19.)

• Titanomachia (“The War of the Titans”). Fragment6. In: Epicorum graecorum fragment. Edited by Got-tfried Kinkel. Leipzig, 1877.

• Xenophanes. Fragments. In: Diels (q.v.).

2.10 External links• Theoi Text, Theogony

• Theoi Text, Works and Days

• Theoi Mythology, Prometheus

• Theoi Mythology, Pronoea

• GML, Prometheus

• Messagenet, Prometheus

• Prometheus, a poem by Byron

• Book “Prometheus Bound” (free download – two vol-umes about 600 pages)

Chapter 3

Socrates

This article is about the classical Greek philosopher. Forother uses of Socrates, see Socrates (disambiguation).

Socrates (/ˈsɒkrətiːz/;[2] Greek: Σωκράτης [sɔːkrátɛːs],Sōkrátēs; 470/469 – 399 BC)[1] was a classical Greek(Athenian) philosopher credited as one of the foundersof Western philosophy. He is an enigmatic figure knownchiefly through the accounts of classical writers, especiallythe writings of his students Plato and Xenophon and theplays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Plato’s dialoguesare among the most comprehensive accounts of Socratesto survive from antiquity, though it is unclear the degree towhich Socrates himself is “hidden behind his 'best disciple',Plato”.[3]

Through his portrayal in Plato’s dialogues, Socrates has be-come renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics,and it is this Platonic Socrates who lends his name to theconcepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, orelenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a widerange of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which aseries of questions is asked not only to draw individual an-swers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into theissue at hand. Plato’s Socrates also made important andlasting contributions to the field of epistemology, and theinfluence of his ideas and approach remains a strong foun-dation for much western philosophy that followed.

3.1 The Socratic problem

Main article: Socratic problem

Within his life-time, Socrates did not write anything of hisown which is now extant, and so all the first-hand informa-tion about him and his ideas and thoughts and philosophicalposition depend upon secondary sources, but comparisonof the details of the information shown on these sources re-veals contradictions, thus creating concerns in the actualityof knowing the real Socrates. This issue is known as the

Socratic problem,[4] or the Socratic question.[5][6]

To understand Socrates and his thought, one must turnprimarily to the works of Plato, whose dialogues arethought the most informative source about Socrates’ life andphilosophy,[7] and also Xenophon.[8] These writings are theSokratikoi logoi, or Socratic dialogues, which consist of re-ports of conversations apparently involving Socrates.[9][10]

As for discovering the real-life Socrates, the difficulty isthat ancient sources are mostly philosophical or dramatictexts, apart from Xenophon. There are no straightforwardhistories, contemporary with Socrates, that dealt with hisown time and place. A corollary of this is that sources thatdo mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be histor-ically accurate, and are often partisan. For instance, thosewho prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testa-ment. Historians therefore face the challenge of reconcil-ing the various evidence from the extant texts in order toattempt an accurate and consistent account of Socrates’ lifeand work. The result of such an effort is not necessarilyrealistic, even if consistent.Amid all the disagreement resulting from differences withinsources, two factors emerge from all sources pertaining toSocrates. It would seem, therefore, that he was ugly, andthat Socrates had a brilliant intellect.[11][12]

3.1.1 Socrates as a figure

The character of Socrates as exhibited in Apology, Crito,Phaedo and Symposium concurs with other sources to anextent to which it seems possible to rely on the PlatonicSocrates, as demonstrated in the dialogues, as a representa-tion of the actual Socrates as he lived in history.[13] At thesame time, however, many scholars believe that in someworks, Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedlybrightened-up version of “Socrates” far beyond anything thehistorical Socrates was likely to have done or said. Also,Xenophon, being an historian, is a more reliable witness tothe historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate overwhich Socrates it is whom Plato is describing at any given

37

38 CHAPTER 3. SOCRATES

point—the historical figure, or Plato’s fictionalization. AsBritish philosopher Martin Cohen has put it, “Plato, the ide-alist, offers an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint,a prophet of 'the Sun-God', a teacher condemned for histeachings as a heretic.”[14][15]

It is also clear from other writings and historical artefacts,that Socrates was not simply a character, nor an invention,of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, along-side some of Aristophanes’ work (especially The Clouds),is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyondPlato’s work.

3.1.2 Socrates as a philosopher

The problem with discerning Socrates’ philosophical viewsstems from the perception of contradictions in statementsmade by the Socrates in the different dialogues of Plato.These contradictions produce doubt as to the actual philo-sophical doctrins of Socrates, within his milieu and asrecorded by other individuals.[16] Aristotle, in his MagnaMoralia, refers to Socrates in words which make it patentthat the doctrine virtue is knowledge was held by Socrates.Within the Metaphysics, he states Socrates was occupiedwith the search for moral virtues, being the ' first to searchfor universal definitions for them '.[17]

The problem of understanding Socrates as a philosopheris shown in the following: In Xenophon’s Symposium,Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only towhat he regards as the most important art or occupation,that of discussing philosophy. However, in The Clouds,Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment forteaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon.Also, in Plato’s Apology and Symposium, as well as inXenophon’s accounts, Socrates explicitly denies acceptingpayment for teaching. More specifically, in the Apology,Socrates cites his poverty as proof that he is not a teacher.Two fragments are extant of the writings by Timon of Phliuspertaining to Socrates,[18] although Timon is known to havewritten to ridicule and lampoon philosophy.[19][20]

3.2 Biography

Details about the life of Socrates can be derived fromthree contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato andXenophon (both devotees of Socrates), and the plays ofAristophanes. He has been depicted by some scholars, in-cluding Eric Havelock and Walter Ong, as a champion oforal modes of communication, standing against the haphaz-ard diffusion of writing.[21]

In Aristophanes’ play The Clouds, Socrates is made into a

Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure byJean-Baptiste Regnault (1791)

Socrates and Alcibiades, by Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg

clown of sorts, particularly inclined toward sophistry, whoteaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of debt.However, since most of Aristophanes’ works function asparodies, it is presumed that his characterization in this playwas also not literal.[22]

3.2. BIOGRAPHY 39

Carnelian gem imprint representing Socrates, Rome, 1st century BC-1st century AD.

3.2.1 Early life

Socrates was born in Alopeke, and belonged to the tribeAntiochis. His father was Sophroniscus, a sculptor,or stonemason.[23][24][25] His mother was a midwifenamed Phaenarete.[26] Socrates married Xanthippe,who is especially remembered for having an undesir-able temperament.[27] She bore for him three sons,[28]

Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. His friendCrito of Alopece criticized him for abandoning them whenhe refused to try to escape before his execution.[29]

Socrates first worked as a stonemason, and there was a tra-dition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship, thatSocrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces, whichstood near the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD.[30]

3.2.2 Military service

For a time, Socrates fulfilled the role of hoplite, participat-ing in the Peloponnesian war—a conflict which stretchedintermittently over a period spanning 431 to 404 B.C.[31]

Several of Plato’s dialogues refer to Socrates’ military ser-vice.In the monologue of the Apology, Socrates states he wasactive for Athens in the battles of Amphipolis, Delium,and Potidaea.[32] In the Symposium, Alcibiades describesSocrates’ valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium, re-

counting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle(219e-221b). Socrates’ exceptional service at Delium isalso mentioned in the Laches by the General after whomthe dialogue is named (181b). In the Apology, Socratescompares his military service to his courtroom troubles, andsays anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat fromphilosophy must also think soldiers should retreat when itseems likely that they will be killed in battle.[33]

3.2.3 Epistates at the trial of the six com-manders

Main article: Trial of the generals

During 406, he participated as a member of the Boule.[34]

His tribe the Antiochis held the Prytany on the day itwas debated what fate should befall the generals of theBattle of Arginusae, who abandoned the slain and the sur-vivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartannavy.[24][35][36]

According to Xenophon, Socrates was the Epistates for thedebate,[37] but Delebecque and Hatzfeld think this is an em-bellishment, because Xenophon composed the informationafter Socrates’ death [38]

The generals were seen by some to have failed to uphold themost basic of duties, and the people decided upon capitalpunishment. However, when the prytany responded by re-fusing to vote on the issue, the people reacted with threatsof death directed at the prytany itself. They relented, atwhich point Socrates alone as epistates blocked the vote,which had been proposed by Callixeinus.[39][40] The reasonhe gave was that “in no case would he act except in accor-dance with the law”.[41]

The outcome of the trial was ultimately judged to be a mis-carriage of justice, or illegal, but, actually, Socrates’ deci-sion had no support from written statutory law, instead be-ing reliant on favouring a continuation of less strict and lessformal nomos law.[40][42][43]

3.2.4 The arrest of Leon

Plato’s Apology, parts 32c to 32d, describes how Socratesand four others were summoned to the Tholos, and told byrepresentatives of the oligarchy of the Thirty (the oligarchybegan ruling in 404 B.C.) to go to Salamis, and from there,to return to them with Leon the Salaminian. He was to bebrought back in order to be subsequently executed. How-ever, Socrates returned home and did not go to Salamis ashe was expected to.[44][45]

40 CHAPTER 3. SOCRATES

3.2.5 Trial and death

Main article: Trial of Socrates

Socrates lived during the time of the transition from theheight of the Athenian hegemony to its decline with the de-feat by Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnesian War. Ata time when Athens sought to stabilize and recover fromits humiliating defeat, the Athenian public may have beenentertaining doubts about democracy as an efficient formof government. Socrates appears to have been a critic ofdemocracy,[46] and some scholars interpret his trial as anexpression of political infighting.[47]

The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787)

Claiming loyalty to his city, Socrates clashed with the cur-rent course of Athenian politics and society.[48] He praisesSparta, archrival to Athens, directly and indirectly in vari-ous dialogues. One of Socrates’ purported offenses to thecity was his position as a social and moral critic. Rather thanupholding a status quo and accepting the development ofwhat he perceived as immorality within his region, Socratesquestioned the collective notion of “might makes right” thathe felt was common in Greece during this period. Platorefers to Socrates as the "gadfly" of the state (as the gadflystings the horse into action, so Socrates stung various Athe-nians), insofar as he irritated some people with considera-tions of justice and the pursuit of goodness.[49] His attemptsto improve the Athenians’ sense of justice may have beenthe cause of his execution.According to Plato’s Apology, Socrates’ life as the “gad-fly” of Athens began when his friend Chaerephon asked theoracle at Delphi if anyone were wiser than Socrates; theOracle responded that no-one was wiser. Socrates believedthe Oracle’s response was a paradox, because he believed hepossessed no wisdom whatsoever. He proceeded to test theriddle by approaching men considered wise by the peopleof Athens—statesmen, poets, and artisans—in order to re-fute the Oracle’s pronouncement. Questioning them, how-ever, Socrates concluded: while each man thought he knew

a great deal and was wise, in fact they knew very little andwere not wise at all. Socrates realized the Oracle was cor-rect; while so-called wise men thought themselves wise andyet were not, he himself knew he was not wise at all, which,paradoxically, made him the wiser one since he was theonly person aware of his own ignorance. Socrates’ para-doxical wisdom made the prominent Athenians he publiclyquestioned look foolish, turning them against him and lead-ing to accusations of wrongdoing. Socrates defended hisrole as a gadfly until the end: at his trial, when Socrateswas asked to propose his own punishment, he suggested awage paid by the government and free dinners for the restof his life instead, to finance the time he spent as Athens’benefactor.[50] He was, nevertheless, found guilty of bothcorrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and of impiety(“not believing in the gods of the state”),[51] and subse-quently sentenced to death by drinking a mixture containingpoison hemlock.[52][53][54][55]

Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum

According to Xenophon’s story, Socrates purposefully gavea defiant defense to the jury because “he believed he wouldbe better off dead”. Xenophon goes on to describe a de-fense by Socrates that explains the rigors of old age, andhow Socrates would be glad to circumvent them by beingsentenced to death. It is also understood that Socrates alsowished to die because he “actually believed the right timehad come for him to die.”

3.3. PHILOSOPHY 41

Xenophon and Plato agree that Socrates had an opportu-nity to escape, as his followers were able to bribe the prisonguards. There have been several suggestions offered as rea-sons why he chose to stay:

1. He believed such a flight would indicate a fear of death,which he believed no true philosopher has.

2. If he fled Athens his teaching would fare no better inanother country, as he would continue questioning allhe met and undoubtedly incur their displeasure.

3. Having knowingly agreed to live under the city’s laws,he implicitly subjected himself to the possibility of be-ing accused of crimes by its citizens and judged guiltyby its jury. To do otherwise would have caused him tobreak his "social contract" with the state, and so harmthe state, an unprincipled act.

4. If he escaped at the instigation of his friends, then hisfriends would become liable in law.[56]

The full reasoning behind his refusal to flee is the main sub-ject of the Crito.[57]

Socrates’ death is described at the end of Plato’s Phaedo.Socrates turned down Crito’s pleas to attempt an escapefrom prison. After drinking the poison, he was instructed towalk around until his legs felt numb. After he lay down, theman who administered the poison pinched his foot; Socratescould no longer feel his legs. The numbness slowly crept uphis body until it reached his heart. Shortly before his death,Socrates speaks his last words to Crito: “Crito, we owe arooster to Asclepius. Please, don't forget to pay the debt.”Asclepius was the Greek god for curing illness, and it islikely Socrates’ last words meant that death is the cure—andfreedom, of the soul from the body. Additionally, in WhySocrates Died: Dispelling the Myths, Robin Waterfield addsanother interpretation of Socrates’ last words. He suggeststhat Socrates was a voluntary scapegoat; his death was thepurifying remedy for Athens’ misfortunes. In this view, thetoken of appreciation for Asclepius would represent a curefor Athens’ ailments.[49]

3.3 Philosophy

3.3.1 Socratic method

Main article: Socratic method

Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thoughtis his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socraticmethod or method of “elenchus”, which he largely applied

to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Goodand Justice. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Di-alogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken down intoa series of questions, the answers to which gradually distillthe answer a person would seek. The influence of this ap-proach is most strongly felt today in the use of the scientificmethod, in which hypothesis is the first stage. The develop-ment and practice of this method is one of Socrates’ mostenduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning hismantle as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moralphilosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes inWestern philosophy.To illustrate the use of the Socratic method; a series ofquestions are posed to help a person or group to determinetheir underlying beliefs and the extent of their knowledge.The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesiselimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadilyidentifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.It was designed to force one to examine one’s own beliefsand the validity of such beliefs.An alternative interpretation of the dialectic is that it isa method for direct perception of the Form of the Good.Philosopher Karl Popper describes the dialectic as “the artof intellectual intuition, of visualising the divine originals,the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behindthe common man’s everyday world of appearances.”[58] Ina similar vein, French philosopher Pierre Hadot suggeststhat the dialogues are a type of spiritual exercise. “Further-more,” writes Hadot, “in Plato’s view, every dialectical ex-ercise, precisely because it is an exercise of pure thought,subject to the demands of the Logos, turns the soul awayfrom the sensible world, and allows it to convert itself to-wards the Good.”[59]

3.3.2 Philosophical beliefs

The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato,are difficult to discern. Little in the way of concrete ev-idence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy presenta-tion of ideas given in most of the dialogues may be the ideasof Socrates himself, but which have been subsequentlydeformed or changed by Plato, and some scholars thinkPlato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the literarycharacter and the philosopher himself impossible to distin-guish. Others argue that he did have his own theories andbeliefs.[60] There is a degree of controversy inherent in theidentifying of what these might have been, owing to thedifficulty of separating Socrates from Plato and the diffi-culty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concern-ing Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophi-cal beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophonhas not proven easy, so it must be remembered that what

42 CHAPTER 3. SOCRATES

is attributed to Socrates might actually be more the specificconcerns of these two thinkers instead.The matter is complicated because the historical Socratesseems to have been notorious for asking questions but notanswering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the subjectsabout which he questioned others.[61]

If anything in general can be said about the philosophicalbeliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intellectually,and politically at odds with many of his fellow Athenians.When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting the mindsof the youth of Athens, he uses his method of elenchos todemonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned with their fami-lies, careers, and political responsibilities when they oughtto be worried about the “welfare of their souls”. Socrates’assertion that the gods had singled him out as a divine emis-sary seemed to provoke irritation, if not outright ridicule.Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete(virtue) can be taught. He liked to observe that successfulfathers (such as the prominent military general Pericles) didnot produce sons of their own quality. Socrates argued thatmoral excellence was more a matter of divine bequest thanparental nurture. This belief may have contributed to hislack of anxiety about the future of his own sons.Also, according to A. A. Long, “There should be no doubtthat, despite his claim to know only that he knew nothing,Socrates had strong beliefs about the divine”, and, citingXenophon’s Memorabilia, 1.4, 4.3,:

According to Xenophon, he was a teleologistwho held that god arranges everything for thebest.[62]

Socrates frequently says his ideas are not his own, but histeachers’. He mentions several influences: Prodicus therhetor and Anaxagoras the philosopher. Perhaps surpris-ingly, Socrates claims to have been deeply influenced bytwo women besides his mother: he says that Diotima (c.f.Plato’s Symposium), a witch and priestess from Mantinea,taught him all he knows about eros, or love; and thatAspasia, the mistress of Pericles, taught him the art ofrhetoric.[63] John Burnet argued that his principal teacherwas the Anaxagorean Archelaus but his ideas were as Platodescribed them; Eric A. Havelock, on the other hand, con-sidered Socrates’ association with the Anaxagoreans to beevidence of Plato’s philosophical separation from Socrates.

3.3.3 Socratic paradoxes

Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historicalSocrates have been characterized as “paradoxical” because

they seem to conflict with common sense. The followingare among the so-called Socratic paradoxes:[64]

• No one desires evil.

• No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly.

• Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge.

• Virtue is sufficient for happiness.

The term, "Socratic paradox" can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates’ utterance,“what I do not know I do not think I know”,[65] often para-phrased as "I know that I know nothing.”

3.3.4 Knowledge

The statement "I know that I know nothing" is oftenattributed to Socrates, based on a statement in Plato’sApology.[66] The conventional interpretation of this is thatSocrates’ wisdom was limited to an awareness of his ownignorance. Socrates considered virtuousness to require orconsist of phronēsis, “thought, sense, judgement, practicalwisdom, [and] prudence.”[67][68] Therefore, he believed thatwrongdoing and behaviour that was not virtuous resultedfrom ignorance, and that those who did wrong knew nobetter.[69]

The one thing Socrates claimed to have knowledge of was“the art of love” (ta erôtikê). This assertion seems to beassociated with the word erôtan, which means to ask ques-tions. Therefore, Socrates is claiming to know about the artof love, insofar as he knows how to ask questions.[70][71]

The only time he actually claimed to be wise was withinApology, in which he says he is wise “in the limited sense ofhaving human wisdom”.[72] It is debatable whether Socratesbelieved humans (as opposed to gods like Apollo) couldactually become wise. On the one hand, he drew a clearline between human ignorance and ideal knowledge; on theother, Plato’s Symposium (Diotima’s Speech) and Republic(Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending towisdom.In Plato’s Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares his treat-ment of the young people who come to him for philosoph-ical advice to the way midwives treat their patients, and theway matrimonial matchmakers act. He says that he himselfis a true matchmaker (προμνηστικός promnestikós) in thathe matches the young man to the best philosopher for hisparticular mind. However, he carefully distinguishes him-self from a panderer (προᾰγωγός proagogos) or procurer.This distinction is echoed in Xenophon’s Symposium (3.20),when Socrates jokes about his certainty of being able to

3.3. PHILOSOPHY 43

make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pander-ing. For his part as a philosophical interlocutor, he leadshis respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, althoughhe claims he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His role,he claims, is more properly to be understood as analogousto a midwife (μαῖα maia).[73][74]

In the Theaetetus, Socrates explains that he is himself bar-ren of theories, but knows how to bring the theories ofothers to birth and determine whether they are worthy ormere "wind eggs" (ἀνεμιαῖον anemiaion). Perhaps signif-icantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age,and women who have never given birth are unable to be-come midwives; they would have no experience or knowl-edge of birth and would be unable to separate the worthyinfants from those that should be left on the hillside to beexposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experienceand knowledge of what she is judging.[75][76]

3.3.5 Virtue

Bust of Socrates in the Palermo Archaeological Museum.

Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to fo-cus on the pursuit of virtue rather than the pursuit, for in-stance, of material wealth.[77] He always invited others totry to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of truecommunity, for Socrates felt this was the best way for peo-ple to grow together as a populace.[78] His actions lived up tothis: in the end, Socrates accepted his death sentence whenmost thought he would simply leave Athens, as he felt hecould not run away from or go against the will of his com-munity; as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on thebattlefield was without reproach.The idea that there are certain virtues formed a commonthread in Socrates’ teachings. These virtues representedthe most important qualities for a person to have, fore-most of which were the philosophical or intellectual virtues.Socrates stressed that "the unexamined life is not worth liv-ing [and] ethical virtue is the only thing that matters.”[79]

3.3.6 Politics

It is argued that Socrates believed “ideals belong in a worldonly the wise man can understand”,[80] making the philoso-pher the only type of person suitable to govern others. InPlato’s dialogue the Republic, Socrates openly objected tothe democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. It wasnot only Athenian democracy: Socrates found short of idealany government that did not conform to his presentation ofa perfect regime led by philosophers, and Athenian gov-ernment was far from that. It is, however, possible that theSocrates of Plato’s Republic is colored by Plato’s own views.During the last years of Socrates’ life, Athens was in con-tinual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at lastoverthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led byPlato’s relative, Critias, who had once been a student andfriend of Socrates. The Tyrants ruled for about a year be-fore the Athenian democracy was reinstated, at which pointit declared an amnesty for all recent events.Socrates’ opposition to democracy is often denied, and thequestion is one of the biggest philosophical debates whentrying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. Thestrongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not ac-tually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that theview is expressed no earlier than Plato’s Republic, whichis widely considered one of Plato’s “Middle” dialogues andnot representative of the historical Socrates’ views. Further-more, according to Plato’s Apology of Socrates, an “early”dialogue, Socrates refused to pursue conventional politics;he often stated he could not look into other’s matters or tellpeople how to live their lives when he did not yet under-stand how to live his own. He believed he was a philoso-pher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim toknow it fully. Socrates’ acceptance of his death sentence

44 CHAPTER 3. SOCRATES

after his conviction can also be seen to support this view.It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leaningsare from Plato, who was never able to overcome his dis-gust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it isclear Socrates thought the rule of the Thirty Tyrants wasalso objectionable; when called before them to assist in thearrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowlyescaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did,however, fulfill his duty to serve as Prytanis when a trialof a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous navalcampaign were judged; even then, he maintained an uncom-promising attitude, being one of those who refused to pro-ceed in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intensepressure.[81] Judging by his actions, he considered the ruleof the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the DemocraticSenate that sentenced him to death.Socrates’ apparent respect for democracy is one of thethemes emphasized in the 2008 play Socrates on Trial byAndrew David Irvine. Irvine argues that it was because ofhis loyalty to Athenian democracy that Socrates was will-ing to accept the verdict of his fellow citizens. As Irvineputs it, “During a time of war and great social and intellec-tual upheaval, Socrates felt compelled to express his viewsopenly, regardless of the consequences. As a result, he isremembered today, not only for his sharp wit and high eth-ical standards, but also for his loyalty to the view that ina democracy the best way for a man to serve himself, hisfriends, and his city—even during times of war—is by be-ing loyal to, and by speaking publicly about, the truth.”[82]

3.3.7 Covertness

In the Dialogues of Plato, though Socrates sometimes seemsto support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and themystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato.[83]

Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed outof hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between theviews of Plato and Socrates; in addition, there seem to besome corollaries in the works of Xenophon. In the culmina-tion of the philosophic path as discussed in Plato’s Sympo-sium, one comes to the Sea of Beauty or to the sight of “thebeautiful itself” (211C); only then can one become wise.(In the Symposium, Socrates credits his speech on the philo-sophic path to his teacher, the priestess Diotima, who is noteven sure if Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mys-teries.) In the Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries,telling Meno he would understand Socrates’ answers betterif only he could stay for the initiations next week. Furtherconfusions result from the nature of these sources, insofaras the Platonic Dialogues are arguably the work of an artist-philosopher, whose meaning does not volunteer itself to thepassive reader nor again the lifelong scholar. According toOlympiodorus the Younger in his Life of Plato,[84] Plato

himself “received instruction from the writers of tragedy”before taking up the study of philosophy. His works are,indeed, dialogues; Plato’s choice of this, the medium ofSophocles, Euripides, and the fictions of theatre, may re-flect the ever-interpretable nature of his writings, as he hasbeen called a “dramatist of reason”. What is more, the firstword of nearly all Plato’s works is a significant term forthat respective dialogue, and is used with its many conno-tations in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and the Symposiumeach allude to Socrates’ coy delivery of philosophic truthsin conversation; the Socrates of the Phaedrus goes so far asto demand such dissembling and mystery in all writing. Thecovertness we often find in Plato, appearing here and therecouched in some enigmatic use of symbol and/or irony, maybe at odds with the mysticism Plato’s Socrates expounds insome other dialogues. These indirect methods may fail tosatisfy some readers.Perhaps the most interesting facet of this is Socrates’ re-liance on what the Greeks called his "daimōnic sign”, anaverting (ἀποτρεπτικός apotreptikos) inner voice Socratesheard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was thissign that prevented Socrates from entering into politics. Inthe Phaedrus, we are told Socrates considered this to be aform of “divine madness”, the sort of insanity that is a giftfrom the gods and gives us poetry, mysticism, love, and evenphilosophy itself. Alternately, the sign is often taken to bewhat we would call “intuition"; however, Socrates’ charac-terization of the phenomenon as daimōnic may suggest thatits origin is divine, mysterious, and independent of his ownthoughts. Today, such a voice would be classified under theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as acommand hallucination.[85]

3.4 Satirical playwrights

He was prominently lampooned in Aristophanes' comedyThe Clouds, produced when Socrates was in his mid-forties;he said at his trial (according to Plato) that the laughter ofthe theater was a harder task to answer than the argumentsof his accusers. Søren Kierkegaard believed this play was amore accurate representation of Socrates than those of hisstudents. In the play, Socrates is ridiculed for his dirtiness,which is associated with the Laconizing fad; also in plays byCallias, Eupolis, and Telecleides. Other comic poets wholampooned Socrates include Mnesimachus and Ameipsias.In all of these, Socrates and the Sophists were criticized for“the moral dangers inherent in contemporary thought andliterature”.

3.6. LEGACY 45

3.5 Prose sources

Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle are the main sources forthe historical Socrates; however, Xenophon and Plato werestudents of Socrates, and they may idealize him; however,they wrote the only continuous descriptions of Socrates thathave come down to us in their complete form. Aristotlerefers frequently, but in passing, to Socrates in his writings.Almost all of Plato’s works center on Socrates. However,Plato’s later works appear to be more his own philosophyput into the mouth of his mentor.

3.5.1 The Socratic dialogues

Main article: Socratic dialogue

The Socratic Dialogues are a series of dialogues written byPlato and Xenophon in the form of discussions betweenSocrates and other persons of his time, or as discussions be-tween Socrates’ followers over his concepts. Plato’s Phaedois an example of this latter category. Although his Apologyis a monologue delivered by Socrates, it is usually groupedwith the Dialogues.The Apology professes to be a record of the actual speechSocrates delivered in his own defense at the trial. In theAthenian jury system, an “apology” is composed of threeparts: a speech, followed by a counter-assessment, thensome final words. “Apology” is a transliteration, not atranslation, of the Greek apologia, meaning “defense"; inthis sense it is not apologetic according to our contempo-rary use of the term.Plato generally does not place his own ideas in the mouthof a specific speaker; he lets ideas emerge via the SocraticMethod, under the guidance of Socrates. Most of the di-alogues present Socrates applying this method to some ex-tent, but nowhere as completely as in the Euthyphro. In thisdialogue, Socrates and Euthyphro go through several itera-tions of refining the answer to Socrates’ question, "...Whatis the pious, and what the impious?"In Plato’s Dialogues, learning appears as a process of re-membering. The soul, before its incarnation in the body,was in the realm of Ideas (very similar to the Platonic“Forms”). There, it saw things the way they truly are, ratherthan the pale shadows or copies we experience on earth. Bya process of questioning, the soul can be brought to remem-ber the ideas in their pure form, thus bringing wisdom.[86]

Especially for Plato’s writings referring to Socrates, it isnot always clear which ideas brought forward by Socrates(or his friends) actually belonged to Socrates and which ofthese may have been new additions or elaborations by Plato– this is known as the Socratic Problem. Generally, the

early works of Plato are considered to be close to the spiritof Socrates, whereas the later works – including Phaedo andRepublic – are considered to be possibly products of Plato’selaborations.[87]

3.6 Legacy

3.6.1 Immediate influence

Statue of Socrates in front of the Academy of Athens (modern)

Immediately, the students of Socrates set to work bothon exercising their perceptions of his teachings in politicsand also on developing many new philosophical schoolsof thought. Some of Athens’ controversial and anti-democratic tyrants were contemporary or posthumous stu-dents of Socrates including Alcibiades and Critias. Critias’cousin Plato would go on to found the Academy in 385BC, which gained so much renown that “Academy” becamethe standard word for educational institutions in later Eu-ropean languages such as English, French, and Italian.[88]

Plato’s protege, another important figure of the Classicalera, Aristotle went on to tutor Alexander the Great and alsoto found his own school in 335 BC—the Lyceum—whosename also now means an educational institution.[89]

While “Socrates dealt with moral matters and took no no-tice at all of nature in general”,[90] in his Dialogues, Platowould emphasize mathematics with metaphysical overtonesmirroring that of Pythagoras – the former who would dom-inate Western thought well into the Renaissance. Aristotlehimself was as much of a philosopher as he was a scientistwith extensive work in the fields of biology and physics.Socratic thought which challenged conventions, especially

46 CHAPTER 3. SOCRATES

in stressing a simplistic way of living, became divorcedfrom Plato’s more detached and philosophical pursuits.This idea was inherited by one of Socrates’ older students,Antisthenes, who became the originator of another philos-ophy in the years after Socrates’ death: Cynicism. The ideaof asceticism being hand in hand with an ethical life or onewith piety, ignored by Plato and Aristotle and somewhatdealt with by the Cynics, formed the core of another philos-ophy in 281 BC – Stoicism when Zeno of Citium would dis-cover Socrates’ works and then learn from Crates, a Cynicphilosopher.[91]

3.6.2 Later historical influence

While some of the later contributions of Socrates toHellenistic Era culture and philosophy as well as the RomanEra have been lost to time, his teachings began a resurgencein both medieval Europe and the Islamic Middle East along-side those of Aristotle and Stoicism. Socrates is mentionedin the dialogue Kuzari by Jewish philosopher and rabbiYehuda Halevi in which a Jew instructs the Khazar kingabout Judaism.[92] Al-Kindi, a well-known Arabic philoso-pher, introduced and tried to reconcile Socrates and Hel-lenistic philosophy to an Islamic audience,[93] referring tohim by the name 'Suqrat'.Socrates’ stature in Western philosophy returned in fullforce with the Renaissance and the Age of Reason in Eu-rope when political theory began to resurface under thoselike Locke and Hobbes.[94] Voltaire even went so far as towrite a satirical play about the Trial of Socrates. There werea number of paintings about his life including Socrates TearsAlcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault and The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David in the later 18th century.To this day, the Socratic Method is still used in classroomand law school discourse to expose underlying issues in bothsubject and the speaker. He has been recognized with acco-lades ranging from frequent mentions in pop culture (suchas the movie Bill & Ted’s Excellent Adventure and a Greekrock band called Socrates Drank the Conium) to numerousbusts in academic institutions in recognition of his contri-bution to education.Over the past century, numerous plays about Socrates havealso focused on Socrates’ life and influence. One of the mostrecent has been Socrates on Trial, a play based on Aristo-phanes’ Clouds and Plato’s Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, alladapted for modern performance.

3.6.3 Criticism

Evaluation of and reaction to Socrates has been under-taken by both historians and philosophers from the timeof his death to the present day with a multitude of con-clusions and perspectives. Although he was not directlyprosecuted for his connection to Critias, leader of theSpartan-backed Thirty Tyrants, and “showed considerablepersonal courage in refusing to submit to [them]", he wasseen by some as a figure who mentored oligarchs who be-came abusive tyrants, and undermined Athenian democ-racy. The Sophistic movement that he railed at in life sur-vived him, but by the 3rd century BC, was rapidly overtakenby the many philosophical schools of thought that Socratesinfluenced.[95]

Socrates’ death is considered iconic and his status asa martyr of philosophy overshadows most contemporaryand posthumous criticism. However, Xenophon mentionsSocrates’ “arrogance” and that he was “an expert in theart of pimping” or “self-presentation”. [96] Direct criticismof Socrates the man almost disappears after this time, butthere is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle overthe elements of Socratic philosophy distinct from those ofhis students, even into the Middle Ages.Some modern scholarship holds that, with so much of hisown thought obscured and possibly altered by Plato, it isimpossible to gain a clear picture of Socrates amid all thecontradictory evidence. That both Cynicism and Stoicism,which carried heavy influence from Socratic thought, wereunlike or even contrary to Platonism further illustrates this.The ambiguity and lack of reliability serves as the modernbasis of criticism—that it is nearly impossible to know thereal Socrates. Some controversy also exists about Socrates’attitude towards homosexuality[97] and as to whether or nothe believed in the Olympian gods, was monotheistic, or heldsome other religious viewpoint.[98] However, it is still com-monly taught and held with little exception that Socratesis the progenitor of subsequent Western philosophy, to thepoint that philosophers before him are referred to as pre-Socratic.

3.6.4 In literature

• Socrates is a major character in Mary Renault's histor-ical novel The Last of the Wine. The book’s protago-nists, Alexias and Lysis, study under him in Athens.[99]

• A humorous version of the deceased Socrates appearsin John Kendrick Bangs's comic novel A House-Boaton the Styx and its sequels.[100]

3.8. NOTES 47

3.7 See also• Codex Vaticanus Graecus 64

• List of speakers in Plato’s dialogues

• Xanthippe (wife of Socrates)

• Myrto (second wife of Socrates, according to some ac-counts)

• De genio Socratis

3.8 Notes[1] “Socrates”. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911. Re-

trieved 2012-09-13.

[2] Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Set-ter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17thedition. Cambridge UP, 2006.

[3] Sarah Kofman (1998). Socrates: Fictions of a Philosopher.p. 34. ISBN 0-8014-3551-X.

[4] Roberson, C. - Ethics for Criminal Justice Professionals(p.24) CRC Press, 8 Dec 2009 ISBN 1420086723 [Re-trieved 2015-04-16]

[5] A. Rubel, M. Vickers. Fear and Loathing in Ancient Athens:Religion and Politics During the Peloponnesian War. Rout-ledge, 11 Sep 2014. ISBN 1317544803 [Retrieved 2015-04-17].

[6] Louis-André Dorion. The Rise and Fall of the So-cratic Problem pp. 1-23 (The Cambridge Com-panion to Socrates). Cambridge University Press.doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.001. ISBN9780521833424. Retrieved 2015-05-07.

[7] May, H. (2000). On Socrates. Wadsworth/Thomson Learn-ing,. p. 20.

[8] catalogue of Harvard University Press - Xenophon VolumeIV[Retrieved 2015-3-26]

[9] Kahn, CH', Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosoph-ical Use of a Literary Form, Cambridge University Press,1998, p. xvii.

[10] Many other writers added to the fashion of Socratic di-alogues (called Sőkratikoi logoi) at the time. In additionto Plato and Xenophon, each of the following is creditedby some source as having added to the genre: Aeschinesof Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito,Euclid of Megara, and Phaedo. It is unlikely Plato was thefirst in this field (Vlastos, p. 52).

[11] Morrison, DR.,. The Cambridge Companion to Socrates(p.xiv). Cambridge University Press, 2011 ISBN0521833426. Retrieved 2015-04-16.

[12] Nails, D. Socrates:Socrates’{}s strangeness. The Stanford En-cyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N.Zalta (ed.). Retrieved 2015-04-16.(ed. first source for <ugly >)

[13] CH Kahn - Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosoph-ical Use of a Literary Form (p.75) Cambridge UniversityPress, 4 Jun 1998 ISBN 0521648300 [Retrieved 2015-04-16]

[14] Cohen, M., Philosophical Tales: Being an Alternative HistoryRevealing the Characters, the Plots, and the Hidden ScenesThat Make Up the True Story of Philosophy, John Wiley &Sons, 2008, p. 5, ISBN 1-4051-4037-2.

[15] See also R.D'A.Ward, Sokrátis : Soul Scientist, York : AretíPublications, 2013

[16] D Nails - Agora, Academy, and the Conduct of Philosophy(p.9) Springer Science & Business Media, 31 Jul 1995 ISBN0792335430 [Retrieved 2015-04-16]

[17] Ahbel-Rappe, S., - Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed (p.2& Note 10 on p.157-8) A&C Black, 30 Aug 2009 [Re-trieved 2015-04-16](ed. Note 10. shows a relevant quotefrom Magna Moralia)

[18] Bett, R. A Companion to Socrates (p.299-30). John Wi-ley & Sons, 11 May 2009 ISBN 1405192607. Retrieved2015-04-17.(ed. a translation of one fragment reads - “Butfrom them the sculptor, blatherer on the lawful, turned away.Spellbinder of the Greeks, who made them precise in lan-guage. Sneerer trained by rhetoroticians, sub-Attic ironist.”c.f. source for a discussion of this quote.

[19] Lieber, F. Encyclopedia Americana (p.266-7) Published1832 (Original from Oxford University, Digitized 27 Jun2007)[Retrieved 2015-04-17]

[20] CS. Celenza, Dr.Phil. (2001), - Angelo Poliziano’s Lamia:Text, Translation, and Introductory Studies (Note 34.)BRILL, 2010 ISBN 9004185909 [Retrieved 2015-04-17]

[21] Ong, pp. 78–79.

[22] PJ. King - One Hundred Philosophers (p.23) Zebra, 2006ISBN 1770220011 [Retrieved 2015-04-16]

[23] G.W.F. Hegel (trans. Frances H. Simon), Lectures on His-tory of Philosophy

[24] Nails, D - “Socrates” - A Chronology of the historicalSocrates in the context of Athenian history and the dra-matic dates of Plato’s dialogues The Stanford Encyclope-dia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta(ed.)[Retrieved 2015-04-17]

[25] Howatson, MC. The Oxford Companion to Classical Litera-ture (p.528). Oxford University Press, 22 Aug 2013 (reprint,3rd edition) ISBN 0199548552. Retrieved 2015-04-17.

[26] Plato - Theaetetus 149a translated by Harold N. Fowler Cam-bridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, WilliamHeinemann Ltd. 1921 (ed. (re-)Retrieved 2015-4-18]

48 CHAPTER 3. SOCRATES

[27] A Grafton, GW Most, Settis, S. The Classical Tra-dition Harvard University Press, 25 Oct 2010 ISBN0674035720[Retrieved 2015-04-17]

[28] “Plato, ''Phaedo'' 116b”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[29] “Plato, ''Crito'' 45c-45e”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved2012-08-19.

[30] The ancient tradition is attested in Pausanias, 1.22.8; for amodern denial, see Kleine Pauly, “Sokrates” 7; the traditionis a confusion with the sculptor, Socrates of Thebes, men-tioned in Pausanias 9.25.3, a contemporary of Pindar.

[31] Colaiaco, JA. Socrates Against Athens: Philosophy on Trial.Routledge, 15 Apr 2013 ISBN 1135024936. Retrieved2015-04-17.

[32] Monoson, SS., Meineck, P., Konstan, D. - Combat Traumaand the Ancient Greeks (p.136) Palgrave Macmillan, 11 Sep2014 ISBN 1137398868 [Retrieved 2015-04-17]

[33] Iain King details Socrates’ military service, including howit may have affected his ideas, in Socrates at War (article),accessed 2014-03-21.

[34] Ober, J. - Political Dissent in Democratic Athens: Intellec-tual Critics of Popular Rule (p.184 - footnote 54) MartinClassical Lectures Princeton University Press, 2 Dec 2001ISBN 0691089817 [Retrieved 2015-04-18]

[35] Plato (Miller, PL. ). Introductory Readings in Ancient Greekand Roman Philosophy (p.72). Hackett Publishing, 15 Mar2015 ISBN 1624663540. Retrieved 2015-04-17.

[36] Dillon, M., Garland, L - Ancient Greece: Social and Histor-ical Documents from Archaic Times to the Death of Alexan-der (p.119) Routledge, 18 Jun 2010 ISBN 1136991387 (re-vised) [Retrieved 2015-04-17]

[37] Garland, L. - Ancient Greece: Social and Historical Docu-ments from Archaic Times to the Death of Socrates(p.321)Routledge, 24 Oct 2005 ISBN 113460372X [Retrieved2015-04-18]

[38] C Tuplin, V Azoulay - Xenophon and His World: Papersfrom a Conference Held in Liverpool in July 1999 (p.379.- footnote 92) Geschichte Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004 ISBN3515083928.

[39] PH Larcher - Larcher’s Notes on Herodotus: Historicaland Critical Remarks on the Nine Books of the History ofHerodotus, with a Chronological Table, Volume 2 (p.330)John R. Priestley, 1829 [Retrieved 2015-04-18]

[40] Henderson Munn. The School of History: Athens in the Ageof Socrates (p.186). University of California Press, 2000ISBN 0520929713. Retrieved 2015-04-18.

[41] Hayek, FA. Law, Legislation and Liberty, Volume 3: The Po-litical Order of a Free People. ISBN 0226321266. Retrieved2015-04-18.

[42] Harris, EM. The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens.Oxford University Press, 2013 ISBN 0199899169. Re-trieved 2015-04-18.

[43] Pangle, TL. The Laws of Plato. University of Chicago Press,15 Mar 1988 (reprint) ISBN 0226671100. p. 511. Re-trieved 2015-04-18.(ed. used to further identify the natureof < nomos > )

[44] Ober, J. in Morrisson, DR. (ed), The Cambridge Companionto Socrates Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 167-169.ISBN 0521833426.

[45] LD LeCaire - Tyranny and Terror:The Failure of AthenianDemocracy and the Reign of the Thirty Tyrants. EasternWashington University. Spring 2013.

[46] Smith, W. (1852). The Apology of Socrates, the Crito, andPart of the Phaedo: With Notes from Stallbaum, Schleierma-cher’s Introductions, A Life of Socrates, and Schleiermacher’sEssay on the Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher. Taylor Wal-ton and Maberly. p. ciii note 1.

[47] Wilson, Emily R. (2007). The Death of Socrates. HarvardUniversity Press. p. 55.

[48] Here it is telling to refer to Thucydides (3.82.8): “Reck-less audacity came to be considered the courage of a loyalally; prudent hesitation, specious cowardice; moderation washeld to be a cloak for unmanliness; ability to see all sidesof a question inaptness to act on any. Frantic violence, be-came the attribute of manliness; cautious plotting, a justifi-able means of self-defense. The advocate of extreme mea-sures was always trustworthy; his opponent a man to be sus-pected.”

[49] Waterfield, Robin (2009). Why Socrates Died: Dispelling theMyths. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.

[50] Brun (1978).

[51] Plato. Apology, 24–27.

[52] Fallon, Warren J. (2001). “Socratic suicide.” PubMed.PMID: 19681231. US National Library of Medicine.National Institutes of Health. 121:91–106. RetrievedSeptember 12, 2013.

[53] Linder, Doug (2002). “The Trial of Socrates”. University ofMissouri–Kansas City School of Law. Retrieved September12, 2013.

[54] “Socrates (Greek philosopher)". Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved September 12, 2013.

[55] R. G. Frey (January 1978). Did Socrates Commit Suicide?.Philosophy, Volume 53, Issue 203, pp 106–108. Universityof Liverpool. doi:10.1017/S0031819100016375

[56] Allen, RE. (1981). Socrates and Legal Obligation. U of Min-nesota Press. pp. 65–96.

[57] Weiss, R. (1998). Socrates Dissatisfied: An Analysis ofPlato’s Crito. Oxford University Press. p. 85.

3.8. NOTES 49

[58] Popper, K. (1962) The Open Society and its Enemies, Vol-ume 1 Plato, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, p133.

[59] Hadot, P. (1995) Philosophy as a Way of Life, Oxford,Blackwells, p93.

[60] Cohn, Dorrit (2001). “Does Socrates Speak for Plato? Re-flections on an Open Question”. New Literary History 32 (3):485–500. doi:10.1353/nlh.2001.0030. ISSN 1080-661X.

[61] Plato, Republic 336c & 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology 23a;Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refuta-tions 183b7.

[62] Long, AA., in Ahbel-Rappe, S. and Kamtekar, R. (2009). ACompanion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. p. 59.

[63] Plato, Menexenus 235e

[64] p. 14, Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1,Oxford University Press 2007; p. 147, Gerasimos Santas,“The Socratic Paradoxes”, Philosophical Review 73 (1964),pp. 147–64.

[65] Apology of Socrates 21d.

[66] Plato, Apology 21d; A. Andrea, J Overfield - The HumanRecord: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500(p.116) Cengage Learning, 1 Jan 2015 ISBN 1305537467[Retrieved 2015-04-22]

[67] Oxford English Dictionary, Etymology for phronesis."ϕρόνησις thought, sense, judgement, practical wisdom,prudence”.

[68] T Engberg-Pedersen - Aristotle’s Theory of Moral Insight(p.236) Oxford University Press, 1983 ISBN 0198246676[Retrieved 2015-04-22]

[69] Amélie Rorty - Essays on Aristotle’s Ethics (p.267) Univer-sity of California Press, 1 Jan 1980 ISBN 0520040414 [Re-trieved 2015-04-22](ed. was the first location for concept <phronesis > for this edit)

[70] Reeve, C. D. C., Plato on Love Hackett Publishing 2006pp.xix-xx ISBN 1603844066.

[71] G Rudebusch - Socrates John Wiley & Sons, 13 Sep 2011ISBN 1444358707.

[72] D P Verene - Speculative Philosophy (p.19) LexingtonBooks, 16 Apr 2009 ISBN 0739136615 [Retrieved 2015-04-23]

[73] Boys-Stones, G., Rowe, C., The Circle of Socrates: Read-ings in the First-Generation Socratics, Hackett Publishing,2013, pp. 173-175.

[74] Vander Waerdt, PA., The Socratic Movement, Cornell Uni-versity Press, 1994, pp. 200-202.

[75] Plato, Theaetetus.

[76] Guthrie, WKC., Socrates, Cambridge University Press,1971, p. 126.

[77] Brickhouse, TC. and Smith, ND. (1990). Socrates on Trial.Oxford University Press. p. 165.

[78] Nichols, MP. (1987). Socrates and the Political Community:An Ancient Debate. SUNY Press. p. 67.

[79] Duignan, B. (2009). The 100 Most Influential Philosophersof All Time. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 33.

[80] Attributed to “Solomon” in 100 Most Influential People of AllTimes for Smartphones and Mobile Devices. Mobile Refer-ence. 2007.

[81] Kagen (1978).

[82] Irvine, Andrew D. “Introduction,” Socrates on Trial,Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 19.

[83] McPherran, ML. (1998). The Religion of Socrates. PennState Press. p. 268.

[84] Olympiodorus the Younger, Life of Plato, in The Works ofPlato: A New and Literal Version Chiefly from the Text ofStallbaum, p. 234, Bohm, 1854.

[85] Leudar, I. and Thomas, P. (2013). “1”. Voices of Reason,Voices of Insanity: Studies of Verbal Hallucinations. Rout-ledge.

[86] Khan, CH. (1998). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: ThePhilosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge UniversityPress.

[87] Morrison, DR. (2011). “1”. The Cambridge Companion toSocrates. Cambridge University Press.

[88] Ahbel-Rappe, S. and Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion toSocrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 306–309.

[89] Magee, B (2000). The Great Philosophers: An Introductionto Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 34.

[90] Carruccio, E. (2006). Mathematics And Logic in History Andin Contemporary Thought. Transaction Publishers. p. 44.

[91] Long, AA. (1996). Stoic Studies. Cambridge UniversityPress. pp. 31–32.

[92] Hughes, B (2011). The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens andthe Search for the Good Life. Knopf Doubleday PublishingGroup.

[93] von Dehsen, C. (2013). Philosophers and Religious Leaders.Routledge.

[94] Ahbel-Rappe, S, and Kamtekar, R (2009). A Companion toSocrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. xix–xx.

[95] Wilson, ER. (2007). The Death of Socrates: Hero, Villain,Chatterbox, Saint. Profile Books. pp. 61–62.

[96] Danzig, G. (2010). Apologizing for Socrates: How Plato andXenophon Created Our Socrates. Lexington Books. pp. 66–67.

50 CHAPTER 3. SOCRATES

[97] W. K. C. Guthrie, Socrates, Cambridge University Press,1971, p. 70.

[98] A.A. Long “How Does Socrates’ Divine Sign Communicatewith Him?", Chapter 5 in: A Companion to Socrates, JohnWiley & Sons, 2009, p. 63.

[99] Gomez, Alex (July 10, 2010). “Mary Renault’s 'The Last ofthe Wine' Reviewed”. Banderas News. Retrieved 2014-10-14.

[100] Bangs, John Kendrick (1901). A House-Boat on the Styx.Harper & Bros. pp. 164–170. Retrieved 2014-10-14.

3.9 References

• Brun, Jean (1978). Socrate (sixth edition). Presses uni-versitaires de France. pp. 39–40. ISBN 2-13-035620-6. (French)

• May, Hope (2000). On Socrates. Belmont, CA:Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-57604-4.

• Ong, Walter (2002). Orality and Literacy. New York:Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28129-6.

• Kagan, Donald. The Fall of the Athenian Empire.First. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press,1987.

• Pausanias, Description of Greece. W. H. S. Jones(translator). Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press; London, William Heine-mann Ltd. (1918). Vol. 1. Books I–II: ISBN 0-674-99104-4. Vol. 4. Books VIII.22–X: ISBN 0-674-99328-4.

• Thucydides; The Peloponnesian War. London, J. M.Dent; New York, E. P. Dutton. 1910.

• Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates, Ironist and MoralPhilosopher. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN0-8014-9787-6.

• Bernas, Richard, cond. Socrate. By Erik Satie.LTM/Boutique, 2006

• Bruell, C (1994). “On Plato’s Political Phi-losophy”. Review of Politics 56: 261–82.doi:10.1017/s003467050001843x.

• Bruell, C. (1999). On the Socratic Education: An In-troduction to the Shorter Platonic Dialogues, Lanham,MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

• Grube, G.M.A. (2002). “Plato, Five Dialogues”.Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

• Hanson, V.D. (2001). “Socrates Dies at Delium, 424B.C.”, What If? 2, Robert Cowley, editor, G.P. Put-nam’s Sons, NY.

• Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: Aplay based on Aristophanes’ Clouds and Plato’s Apol-ogy, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern perfor-mance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper); ISBN 978-1-4426-9254-1 (e-pub)

• Kamtekar, Rachana (2004). Plato’s Euthyphro, Apol-ogy, and Crito: Critical Essays. Lanham, MD: Row-man and Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-3325-5.

• Kierkegaard, Søren (1968). The Concept of Irony:with Constant Reference to Socrates. Bloomington: In-diana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20111-9.

• Levinson, Paul (2007). The Plot to Save Socrates. NewYork: Tor Books. ISBN 0-7653-1197-6.

• Luce, J.V. (1992). An Introduction to Greek Philoso-phy, Thames & Hudson, NY.

• Maritain, J. (1930, 1991). Introduction to Philosophy,Christian Classics, Inc., Westminster, MD.

• Robinson, R (1953). Plato’s Earlier Dialectic. Oxford:Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824777-7. Ch. 2:“Elenchus”, Ch. 3: “Elenchus: Direct and Indirect”

• Taylor, C.C.W., Hare, R.M. & Barnes, J. (1998).Greek Philosophers – Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle,Oxford University Press, NY.

• Taylor, C.C.W. (2001). Socrates: A very short intro-duction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

• Ward, R.D'A. (2013) Sokrátis : Soul Scientist, York,UK : Aretí Publications.

3.10 External links

• Socrates at DMOZ

• Socrates entry by Debra Nails in the Stanford Encyclo-pedia of Philosophy

• Socrates entry by James M. Ambury in the InternetEncyclopedia of Philosophy

• Socrates at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project

•

• Socrates on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

3.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 51

• Greek Philosophy: Socrates

• Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Socrates, translated byRobert Drew Hicks (1925).

• Paul Shorey (1905). "Socrates". New InternationalEncyclopedia.

• Original Fresque of Socrates in Archaeological Mu-seum of Ephesus

• Socrates Narrates Plato’s The Republic

• Project Gutenberg e-texts on Socrates, amongst oth-ers:

• The Dialogues of Plato (see also Wikipedia ar-ticles on Dialogues by Plato)

• The writings of Xenophon, such as the Memo-rablia and Hellenica.

• The satirical plays by Aristophanes• Aristotle’s writings• Voltaire’s Socrates

• A free audiobook of the Socratic dialogue Euthyphroat LibriVox

Chapter 4

Jesus

This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. For other uses, seeJesus (disambiguation).

Jesus (/ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς Iesous; 7–2 BC to AD 30–33), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth, is the central fig-ure of Christianity, whom the teachings of most Christiandenominations hold to be the Son of God. Christianity re-gards Jesus as the awaited Messiah (or "Christ") of the OldTestament and refers to him as Jesus Christ,[lower-alpha 5] aname that is also used in non-Christian contexts.Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesusexisted historically,[lower-alpha 6] and historians consider theSynoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew and Luke) to be the bestsources for investigating the historical Jesus.[18][19][20][21]

Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean, Jewishrabbi[22] who preached his message orally,[23] was baptizedby John the Baptist, and was crucified by the order of theRoman Prefect Pontius Pilate.[24] In the current mainstreamview, Jesus was an apocalyptic preacher and the founderof a restoration movement within Judaism, although someprominent scholars argue that he was not apocalyptic.[19][25]

After Jesus’ death, his followers became convinced he wasalive, and the community they formed eventually becamethe Christian church.[26] The widely accepted calendar era,abbreviated as "AD" or sometimes as "CE" is based on thebirth of Jesus.Christians believe that Jesus has a “unique significance” inthe world.[27] Christian doctrines include the beliefs that Je-sus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was born of a virgin,performed miracles, founded the Church, died by crucifix-ion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement, rose from the dead,and ascended into Heaven, whence he will return.[28] MostChristians believe Jesus enables humans to be reconciledto God, and will judge the dead either before or after theirbodily resurrection,[29][30][31][32] an event tied to the SecondComing of Jesus in Christian eschatology;[33] though somebelieve Jesus’s role as savior has more existential or societalconcerns than the afterlife,[34] and a few notable theologianshave suggested that Jesus will bring about a universal rec-onciliation.[35] The great majority of Christians worship Je-

sus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of threepersons of a Divine Trinity. A few Christian groups rejectTrinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.In Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is con-sidered one of God’s important prophets and the Masîḥ(Messiah).[36] To Muslims, Jesus was a bringer of scriptureand was born of a virgin, but was neither the son of Godnor the victim of crucifixion. According to the Quran, Je-sus was not crucified but was physically raised into Heavenby God.[4:157] Judaism rejects the Christian and Islamic be-lief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he didnot fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.

4.1 Etymology

Further information: Jesus (name), Holy Name of Jesus,Name of God in Christianity and Yeshua (name)

A typical Jew in Jesus’ time had only one name, sometimessupplemented with the father’s name or the individual’shometown.[19] Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is com-monly referred to as “Jesus of Nazareth”[lower-alpha 7] (e.g.,Mark 10:47). Jesus’ neighbors in Nazareth refer to himas “the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of Jamesand Joses and Judas and Simon” (Mark 6:3), “the carpen-ter’s son” (Matthew 13:55), or “Joseph’s son” (Luke 4:22).In John, the disciple Philip refers to him as “Jesus son ofJoseph from Nazareth” (John 1:45).The name Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus, atransliteration of the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iesous).[37] The Greekform is a rendering of the Hebrew ,(Yeshua) ישוע a vari-ant of the earlier name ,(Yehoshua) יהושע in English“Joshua”.[38][39][40] The name Yeshua appears to have beenin use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus.[41] The first-century works of historian Flavius Josephus, who wrotein Koine Greek, the same language as that of the NewTestament,[42] refer to at least twenty different people withthe name Jesus (i.e. Ἰησοῦς).[43] The etymology of Jesus’

52

4.2. IN THE GOSPELS 53

name in the context of the New Testament is generally givenas "Yahweh is salvation”.[44]

Isho or Eesho, the Syriac name of Jesus.

Since early Christianity, Christians have commonly re-ferred to Jesus as “Jesus Christ”.[45] The word Christ isderived from the Greek Χριστός (Christos),[37][46] whichis a translation of the Hebrew ָמִׁשיַח (Meshiakh), mean-ing the "anointed" and usually transliterated into English as"Messiah".[47][48] Christians designate Jesus as Christ be-cause they believe he is the awaited Messiah prophesiedin the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). In postbiblical us-age, Christ became viewed as a name—one part of “Je-sus Christ”—but originally it was a title.[49][50] The term“Christian” (meaning “one who owes allegiance to the per-son Christ” or simply “follower of Christ”) has been in usesince the first century.[51][52]

4.2 In the Gospels

Main article: Life of Jesus in the New TestamentSee also: New Testament places associated with Jesus andNames and titles of Jesus in the New Testament

The four canonical gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, andJohn) are the main sources for the biography of Jesus.[53][54]

Other parts of the New Testament, such as the Paulineepistles, which were probably written decades before thegospels, also include references to key episodes in hislife, such as the Last Supper in 1 Corinthians 11:23–26.[55][56][57] Acts of the Apostles (10:37–38 and 19:4)refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation byJohn the Baptist.[58][59] Acts 1:1–11 says more about theAscension of Jesus (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) thanthe canonical gospels do.[60]

Some early Christian and Gnostic groups had separate de-scriptions of the life and teachings of Jesus that are not in-cluded in the New Testament. These include the Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, and the Apocryphon ofJames, among many other apocryphal writings. Most schol-ars consider these much later and less reliable accounts thanthe canonical gospels.[61][62]

4.2.1 Canonical gospel accounts

See also: Gospel harmony, Historical reliability of theGospels and Internal consistency of the New TestamentThe canonical gospels are four accounts, each written by

A 3rd-century Greek papyrus of the Gospel of Luke

a different author. The first to be written was the Gospelof Mark (written AD 60–75), followed by the Gospel ofMatthew (AD 65–85), the Gospel of Luke (AD 65–95),and the Gospel of John (AD 75–100).[63] They often differin content and in the ordering of events.[64]

Traditionally, Christians believe that the four gospels werewritten by four evangelists who were close to Jesus:[18]

Mark was written by John Mark, an associate of Peter;[65]

Matthew was written by one of Jesus’ disciples;[18] Lukewas written by a companion of Paul, someone mentionedin a few epistles;[18] and John was written by another of Je-sus’ disciples,[18] in fact part of an inner group of disciples,along with Peter and Jesus’ brother James.[66]

Three of them, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are knownas the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn “to-gether”) and ὄψις (opsis “view”).[67][68][69] They are similarin content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraphstructure.[67][68] Scholars generally agree that it is impossi-ble to find any direct literary relationship between the Syn-optic Gospels and the Gospel of John.[70] While the flow ofsome events (such as Jesus’ baptism, transfiguration, cruci-fixion and interactions with the apostles) are shared amongthe Synoptic Gospels, incidents such as the transfigurationdo not appear in John, which also differs on other matters,such as the Cleansing of the Temple.[71]

Most scholars agree, following what is known as the “Mar-can hypothesis”,[72] that the authors of Matthew and Lukeused Mark as a source when writing their gospels. Matthewand Luke also share some content not found in Mark. Toexplain this, many scholars believe that in addition to Mark,another source (commonly called the "Q source") was usedby the two authors.[73]

According to a broad scholarly consensus, the SynopticGospels, and not John, are the primary sources of historicalinformation about Jesus.[74][75][19] However, not everything

54 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

contained in the New Testament gospels is considered to behistorically reliable.[76] Elements whose historical authen-ticity is disputed include the Nativity, the Massacre of theInnocents, the Resurrection, the Ascension, some of Jesus’miracles, and the Sanhedrin trial, among others.[77][78][79]

Views on the gospels range from their being inerrant de-scriptions of the life of Jesus[80] to their providing little his-torical information about his life beyond the basics.[81][82]

The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus. InMark, Jesus is the Son of God whose mighty works demon-strate the presence of God’s Kingdom.[65] He is a tirelesswonder worker, the servant of both God and man.[83] Thisshort gospel records few of Jesus’ words or teachings.[65]

The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfill-ment of God’s will as revealed in the Old Testament, andhe is the Lord of the Church.[84] He is the kingly Messiah,referred to repeatedly as “king” and "Son of David.”[83] Anoteworthy feature of this gospel are the five discourses,collections of teachings on particular themes, including theSermon on the Mount.[84] Luke presents Jesus as the divine-human savior who shows compassion to the needy.[85] He isthe friend of sinners and outcasts, come to seek and save thelost.[83] This gospel includes Jesus’ most beloved parables,such as the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son.[85]

The Synoptics and John agree on the main outline of Je-sus’ life.[86] John the Baptist precedes Jesus, their ministriesoverlap, and John witnesses to Jesus’ identity.[86] Jesusteaches and performs miracles, at least partly in Galilee.[86]

He then visits Jerusalem, where the leaders have him cruci-fied, and he is buried.[86] After his tomb is found empty onSunday, the risen Jesus presents himself to his followers.[86]

The prologue to the Gospel of John identifies Jesus as anincarnation of the divine Word (Logos).[87] As the Word,Jesus was eternally present with God, active in all creation,and the source of humanity’s moral and spiritual nature.[87]

With this prologue, the evangelist establishes that Jesus isnot only greater than any past human prophet but greaterthan any prophet could be. He not only speaks God’s Word;he is God’s Word.[88] In the Gospel of John, Jesus revealshis divine role publicly. Here his is the Bread of Life, theLight of the World, the True Vine and more.[83]

In general, the authors of the New Testament showed lit-tle interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in syn-chronizing the episodes of his life with the secular historyof the age.[89] As stated in John 21:25, the gospels do notclaim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the lifeof Jesus.[90] The accounts were primarily written as theo-logical documents in the context of early Christianity, withtimelines as a secondary consideration.[91] One manifesta-tion of the gospels as theological documents rather than his-torical chronicles is that they devote about one third of theirtext to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of

Jesus in Jerusalem, referred to as the Passion.[92] Althoughthe gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the de-mands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is pos-sible to draw from them a general picture of the life storyof Jesus.[76][89][91]

4.2.2 Genealogy and nativity

Main articles: Genealogy of Jesus and Nativity of JesusMatthew and Luke each offer a genealogy of Jesus.

“Adoration of the Shepherds” by Gerard van Honthorst, 1622

Matthew traces Jesus’ ancestry to Abraham through David.Luke traces Jesus’ ancestry through Adam to God.[93]

Matthew and Luke each describe Jesus’ nativity (or birth),especially that Jesus was born of a virgin in Bethlehemin fulfillment of prophecy. Luke’s account emphasizesevents before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, whileMatthew’s mostly covers those after the birth and centers onJoseph.[94][95][96] Both accounts state that Jesus was born toJoseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem, and bothsupport the doctrine of the virgin birth, according to whichJesus was miraculously conceived by the Holy Spirit inMary’s womb when she was still a virgin.[97][98][99]

In Matthew, Joseph is troubled because Mary, his be-trothed, is pregnant (Matthew 1:19–20), but in the first ofJoseph’s three dreams an angel assures him not to be afraidto take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceivedby the Holy Spirit.[100] In Matthew 2:1–12, wise men orMagi from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as theKing of the Jews. Herod hears of Jesus’ birth and, want-ing him killed, orders the murders of male infants in Beth-lehem. But an angel warns Joseph in his second dream,and the family flees to Egypt—later to return and settle inNazareth.[100][101][102]

In Luke 1:31–38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that

4.2. IN THE GOSPELS 55

she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through theaction of the Holy Spirit.[95][97] When Mary is due to givebirth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph’s an-cestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census orderedby Caesar Augustus. While there Mary gives birth to Jesus,and as they have found no room in the inn, she places thenewborn in a manger (Luke 2:1–7). An angel announcesthe birth to some shepherds, who go to Bethlehem to seeJesus, and subsequently spread the news abroad (Luke 2:8–20). After the presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Joseph,Mary and Jesus return to Nazareth.[95][97]

4.2.3 Early life, family, and profession

Main article: Child JesusSee also: Return of the family of Jesus to Nazareth andUnknown years of JesusJesus’ childhood home is identified in the gospels of Luke

12-year-old Jesus found in the temple depicted by James Tissot

and Matthew as the town of Nazareth in Galilee wherehe lived with his family. Although Joseph appears indescriptions of Jesus’ childhood, no mention is made ofhim thereafter.[103] His other family members—his mother,Mary, his brothers James, Joses (or Joseph), Judas and Si-

mon and his unnamed sisters—are mentioned in the gospelsand other sources.[104][105]

In Mark, Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbors andfamily.[106] Jesus’ mother and brothers come to get him(3:31–35) because people are saying that he’s crazy (3:21).Jesus responds that his followers are his true family. InJohn, Mary follows Jesus to his crucifixion, and he ex-presses concern over her well-being (19:25–27).Jesus is called a τέκτων (tekton) in Mark 6:3, tradition-ally understood as carpenter but could cover makers of ob-jects in various materials, including builders.[107][108] Thegospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and de-bate scripture, but this does not imply that he received for-mal scribal training.[109]

4.2.4 Baptism and temptation

Main articles: Baptism of Jesus and Temptation of ChristThe Synoptic accounts of Jesus’ baptism are all preceded by

Trevisani's depiction of the baptism of Jesus, with the Holy Spiritdescending from Heaven as a dove

information about John the Baptist.[110][111][112] They showJohn preaching penance and repentance for the remission ofsins and encouraging the giving of alms to the poor (Luke3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordanaround Perea and foretells (Luke 3:16) the arrival of some-

56 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

one “more powerful” than he.[113][114]

In Matthew 3:14, upon meeting Jesus, the Baptist says “Ineed to be baptized by you”, but Jesus persuades Johnto baptize him nonetheless.[115] After he does so and Je-sus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voicefrom Heaven states, “This is my Son, the Beloved, withwhom I am well pleased” (Matthew 3:17). The HolySpirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove.[113][114][115] Thisis one of two events described in the gospels where avoice from Heaven calls Jesus “Son”, the other being theTransfiguration.[116][117] In Luke, the Holy Spirit descendsas a dove after everyone has been baptized and Jesus is pray-ing (Luke 3:21-22).After the baptism, the Synoptic Gospels describe thetemptation of Christ, in which Jesus resisted temptationsfrom the devil while fasting for forty days and nights inthe Judaean Desert.[118][119] Jesus’ baptism and temptationserve as preparation for his public ministry.[120]

The Gospel of John leaves out Jesus’ baptism andtemptation.[121] Here, John the Baptist testifies that he sawthe Spirit descend on Jesus (John 1:32).[114][122] John pub-licly proclaims Jesus as the sacrificial Lamb of God, andsome of John’s followers become disciples of Jesus.[75]

4.2.5 Public ministry

Main article: Ministry of JesusThe Synoptics depict two distinct geographical settings in

A 19th-century painting depicting the Sermon on the Mount, by CarlBloch

Jesus’ ministry. The first takes place north of Judea inGalilee, where Jesus conducts a successful ministry; and thesecond shows Jesus rejected and killed when he travels toJerusalem. Notably, Jesus forbids those who recognize hisidentity to speak of it, including people he heals and demonshe exorcises (see Messianic Secret).[123]

John depicts Jesus’ ministry as largely taking place in andaround Jerusalem rather than in Galilee. In this Gospel, Je-sus’ divine identity is publicly proclaimed and immediatelyrecognized.[88]

Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages.The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galileefrom the Judaean Desert after rebuffing the temptation ofSatan. Jesus preaches around Galilee, and in Matthew4:18–20, his first disciples, who will eventually form thecore of the early Church, encounter him and begin totravel with him.[112][124] This period includes the Sermonon the Mount, one of Jesus’ major discourses,[124][125] aswell as the calming of the storm, the feeding of the 5,000,walking on water and a number of other miracles andparables.[126] It ends with the Confession of Peter and theTransfiguration.[127][128]

As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Perean ministry,he returns to the area where he was baptized, about a thirdof the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan(John 10:40–42).[129][130] The final ministry in Jerusalembegins with Jesus’ triumphal entry into the city on PalmSunday.[131] In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Je-sus drives the money changers from the Temple and Judasbargains to betray him. This period culminates in the LastSupper and the Farewell Discourse.[110][131][132]

4.2.6 Disciples and followers

Near the beginning of his ministry, Jesus appoints twelveapostles. In Matthew and Mark, despite Jesus only brieflyrequesting that they join him, Jesus’ first four apostles, whowere fishermen, are described as immediately consenting,and abandoning their nets and boats to do so (Matthew4:18–22, Mark 1:16–20). In John, Jesus’ first two apostleswere disciples of John the Baptist. The Baptist sees Jesusand calls him the Lamb of God; the two hear this and followJesus.[133][134] In addition to the Twelve Apostles, the open-ing of the passage of the Sermon on the Plain identifies amuch larger group of people as disciples (Luke 6:17). Also,in Luke 10:1–16 Jesus sends seventy or seventy-two of hisfollowers in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visit.They are instructed to accept hospitality, heal the sick andspread the word that the Kingdom of God is coming.[135]

In Mark, the disciples are notably obtuse. They fail to un-derstand Jesus’ miracles (Mark 4:35–41, 6:52), his parables

4.2. IN THE GOSPELS 57

(Mark 4:13), or what “rising from the dead” would mean(Mark 9:9–10). When Jesus is later arrested, they deserthim (see below).[123]

4.2.7 Teachings, preachings, and miracles

Main articles: Sermon on the Mount, Parables of Jesus andMiracles of JesusSee also: Sermon on the Plain, Five Discourses of Matthew,Farewell Discourse and Olivet DiscourseIn the Synoptics, Jesus teaches extensively, often in para-

"Christ and the Rich Young Ruler" by Heinrich Hofmann, 1889

bles, about the Kingdom of God (or, in Matthew, the King-dom of Heaven).[136] The Kingdom is described as bothimminent (e.g., Mark 1:15) [137] and already present inthe ministry of Jesus: “You won't be able to say, 'Hereit is!' or 'It’s over there!' For the Kingdom of God iswithin you."(Luke 17:21) [138] Matthew’s summary of Je-sus’ ministry includes healing sickness and disease, as wellas performing exorcisms: “And Jesus was going about in allGalilee, teaching in their synagogues, and proclaiming thegospel of the kingdom, and healing every kind of diseaseand every kind of sickness among the people” (Matt. 4:23)[136] Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those whoaccept his message, provided they become as children andgive up riches (Mark 10:13–27).[136]

Jesus calls people to repent their sins and to devote them-selves completely to God.[19] Jesus tells his followers to ad-here strictly to Jewish law, although he is perceived by someto have broken the law himself, for example regarding theSabbath.[19] When asked what the greatest commandmentis, Jesus replies: “You shall love the Lord your God with allyour heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind... And a second is like it: ‘You shall love your neighboras yourself” (Matthew 22:37–39). Other ethical teachingsof Jesus include loving one’s enemies, refraining from ha-

tred and lust, and turning the other cheek (Matthew 5:21–44).[139]

John’s Gospel presents the teachings of Jesus not merelyas his own preaching, but as divine revelation. John theBaptist, for example, states in John 3:34: “He whom Godhas sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spiritwithout measure.” In John 7:16 Jesus says, “My teaching isnot mine but his who sent me.” He asserts the same thingin John 14:10: “Do you not believe that I am in the Fatherand the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I donot speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me doeshis works.”[140][141]

Jesus cleansing a leper – medieval mosaic from the MonrealeCathedral

In the gospels, the approximately thirty parables form aboutone third of Jesus’ recorded teachings.[140][142] The para-bles appear within longer sermons and at other places in thenarrative.[143] They often contain symbolism, and usuallyrelate the physical world to the spiritual.[144][145] Commonthemes in these tales include the kindness and generosity ofGod and the perils of transgression.[146] Some of his para-bles, such as the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32), are rela-tively simple, while others, such as the Growing Seed (Mark4:26–29), are more abstruse.[147]

In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a large portion of his

58 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

ministry performing miracles, especially healings.[148] Themiracles can be classified into two main categories: heal-ing miracles and nature miracles.[149] The healing miraclesinclude cures for physical ailments, exorcisms, and resur-rections of the dead.[150] The nature miracles show Jesus’power over nature, and include turning water into wine,walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Je-sus states that his miracles are from a divine source. WhenJesus’ opponents accuse him of performing exorcisms bythe power of Beelzebul, the prince of demons, Jesus coun-ters that he performs them by the “Spirit of God” (Matthew12:28) or “finger of God” (Luke 11:20).[19][151]

In John, Jesus’ miracles are described as “signs”, performedto prove his mission and divinity.[152][153] However, in theSynoptics, when asked to give miraculous signs to prove hisauthority, Jesus refuses.[152] Also, in the Synoptic Gospels,the crowds regularly respond to Jesus’ miracles with awe andpress on him to heal their sick. In John’s Gospel, Jesus ispresented as unpressured by the crowds, who often respondto his miracles with trust and faith.[154] One characteristicshared among all miracles of Jesus in the gospel accountsis that he performed them freely and never requested or ac-cepted any form of payment.[155] The gospel episodes thatinclude descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often in-clude teachings, and the miracles themselves involve an el-ement of teaching.[156][157] Many of the miracles teach theimportance of faith. In the cleansing of ten lepers and theraising of Jairus’ daughter, for instance, the beneficiaries aretold that their healing was due to their faith.[158][159]

4.2.8 Proclamation as Christ and Transfigu-ration

Main articles: Confession of Peter and Transfiguration ofJesus

At about the middle of each of the three SynopticGospels, two related episodes mark a turning point inthe narrative: the Confession of Peter and the Transfig-uration of Jesus.[128][160] These events mark the begin-nings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus tohis disciples and his prediction of his own suffering anddeath.[116][117][128]

In his Confession, Peter tells Jesus, “You are the Messiah,the Son of the living God.”[161][162][163] Jesus affirms thatPeter’s confession is divinely revealed truth.[164][165]

In the Transfiguration (Matthew 17:1–9, Mark 9:2–8, andLuke 9:28–36),[116][117][128] Jesus takes Peter and two otherapostles up an unnamed mountain, where “he was transfig-ured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and hisclothes became dazzling white.”[166] A bright cloud appearsaround them, and a voice from the cloud says, “This is mySon, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him”

The Transfiguration of Jesus, depicted by Carl Bloch

(Matthew 17:1–9).[116] In 2 Peter 1:16-18, Peter himselfaffirms that he witnessed Jesus’ Transfiguration, stating thatthe apostolic tradition is based on eyewitness testimony.[167]

The Transfiguration is one of the important events that theGospel of John omits.[168]

4.2.9 Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, anddeath

Main article: Passion Week

The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (of-ten called Passion Week) occupies about one third ofthe narrative in the canonical gospels,[92] starting with Je-sus’ Triumphal entry into Jerusalem and ending with hisCrucifixion.[110][131]

Activities in Jerusalem

Main articles: Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, Cleansingof the Temple and Bargain of JudasIn the Synoptics, the last week in Jerusalem is the con-

clusion of the journey through Perea and Judea that Je-sus began in Galilee.[131] Jesus rides a young donkey intoJerusalem, reflecting an oracle from the Book of Zechariah

4.2. IN THE GOSPELS 59

A painting of Jesus’ final entry into Jerusalem, by Jean-LéonGérôme, 1897

in which the Jews’ humble king enters Jerusalem this way(Zechariah 9:9).[65] People along the way lay cloaks andsmall branches of trees (known as palm fronds) in front ofhim and sing part of Psalm 118:25–26.[169][170][171]

Jesus next expels the money changers from the Temple,accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves throughtheir commercial activities. Jesus then prophesies about thecoming destruction, including false prophets, wars, earth-quakes, celestial disorders, persecution of the faithful, theappearance of an “abomination of desolation,” and unen-durable tribulations (Mark 13:1–23). The mysterious “Sonof Man,” he says, will dispatch angels to gather the faithfulfrom all parts of the earth (Mark 13:24–27). Jesus warnsthat these wonders will occur in the lifetimes of the hearers(Mark 13:28–32).[123] In John, the Cleansing of the Templeoccurs at the beginning of Jesus’ ministry instead of the endJohn 2:13–16.[88]

Also in the Synoptics, Jesus comes into conflict with theJewish elders, such as when they question his authority, andhe criticizes them and calls them hypocrites.[169][171] JudasIscariot, one of the twelve apostles, secretly strikes a bargainwith the Jewish elder, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for30 silver coins.[172][173]

In the Gospel of John, Jesus has been teaching in Jerusalembefore Passion Week starts (John 7:1–10:21).[106] He raisesLazarus from the dead, which increases the tension be-tween him and the authorities,[131] who conspire to kill him(John 11).[106] Raising Lazarus is Jesus’ most potent signyet.[88] In Bethany, Mary of Bethany anoints Jesus’ feet,foreshadowing his entombment.[174] Jesus then makes hisMessianic entry into Jerusalem.[106] The cheering crowdsgreeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animos-ity between him and the establishment.[131] In John, Jesushas already cleansed the Temple during an earlier Passovervisit to Jerusalem. John next recounts Jesus’ Last Supperwith his disciples.[106]

Last Supper

Main article: Last SupperSee also: Jesus predicts his betrayal, Denial of Peter andLast Supper in Christian artThe Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his

The Last Supper, depicted in this 16th-century painting by Juan deJuanes

12 apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The LastSupper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul’sFirst Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23–26) also refers toit.[56][57][175] During the meal, Jesus predicts that one of hisapostles will betray him.[176] Despite each Apostle’s asser-tion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that thebetrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 specifically identify Judas as thetraitor.[56][57][176]

In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it tothe disciples, saying, “This is my body, which is given foryou”. He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, “Thiscup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in myblood” (Luke 22:19–20).[56][177] The Christian sacramentor ordinance of the Eucharist is based on these events.[178]

Although the Gospel of John does not include a descrip-tion of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper,most scholars agree that John 6:58–59 (the Bread of LifeDiscourse) has a eucharistic character and resonates withthe institution narratives in the Synoptic Gospels and in thePauline writings on the Last Supper.[179]

In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowl-edge of him three times before the rooster crows the nextmorning.[180][181] In Luke and John, the prediction is madeduring the Supper (Luke 22:34, John 22:34). In Matthewand Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesusalso predicts that all his disciples will desert him (Matthew26:31–34, Mark 14:27–30).[182] The Gospel of John pro-vides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples’ feetbefore the meal.[101] John also includes a long sermon by Je-sus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his de-

60 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

parture. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are knownas the Farewell Discourse and are a significant source ofChristological content.[183][184]

Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest

Main articles: Agony in the Garden, Kiss of Judas andArrest of JesusAfter the Last Supper, Jesus takes a walk to pray, and then

A 17th-century depiction of the kiss of Judas and arrest of Jesus,by Caravaggio

Judas and the authorities come and arrest him.

• In Mark, they go to the garden of Gethsemane,[182]

where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal.His disciples fall asleep while they should be watch-ing (Mark 37–41). Then Judas comes with an armedmob, sent by the chief priests, scribes and elders.[123]

He kisses Jesus to identify him to the crowd, whichthen arrests Jesus.[182] In an attempt to stop them, oneof Jesus’ disciples uses a sword to cut off the ear ofa man in the crowd.[182] After Jesus’ arrest, his disci-ples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thricedenies knowing Jesus.[182] After the third denial, hehears the rooster crow and recalls the prediction as Je-sus turns to look at him. Peter then weeps bitterly.[180]

• In Matthew, Jesus criticizes the disciple’s attack withthe sword, enjoining his disciples not to resist his ar-rest. He says, "All who take the sword will perish bythe sword" (Matthew 26:52).

• In Luke, Jesus goes to the Mount of Olives to pray,[182]

and Jesus miraculously heals the ear that a disciple sev-ered (Luke 22:51).

• In John, Jesus doesn't pray to be spared hiscrucifixion,[185] as the gospel portrays him as scarcely

touched by such human weakness.[185] The people whoarrest him are soldiers and Jewish officers (John 18:3).Instead of being betrayed by a kiss, Jesus proclaims hisidentity, and when he does, the soldiers and officersfall to the ground (John 18:4–7). The gospel identifiesPeter as the disciple who used the sword, and Jesusrebukes him for it (John 18:10–11).

Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate

Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate’s Court, Jesusat Herod’s Court and Crown of ThornsSee also: Jesus, King of the Jews, What is truth? and Eccehomo

After his arrest, Jesus is taken to the Sanhedrin, a Jewishjudicial body.[186] The gospel accounts differ on the de-tails of the trials.[187] In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 andLuke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest,Caiaphas, where he is mocked and beaten that night. Earlythe next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesusaway into their council.[188][189][190] John 18:12–14 statesthat Jesus is first taken to Annas, Caiaphas’ father-in-law,and then to the high priest.[188][189][190]

Ecce homo! Antonio Ciseri's 1871 depiction of Pontius Pilate pre-senting Jesus to the public

During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no de-fense, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers tothe priests’ questions, prompting an officer to slap him. InMatthew 26:62 Jesus’ unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas toask him, “Have you no answer?"[188][189][190] In Mark 14:61the high priest then asks Jesus, “Are you the Messiah, theSon of the Blessed One?" Jesus replies, “I am”, and thenpredicts the coming of the Son of Man.[19] This provokesCaiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Je-sus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus’ answer

4.2. IN THE GOSPELS 61

is more ambiguous:[19][191] in Matthew 26:64 he responds,“You have said so”, and in Luke 22:70 he says, “You saythat I am”.[192][193]

They take Jesus to Pilate’s Court, but Pilate proves ex-tremely reluctant to condemn Jesus, so it is the Jewish el-ders who are to blame for Jesus’ crucifixion.[194] The Jew-ish elders ask the Roman governor Pontius Pilate to judgeand condemn Jesus, accusing him of claiming to be theKing of the Jews.[190] The use of the word “king” is cen-tral to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John18:36 Jesus states, “My kingdom is not from this world”,but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of theJews.[195][196] In Luke 23:7–15 Pilate realizes that Jesus isa Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction of HerodAntipas.[197][198] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,[199]

but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod’s ques-tions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensiverobe on him to make him look like a king, and return himto Pilate,[197] who then calls together the Jewish elders andannounces that he has “not found this man guilty”.[199]

Observing a Passover custom of the time, Pilate allows oneprisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He givesthe people a choice between Jesus and a murderer calledBarabbas. Persuaded by the elders (Matthew 27:20), themob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.[200] Pi-late writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads“Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews” (abbreviatedas INRI in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus’ cross (John19:19–20),[201] then scourges Jesus and sends him to be cru-cified. The soldiers place a Crown of Thorns on Jesus’ headand ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat andtaunt him before taking him to Calvary,[202] also called Gol-gotha, for crucifixion.[188][190][203]

Crucifixion and entombment

Main articles: Crucifixion of Jesus and Burial of JesusSee also: Sayings of Jesus on the cross and CrucifixioneclipseJesus’ crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels.After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvary carrying his cross;the route traditionally thought to have been taken is knownas the Via Dolorosa. The three Synoptic Gospels indicatethat Simon of Cyrene assists him, having been compelled bythe Romans to do so.[204][205] In Luke 23:27–28 Jesus tellsthe women in the multitude of people following him notto weep for him but for themselves and their children.[204]

At Calvary, Jesus is offered a concoction usually offered asa painkiller. According to Matthew and Mark, he refusesit.[204][205]

The soldiers then crucify Jesus and cast lots for his clothes.Above Jesus’ head on the cross is Pilate’s inscription, “Jesus

Pietro Perugino's depiction of the Crucifixion as Stabat Mater, 1482

of Nazareth, the King of the Jews"; soldiers and passersbymock him about it. Jesus is crucified between two con-victed thieves, one of whom rebukes Jesus, while the otherdefends him.[204][206] The Roman soldiers break the twothieves’ legs (a procedure designed to hasten death in a cru-cifixion), but they do not break those of Jesus, as he is al-ready dead. In John 19:34, one soldier pierces Jesus’ sidewith a lance, and blood and water flow out.[207] In Matthew27:51–54, when Jesus dies, the heavy curtain at the Templeis torn and an earthquake breaks open tombs. Terrified bythe events, a Roman centurion states that Jesus was the Sonof God.[204][208]

On the same day, Joseph of Arimathea, with Pilate’s per-mission and with Nicodemus' help, removes Jesus’ bodyfrom the cross, wraps him in a clean cloth, and buries himin a new rock-hewn tomb.[204] In Matthew 27:62–66, on

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the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for thetomb to be secured, and with Pilate’s permission the priestsplace seals on the large stone covering the entrance and posta guard.[204][209]

4.2.10 Resurrection and ascension

Main articles: Resurrection of Jesus, Resurrection appear-ances of Jesus and Ascension of JesusSee also: Empty tomb, Great Commission, Second Com-ing, Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art and Ascension ofJesus in Christian artIn all four gospels, Mary Magdalene goes to Jesus’ tomb on

Jesus appearing to Mary Magdalene after his resurrection from thedead, depicted by Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov

Sunday morning and is surprised to find it empty. Jesus, shelearns, has risen from the dead. Despite Jesus’ teaching, thedisciples hadn't understood that Jesus would rise again.[210]

After the discovery of the empty tomb, Jesus makes a seriesof appearances to the disciples.[60]

• In Mark, Salome and a second Mary are with her(Mark 16:1). A youth in a white robe (an angel) tellsthem that Jesus will meet his disciples in Galilee, ashe had told them (referring to Mark 14:28).[65] Thegospel then ends abruptly.[123]

• In Matthew, there’s an earthquake when the womendiscover the tomb, and an angel of the Lord de-scends from heaven, terrifying the guards.[210] Jesusappears to the eleven remaining disciples in Galileeand commissions them to baptize all nations in thename of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.[101]

• In Luke, Mary and the other women meet two an-gels, and the eleven disciples do not believe their story(Luke 25:1–12).[210] Jesus appears that same day to

his disciples in Jerusalem (Luke 24:13–43). Althoughhe appears and vanishes mysteriously, he also eats andlets them touch him to prove that he is not a spirit. Herepeats his command to bring his teaching to all na-tions (Luke 24:51).[211]

• In John, Mary is alone at first, but Peter and thebeloved disciple come and see the tomb as well. Jesusthen appears to Mary at the empty tomb.[210] He laterappears to the disciples, breathes on them, and givesthem the power to forgive and retain sins.[88] In a sec-ond visit, he proves to a doubting disciple ("DoubtingThomas") that he is flesh and blood.[88] The catch of153 fish is a miracle by the Sea of Galilee, after whichJesus encourages Peter to serve his followers.[60][212]

Jesus’ Ascension into Heaven is described in Acts 1:1–11and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In Acts, forty days afterthe Resurrection, as the disciples look on, “he was lifted up,and a cloud took him out of their sight”. 1 Peter 3:22 statesthat Jesus has “gone into heaven and is at the right hand ofGod”.[60]

The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances ofJesus in visions after his Ascension. Acts 7:55 describesa vision experienced by Stephen just before his death.[213]

On the road to Damascus, the Apostle Paul is convertedto Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing avoice saying, “I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting” (Acts9:5).[214] In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructs Ananias of Dam-ascus to heal Paul. It is the last conversation with Jesusreported in the Bible until the Book of Revelation,[214] inwhich a man named John receives a revelation from Jesusconcerning the last days,[215] when Jesus is predicted to re-turn victoriously (Revelation 19:11–21).

4.3 Historical views

Main articles: Historical Jesus and Quest for the historicalJesusSee also: Biblical criticismPrior to the Enlightenment, the gospels were usually re-

garded as accurate historical accounts, but since then schol-ars have emerged who question the reliability of the gospelsand draw a distinction between the Jesus described in thegospels and the Jesus of history.[216] Since the 18th century,three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus havetaken place, each with distinct characteristics and based ondifferent research criteria, which were often developed dur-ing the quest that applied them.[217][218] Scholars have stud-ied and debated a number of issues concerning the histor-ical Jesus, such as his existence, the origins and historicalreliability of the gospels and other sources, and the preciseportrait of the historical figure.

4.3. HISTORICAL VIEWS 63

Judea, Galilee and neighboring areas at the time of Jesus

Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life ofJesus have varied from the “maximalist” approaches of the19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted asreliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the “minimalist”approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anythingabout Jesus was accepted as historical.[219] In the 1950s, asthe second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, theminimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century,minimalists such as Price are a very small minority.[220][221]

Although a belief in the inerrancy of the gospels cannot besupported historically, many scholars since the 1980s haveheld that, beyond the few facts considered to be histori-cally certain, certain other elements of Jesus’ life are “his-torically probable”.[220][222][223] Modern scholarly researchon the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the mostprobable elements.[224][225]

4.3.1 Sources

See also: Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Jesus

A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st-centuryRoman-Jewish historian who referred to Jesus[226]

Historians face a formidable challenge when they analyzethe canonical Gospels.[227] The Gospels are not biographiesin the modern sense, and the authors explain Jesus’ theolog-ical significance and recount his public ministry while omit-ting many details of his life.[227] The supernatural events as-sociated with Jesus’ death and resurrection make the chal-lenge even more difficult.[227]

The non-canonical Gospel of Thomas is an independentwitness to many of the Jesus’ parables and aphorisms.[228]

For example, Thomas confirms that Jesus blessed the poorand that this saying circulated independently before be-ing combined with similar sayings in the Q document.[228]

Other select non-canonical Christian texts may also havehistorical value.[75]

Non-Christian sources used to establish the historical ex-istence of Jesus include the works of first-century histo-rians Josephus and Tacitus.[229][226][230] Josephus scholarLouis H. Feldman has stated that “few have doubted thegenuineness” of Josephus’ reference to Jesus in book 20

64 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

of the Antiquities of the Jews, and it is disputed only by asmall number of scholars.[231][232] Tacitus referred to Christand his execution by Pilate in book 15 of his work Annals.Scholars generally consider Tacitus’s reference to the exe-cution of Jesus to be both authentic and of historical valueas an independent Roman source.[233]

Non-Christian sources are valuable in two ways. First, theyshow that even neutral or hostile parties never evince anydoubt that Jesus actually existed. Second, they present arough picture of Jesus that is compatible with that foundin the Christian sources: that Jesus was a teacher, had areputation as a miracle worker, had a brother James, anddied a violent death.[11]

Archeology helps scholars better understand Jesus’ socialworld.[234] Recent archeological work, for example, in-dicates that Capernaum, a city important in Jesus’ min-istry, was poor and small, without even a forum or anagora.[235][236] This archaeological discovery resonates wellwith the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal shar-ing among the destitute in that area of Galilee.[235]

4.3.2 Chronology

Main article: Chronology of JesusSee also: Anno Domini

Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean, born aroundthe beginning of the first century, who died between AD 30and 36 in Judea.[237][238] The designation for the first cen-tury, anno domini, or “in the year of the lord”, is in referenceto the birth of Jesus,[239] despite modern consensus that hewas born before this time. The general scholarly consensusis that Jesus was a contemporary of John the Baptist andwas crucified by the Roman governor Pontius Pilate, whoheld office from AD 26 to 36.[24]

In 1919, Karl Ludwig Schmidt's book Der Rahmen derGeschichte Jesu (“The Framework of the Story of Jesus”)showed that the chronology of Mark is the invention of thewriter. Using form criticism, Schmidt showed that an ed-itor had assembled the narrative out of individual scenesthat did not originally have a chronological order. This find-ing challenged historians’ ability to discern a historical Jesusand helped bring about a decades-long collapse in interestin the topic.[240]

4.3.3 Historicity of events

Main article: Historicity of JesusSee also: Cultural and historical background of Jesus,History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Higher criticism,Textual criticism and Historical reliability of the Gospels

Roman senator and historian Tacitus wrote of the crucifix-ion of Christ (Jesus) in the Annals, a history of the RomanEmpire during the first century.

Most modern scholars consider Jesus’ baptism and crucifix-ion to be definite historical facts.[7] James D.G. Dunn statesthat they “command almost universal assent” and “rank sohigh on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of his-torical facts” that they are often the starting points for thestudy of the historical Jesus.[7] Scholars adduce the criterionof embarrassment, saying that early Christians would nothave invented the painful death of their leader,[241] or a bap-tism that might imply that Jesus committed sins and wantedto repent.[242][243] Scholars use a number of criteria, suchas the criterion of multiple attestation, the criterion of co-herence, and the criterion of discontinuity to judge the his-toricity of events.[244] The historicity of an event also de-pends on the reliability of the source. Mark, the earliestwritten gospel, is usually considered the most historicallyreliable.[245] John, the latest written gospel, differs consid-erably from the Synoptic Gospels, and thus is generally con-sidered less reliable. Amy-Jill Levine states that there is “aconsensus of sorts” on the basic outline of Jesus’ life, inthat most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by Johnthe Baptist, debated with Jewish authorities on the subjectof God, performed some healings, taught in parables, gath-ered followers, and was crucified on Pilate’s orders.[24]

Most scholars hold that Jesus lived in Galilee and Judea and

4.3. HISTORICAL VIEWS 65

did not preach or study elsewhere.[246] The renowned Ital-ian polymath Gaetano De Sanctis[247] (1870 – 1957) saidthat the empty tomb of Jesus was proven by the NazarethInscription,[248] which is a marble tablet inscribed in Greekwith an edict from an unnamed Caesar ordering capital pun-ishment for anyone caught disturbing graves or tombs.[249]

Historians generally consider Joseph to be Jesus’father.[250][251][252] They assert that the doctrine ofJesus’ virgin birth arose from theological developmentrather than from historical events.[250]

After Jesus’ death, his followers evidently experienced himas risen from the dead, although the details are unclear.[253]

The Gospel reports contradict each other, which suggestscompetition among those claiming to have seen him firstrather than deliberate fraud.[253] His followers formed acommunity to wait for Jesus to return and found hiskingdom.[254] Much about the historical Jesus is beyond his-torical certainty, especially the nature of these resurrectionappearances.[255] This community later separated from Ju-daism and became the Christian church.[256]

4.3.4 Portraits of Jesus

Main article: Historical Jesus

Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led toa unified picture of the historical figure, partly becauseof the variety of academic traditions represented by thescholars.[257] Ben Witherington states that “there are now asmany portraits of the historical Jesus as there are scholarlypainters”.[258] Witherington argues that any valid portraitmust recognize Jesus’ self-identity as a Jew, and he pro-motes a portrait of Jesus as a prophetic sage in the Jewishwisdom tradition.[259][260] Given the scarcity of historicalsources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to constructa portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically validbeyond the basic elements of his life.[81][82] The portraitsof Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from eachother, and from the image portrayed in the gospels.[261][262]

Contemporary scholarship, representing the “third quest,”places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition. Leading schol-ars in the “third quest” include E. P. Sanders, Geza Ver-mes, Gerd Theissen, Christoph Burchard, and John Do-minic Crossan. Jesus is seen as the founder of, in the wordsof E. P. Sanders, a '"renewal movement within Judaism.”This scholarship suggests a continuity between Jesus’ lifeas a wandering charismatic and the same lifestyle carriedforward by followers after his death. The main criterionused to discern historical details in the “third quest” is thecriterion of plausibility, relative to Jesus’ Jewish contextand to his influence on Christianity. The main disagree-

ment in contemporary research is whether Jesus was apoc-alyptic. Most scholars conclude that he was an apocalypticpreacher, like John the Baptist and the apostle Paul. In con-trast, certain prominent North American scholars, such asBurton Mack and John Dominic Crossan, advocate for anon-eschatological Jesus, one who is more of a Cynic sagethan an apocalyptic preacher.[25] In addition to portrayingJesus as an apocalyptic prophet, a charismatic healer or acynic philosopher, some scholars portray him as the trueMessiah or an egalitarian prophet of social change.[263][264]

However, the attributes described in the portraits some-times overlap, and scholars who differ on some attributessometimes agree on others.[265]

Since the 18th century, scholars have occasionally put forththat Jesus was a political national messiah, but the evidencefor this portrait is negligible.[266] Likewise, the proposal thatJesus was a Zealot does not fit with the earliest strata of theSynoptic tradition.[266]

4.3.5 Language, ethnicity, and appearance

Further information: Aramaic of Jesus and Race and ap-pearance of Jesus

Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministrytook place there.[269] The languages spoken in Galilee andJudea during the first century AD include Jewish Pales-tinian Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek, with Aramaic beingpredominant.[270][271] There is substantial consensus that Je-sus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic.[272]

Modern scholars agree that Jesus was a Jew of first-century Palestine,[273][274][275] Ioudaios in New TestamentGreek,[lower-alpha 8] a term which in the contemporary con-text may refer to religion (Second Temple Judaism), eth-nicity (of Judea), or both.[277] In a review of the state ofmodern scholarship, Amy-Jill Levine writes that the entirequestion of ethnicity is “fraught with difficulty,” and that“beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish', rarely does thescholarship address what being 'Jewish' means”.[278]

The New Testament gives no description of the physicalappearance of Jesus before his death—it is generally in-different to racial appearances and does not refer to thefeatures of the people it mentions.[279][280][281] Jesus prob-ably looked like a typical Jew of his time and accordingto some scholars was likely to have had a sinewy appear-ance due to his ascetic and itinerant lifestyle.[282] James H.Charlesworth states Jesus’ face was “most likely dark brownand sun-tanned”, and his stature “may have been betweenfive feet five [1.65 m] and five feet seven [1.70 m]".[283]

66 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

The representation of the ethnicity of Jesus has been influenced bycultural settings.[267][268]

4.3.6 Christ myth theory

Main article: Christ myth theory

The Christ myth theory is the hypothesis that Jesus ofNazareth never existed; or if he did, that he had virtuallynothing to do with the founding of Christianity and theaccounts in the gospels.[284] Different proponents espouseslightly different versions of the Christ myth theory, but allversions go beyond the mainstream view in historical Jesusresearch, which accepts that many of the events describedin the gospels are not historical but which still assumesthat the gospels are founded on a basic historical core.The Christ myth theory enjoyed brief popularity in theSoviet Union, where it was supported by Sergey Kovalev,Alexander Kazhdan, Abram Ranovich, Nikolai Rumyant-sev, Robert Wipper and Yuri Frantsev.[285] Later, however,several scholars, including Kazhdan, had retracted theirviews about mythical Jesus[285] and by the end of the 1980sthe support for the theory became almost non-existent inSoviet academia.[286]

Despite arguments put forward by authors who have ques-

tioned the existence of a historical Jesus, there remains astrong consensus in historical-critical biblical scholarshipthat a historical Jesus did live in that area and in that timeperiod.[287][288][289][290][291][292][293] However, scholars dif-fer on the historicity of specific episodes described in theBiblical accounts of Jesus,[294] and the only two events sub-ject to “almost universal assent” are that Jesus was baptizedby John the Baptist and was crucified by the order of theRoman Prefect Pontius Pilate.[295][296][297]

4.4 Perspectives

Main article: Religious perspectives on Jesus

Apart from his own disciples and followers, the Jews ofJesus’ day generally rejected him as the Messiah, as dothe great majority of Jews today. Christian theologians,ecumenical councils, reformers and others have written ex-tensively about Jesus over the centuries. Christian sects andschisms have often been defined or characterized by theirdescriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, Manichaeans, Gnostics,Muslims, Baha'is, and others have found prominent placesfor Jesus in their religions.[298][299][300] Jesus has also haddetractors, both past and present.

4.4.1 Christian views

Main articles: Jesus in Christianity and ChristologyJesus is the central figure of Christianity.[301] Although

The Trinity is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in threepersons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the HolySpirit

4.4. PERSPECTIVES 67

Jesus is depicted with the Alpha and Omega letters in the catacombsof Rome from the 4th century

Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize thekey beliefs shared among major denominations, as stated intheir catechetical or confessional texts.[302][303][304] Chris-tian views of Jesus are derived from various sources, includ-ing the canonical gospels and New Testament letters suchas the Pauline epistles and the Johannine writings. Thesedocuments outline the key beliefs held by Christians aboutJesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, andthat he is the Christ and the Son of God.[305] Despite theirmany shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agreeon all doctrines, and both major and minor differences onteachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianityfor centuries.[306]

The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus isthe foundation of the Christian faith (1 Corinthians 15:12–20).[307] Christians believe that through his sacrificial deathand resurrection, humans can be reconciled with God andare thereby offered salvation and the promise of eternallife.[29] Recalling the words of John the Baptist on the dayafter Jesus’ baptism, these doctrines sometimes refer to Je-sus as the Lamb of God, who was crucified to fulfill his roleas the servant of God.[308][309] Jesus is thus seen as the newand last Adam, whose obedience contrasts with Adam’s dis-obedience.[310] Christians view Jesus as a role model, whoseGod-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.[301]

Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human andthe Son of God. While there has been theological debateover his nature,[lower-alpha 9] Some early Christians viewedJesus as subordinate to the Father, and others consid-

ered him an aspect of the Father rather than a separateperson.[19][311] The Church resolved the issues in ancientcouncils, which established the Holy Trinity, with Jesusboth fully human and fully God.[19] Trinitarian Christiansgenerally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God’s incarna-tion and God the Son, both fully divine and fully human.However, the doctrine of the Trinity is not universally ac-cepted among Christians.[312][313] With the Reformation,Christians such as Michael Servetus and the Sociniansstarted questioning the ancient creeds that had establishedJesus’ two natures.[19] Nontrinitarian Christian groups in-clude The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,[314]

Unitarians[311] and Jehovah’s Witnesses.Christians revere not only Jesus himself, but also his name.Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earli-est days of Christianity.[315][316] These devotions and feastsexist in both Eastern and Western Christianity.[316]

In the 20th century, Christian groups became sharply di-vided in terms of how much they support historical and crit-ical inquiry into the person of Jesus. Protestant denomina-tions allow some such investigation but differ in how far theinvestigation may go. The Roman Catholic Church drewdefinite limits, but Catholic scholars have engaged in con-siderable critical study within those limits.[19]

4.4.2 Jewish views

Main article: Judaism’s view of JesusSee also: Jesus in the Talmud

Mainstream Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God,or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity.[317] It holds thatJesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled theMessianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the per-sonal qualifications of the Messiah.[318] According to Jew-ish tradition, there were no prophets after Malachi,[319] whodelivered his prophesies in the fifth century BC.[320]

Judaic criticism of Jesus is long-standing. The Talmud,written and compiled from the third to the fifth centuryAD,[321] includes stories that some consider to be accountsof Jesus. In one such story, Yeshu ha-nozri (“Jesus theChristian”), a lewd apostate, is executed by the Jewish highcourt for spreading idolatry and practicing magic.[322] Themajority of contemporary historians consider that this ma-terial provides no information on the historical Jesus.[323]

The Mishneh Torah, a late 12th-century work of Jewish lawwritten by Moses Maimonides, states that Jesus is a “stum-bling block” who makes “the majority of the world to errand serve a god other than the Lord”.[324]

68 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

4.4.3 Islamic views

Main article: Jesus in IslamA major figure in Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as

Muhammad leads Jesus, Abraham, Moses and others in prayer.Medieval Persian miniature.

ʾĪsā) is considered to be a messenger of God (Allah) andthe Messiah (al-Masih) who was sent to guide the Childrenof Israel (Bani Isra'il) with a new scripture, the Gospel(referred to in Islam as Injil).[36][325] Muslims regard thegospels of the New Testament as inauthentic, and believethat Jesus’ original message was lost or altered and thatMuhammad came later to restore it.[326] Belief in Jesus (andall other messengers of God) is a requirement for being aMuslim.[327] The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad[328][329]—and emphasizes thatJesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, hadbeen divinely chosen to spread God’s message.[330] Jesusis considered to be neither the incarnation nor the son ofGod. Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of monotheism(tawhid) and forbid the association of partners with God,which would be idolatry.[331] The Quran says that Jesushimself never claimed divinity,[332] and predicts that at theLast Judgment, Jesus will deny having ever made such aclaim (Quran 5:116).[333] Like all prophets in Islam, Jesusis considered a Muslim.[334]

The Quran describes the annunciation to Mary (Maryam)by an angel that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaininga virgin. It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurredby the will of God.[335][336] The Quran (21:91 and 66:12)states that God breathed His Spirit into Mary while she waschaste.[335][336] Jesus is called the “Spirit of God” becausehe was born through the action of the Spirit,[335] but thatbelief does not imply his pre-existence.[337]

To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was giventhe ability to perform miracles, by permission of God ratherthan by his own power.[332] Through his ministry, Jesus isseen as a precursor to Muhammad.[330] According to theQuran, Jesus was not crucified but was physically raised

into the heavens by God.[338] To Muslims, it is the ascensionrather than the crucifixion that constitutes a major event inthe life of Jesus.[339] Most Muslims believe that Jesus willreturn to earth at the end of time and defeat the Antichrist(ad-Dajjal) by killing him in Lud.[36]

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has several distinctteachings about Jesus. Ahmadis believe that he was a mortalman who survived his crucifixion and died a natural deathat the age of 120 in Kashmir, India.[340]

4.4.4 Bahá'í views

Bahá'í teachings consider Jesus to be a manifestation ofGod, a Bahá'í concept for prophets[341]—intermediaries be-tween God and humanity, serving as messengers and re-flecting God’s qualities and attributes.[342] The Bahá'í con-cept emphasizes the simultaneous qualities of humanity anddivinity;[342] thus, it is similar to the Christian concept ofincarnation.[341] Bahá'í thought accepts Jesus as the Son ofGod.[343] In Bahá'í thought, Jesus was a perfect incarnationof God’s attributes, but Bahá'í teachings reject the idea thatdivinity was contained with a single human body, statingthat, on the contrary, God transcends physical reality.[341]

Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, wrote thatsince each manifestation of God has the same divine at-tributes, they can be seen as the spiritual “return” of all pre-vious manifestations of God, and the appearance of eachnew manifestation of God inaugurates a religion that su-persedes the former ones, a concept known as progressiverevelation.[342] Bahá'ís believe that God’s plan unfolds grad-ually through this process as mankind matures, and thatsome of the manifestations arrive in specific fulfillmentof the missions of previous ones. Thus, Bahá'ís believethat Bahá'u'lláh is the promised return of Christ.[344] Bahá'íteachings confirm many, but not all, aspects of Jesus as por-trayed in the gospels. Bahá'ís believe in the virgin birth andin the Crucifixion,[345][346] but see the Resurrection and themiracles of Jesus as symbolic.[343][346]

4.4.5 Other views

See also: Criticism of Jesus

In Christian Gnosticism (now a largely extinct religiousmovement),[347] Jesus was sent from the divine realm andprovided the secret knowledge (gnosis) necessary for salva-tion. Most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human whobecame possessed by the spirit of “the Christ” at his bap-tism. This spirit left Jesus’ body during the crucifixion, butwas rejoined to him when he was raised from the dead.Some Gnostics, however, were docetics, believed that Je-

4.5. DEPICTIONS 69

sus did not have a physical body, but only appeared to pos-sess one.[348] Manichaeism, a Gnostic sect, accepted Jesusas a prophet, in addition to revering Gautama Buddha andZoroaster.[349][350]

Some Hindus consider Jesus to be an avatar or a sadhuand point out similarities between Krishna and Jesus’teachings.[351][352] Paramahansa Yogananda, an Indianguru, taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of Elisha and astudent of John the Baptist, the reincarnation of Elijah.[353]

Some Buddhists, including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th DalaiLama, regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his lifeto the welfare of people.[354] Disciples of the Cao Đài reli-gion worship Jesus Christ as a major religious teacher.[355]

He is revealed during communication with Divine Beingsas the spirit of their Supreme Being (God the Father) to-gether with other major religious teachers and founderslike the Gautama Buddha, Laozi, and Confucius.[356] TheNew Age movement entertains a wide variety of views onJesus.[357] Theosophists, from whom many New Age teach-ings originated,[358] refer to Jesus as the Master Jesus andbelieve that Christ, after various incarnations, occupied thebody of Jesus.[359] Scientologists recognize Jesus (alongwith other religious figures such as Zoroaster, Muhammad,and Buddha) as part of their “religious heritage”.[357][360]

Atheists reject Jesus’ divinity, but not all hold a negativeestimation of him; Richard Dawkins, for instance, refersto Jesus as “a great moral teacher”,[361] while stating in hisbook The God Delusion, that Jesus is praiseworthy becausehe did not derive his ethics from biblical scripture.[362]

Jesus had detractors, both past and present, as well. Earlycritics of Jesus and Christianity included Celsus in thesecond century and Porphyry in the third.[363][364] In the19th century, Nietzsche was highly critical of Jesus, whoseteachings he considered to be “anti-nature” in their treat-ment of topics such as sexuality.[365] More contemporarynotable critics of Jesus include Sita Ram Goel, ChristopherHitchens, Bertrand Russell, and Dayananda Saraswati. Inthe 20th century, Russell wrote in Why I Am Not a Christianthat Jesus was “not so wise as some other people have been,and He was certainly not superlatively wise”.[366] Russellcalled Jesus’ vindictive nature a defect in his moral charac-ter in that Jesus in the Gospels believed in the everlastingpunishment of hell, which Russell felt that no one who is“really profoundly humane can believe in”.[367] Russell alsonotes a repeated “vindictive fury against those people whowould not listen to His preaching” which he felt “detract[s]from superlative excellence”.[367]

4.5 Depictions

Main article: Depiction of JesusSome of the earliest depictions of Jesus at the Dura-

Jesus healing a paralytic in one of the first known images of Jesusfrom Dura Europos in the 2nd century

Europos church are firmly dated to before 256.[368] There-after, despite the lack of biblical references or histor-ical records, a wide range of depictions of Jesus ap-peared during the last two millennia, often influenced bycultural settings, political circumstances and theologicalcontexts.[267][268][280] As in other Early Christian art, theearliest depictions date to the late second or early thirdcentury, and surviving images are found especially in theCatacombs of Rome.[369]

The depiction of Christ in pictorial form was highlycontroversial in the early church.[370][371][372] From the 5thcentury onward, flat painted icons became popular in theEastern Church.[373] The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as abarrier to developments in the East, but by the ninth cen-tury, art was permitted again.[267] The Transfiguration wasa major theme in Eastern Christian art, and every EasternOrthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had toprove his craft by painting an icon depicting it.[374] Iconsreceive the external marks of veneration, such as kisses andprostration, and they are thought to be powerful channels of

70 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

divine grace.[373]

Before the Reformation, the crucifix was common in West-ern Christianity.[375] It is a model of the cross with Jesuscrucified on it.[375] The crucifix became the central orna-ment of the altar in the 13th century, a use that has beennearly universal in Roman Catholic churches until recenttimes.[375]

Jesus appears as an infant in a manger (feed trough) inChristmas creches, which depict the Nativity scene.[376] Heis typically joined by Mary, Joseph, animals, shepherds, an-gels, and the Magi.[376] Francis of Assisi (1181/82–1226) iscredited with popularizing the creche, although he probablydid not initiate it.[376] The creche reached its height of popu-larity in the 17th and 18th centuries in southern Europe.[376]

The Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who fo-cused on depictions of Jesus; Fra Angelico and others fol-lowed Giotto in the systematic development of unclutteredimages.[267]

The Protestant Reformation brought renewed resistance toimagery, but total prohibition was atypical, and Protes-tant objections to images have tended to reduce since the16th century. Although large images are generally avoided,few Protestants now object to book illustrations depict-ing Jesus.[377][378] The use of depictions of Jesus is advo-cated by the leaders of denominations such as Anglicansand Catholics[379][380][381] and is a key element of the East-ern Orthodox tradition.[382][383]

4.6 Associated relics

Main article: Relics associated with Jesus

The total destruction that ensued with the siege of Jerusalemby the Romans in AD 70 made the survival of itemsfrom first century Judea very rare and almost no di-rect records survive about the history of Judaism fromthe last part of the first century through the secondcentury.[384][385][lower-alpha 10] Margaret M. Mitchell writesthat although Eusebius reports (Ecclesiastical History III5.3) that the early Christians left Jerusalem for Pella justbefore Jerusalem was subjected to the final lock down, wemust accept that no first hand Christian items from the earlyJerusalem Church have reached us.[387] However, through-out the history of Christianity a number of relics attributedto Jesus have been claimed, although doubt has been caston them. The 16th-century Catholic theologian Erasmuswrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and thenumber of buildings that could have been constructed fromthe wood claimed to be from the cross used in the Crucifix-ion.[388] Similarly, while experts debate whether Jesus was

crucified with three nails or with four, at least thirty holynails continue to be venerated as relics across Europe.[389]

Some relics, such as purported remnants of the Crownof Thorns, receive only a modest number of pilgrims,while the Shroud of Turin (which is associated with anapproved Catholic devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus),have received millions,[390] including popes John Paul IIand Benedict XVI.[391][392] There is no scholarly consen-sus in favor for the authenticity of any relic attributed toJesus.[393][lower-alpha 11]

4.7 See also

• Jesuism

• Historical Jesus

• Historicity of Jesus

• Criticism of Jesus

• List of books about Jesus

• List of people claimed to be Jesus

• List of founders of religious traditions

• List of people who have been considered deities

4.8 Bibliography

• Blomberg, Craig L. (2009). Jesus and the Gospels:An Introduction and Survey. B&H Publishing Group.ISBN 978-0-8054-4482-7.

• Boring, M. Eugene; Craddock, Fred B. (2004). Thepeople’s New Testament commentary. WestminsterJohn Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22754-8.

• Brown, Raymond E. (1988). The Gospel and Epis-tles of John: A Concise Commentary. Liturgical Press.ISBN 978-0-8146-1283-5.

• Brown, Raymond E. (1997). An Introduction to theNew Testament. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-24767-2.

• Carter, Warren (2003). Pontius Pilate: portraits of aRoman governor. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5113-1.

• Chilton, Bruce; Evans, Craig A. (1998). Studying theHistorical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Re-search. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11142-4.

4.8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 71

• Cox, Steven L.; Easley, Kendell H (2007). Harmonyof the Gospels. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-9444-0.

• Crossan, John D.; Watts, Richard G. (1999). Who IsJesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Histori-cal Jesus. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25842-9. Crossan is a prominent figure in con-temporary historical Jesus research, particularly in ad-vancing the unorthodox view that Jesus was more of aCynic sage than an apocalyptic prophet.[11]

• Dickson, John (2008). Jesus: A Short Life. KregelPublications. ISBN 978-0-8254-7802-4.

• Dillenberger, John (1999). Images and Relics : The-ological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe: Theological Perceptions and VisualImages in Sixteenth-Century Europe. Oxford Univer-sity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976146-3.

• Donahue, John R.; Harrington, Daniel J. (2002). TheGospel of Mark. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5804-8.

• Doninger, Wendy (1999). Merriam-Webster’s Ency-clopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. ISBN978-0-87779-044-0.

• Dunn, James D.G. (2003). Jesus Remembered. Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-3931-2.

• Eddy, Paul R.; Boyd, Gregory A. (2007). The Jesuslegend: a case for the historical reliability of the syn-optic Jesus tradition. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-0-8010-3114-4.

• Ehrman, Bart (1999). Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet ofthe New Millennium. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-983943-8.

• Evans, Craig A. (2003). The Bible Knowledge Back-ground Commentary: Matthew-Luke. David C. Cook.ISBN 978-0-7814-3868-1.

• Evans, Craig A. (2005). The Bible KnowledgeBackground Commentary: John’s Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation. David C. Cook. ISBN 978-0-7814-4228-2.

• Evans, Craig A. (2012). Jesus and His World: The Ar-chaeological Evidence. Westminster John Knox Press.ISBN 978-0-664-23413-3.

• France, R. T. (2007). The Gospel of Matthew. Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2501-8.

• Freedman, David N. (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary ofthe Bible. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4.

• Green, Joel B.; McKnight, Scot; Marshall, I. Howard(1992). Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. InterVar-sity Press. p. 442. ISBN 978-0-8308-1777-1.

• Grudem, Wayne (1994). Systematic Theology: An In-troduction to Biblical Doctrine. Grand Rapids, MI:Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-28670-7.

• Harris, Stephen L. (1985). Understanding the Bible.Mayfield.

• Houlden, J. Leslie (2006). Jesus: the complete guide.Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8011-8.

• Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quar-les, Charles L (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and theCrown: An Introduction to the New Testament. B&HPublishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3.

• Lee, Dorothy A. (2004). Transfiguration. Continuum.ISBN 978-0-8264-7595-4.

• Levine, Amy-Jill (2006). “Introduction”. In Levine,Amy-Jill; Allison, Dale C.; Crossan, John D. The His-torical Jesus in Context. Princeton Univ Press. ISBN978-0-691-00992-6.

• Licona, Michael R. (2010). The Resurrection of Je-sus: A New Historiographical Approach. InterVarsityPress. ISBN 978-0-8308-2719-0.

• Maier, Paul L. (1989). “The Date of the Nativity andChronology of Jesus”. In Finegan, Jack; Vardaman,Jerry; Yamauchi, Edwin M. Chronos, kairos, Christos:nativity and chronological studies. Eisenbrauns. ISBN978-0-931464-50-8.

• Majerník, Ján; Ponessa, Joseph; Manhardt, Laurie W.(2005). The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke. Em-maus Road Publishing. ISBN 978-1-931018-31-9.

• McGrath, Alister E. (2006). Christianity: An Intro-duction. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-1-4051-0899-7.

• Meier, John P. (2006). “How do we decide whatcomes from Jesus”. In Dunn, James D.G.; McKnight,Scot. The Historical Jesus in Recent Research. Eisen-brauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-100-9.

• Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger A. (1998). Mercerdictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. ISBN978-0-86554-373-7.

72 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

• Morris, Leon (1992). The Gospel according toMatthew. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85111-338-8.

• Niswonger, Richard L. (1992). New Testament His-tory. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-31201-7.

• Pannenberg, Wolfhart (1968). Jesus—God and Man.S.C.M. Press. ISBN 978-0-334-00783-8.

• Powell, Mark A. (1998). Jesus as a Figure in His-tory: How Modern Historians View the Man fromGalilee. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3.

• Rahner, Karl (2004). Encyclopedia of theology: a con-cise Sacramentum mundi. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-86012-006-3.

• Rausch, Thomas P. (2003). Who is Jesus?: an intro-duction to Christology. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5078-3.

• Redford, Douglas (2007). The Life and Ministry ofJesus: The Gospels. Standard Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7847-1900-8.

• Reed, Jonathan L. (2002). Archaeology and theGalilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence. Con-tinuum. ISBN 978-1-56338-394-6.

• Sanders, Ed P. (1993). The Historical Figure of Jesus.Allen Lane Penguin Press. ISBN 978-0-7139-9059-1.Sanders is a prominent scholar in contemporary his-torical Jesus research, particularly in establishing themainstream view that Jesus founded a renewal move-ment within Judaism.[11]

• Stanton, Graham (2002). The Gospels and Jesus. Ox-ford University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00802-0.

• Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1998). The HistoricalJesus : a Comprehensive Guide. Fortress Press. ISBN978-1-4514-0863-8.

• Theissen, Gerd; Winter, Dagmar (2002). The Questfor the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria. West-minster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22537-7.

• Twelftree, Graham H. (1999). Jesus the miracleworker: a historical & theological study. InterVarsityPress. ISBN 978-0-8308-1596-8.

• Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the NewTestament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence.Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-4368-5.

• Vine, William E. (1940). Expository Dictionary ofNew Testament Words. Fleming H. Revell Company.ISBN 978-0-916441-31-9.

• Vermes, Geza (1981). Jesus the Jew: A Historian’sReading of the Gospels. Philadelphia: First Fortress.ISBN 0-8006-1443-7. Vermes is a prominent scholarin contemporary historical Jesus research, especiallyin emphasizing Jesus’ Jewish identity.[11][396]

• Vermes, Geza (2003). The Authentic Gospel of Jesus.London: Penguin. ISBN 014100360X.

• Walvoord, John F.; Zuck, Roy B. (1983). The BibleKnowledge Commentary: New Testament. David C.Cook. ISBN 978-0-88207-812-0.

• Witherington, Ben (1997). The Jesus Quest: The ThirdSearch for the Jew of Nazareth. InterVarsity Press.ISBN 978-0-8308-1544-9.

4.9 Notes

4.9.1 Explanatory[1] Meier writes that Jesus’ birth year is c. 7 or 6 BC.[1]

Rahner states that the consensus among historians is c. 4BC.[2] Sanders also favors c. 4 BC and refers to the gen-eral consensus.[3] Finegan uses the study of early Christiantraditions to support c. 3 or 2 BC.[4]

[2] Most scholars estimate AD 30 or 33 as the year of Jesus’crucifixion.[6]

[3] James Dunn writes that the baptism and crucifixion of Je-sus “command almost universal assent” and “rank so high onthe “almost impossible to doubt or deny” scale of historicalfacts” that they are often the starting points for the study ofthe historical Jesus.[7] Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixionof Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certainelement about him.[8] John Dominic Crossan and RichardG. Watts state that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain asany historical fact can be.[9] Paul R. Eddy and Gregory A.Boyd say that non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixionof Jesus is now “firmly established”.[10]

[4] Traditionally, Christians believe that Mary conceived her sonmiraculously by the agency of the Holy Spirit. Muslims be-lieve that she conceived her son miraculously by the com-mand of God. Joseph was from these perspectives the actingadoptive father.

[5] The New Testament records a variety of names and titlesaccorded to Jesus.

[6] In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, BartEhrman wrote, “He certainly existed, as virtually everycompetent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian,agrees”.[12] Richard A. Burridge states: “There are thosewho argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church’s imagi-nation, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to saythat I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says

4.9. NOTES 73

that any more”.[13] Robert M. Price does not believe thatJesus existed, but agrees that this perspective runs againstthe views of the majority of scholars.[14] James D.G. Dunncalls the theories of Jesus’ non-existence “a thoroughly deadthesis”.[15] Michael Grant (a classicist) wrote in 1977, “Inrecent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulatethe non historicity of Jesus’ or at any rate very few, and theyhave not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, in-deed very abundant, evidence to the contrary”.[16] Robert E.Van Voorst states that biblical scholars and classical histori-ans regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectivelyrefuted.[17]

[7] This article uses quotes from the New Revised Standard Ver-sion of the Bible.

[8] In the New Testament, Jesus is described as Jewish / Judean(Ioudaios as written in Koine Greek) on three occasions: bythe Magi in Matthew 2, who referred to Jesus as “King of theJews” (basileus ton ioudaion); by both the Samaritan womanat the well and by Jesus himself in John 4; and (in all fourgospels) during the Passion, by the Romans, who also usedthe phrase “King of the Jews”.[276]

[9] Following the Apostolic Age, there was fierce and oftenpoliticized debate in the early church on many interrelatedissues. Christology was a major focus of these debates, andwas addressed at every one of the first seven ecumenicalcouncils.

[10] Flavius Josephus writing (about 5 years later, c. AD 75) inthe The Jewish War (Book VII 1.1) stated that Jerusalemhad been flattened to the point that “there was left noth-ing to make those that came thither believe it had everbeen inhabited.”[386] And once what was left of the ruinsof Jerusalem had been turned into the Roman settlement ofAelia Capitolina, no Jews were allowed to set foot in it.[385]

[11] Polarized conclusions regarding the Shroud of Turinremain.[394] According to former Nature editor Philip Ball,“it’s fair to say that, despite the seemingly definitive tests in1988, the status of the Shroud of Turin is murkier than ever.Not least, the nature of the image and how it was fixed onthe cloth remain deeply puzzling”.[395]

4.9.2 Citations

[1] Meier, John P. (1991). A Marginal Jew: The roots of theproblem and the person. Yale University Press. p. 407.ISBN 978-0-300-14018-7.

[2] Rahner 2004, p. 732.

[3] Sanders 1993, pp. 10–11.

[4] Finegan, Jack (1998). Handbook of Biblical Chronology,rev. ed. Hendrickson Publishers. p. 319. ISBN 978-1-56563-143-4.

[5] Brown, Raymond E. (1977). The birth of the Messiah: acommentary on the infancy narratives in Matthew and Luke.Doubleday. p. 513. ISBN 978-0-385-05907-7.

[6] Humphreys, Colin J.; Waddington, W. G. (1992). “The Jew-ish Calendar, a Lunar Eclipse and the Date of Christ’s Cru-cifixion” (PDF). Tyndale Bulletin 43 (2): 340.

[7] Dunn 2003, p. 339.

[8] Ehrman 1999, p. 101.

[9] Crossan & Watts 1999, p. 96.

[10] Eddy & Boyd 2007, p. 173.

[11] Theissen & Merz 1998.

[12] Ehrman, Bart (2011). Forged: writing in the name of God– Why the Bible’s Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are.HarperCollins. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6.

[13] Burridge, Richard A.; Gould, Graham (2004). Jesus Nowand Then. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 34. ISBN978-0-8028-0977-3.

[14] Price, Robert M. (2009). “Jesus at the Vanishing Point”. InBeilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul R. The Historical Jesus: FiveViews. InterVarsity. pp. 55, 61. ISBN 978-0-8308-7853-6.

[15] Sykes, Stephen W. (2007). “Paul’s understanding of thedeath of Jesus”. Sacrifice and Redemption. Cambridge Uni-versity Press. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-521-04460-8.

[16] Grant, Michael (1977). Jesus: An Historian’s Review of theGospels. Scribner’s. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-684-14889-2.

[17] Van Voorst 2000, p. 16.

[18] Funk, Robert W.; Hoover, Roy W. (1993). The FiveGospels. Harper. p. 3.

[19] Sanders, Ed P.; Pelikan, Jaroslav J. “Jesus Christ”. Ency-clopædia Britannica. Retrieved June 10, 2015.

[20] Sanders 1993, pp. 73.

[21] Theissen & Merz 1998, p. 25.

[22] Hezser, Catherine (1997). The Social Structure of the Rab-binic Movement in Roman Palestine. p. 59.

[23] Dunn, James D. G. (2013). The Oral Gospel Tradition. Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 290–291.

[24] Levine 2006, p. 4.

[25] Theissen & Merz 1998, pp. 1–15.

[26] Sanders 1993, pp. 11, 14.

[27] Woodhead, Linda (2004). Christianity: A Very Short Intro-duction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. n.p.

[28] Grudem 1994, pp. 568–603.

74 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

[29] Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (1993). OxfordCompanion to the Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 649.ISBN 978-0-19-974391-9.

[30] Erickson, Millard J. (2001). Introducing Christian Doctrine(2 ed.). pp. 391–392.

[31] Tabor, James. “What the Bible Says About Death, Afterlife,and the Future”. UNCC.

[32] Hoekema, Anthony A. (1994). The Bible and the Future.Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 88–89.

[33] Garrett, James L. (2014). Systematic Theology, Volume 2,Second Edition: Biblical, Historical, and Evangelical. Wipfand Stock Publishers. p. 766.

[34] Erickson, Millard J. (2001). The Concise Dictionary ofChristian Theology. Baker Books. p. 95.

[35] Richard Bauckham, “Universalism: a historical survey”,Themelios 4.2 (September 1978): 47–54.

[36] Glassé, Cyril (2008). Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Row-man & Littlefield. pp. 270–271. ISBN 978-0-7425-6296-7.

[37] Maas, Anthony J. (1913). "Origin of the Name of JesusChrist". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Apple-ton Company.

[38] Wycliffe Bible Dictionary. entry HEBREW LANGUAGE:Hendrickson Publishers. 1975.

[39] Ehrman, Bart D. (2012). Did Jesus Exist?: The HistoricalArgument for Jesus of Nazareth. HarperOne. p. 29. ISBN978-0-06-208994-6.

[40] “Joshua”. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved August 4, 2013.

[41] Hare, Douglas (2009). Matthew. Westminster John KnoxPress. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-664-23433-1.

[42] Rogers, Cleon (1999). Topical Josephus. Zondervan. p. 12.ISBN 9780310230175.

[43] Eddy & Boyd 2007, p. 129.

[44] France 2007, p. 53.

[45] Doninger 1999, p. 212.

[46] Heil, John P. (2010). Philippians: Let Us Rejoice in BeingConformed to Christ. Society of Biblical Lit. p. 66. ISBN978-1-58983-482-8.

[47] Gwynn, Murl E. (2011). Conflict: Christianity’s Love Vs.Islam’s Submission. iUniverse. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4620-3484-0.

[48] Vine 1940, pp. 274–275.

[49] Pannenberg 1968, pp. 30–31.

[50] Bultmann, Rudolf K. (2007). Theology of the New Testa-ment. Baylor University Press. p. 80. ISBN 1-932792-93-7.

[51] Mills & Bullard 1998, p. 142.

[52] “G5546 Χριστιανός". Strong’s Greek Lexicon. RetrievedJuly 22, 2013.

[53] Harding, Mark (2010). Early Christian Life and Thoughtin Social Context: A Reader. A & C Black. pp. 166–168.Retrieved 27 February 2015.

[54] Stanton, Graham (2002). The Gospels and Jesus. OxfordUniversity Press. pp. 14–18. Retrieved 27 February 2015.

[55] Blomberg 2009, pp. 441–442.

[56] Fahlbusch, Erwin (2005). The Encyclopedia of Christianity4. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 53–56. ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5.

[57] Evans 2003, pp. 465–477.

[58] Bruce, Frederick F. (1988). The Book of the Acts. Wm. B.Eerdmans Publishing. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-8028-2505-6.

[59] Rausch 2003, p. 77.

[60] Evans 2003, pp. 521–530.

[61] Brown 1997, pp. 835–840.

[62] Chilton & Evans 1998, p. 482.

[63] Roberts, Mark D. (2007). Can We Trust the Gospels?: In-vestigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.Crossway. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-4335-1978-9.

[64] Humphreys, Colin J. (2011). The Mystery of the Last Supper:Reconstructing the Final Days of Jesus. Cambridge Univer-sity Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-1-139-49631-5.

[65] May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New OxfordAnnotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. “Mark” pp.1213–1239

[66] “John, St.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of theChristian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005

[67] Haffner, Paul (2008). New Testament Theology. p. 135.ISBN 978-88-902268-0-9.

[68] Scroggie, W. Graham (1995). A Guide to the Gospels.Kregel Publications. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-8254-9571-7.

[69] “synoptic”. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). OxfordUniversity Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UKpublic library membership required.)

[70] Moloney, Francis J.; Harrington, Daniel J. (1998). TheGospel of John. Liturgical Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8146-5806-2.

[71] Ladd, George E. (1993). A Theology of the New Testament.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-8028-0680-2.

4.9. NOTES 75

[72] Stoldt, Hans-Herbert, History and Criticism of the MarcanHypothesis, Hardcover, 302 pages, Mercer Univ Pr; FirstEdition (October 1980), ISBN 978-0865540026

[73] Licona 2010, pp. 210–21.

[74] Sanders 1993, p. 71.

[75] Theissen & Merz 1998, pp. 17–62.

[76] Sanders 1993, p. 3.

[77] Crossan & Watts 1999, p. 108.

[78] Dunn 2003, pp. 779–781.

[79] Funk, Robert W. (1998). The acts of Jesus: the search forthe authentic deeds of Jesus. Harper. pp. 449–495. ISBN978-0-06-062979-3.

[80] Grudem 1994, pp. 90–91.

[81] Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 117–125.

[82] Ehrman 1999, pp. 22–23.

[83] Thompson, Frank Charles. The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible. Kirk bride Bible Co & Zondervan BiblePublishers. 1983. p. 1563–1564.

[84] May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New OxfordAnnotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. “Matthew” p.1171–1212.

[85] May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Ox-ford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. “Luke”p. 1240-1285.

[86] “John, Gospel of.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictio-nary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford UniversityPress. 2005

[87] May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Ox-ford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. “John”p. 1286-1318.

[88] Harris 1985, pp. 302–310.

[89] Rahner 2004, pp. 730–731.

[90] O'Collins, Gerald (2009). Christology: A Biblical, Historical,and Systematic Study of Jesus. OUP Oxford. pp. 1–3. ISBN978-0-19-955787-5.

[91] Wiarda, Timothy (2010). Interpreting Gospel Narratives:Scenes, People, and Theology. B&H Publishing Group. pp.75–78. ISBN 978-0-8054-4843-6.

[92] Turner, David L. (2008). Matthew. Baker Academic. p.613. ISBN 978-0-8010-2684-3.

[93] Brown, Raymond E. (1978). Mary in the New Testament.Paulist Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-8091-2168-7.

[94] Mills & Bullard 1998, p. 556.

[95] Marsh, Clive; Moyise, Steve (2006). Jesus and the Gospels.Clark International. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-567-04073-2.

[96] Morris 1992, p. 26.

[97] Jeffrey, David L. (1992). A Dictionary of biblical tradition inEnglish literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 538–540. ISBN 978-0-85244-224-1.

[98] Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 30–37.

[99] Brownrigg, Ronald (2002). Who’s Who in the New Testa-ment. Taylor & Francis. pp. 96–100. ISBN 978-0-415-26036-7.

[100] Talbert, Charles H. (2010). Matthew. Baker Academic. pp.29–30. ISBN 978-0-8010-3192-2.

[101] Harris 1985, pp. 272–285.

[102] Schnackenburg, Rudolf (2002). The Gospel of Matthew.Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-8028-4438-5.

[103] Perrotta, Louise B. (2000). Saint Joseph: His Life and HisRole in the Church Today. Our Sunday Visitor Publishing.pp. 21, 110–112. ISBN 978-0-87973-573-9.

[104] Aslan, Reza (2013). Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus ofNazareth. Random House. p. 756.

[105] Josephus (2012). Antiquities of the Jews. Acheron Press. p.21247.

[106] Harris 1985, pp. 270–272.

[107] Liddell, Henry G.; Scott, Robert (1889). An IntermediateGreek–English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell andScott’s Greek–English Lexicon. Clarendon Press. p. 797.

[108] Dickson 2008, pp. 68–69.

[109] Evans, Craig A. (2001). “Context, family and formation”. InBockmuehl, Markus N. A. Cambridge companion to Jesus.Cambridge University Press. pp. 14, 21. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1.

[110] Blomberg 2009, pp. 224–229.

[111] Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 141–143.

[112] McGrath 2006, pp. 16–22.

[113] Dunn, James D.G.; Rogerson, John W. (2003). Eerdmanscommentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p.1010. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.

[114] Zanzig, Thomas (2000). Jesus of history, Christ of faith.Saint Mary’s Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-88489-530-5.

[115] Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, pp. 27–31.

[116] Lee 2004, pp. 21–30.

76 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

[117] Harding, Mark; Nobbs, Alanna (2010). The Content and theSetting of the Gospel Tradition. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publish-ing. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-8028-3318-1.

[118] Niswonger 1992, pp. 143–146.

[119] Redford 2007, p. 95–98.

[120] Sheen, Fulton J. (2008). Life of Christ. Random House. p.65. ISBN 978-0-385-52699-9.

[121] ”Jesus Christ.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary ofthe Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.2005

[122] Boring & Craddock 2004, p. 292.

[123] Harris 1985, pp. 285–296.

[124] Redford 2007, pp. 117–130.

[125] Vaught, Carl G. (2001). The Sermon on the mount: a the-ological investigation. Baylor University Press. pp. xi–xiv.ISBN 978-0-918954-76-3.

[126] Redford 2007, pp. 143–160.

[127] Nash, Henry S. (1909). “Transfiguration, The”. In Jackson,Samuel M. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of ReligiousThought: Son of Man-Tremellius V11. Funk & WagnallsCompany. p. 493. ISBN 978-1-4286-3189-2.

[128] Barton, Stephen C. The Cambridge companion to theGospels. Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–133. ISBN978-0-521-80766-1.

[129] Cox & Easley 2007, p. 137.

[130] Redford 2007, pp. 211–229.

[131] Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 155–170.

[132] Redford 2007, pp. 257–274.

[133] Brown 1988, pp. 25–27.

[134] Boring & Craddock 2004, pp. 292–293.

[135] Patella, Michael F. (2009). “The Gospel According toLuke”. In Durken, Daniel. New Collegeville Bible Commen-tary: New Testament. Liturgical Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-8146-3260-4.

[136] “Kingdom of God.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictio-nary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford UniversityPress. 2005

[137] https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:15

[138] name=Luke 17:21 New Living Translation https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+17%3A21&version=NLT

[139] Stassen, Glen H.; Gushee, David P. (2003). KingdomEthics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context. InterVar-sity Press. pp. 102–103, 138–140, 197–198, 295–298.ISBN 978-0-8308-2668-1.

[140] Osborn, Eric F. (1993). The emergence of Christian theol-ogy. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-521-43078-4.

[141] Köstenberger, Andreas J. (1998). The missions of Jesus andthe disciples according to the Fourth Gospel. Wm. B. Eerd-mans Publishing. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0-8028-4255-8.

[142] Pentecost, J. Dwight (1998). The parables of Jesus: lessonsin life from the Master Teacher. Kregel Publications. p. 10.ISBN 978-0-8254-9715-5.

[143] Howick, E. Keith (2003). The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah.WindRiver Publishing. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-1-886249-02-8.

[144] Lisco, Friedrich G. (1850). The Parables of Jesus. Danielsand Smith Publishers. pp. 9–11.

[145] Oxenden, Ashton (1864). The parables of our Lord?.William Macintosh Publishers. p. 6.

[146] Blomberg, Craig L. (2012). Interpreting the Parables. Inter-Varsity Press. p. 448. ISBN 978-0-8308-3967-4.

[147] Boucher, Madeleine I. “The Parables”. BBC. Retrieved June3, 2013.

[148] Green, McKnight & Marshall 1992, p. 299.

[149] Twelftree 1999, p. 350.

[150] Green, McKnight & Marshall 1992, p. 300.

[151] Hindson, Edward E.; Mitchell, Daniel R. (2010). ZondervanKing James Version Commentary: New Testament. Zonder-van. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-310-25150-7.

[152] Achtemeier, Paul J.; Green, Joel B.; Thompson, MarianneM. (2001). Introducing the New Testament: Its Literatureand Theology. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 198. ISBN978-0-8028-3717-2.

[153] Ehrman, Bart D. (2009). Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing theHidden Contradictions in the Bible (And Why We Don't KnowAbout Them). HarperCollins. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-06-186328-8.

[154] Twelftree 1999, p. 236.

[155] van der Loos, Hendrik (1965). The Miracles Of Jesus. Brill.p. 197.

[156] Pentecost, J. Dwight (1981). The words and works of JesusChrist. Zondervan. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-310-30940-6.

[157] Twelftree 1999, p. 95.

[158] Donahue & Harrington 2002, p. 182.

4.9. NOTES 77

[159] Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Miracles of the Bible. Zon-dervan. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-310-28101-6.

[160] Kingsbury, Jack D. (1983). The Christology of Mark’sGospel. Fortress Press. pp. 91–95. ISBN 978-1-4514-1007-5.

[161] Karris, Robert J. (1992). The Collegeville Bible Commen-tary: New Testament. Liturgical Press. pp. 885–886. ISBN978-0-8146-2211-7.

[162] Kingsbury, Jack D.; Powell, Mark A.; Bauer, David R.(1999). Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology.Westminster John Knox Press. p. xvi. ISBN 978-0-664-25752-1.

[163] Donahue & Harrington 2002, p. 336.

[164] Yieh, John Y. H. (2004). One teacher: Jesus’ teaching role inMatthew’s gospel. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 240–241. ISBN978-3-11-018151-7.

[165] Pannenberg 1968, pp. 53–54.

[166] Lee 2004, pp. 72–76.

[167] May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New OxfordAnnotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. p. 1481.

[168] ”John, Gospel of.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictio-nary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford UniversityPress. 2005

[169] Boring & Craddock 2004, pp. 256–258.

[170] Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, pp. 133–134.

[171] Evans 2003, pp. 381–395.

[172] Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Apostles of the Bible. Zon-dervan. pp. 106–111. ISBN 978-0-310-28011-8.

[173] Hayes, Doremus A. (2009). The Synoptic Gospels and theBook of Acts. HardPress. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-313-53490-1.

[174] Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar.The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. “John” p.401–470

[175] Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 180–191.

[176] Cox & Easley 2007, p. 182.

[177] Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (2005). “Eucharist”. OxfordDictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.

[178] Pohle, Joseph (1913). "The Blessed Eucharist as a Sacra-ment". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert AppletonCompany.

[179] Freedman 2000, p. 792.

[180] Perkins, Pheme (2000). Peter: apostle for the whole church.Fortress Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-4514-1598-8.

[181] Lange, Johann P. (1865). The Gospel according to Matthew,Volume 1. Charles Scribner Co. p. 499.

[182] Walvoord & Zuck 1983, pp. 83–85.

[183] O'Day, Gail R.; Hylen, Susan (2006). John. WestminsterJohn Knox Press. pp. 142–168. ISBN 978-0-664-25260-1.

[184] Ridderbos, Herman (1997). The Gospel according to John.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 546–576. ISBN 978-0-8028-0453-2.

[185] “Jesus.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of theChristian church. New York: Oxford University Press.2005

[186] Brown 1997, p. 146.

[187] Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1988). International Standard BibleEncyclopedia: E–J. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp.1050–1052. ISBN 978-0-8028-3782-0.

[188] Evans 2003, pp. 487–500.

[189] Blomberg 2009, pp. 396–400.

[190] Holman Concise Bible Dictionary. B&H Publishing Group.2011. pp. 608–609. ISBN 978-0-8054-9548-5.

[191] Evans 2003, p. 495.

[192] Blomberg 2009, pp. 396–398.

[193] O'Toole, Robert F. (2004). Luke’s presentation of Jesus: achristology. Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico. p. 166.ISBN 978-88-7653-625-0.

[194] Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus:the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFran-cisco. 1998. “Mark,” p. 51-161

[195] Binz, Stephen J. (2004). The Names of Jesus. Twenty-ThirdPublications. pp. 81–82. ISBN 978-1-58595-315-8.

[196] Ironside, H. A. (2006). John. Kregel Academic. p. 454.ISBN 978-0-8254-9619-6.

[197] Niswonger 1992, p. 172.

[198] Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, p. 181.

[199] Carter 2003, pp. 120–121.

[200] Blomberg 2009, pp. 400–401.

[201] Brown 1988, p. 93.

[202] Senior, Donald (1985). The Passion of Jesus in the Gospelof Matthew. Liturgical Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-8146-5460-6.

[203] Blomberg 2009, p. 402.

[204] Evans 2003, pp. 509–520.

[205] Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 211–214.

78 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

[206] Doninger 1999, p. 271.

[207] Doninger 1999, p. 271.

[208] Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 213–214.

[209] Morris 1992, p. 727.

[210] Harris 1985, pp. 308–309.

[211] Harris 1985, pp. 297–301.

[212] Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 216–226.

[213] Frederick F., Bruce (1990). The Acts of the Apostles. Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-8028-0966-7.

[214] Johnson, Luke T.; Harrington, Daniel J. (1992). The Acts ofthe Apostles. Liturgical Press. pp. 164–167. ISBN 978-0-8146-5807-9.

[215] Van den Biesen, Christian (1913). "Apocalypse". CatholicEncyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

[216] Levine 2006, p. 5.

[217] Witherington 1997, pp. 9–13.

[218] Powell 1998, pp. 19–23.

[219] Keener, Craig S. (2012). The Historical Jesus of the Gospels.William B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-8028-6292-1.

[220] Chilton & Evans 1998, p. 27.

[221] Evans 2012, pp. 4–5.

[222] Borg, Marcus J. (1994). Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship.Continuum. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-1-56338-094-5.

[223] Theissen & Winter 2002, pp. 142–143.

[224] Anderson, Paul N.; Just, Felix; Thatcher, Tom (2007). John,Jesus, and History, Volume 1: Critical Appraisals of CriticalViews. Society of Biblical Lit. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-58983-293-0.

[225] Meier 2006, p. 124.

[226] Blomberg 2009, pp. 431–436.

[227] Harris 1985, p. 263.

[228] Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar.The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. “The Gospelof Thomas,” p 471-532.

[229] Tuckett, Christopher (2001). “Sources and methods”. InBockmuehl, Markus N. A. Cambridge Companion to Jesus.Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–4. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1. All this does at least render highly implausibleany far-fetched theories that even Jesus’ very existence wasa Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that hewas crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and

that he had a band of followers who continued to support hiscause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition.If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide uswith certainty on that score.

[230] Van Voorst 2000, pp. 39–53.

[231] Van Voorst 2000, p. 83.

[232] Maier, Paul L. (1995). Josephus, the essential works: a con-densation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war. p. 285.ISBN 978-0-8254-3260-6.

[233] Evans, Craig A. (2001). Jesus and His Contemporaries:Comparative Studies. Brill. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-391-04118-9.

[234] Reed 2002, p. 18.

[235] Gowler, David B. (2007). What are they saying about thehistorical Jesus?. Paulist Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8091-4445-7.

[236] Charlesworth, James H., ed. (2006). “Jesus and Archaeol-ogy”. Jesus and archaeology. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8028-4880-2.

[237] Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 114.

[238] Maier 1989, p. 124.

[239] “Anno Domini”. Merriam Webster Online Dictionary.Merriam-Webster. 2003. Retrieved 2015-02-16. Etymol-ogy: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord

[240] Theissen & Merz 1998, pp. 5-7.

[241] Meier 2006, pp. 126–128.

[242] Powell 1998, p. 47.

[243] Murphy, Catherine (2003). John the Baptist: Prophet of Pu-rity for a New Age. Liturgical Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN978-0-8146-5933-5.

[244] Rausch 2003, pp. 36–37.

[245] Anderson, Paul N.; Just, Felix; Thatcher, Tom (2007). John,Jesus, and History, Volume 2. Society of Biblical Lit. p. 291.ISBN 978-1-58983-293-0.

[246] Borg, Marcus J. (2006). “The Spirit-Filled Experience ofJesus”. In Dunn, James D.G.; McKnight, Scot. The Histor-ical Jesus in Recent Research. Eisenbrauns. p. 303. ISBN978-1-57506-100-9.

[247] Bruce Gibson, Thomas Harrison: Polybius and His World,p.26, 2013; Oxford Univ. Press, ISBN 978-0199608409

[248] Bruce Metzger, New Testament Tools and Studies, Vol. 10,p 89: 1980, Brill. Metzger noted Wenger, Stauffer, Sordi,Lagrange, L.Herrmann, S.Losch, Blaiklock and Gaurduccialso held this view.

4.9. NOTES 79

[249] John G. Gager, “Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from theAncient World” (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 179.

[250] Vermes, Geza (1981). Jesus the Jew: A Historian’s Readingof the Gospels. Philadelphia: First Fortress. p. 283. ISBN0-8006-1443-7.

[251] Sanders, E. P. (1995). The Historical Figure of Jesus. Lon-don: Penguin. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-140-14499-4.

[252] Aslan, Reza (2013). Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus ofNazareth. New York: Random House. pp. location 756.ISBN 978-0-679-60353-5.

[253] Sanders 1993, pp. 276-281.

[254] Sanders 1993, p. 11.

[255] Sanders 1993, p. 280.

[256] Sanders 1993, p. 14.

[257] Theissen & Winter 2002, pp. 4–5.

[258] Witherington 1997, p. 77.

[259] Witherington.

[260] Witherington III, Ben. Jesus the sage. Fortress Press. 2000.

[261] Theissen & Winter 2002, p. 5.

[262] “Historical Jesus, Quest of the”. Oxford Dictionary of theChristian Church. Oxford University Press. p. 775. ISBN978-0-19-280290-3.

[263] Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (2006). TheCambridge History of Christianity 1. Cambridge UniversityPress. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-521-81239-9.

[264] Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 124–125.

[265] Brown, Colin (2011). “Why Study the Historical Jesus?".In Holmen, Tom; Porter, Stanley E. Handbook for the Studyof the Historical Jesus. Brill. p. 1416. ISBN 978-90-04-16372-0.

[266] “Jesus Christ.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary ofthe Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.2005

[267] Houlden 2006, pp. 63–99.

[268] Erricker, Clive (1987). Teaching Christianity: a world reli-gions approach. James Clarke & Co. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7188-2634-5.

[269] Green, McKnight & Marshall 1992, p. 442.

[270] Barr, James (1970). “Which language did Jesus speak”. Bul-letin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester53 (1): 9–29.

[271] Porter, Stanley E. (1997). Handbook to exegesis of the NewTestament. Brill. pp. 110–112. ISBN 978-90-04-09921-0.

[272] Dunn 2003, pp. 313–315.

[273] Ehrman 1999, p. 96.

[274] Stoutzenberger, Joseph (2000). Celebrating sacraments. StMary’s Press. p. 286.

[275] Murphy, Frederick (1991). The religious world of Jesus: anintroduction to Second Temple Palestinian Judaism. Abing-don Press. p. 311.

[276] Elliott, John (2007). “Jesus the Israelite Was Neither a 'Jew'nor a 'Christian': On Correcting Misleading Nomenclature”.Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus 5 (119): 119.doi:10.1177/1476869007079741.

[277] See for example:

• Daniel R. Schwartz (2014). Judeans and Jews: FourFaces of Dichotomy in Ancient Jewish History. Uni-versity of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781442648395.

• Garroway, Rabbi Joshua (2011). “Ioudaios". In Amy-Jill Levine, Marc Z. Brettler. The Jewish AnnotatedNew Testament. Oxford University Press. pp. 524–526. ISBN 9780195297706.

• Miller, David M. (2010). “The Meaning of Ioudaiosand its Relationship to Other Group Labels in Ancient‘Judaism'" (PDF). Currents in Biblical Research 9 (1):98–126.

• Mason, Steve (2007). “Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Ju-daism: Problems of Categorization in Ancient His-tory” (PDF). Journal for the Study of Judaism 38:457–512. doi:10.1163/156851507X193108.

[278] Levine 2006, p. 10.

[279] Jensen, Robin M. (2010). “Jesus in Christian art”. In Bur-kett, Delbert. The Blackwell Companion to Jesus. John Wi-ley & Sons. pp. 477–502. ISBN 978-1-4443-5175-0.

[280] Perkinson, Stephen (2009). The likeness of the king: a pre-history of portraiture in late medieval France. University ofChicago Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-226-65879-7.

[281] Kidd, Colin (2006). The forging of races: race and scripturein the Protestant Atlantic world. Cambridge University Press.pp. 48–51. ISBN 978-1-139-45753-8.

[282] Gibson, David (February 21, 2004). “What Did Jesus ReallyLook Like?". New York Times.

[283] Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: AnEssential Guide. Abingdon Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-687-02167-3.

[284] Bart Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist? Harper Collins, 2012, p. 12,""In simpler terms, the historical Jesus did not exist . Or ifhe did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding ofChristianity.” further quoting as authoritative the fuller def-inition provided by Earl Doherty in Jesus: Neither God NorMan. Age of Reason, 2009, pp. vii-viii: it is “the theory that

80 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Chris-tianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure,that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and thatno single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galileanpreaching tradition.”

[285] А. В. Андреев (2015). "Дискуссия об историчностиИисуса Христа в советском религиоведении" (PDF).Вестник ПСТГУ (in Russian). Retrieved 12 June 2015.

[286] Гололоб Г. "Богословие и национальный вопрос" (inRussian). Библиотека Гумер. Retrieved 12 June 2015.

[287] James D. G. Dunn “Paul’s understanding of the death of Je-sus” in Sacrifice and Redemption edited by S. W. Sykes (Dec3, 2007) Cambridge University Press ISBN 052104460Xpages 35-36

[288] Jesus Now and Then by Richard A. Burridge and GrahamGould (Apr 1, 2004) ISBN 0802809774 page 34

[289] Jesus by Michael Grant 2004 ISBN 1898799881 page 200

[290] The Gospels and Jesus by Graham Stanton, 1989 ISBN0192132415 Oxford University Press, page 145

[291] Robert E. Van Voorst Jesus Outside the New Testament: AnIntroduction to the Ancient Evidence Eerdmans Publishing,2000. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 page 16

[292] Did Jesus Exist?:The Historical Argument for Jesus ofNazareth. HarperCollins, USA. 2012. ISBN 978-0-06-220460-8.

[293] B. Ehrman, 2011 Forged : writing in the name of God ISBN978-0-06-207863-6. page 285

[294] Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians Viewthe Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 page 181

[295] Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 page 339 states of baptism and crucifixion thatthese “two facts in the life of Jesus command almost univer-sal assent”.

[296] Prophet and Teacher: An Introduction to the Historical Jesusby William R. Herzog (4 Jul 2005) ISBN 0664225284 pages1-6

[297] Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Bi-ography. HarperOne. p. 145. ISBN 0-06-061662-8. Thathe was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be,since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christianaccounts on at least that basic fact.

[298] Watson, Francis (2001). “The quest for the real Jesus”. InBockmuehl, Markus N. A. Cambridge companion to Jesus.Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1.

[299] Evans, C. Stephen (1996). The historical Christ and the Jesusof faith. Oxford University Press. p. v. ISBN 978-0-19-152042-6.

[300] Delbert, Burkett (2010). The Blackwell Companion to Jesus.John Wiley & Sons. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4443-5175-0.

[301] McGrath 2006, pp. 4–6.

[302] Jackson, Gregory L. (1993). Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant:a doctrinal comparison. Christian News. pp. 11–17. ISBN978-0-615-16635-3.

[303] McGuckin, John A. (2010). The Orthodox Church: An In-troduction to Its History, Doctrine. John Wiley & Sons. pp.6–7. ISBN 978-1-4443-9383-5.

[304] Leith, John H. (1993). Basic Christian doctrine. Westmin-ster John Knox Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-664-25192-5.

[305] Schreiner, Thomas R. (2008). New Testament Theology:Magnifying God in Christ. Baker Academic. pp. 23–37.ISBN 978-0-8010-2680-5.

[306] “Great Schism”. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church.Oxford University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.

[307] “The Letter of Paul to the Corinthians”. Encyclopædia Bri-tannica. Retrieved June 26, 2013.

[308] Cullmann, Oscar (1959). The Christology of the New Testa-ment. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-664-24351-7.

[309] Deme, Dániel (2004). The Christology of Anselm of Can-terbury. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 199–200. ISBN 978-0-7546-3779-0.

[310] Pannenberg, Wolfhart (2004). Systematic Theology 2. Con-tinuum. pp. 297–303. ISBN 978-0-567-08466-8.

[311] “Antitrinitarianism.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictio-nary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford UniversityPress. 2005

[312] Friedmann, Robert. “Antitrinitarianism”. Global AnabaptistMennonite Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 24, 2012.

[313] Joyce, George H. (1913). "Blessed Trinity". Catholic Ency-clopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

[314] “Mormonism 101: What is Mormonism”, MormonNews-room.org (LDS Church), retrieved October 21, 2014

[315] Hunter, Sylvester (2010). Outlines of dogmatic theology 2.Nabu Press. p. 443. ISBN 978-1-177-95809-7.

[316] Houlden 2006, p. 426.

[317] Kessler, Ed. “Jesus the Jew”. BBC. Retrieved June 18,2013.

[318] Norman, Asher (2007). Twenty-six reasons why Jews don'tbelieve in Jesus. Feldheim Publishers. pp. 59–70. ISBN978-0-9771937-0-7.

[319] Simmons, Shraga (March 6, 2004). “Why Jews Do not Be-lieve in Jesus”. Aish.com.

4.9. NOTES 81

[320] “MALACHI, BOOK OF”. Jewish Encyclopedia. RetrievedJuly 3, 2013.

[321] “TALMUD”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 3, 2013.

[322] Kessler, Edward; Wenborn, Neil (2005). A Dictionary ofJewish-Christian Relations. Cambridge University Press. p.416. ISBN 978-1-139-44750-8.

[323] Theissen & Merz 1998, pp. 74–75.

[324] Jeffrey, Grant R. (2009). Heaven: The Mystery of Angels.Random House Digital. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-307-50940-6.

[325] Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam.Oxford University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8.

[326] Paget, James C. (2001). “Quests for the historical Jesus”.In Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. Cambridge companion to Je-sus. Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1.

[327] Ashraf, Irshad (Director) (August 19, 2007). The MuslimJesus (Television production). ITV Productions.

[328] “Jesus, Son of Mary”. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Re-trieved July 3, 2013.

[329] Aboul-Enein, Youssef H. (2010). Militant Islamist Ideology:Understanding the Global Threat. Naval Institute Press. p.20. ISBN 978-1-61251-015-6.

[330] Fasching, Darrell J.; deChant, Dell (2001). Comparative Re-ligious Ethics: A Narrative Approach. John Wiley & Sons.pp. 241, 274–275. ISBN 978-0-631-20125-0.

[331] George, Timothy (2002). Is the Father of Jesus the Godof Muhammad?: Understanding the Differences BetweenChristianity and Islam. Zondervan. pp. 150–151. ISBN978-0-310-24748-7.

[332] Morgan, Diane (2010). Essential Islam: A ComprehensiveGuide to Belief and Practice. ABC-CLIO. pp. 45–46. ISBN978-0-313-36025-1.

[333] Understanding Islam: Basic Principles. Garnet & IthacaPress. 2000. pp. 71–73. ISBN 978-1-85964-134-7.

[334] Shedinger, Robert F. (2009). Was Jesus a Muslim?: Ques-tioning Categories in the Study of Religion. Fortress Press. p.ix. ISBN 978-1-4514-1727-2.

[335] Burns, Robert A. (2011). Christianity, Islam, and the West.University Press of America. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7618-5560-6.

[336] Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians.Princeton University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.

[337] Cooper, Anne; Maxwell, Elsie A. (2003). Ishmael MyBrother: A Christian Introduction To Islam. Monarch Books.p. 59. ISBN 978-0-8254-6223-8.

[338] Quran 4:157

[339] Khalidi, Tarif (2001). The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Storiesin Islamic Literature. Harvard University Press. p. 12. ISBN9780674004771.

[340] Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia ofBeliefs and Practices. ABC-CLIO. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-59884-203-6.

[341] Stockman, Robert (1992). “Jesus Christ in the Bahá'í Writ-ings”. Bahá'í Studies Review 2 (1).

[342] Cole, Juan (1982). “The Concept of Manifestation in theBahá'í Writings”. Bahá'í Studies 9: 1–38.

[343] Smith, Peter (2000). “peace”. A concise encyclopedia of theBahá'í Faith. Oneworld Publications. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6.

[344] Smith, Peter (2008). An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith.Cambridge University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-521-86251-6.

[345] Lepard, Brian D. (2008). In the Glory of the Father: The Ba-hai Faith and Christianity. Bahai Publishing. p. 118. ISBN978-1-931847-34-6.

[346] Cole, Juan R. I. (1997). “Behold the Man: Baha'u'llah on theLife of Jesus”. Journal of the American Academy of Religion65 (1): 51, 56, 60.

[347] McManners, John (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History ofChristianity. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-19-285439-1.

[348] Ehrman, Bart D. (2003). Lost Christianities: The Battles ForScripture And The Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford UniversityPress. pp. 124–125. ISBN 978-0-19-518249-1.

[349] Bevan, A. A. (1930). Hastings, James, ed. Manichaeism.Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics 8 (Kessinger Publish-ing). ISBN 978-0-7661-3666-3.

[350] Brown, Peter R. L. (2000). Augustine of Hippo: A Biogra-phy. University of California Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-520-22757-6.

[351] Rishi Das, Shaunaka (March 24, 2009). “Jesus in Hin-duism”. BBC.

[352] Lal Goel, Madan. “RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE ANDHINDUISM” (PDF). University of West Florida. RetrievedJune 4, 2013.

[353] Yogananda, Paramahansa (2008). Autobiography of a Yogi.Diamond Pocket Books. ISBN 978-81-902562-0-9.

[354] Beverley, James A. (June 11, 2011). “Hollywood’s Idol”.Christianity Today.

[355] Janet 2012, p. 3.

[356] Janet 2012, p. 9.

82 CHAPTER 4. JESUS

[357] Hutson, Steven (2006). What They Never Taught You in Sun-day School: A Fresh Look at Following Jesus. City Boy En-terprises. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-59886-300-0.

[358] Pike, Sarah M. (2004). New Age and neopagan religions inAmerica. Columbia University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-231-12402-7.

[359] Bailey, Alice; Khul, Djwhal (2005). A Treatise on CosmicFire. Lucis Publishing Company. pp. 678, 1150, 1193.ISBN 978-0-85330-117-2.

[360] “What Is Scientology’s View of Moses, Jesus, Muhammad,The Buddha and Other Religious Figures of the Past?".Church of Scientology International. Retrieved June 13,2013.

[361] Hallowell, Billy (October 25, 2011). “Richard Dawkins: 'Je-sus Would Have Been an Atheist if He Had Known What WeKnow Today'". TheBlaze.

[362] Richard Dawkins. “The God Delusion”. Houghton MifflinHarcourt. p. 284. Retrieved December 13, 2014.

[363] Chadwick, Henry, ed. (1980). Contra Celsum. CambridgeUniversity Press. p. xxviii. ISBN 978-0-521-29576-5.

[364] Stevenson, J. (1987). Frend, W. H. C., ed. A New Eusebius:Documents illustrating the history of the Church to AD 337.SPCK. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-281-04268-5.

[365] Nietzsche, Friedrich (2010). Twilight of the Idols, Moral-ity as Anti-nature. Digireads.com Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4209-3717-6.

[366] Russell, Bertrand (2004). Why I am Not a Christian: AndOther Essays on Religion and Related Subjects. RoutledgeClassics. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-671-20323-8.

[367] Russell on Religion: Selections from the Writings of BertrandRussell. Routledge. 1999. p. 86.

[368] Gutmann, Joseph (1992). “Early Christian and Jewish Art”.In Attridge, Harold W.; Hata, Gohei. Eusebius, Christianity,and Judaism. Wayne State University Press. pp. 283–284.ISBN 0814323618.

[369] Benedetto, Robert (2006). The New Westminster Dictionaryof Church History. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 51–53. ISBN 978-0-664-22416-5.

[370] Schaff, Phillip (July 1, 2006). History of the ChristianChurch,8 volumes, 3rd edition. Massachusetts: HendricksonPublishers. ISBN 9781565631960.

[371] Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, 'This censureof images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish cor-ruption, should be noted'. Footnote 300 on Contr. Her..I.XXV.6. ANF

[372] Synod of Elvira, 'Pictures are not to be placed in churches,so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration',AD 306, Canon 36

[373] “Icons.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of theChristian church. New York: Oxford University Press.2005

[374] Bigham, Steven (1995). The image of God the Father in Or-thodox theology and iconography. St Vladimir’s SeminaryPress. pp. 226–227. ISBN 978-1-879038-15-8.

[375] “Crucifix.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of theChristian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005

[376] “Creche.” Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 16March 2015.

[377] Michalski, Sergiusz (1993). Reformation and the VisualArts. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 978-1-134-92102-7.

[378] Payton, James R. (2007). Light from the Christian East: AnIntroduction to the Orthodox Tradition. InterVarsity Press.pp. 178–179. ISBN 978-0-8308-2594-3.

[379] Williams, Rowan (2003). The Dwelling of the Light: Prayingwith Icons of Christ. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 83.ISBN 978-0-8028-2778-4.

[380] Wojtyła, Karol J. “General audience 29 October 1997”. Vat-ican Publishing House. Retrieved April 20, 2013.

[381] Ratzinger, Joseph A. “General audience 6 May 2009”. Vat-ican Publishing House. Retrieved April 20, 2013.

[382] Doninger 1999, p. 231.

[383] Casiday, Augustine (2012). The Orthodox Christian World.Routledge. p. 447. ISBN 978-0-415-45516-9.

[384] Levine 2006, p. 24-25.

[385] Helmut Koester Introduction to the New Testament, Vol.1: History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age.Berlin: de Gruyter Press, 1995 p 382

[386] Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War Book VII, section 1.1”

[387] Margaret M. Mitchell “The Cambridge History of Christian-ity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine” Cambridge Univer-sity Press 2006 p 298

[388] Dillenberger 1999, p. 5.

[389] Thurston, Herbert (1913). "Holy Nails". Catholic Encyclo-pedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

[390] Delaney, Sarah (May 24, 2010). “Shroud exposition closeswith more than 2 million visits”. Catholic News Service.

[391] Wojtyła, Karol J. (May 24, 1998). “Pope John Paul II’s ad-dress in Turin Cathedral”. Vatican Publishing House.

[392] Squires, Nick (May 3, 2010). “Pope Benedict says Shroudof Turin authentic burial robe of Jesus”. Christian ScienceMonitor.

[393] Nickell, Joe (2007). Relics of the Christ. University Press ofKentucky. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-8131-3731-5.

4.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 83

[394] Habermas, Gary R. “Shroud of Turin.” TheEncyclopedia of Christian Civilization (2011).doi:10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc1257

[395] Ball, P. (2008). “Material witness: Shrouded in mystery”.Nature Materials 7 (5): 349. doi:10.1038/nmat2170. PMID18432204.

[396] Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar.The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.

4.10 External links• Jesus at DMOZ

• Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ in parallel Latin andEnglish.

• Works by or about Jesus in libraries (WorldCat cata-log)

Chapter 5

Sigmund Freud

“Freud” redirects here. For other uses, see Freud (disam-biguation).

Sigmund Freud (/frɔɪd/;[2] German pronunciation:[ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏ̯t]; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud;6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrianneurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis.Freud qualified as a doctor of medicine at the Universityof Vienna in 1881,[3] and then carried out research intocerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomyat the Vienna General Hospital.[4] Upon completinghis habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent inneuropathology in the same year and became an affiliatedprofessor (professor extraordinarius) in 1902.[5][6]

In creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treat-ing psychopathology through dialogue between a patientand a psychoanalyst,[7] Freud developed therapeutic tech-niques such as the use of free association and discoveredtransference, establishing its central role in the analytic pro-cess. Freud’s redefinition of sexuality to include its infantileforms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the cen-tral tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreamsas wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the clin-ical analysis of symptom formation and the mechanisms ofrepression as well as for elaboration of his theory of theunconscious as an agency disruptive of conscious states ofmind.[8] Freud postulated the existence of libido, an energywith which mental processes and structures are invested andwhich generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, thesource of repetition, hate, aggression and neurotic guilt.[9]

In his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpre-tation and critique of religion and culture.Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychotherapy,within some areas of psychiatry, and across the humanities.As such, it continues to generate extensive and highly con-tested debate with regard to its therapeutic efficacy, its sci-entific status, and whether it advances or is detrimental tothe feminist cause.[10] Nonetheless, Freud’s work has suf-fused contemporary Western thought and popular culture.

In the words of W. H. Auden's poetic tribute, by the time ofFreud’s death in 1939, he had become “a whole climate ofopinion / under whom we conduct our different lives”.[11]

5.1 Biography

5.1.1 Early life and education

Freud’s birthplace, a rented room in a locksmith’s house, Příbor,Czech Republic

Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moraviantown of Příbor (German: Freiberg in Mähren), Austro-Hungarian Empire, now part of the Czech Republic, thefirst of their eight children.[13] His father, Jakob Freud(1815–1896), a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel(1833–1914) and Philipp (1836–1911), from his first mar-riage. Jakob’s family were Hasidic Jews, and though Jakobhimself had moved away from the tradition, he came to beknown for his Torah study. He and Freud’s mother, Amalia(née Nathansohn), 20 years her husband’s junior and histhird wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimeron 29 July 1855.[14] They were struggling financially andliving in a rented room, in a locksmith’s house at Schlosser-

84

5.1. BIOGRAPHY 85

Freud (aged 16) and his beloved[12] mother, Amalia, in 1872

gasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born.[15] He wasborn with a caul, which his mother saw as a positive omenfor the boy’s future.[16]

In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg. Freud’s halfbrothers immigrated to Manchester, England, parting himfrom the “inseparable” playmate of his early childhood,Emanuel’s son, John.[17] Jakob Freud took his wife andtwo children (Freud’s sister, Anna, was born in 1858; abrother, Julius, had died in infancy) firstly to Leipzig andthen in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters (Rosa, Marie,Adolfine and Paula) and a brother (Alexander) were born.In 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the LeopoldstädterKommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. Heproved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Maturain 1873 with honors. He loved literature and was profi-cient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew,Latin and Greek.[18] Freud read William Shakespeare inEnglish throughout his life, and it has been suggested thathis understanding of human psychology may have been par-tially derived from Shakespeare’s plays.[19]

Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. Hehad planned to study law, but joined the medical facultyat the university, where his studies included philosophy un-der Franz Brentano, physiology under Ernst Brücke, and

zoology under Darwinist professor Carl Claus.[20] In 1876Freud spent four weeks at Claus’s zoological research sta-tion in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclu-sive search for their male reproductive organs.[21] He grad-uated with an MD in 1881.

5.1.2 Early career and marriage

In 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna Gen-eral Hospital. His research work in cerebral anatomy led tothe publication of a seminal paper on the palliative effectsof cocaine in 1884 and his work on aphasia would form thebasis of his first book On the Aphasias: a Critical Study,published in 1891. Over a three-year period Freud workedin various departments of the hospital. His time spent inTheodor Meynert's psychiatric clinic and as a locum in a lo-cal asylum led to an increased interest in clinical work. Hissubstantial body of published research led to his appoint-ment as a University lecturer in neuropathology in 1885.[22]

In 1886, Freud resigned his hospital post and entered pri-vate practice specializing in “nervous disorders”. The sameyear he married Martha Bernays, the granddaughter ofIsaac Bernays, a chief rabbi in Hamburg. The couple hadsix children: Mathilde, born 1887; Jean-Martin, born 1889;Oliver, born 1891; Ernst, born 1892; Sophie, born 1893;and Anna, born 1895.

Freud’s home at Berggasse 19, Vienna

In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud’s sister, became apermanent member of the Freud household at Berggasse19, after the death of her fiancé. The close relationship sheformed with Freud led to rumours, started by Carl Jung, ofan affair. The discovery of a Swiss hotel log of 13 August1898, signed by Freud whilst travelling with his sister-in-law, has been adduced as evidence of the affair.[23]

Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24; initially a cigarettesmoker, he became a cigar smoker. He believed that smok-

86 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

ing enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exerciseself-control in moderating it. Despite health warnings fromcolleague Wilhelm Fliess, he remained a smoker, eventu-ally suffering a buccal cancer.[24] Freud suggested to Fliessin 1897 that addictions, including that to tobacco, were sub-stitutes for masturbation, “the one great habit”.[25]

Freud had greatly admired his philosophy tutor, Brentano,who was known for his theories of perception and intro-spection, as well as Theodor Lipps who was one of the maincontemporary theorists of the concepts of the unconsciousand empathy.[26] Brentano discussed the possible existenceof the unconscious mind in his 1874 book Psychology froman Empirical Standpoint. Although Brentano denied the ex-istence of the unconscious, his discussion of it probablyhelped introduce Freud to the concept.[27] Freud owned andmade use of Charles Darwin's major evolutionary writings,and was also influenced by Eduard von Hartmann's The Phi-losophy of the Unconscious.[28]

He read Friedrich Nietzsche as a student, and analogies be-tween his work and that of Nietzsche were pointed out al-most as soon as he developed a following.[29] In 1900, theyear of Nietzsche’s death, Freud bought his collected works;he told his friend, Fliess, that he hoped to find in Nietzsche’sworks “the words for much that remains mute in me.” Laterhe said he had not yet opened them.[30] Freud came to treatNietzsche’s writings “as texts to be resisted far more thanto be studied.” His interest in philosophy declined after hehad decided on a career in neurology.[31]

Freud’s Jewish origins and his allegiance to his secular Jew-ish identity were of significant influence in the formation ofhis intellectual and moral outlook, especially with respect tohis intellectual non-conformism, as he was the first to pointout in his Autobiographical Study.[32] They would also havea substantial effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas“particularly in respect of the rationalist values to which itcommitted itself”.[33]

5.1.3 Development of psychoanalysis

In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a fellowship tostudy with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned neurologistwho was conducting scientific research into hypnosis. Hewas later to recall the experience of this stay as catalytic inturning him toward the practice of medical psychopathol-ogy and away from a less financially promising career inneurology research.[35] Charcot specialized in the study ofhysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequentlydemonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience.Once he had set up in private practice in 1886, Freud be-gan using hypnosis in his clinical work. He adopted theapproach of his friend and collaborator, Josef Breuer, in a

André Brouillet’s 1887 A Clinical Lesson at the Salpêtrière de-picting a Charcot demonstration. Freud had a lithograph of thispainting placed over the couch in his consulting rooms.[34]

use of hypnosis which was different from the French meth-ods he had studied in that it did not use suggestion. Thetreatment of one particular patient of Breuer’s proved to betransformative for Freud’s clinical practice. Described asAnna O., she was invited to talk about her symptoms whileunder hypnosis (she would coin the phrase "talking cure"for her treatment). In the course of talking in this way,these symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrievedmemories of traumatic incidents associated with their on-set.This led Freud to eventually establish in the course of hisclinical practice that a more consistent and effective patternof symptom relief could be achieved, without recourse tohypnosis, by encouraging patients to talk freely about what-ever ideas or memories occurred to them. In addition tothis procedure, which he called "free association", Freudfound that patients’ dreams could be fruitfully analyzed toreveal the complex structuring of unconscious material andto demonstrate the psychic action of repression which un-derlay symptom formation. By 1896, Freud had abandonedhypnosis and was using the term "psychoanalysis" to referto his new clinical method and the theories on which it wasbased.[36]

Freud’s development of these new theories took place dur-ing a period in which he experienced heart irregularities,disturbing dreams and periods of depression, a “neurasthe-nia” which he linked to the death of his father in 1896[37]

and which prompted a “self-analysis” of his own dreamsand memories of childhood. His explorations of his feel-ings of hostility to his father and rivalrous jealousy over hismother’s affections led him to a fundamental revision of histheory of the origin of the neuroses.On the basis of his early clinical work, Freud had postu-lated that unconscious memories of sexual molestation inearly childhood were a necessary precondition for the psy-choneuroses (hysteria and obsessional neurosis), a formula-

5.1. BIOGRAPHY 87

Approach to Freud’s consulting rooms at Berggasse 19

tion now known as Freud’s seduction theory.[38] In the lightof his self-analysis, Freud abandoned the theory that everyneurosis can be traced back to the effects of infantile sex-ual abuse, now arguing that infantile sexual scenarios stillhad a causative function, but it did not matter whether theywere real or imagined and that in either case they becamepathogenic only when acting as repressed memories.[39]

This transition from the theory of infantile sexual traumaas a general explanation of how all neuroses originate toone that presupposes an autonomous infantile sexuality pro-vided the basis for Freud’s subsequent formulation of thetheory of the Oedipus complex.[40]

Freud described the evolution of his clinical method andset out his theory of the psychogenetic origins of hysteria,demonstrated in a number of case histories, in Studies onHysteria published in 1895 (co-authored with Josef Breuer).In 1899 he published The Interpretation of Dreams inwhich, following a critical review of existing theory, Freudgives detailed interpretations of his own and his patients’dreams in terms of wish-fulfillments made subject to the re-pression and censorship of the “dream work”. He then setsout the theoretical model of mental structure (the uncon-scious, pre-conscious and conscious) on which this accountis based. An abridged version, On Dreams, was published in1901. In works which would win him a more general read-

ership, Freud applied his theories outside the clinical set-ting in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901) andJokes and their Relation to the Unconscious (1905).[41] InThree Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, published in 1905,Freud elaborates his theory of infantile sexuality, describ-ing its “polymorphous perverse” forms and the functioningof the “drives”, to which it gives rise, in the formation ofsexual identity.[42] The same year he published ‘Fragmentof an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria (Dora)' which becameone of his more famous and controversial case studies.[43]

5.1.4 Early followers

Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Front row: SigmundFreud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill,Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi

Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. From 1891 until1938, he and his family lived in an apartment at Berggasse19 near the Innere Stadt or historical quarter of Vienna.As a docent of the University of Vienna, Freud, sincethe mid-1880s, had been delivering lectures on his the-ories to small audiences every Saturday evening at thelecture hall of the university’s psychiatric clinic.[44] Hegave lectures in the university every year from 1886 to1919.[45] His work generated a considerable degree of in-terest from a small group of Viennese physicians. Fromthe autumn of 1902 and shortly after his promotion to thehonorific title of außerordentlicher Professor,[46] a smallgroup of followers formed around him, meeting at his apart-ment every Wednesday afternoon, to discuss issues relat-ing to psychology and neuropathology.[47] This group wascalled the Wednesday Psychological Society (Psychologis-che Mittwochs-Gesellschaft) and it marked the beginningsof the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.[48]

88 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

This discussion group was founded around Freud at the sug-gestion of the physician Wilhelm Stekel. Stekel had studiedmedicine at the University of Vienna under Richard vonKrafft-Ebing. His conversion to psychoanalysis is variouslyattributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexualproblem or as a result of his reading The Interpretation ofDreams, to which he subsequently gave a positive review inthe Viennese daily newspaper Neues Wiener Tagblatt.[49]

The other three original members whom Freud invited toattend, Alfred Adler, Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler,were also physicians[50] and all five were Jewish by birth.[51]

Both Kahane and Reitler were childhood friends of Freud.Kahane had attended the same secondary school and bothhe and Reitler went to university with Freud. They hadkept abreast of Freud’s developing ideas through their at-tendance at his Saturday evening lectures.[52] In 1901, Ka-hane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud’s work,[44] hadopened an out-patient psychotherapy institute of which hewas the director in Bauernmarkt, in Vienna.[47] In the sameyear, his medical textbook, Outline of Internal Medicine forStudents and Practicing Physicians was published. In it, heprovided an outline of Freud’s psychoanalytic method.[44]

Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psycho-logical Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923committed suicide.[53] Reitler was the director of an estab-lishment providing thermal cures in Dorotheergasse whichhad been founded in 1901.[47] He died prematurely in 1917.Adler, regarded as the most formidable intellect among theearly Freud circle, was a socialist who in 1898 had writtena health manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularlyinterested in the potential social impact of psychiatry.[54]

Max Graf, a Viennese musicologist and father of "LittleHans", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joinedthe Wednesday group soon after its initial inception,[55] de-scribed the ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings ofthe society:

The gatherings followed a definite ritual.First one of the members would present a paper.Then, black coffee and cakes were served; cigarand cigarettes were on the table and were con-sumed in great quantities. After a social quarterof an hour, the discussion would begin. The lastand decisive word was always spoken by Freudhimself. There was the atmosphere of the foun-dation of a religion in that room. Freud him-self was its new prophet who made the hereto-fore prevailing methods of psychological investi-gation appear superficial.[54]

By 1906, the group had grown to sixteen members, in-cluding Otto Rank, who was employed as the group’s paidsecretary.[54] Also in that year Freud began correspondence

Carl Jung

with Jung who was then an assistant to Eugen Bleuler at theBurghölzli Mental Hospital in Zürich.[56] In March 1907Jung and Ludwig Binswanger, also a Swiss psychiatrist,travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussiongroup. Thereafter they established a small psychoanalyticgroup in Zürich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutionalstatus, the Wednesday group was renamed the Vienna Psy-choanalytic Society.[57]

In 1911, the first women members were admitted to theSociety. Tatiana Rosenthal and Sabina Spielrein were bothRussian psychiatrists and graduates of the Zürich Univer-sity medical school. Prior to the completion of her studies,Spielrein had been a patient of Jung at the Burghölzli andthe clinical and personal details of their relationship becamethe subject of an extensive correspondence between Freudand Jung. Both women would go on to make importantcontributions to the work of Russian Psychoanalytic Soci-ety which was founded in 1910.[58]

Freud’s early followers met together formally for the firsttime at the Hotel Bristol, Salzburg on 27 April 1908. Thismeeting, which was retrospectively deemed to be the firstInternational Psychoanalytic Congress,[59] was convened atthe suggestion of Ernest Jones, then a London-based neu-rologist who had discovered Freud’s writings and begun ap-plying psychoanalytic methods in his clinical work. Jones

5.1. BIOGRAPHY 89

had met Jung at a conference the previous year and they metup again in Zürich to organize the Congress. There were,as Jones records, “forty-two present, half of whom were orbecame practicing analysts”.[60] In addition to Jones and theViennese and Zürich contingents accompanying Freud andJung, also present and notable for their subsequent impor-tance in the psychoanalytic movement were Karl Abrahamand Max Eitingon from Berlin, Sándor Ferenczi from Bu-dapest and the New York-based Abraham Brill.Important decisions were taken at the Congress with aview to advancing the impact of Freud’s work. A journal,the Jahrbuch fur psychoanalytische und psychopathologisheForschungen, was launched in 1909 under the editorship ofJung. This was followed in 1910 by the monthly Zentralblattfur Psychoanalyse edited by Adler and Stekel, in 1911 byImago, a journal devoted to the application of psychoanaly-sis to the field of cultural and literary studies edited by Rankand in 1913 by the Internationale Zeitschrift fur Psychoanal-yse, also edited by Rank.[61] Plans for an International Asso-ciation of psychoanalysts were put in place and these wereimplemented at the Nuremberg Congress of 1910 whereJung was elected, with Freud’s support, as its first president.Freud turned to Brill and Jones to further his ambitionto spread the psychoanalytic cause in the English-speakingworld. Both were invited to Vienna following the SalzburgCongress and a division of labour was agreed with Brillgiven the translation rights for Freud’s works, and Jones,who was to take up a post at Toronto University later in theyear, tasked with establishing a platform for Freudian ideasin North American academic and medical life.[62] Jones’sadvocacy prepared the way for Freud’s visit to the UnitedStates, accompanied by Jung and Ferenczi, in Septem-ber 1909 at the invitation of Stanley Hall, president ofClark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, where he gavefive lectures on psychoanalysis.[63] (When the ocean linerGeorge Washington arrived in New York, Freud is rumoredto have remarked to Jung, “They don't realize that we arebringing them the plague.”[64])The event, at which Freud was awarded an Honorary Doc-torate, marked the first public recognition of Freud’s workand attracted widespread media interest. Freud’s audi-ence included the distinguished neurologist and psychiatristJames Jackson Putnam, Professor of Diseases of the Ner-vous System at Harvard, who invited Freud to his countryretreat where they held extensive discussions over a periodof four days. Putnam’s subsequent public endorsement ofFreud’s work represented a significant breakthrough for thepsychoanalytic cause in the United States.[63] When Putnamand Jones organised the founding of the American Psycho-analytic Association in May 1911 they were elected presi-dent and secretary respectively. Brill founded the New YorkPsychoanalytic Society the same year. His English transla-tions of Freud’s work began to appear from 1909.

Resignations from the IPA

Some of Freud’s followers subsequently withdrew fromthe International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) andfounded their own schools.From 1909, Adler’s views on topics such as neurosis beganto differ markedly from those held by Freud. As Adler’sposition appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudi-anism, a series of confrontations between their respectiveviewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese Psy-choanalytic Society in January and February 1911. InFebruary 1911, Adler, the then-president of the society, re-signed his position. At this time, Stekel also resigned his po-sition as vice president of the society. Adler finally left theFreudian group altogether in June 1911 to found his own or-ganization with nine other members who had also resignedfrom the group.[65] This new formation was initially calledSociety for Free Psychoanalysis but it was soon renamed theSociety for Individual Psychology. In the period after WorldWar I, Adler became increasingly associated with a psycho-logical position he devised called individual psychology.[66]

The committee in 1922: Rank, Abraham, Eitingon, Jones (stand-ing), Freud, Ferenczi, Sachs

In 1912, Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole der Li-bido (published in English in 1916 as Psychology of the Un-conscious) making it clear that his views were taking a direc-tion quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish hissystem from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psy-chology.[67] Anticipating the final breakdown of the rela-tionship between Freud and Jung, Ernest Jones initiated theformation of a committee of loyalists charged with safe-guarding the theoretical coherence and institutional legacyof the psychoanalytic movement. Formed in the autumnof 1912, the committee comprised Freud, Jones, Abraham,Ferenczi, Rank and Hanns Sachs. Max Eitingon joined thecommittee in 1919. Each member pledged themselves notto make any public departure from the fundamental tenetsof psychoanalytic theory before they had discussed their

90 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

views with the others. After this development, Jung recog-nised that his position was untenable and resigned as editorof the Jarhbuch and then as president of the IPA in April1914. The Zürich Society withdrew from the IPA the fol-lowing July.[68]

Later the same year, Freud published a paper entitled "TheHistory of the Psychoanalytic Movement", the Germanoriginal being first published in the Jahrbuch, giving hisview on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic move-ment and the withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it.The committee continued to function until 1927 by whichtime institutional developments within the IPA, such as theestablishment of the International Training Commission,served to allay some of Freud’s anxieties about the trans-mission of psychoanalytic theory and practice.The final defection from Freud’s inner circle occurred fol-lowing the publication in 1924 of Rank’s The Trauma ofBirth which other members of the committee read as, in ef-fect, abandoning the Oedipus Complex as the central tenetof psychoanalytic theory. Abraham and Jones became in-creasingly forceful critics of Rank and though he and Freudwere reluctant to end their close and long-standing relation-ship the break finally came in 1926 when Rank resignedfrom his official posts in the IPA and left Vienna for Paris.His place on the committee was taken by Anna Freud.[69]

Rank eventually settled in the United States where his re-visions of Freudian theory were to influence a new genera-tion of therapists uncomfortable with the orthodoxies of theIPA.

5.1.5 Early psychoanalytic movement

After the founding of the IPA in 1910, an international net-work of psychoanalytical societies, training institutes andclinics became well established and a regular schedule ofbiannual Congresses commenced after the end of WorldWar I to coordinate their activities.[70] Freud attended hislast Congress in Berlin in 1922.Abraham and Eitingon founded the Berlin PsychoanalyticSociety in 1910 and then the Berlin Psychoanalytic Insti-tute and the Poliklinik in 1920. The Poliklinik’s innova-tions of free treatment, and child analysis and the BerlinInstitute’s standardisation of psychoanalytic training had amajor influence on the wider psychoanalytic movement. In1927 Ernst Simmel founded the Schloss Tegel Sanatoriumon the outskirts of Berlin, the first such establishment toprovide psychoanalytic treatment in an institutional frame-work. Freud organised a fund to help finance its activitiesand his architect son, Ernst, was commissioned to refurbishthe building. It was forced to close in 1931 for economicreasons.[71]

The 1910 Moscow Psychoanalytic Society became the Rus-sian Psychoanalytic Society and Institute in 1922. Freud’sRussian followers were the first to benefit from translationsof his work, the 1904 Russian translation of The Interpreta-tion of Dreams appearing nine years before Brill’s Englishedition. The Russian Institute was unique in receiving statesupport for its activities, including publication of transla-tions of Freud’s works.[72] Support was abruptly annulled in1924, when Joseph Stalin came to power, after which psy-choanalysis was denounced on ideological grounds.[73]

After helping found the American Psychoanalytic Associa-tion in 1911, Ernest Jones returned to Britain from Canadain 1913 and founded the London Psychoanalytic Society thesame year. In 1919, he dissolved this organisation and, withits core membership purged of Jungian adherents, foundedthe British Psychoanalytical Society, serving as its presidentuntil 1944. The Institute of Psychoanalysis was established1924 and the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis establishedin 1926, both under Jones’s directorship.The Vienna Ambulatorium (Clinic) was established in 1922and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in1924 under the directorship of Helene Deutsch. Ferenczifounded the Budapest Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 anda clinic in 1929.Psychoanalytic societies and institutes were established inSwitzerland (1919), France (1926), Italy (1932), Holland(1933), Norway (1933) and in Jerusalem (1933) by Eitin-gon, who had fled Berlin after Hitler came to power. TheNew York Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931.

5.1.6 Patients

Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories. Some pa-tients known by pseudonyms were Cäcilie M. (Anna vonLieben); Dora (Ida Bauer, 1882–1945); Frau Emmy von N.(Fanny Moser); Fräulein Elisabeth von R. (Ilona Weiss);[74]

Fräulein Katharina (Aurelia Kronich); Fräulein Lucy R.;Little Hans (Herbert Graf, 1903–1973); Rat Man (ErnstLanzer, 1878–1914); Enos Fingy (Joshua Wild, 1878–1920);[75] and Wolf Man (Sergei Pankejeff, 1887–1979).Other famous patients included H.D. (1886–1961); EmmaEckstein (1865–1924); Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), withwhom Freud had only a single, extended consultation;Princess Marie Bonaparte; Edith Banfield Jackson (1895– 1977);[76] and Albert Hirst (1887-1974).[77] Historian ofscience Dr. Frank J. Sulloway contends “Freud’s case his-tories are rampant with censorship, distortions, highly du-bious 'reconstructions,' and exaggerated claims.”[78]

5.1. BIOGRAPHY 91

5.1.7 Cancer

In February 1923, Freud detected a leukoplakia, a be-nign growth associated with heavy smoking, on his mouth.Freud initially kept this secret, but in April 1923 he in-formed Ernest Jones, telling him that the growth had beenremoved. Freud consulted the dermatologist MaximilianSteiner, who advised him to quit smoking but lied aboutthe growth’s seriousness, minimizing its importance. Freudlater saw Felix Deutsch, who saw that the growth was can-cerous; he identified it to Freud using the euphemism “a badleukoplakia” instead of the technical diagnosis epithelioma.Deutsch advised Freud to stop smoking and have the growthexcised. Freud was treated by Marcus Hajek, a rhinologistwhose competence he had previously questioned. Hajekperformed an unnecessary cosmetic surgery in his clinic’soutpatient department. Freud bled during and after theoperation, and may narrowly have escaped death. Freudsubsequently saw Deutsch again. Deutsch saw that furthersurgery would be required, but did not tell Freud that hehad cancer because he was worried that Freud might wishto commit suicide.[79]

5.1.8 Escape from Nazism

In 1930 Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in recognitionof his contributions to psychology and to German literaryculture. In January 1933, the Nazis took control of Ger-many, and Freud’s books were prominent among those theyburned and destroyed. Freud quipped: “What progress weare making. In the Middle Ages they would have burnedme. Now, they are content with burning my books.”[80]

Freud continued to maintain his optimistic underestimationof the growing Nazi threat and remained determined to stayin Vienna, even following the Anschluss of 13 March 1938in which Nazi Germany annexed Austria, and the outburstsof violent anti-Semitism that ensued.[81] Ernest Jones, thethen president of the International Psychoanalytical Asso-ciation (IPA), flew into Vienna from London via Prague on15 March determined to get Freud to change his mind andseek exile in Britain. This prospect and the shock of the de-tention and interrogation of Anna Freud by the Gestapo fi-nally convinced Freud it was time to leave Austria.[81] Jonesleft for London the following week with a list provided byFreud of the party of émigrés for whom immigration per-mits would be required. Back in London, Jones used hispersonal acquaintance with the Home Secretary, Sir SamuelHoare to expedite the granting of permits. There were sev-enteen in all and work permits were provided where rele-vant. Jones also used his influence in scientific circles, per-suading the president of the Royal Society,[1] Sir WilliamBragg, to write to the Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax, re-questing to good effect that diplomatic pressure be applied

in Berlin and Vienna on Freud’s behalf. Freud also had sup-port from American diplomats, notably his ex-patient andAmerican ambassador to France, William Bullitt.[82]

The departure from Vienna began in stages throughoutApril and May 1938. Freud’s grandson Ernst Halberstadtand Freud’s son Martin’s wife and children left for Paris inApril. Freud’s sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, left for Lon-don on 5 May, Martin Freud the following week and Freud’sdaughter Mathilde and her husband, Robert Hollitscher, on24 May.[83]

By the end of the month, arrangements for Freud’s own de-parture for London had become stalled, mired in a legallytortuous and financially extortionate process of negotiationwith the Nazi authorities. The Nazi-appointed Kommissarput in charge of his assets and those of the IPA proved to besympathetic to Freud’s plight. Anton Sauerwald had stud-ied chemistry at Vienna University under Professor JosefHerzig, an old friend of Freud’s, and evidently retained,notwithstanding his Nazi Party allegiance, a respect forFreud’s professional standing. Expected to disclose detailsof all Freud’s bank accounts to his superiors and to followtheir instructions to destroy the historic library of bookshoused in the offices of the IPA, in the event Sauerwalddid neither, removing evidence of Freud’s foreign bank ac-counts to his own safe-keeping and arranging the storage ofthe IPA library in the Austrian National Library where theyremained until the end of the war.[84]

Though Sauerwald’s intervention lessened the financial bur-den of the “flight” tax on Freud’s declared assets, other sub-stantial charges were levied in relation to the debts of theIPA and the valuable collection of antiquities Freud pos-sessed. Unable to access his own accounts, Freud turned toPrincess Marie Bonaparte, the most eminent and wealthy ofhis French followers, who had travelled to Vienna to offerher support and it was she who made the necessary fundsavailable.[85] This allowed Sauerwald to sign the necessaryexit visas for Freud, his wife Martha and daughter Anna.They left Vienna on the Orient Express on 4 June, accompa-nied by their household staff and a doctor, arriving in Paristhe following day where they stayed as guests of PrincessBonaparte before travelling overnight to London arriving atVictoria Station on 6 June.Many famous names were soon to call on Freud to pay theirrespects, notably Salvador Dalí, Stefan Zweig, LeonardWoolf, Virginia Woolf and H.G. Wells. Representativesof the Royal Society[1] called with the Society’s Charter forFreud to sign himself into membership. Princess Bonapartearrived towards the end of June to discuss the fate of Freud’sfour elderly sisters left behind in Vienna. Her subsequentattempts to get them exit visas failed and they would all diein Nazi concentration camps.[86]

In early 1939 Anton Sauerwald arrived to see Freud, os-

92 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

Freud’s last home, now dedicated to his life and work as the FreudMuseum, 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead, London NW3, Eng-land.

tensibly to discuss matters relating to the assets of the IPA.He was able to do Freud one last favour. He returned toVienna to drive Freud’s Viennese cancer specialist, HansPichler, to London to operate on the worsening conditionof Freud’s cancerous jaw.[87]

Sauerwald was tried and imprisoned in 1945 by an Austriancourt for his activities as a Nazi Party official. Respondingto a plea from his wife, Anna Freud wrote to confirm thatSauerwald “used his office as our appointed commissar insuch a manner as to protect my father”. Her interventionhelped secure his release from jail in 1947.[88]

In the Freuds’ new home—20 Maresfield Gardens, Hamp-stead, North London—Freud’s Vienna consulting room wasrecreated in faithful detail. He continued to see patientsthere until the terminal stages of his illness. He also workedon his last books, Moses and Monotheism, published inGerman in 1938 and in English the following year[89] andthe uncompleted Outline of Psychoanalysis which was pub-lished posthumously.

5.1.9 Death

By mid-September 1939, Freud’s cancer of the jaw wascausing him increasingly severe pain and had been declaredto be inoperable. The last book he read, Balzac's La Peau dechagrin, prompted reflections on his own increasing frailtyand a few days later he turned to his doctor, friend and fel-low refugee, Max Schur, reminding him that they had pre-viously discussed the terminal stages of his illness: “Schur,you remember our 'contract' not to leave me in the lurchwhen the time had come. Now it is nothing but torture andmakes no sense.” When Schur replied that he had not for-gotten, Freud said, “I thank you,” and then “Talk it over

Sigmund Freud’s ashes at the Golders Green Crematorium

with Anna, and if she thinks it’s right, then make an end ofit.” Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father’s death, butSchur convinced her it was pointless to keep him alive andon 21 and 22 September administered doses of morphinethat resulted in Freud’s death on 23 September 1939.[90]

Three days after his death Freud’s body was cremated atthe Golders Green Crematorium in North London, withHarrods of Knightsbridge acting as funeral directors, onthe instructions of his son, Ernst.[91] Funeral orations weregiven by Ernest Jones and the Austrian author Stefan Zweig.Freud’s ashes were later placed in the crematorium’s ErnestGeorge Columbarium. They rest on a plinth designed by hisson, Ernst,[92] in a sealed[91] ancient Greek urn that Freudhad received as a gift from Princess Bonaparte and whichhe had kept in his study in Vienna for many years. Afterhis wife, Martha, died in 1951, her ashes were also placedin the urn.[93]

5.2 Ideas

5.2. IDEAS 93

5.2.1 Early work

Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vi-enna in 1873.[94] He took almost nine years to completehis studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological re-search, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy ofeels and the physiology of the fish nervous system, andbecause of his interest in studying philosophy with FranzBrentano. He entered private practice in neurology for fi-nancial reasons, receiving his M.D. degree in 1881 at theage of 25.[95] Amongst his principal concerns in the 1880swas the anatomy of the brain, specifically the medulla ob-longata. He intervened in the important debates aboutaphasia with his monograph of 1891, Zur Auffassung derAphasien, in which he coined the term agnosia and coun-selled against a too locationist view of the explanation ofneurological deficits. Like his contemporary Eugen Bleuler,he emphasized brain function rather than brain structure.Freud was also an early researcher in the field of cerebralpalsy, which was then known as “cerebral paralysis”. Hepublished several medical papers on the topic, and showedthat the disease existed long before other researchers of theperiod began to notice and study it. He also suggested thatWilliam John Little, the man who first identified cerebralpalsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth beinga cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birthwere only a symptom. Freud hoped that his research wouldprovide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique.The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was tobring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness inorder to free the patient from suffering repetitive distortedemotions.Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feel-ings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging a pa-tient to talk about dreams and engage in free association,in which patients report their thoughts without reservationand make no attempt to concentrate while doing so.[96] An-other important element of psychoanalysis is transference,the process by which patients displace onto their analystsfeelings and ideas which derive from previous figures intheir lives. Transference was first seen as a regrettablephenomenon that interfered with the recovery of repressedmemories and disturbed patients’ objectivity, but by 1912,Freud had come to see it as an essential part of the thera-peutic process.[97]

The origin of Freud’s early work with psychoanalysis canbe linked to Josef Breuer. Freud credited Breuer withopening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalyticalmethod by his treatment of the case of Anna O. In Novem-ber 1880, Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelli-gent 21-year-old woman (Bertha Pappenheim) for a per-sistent cough that he diagnosed as hysterical. He foundthat while nursing her dying father, she had developed a

number of transitory symptoms, including visual disordersand paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also di-agnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient al-most every day as the symptoms increased and becamemore persistent, and observed that she entered states of ab-sence. He found that when, with his encouragement, shetold fantasy stories in her evening states of absence hercondition improved, and most of her symptoms had dis-appeared by April 1881. Following the death of her fa-ther in that month her condition deteriorated again. Breuerrecorded that some of the symptoms eventually remittedspontaneously, and that full recovery was achieved by in-ducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occur-rence of a specific symptom.[98] In the years immediatelyfollowing Breuer’s treatment, Anna O. spent three short pe-riods in sanatoria with the diagnosis “hysteria” with “so-matic symptoms”,[99] and some authors have challengedBreuer’s published account of a cure.[100][101][102] RichardSkues rejects this interpretation, which he sees as stemmingfrom both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical revisionism,that regards both Breuer’s narrative of the case as unreliableand his treatment of Anna O. as a failure.[103]

5.2.2 Seduction theory

In the early 1890s, Freud used a form of treatment basedon the one that Breuer had described to him, modified bywhat he called his “pressure technique” and his newly de-veloped analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruc-tion. According to Freud’s later accounts of this period, asa result of his use of this procedure most of his patients inthe mid-1890s reported early childhood sexual abuse. Hebelieved these stories, which he used as the basis for hisseduction theory, but then he came to believe that they werefantasies. He explained these at first as having the functionof “fending off” memories of infantile masturbation, but inlater years he wrote that they represented Oedipal fantasies,stemming from innate drives that are sexual and destructivein nature.[104]

Another version of events focuses on Freud’s proposing thatunconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at theroot of the psychoneuroses in letters to Fliess in October1895, before he reported that he had actually discoveredsuch abuse among his patients.[105] In the first half of 1896,Freud published three papers, which led to his seductiontheory, stating that he had uncovered, in all of his currentpatients, deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in earlychildhood.[106] In these papers, Freud recorded that his pa-tients were not consciously aware of these memories, andmust therefore be present as unconscious memories if theywere to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neuro-sis. The patients were subjected to considerable pressureto “reproduce” infantile sexual abuse “scenes” that Freud

94 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious.[107]

Patients were generally unconvinced that their experiencesof Freud’s clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse.He reported that even after a supposed “reproduction” ofsexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of theirdisbelief.[108]

As well as his pressure technique, Freud’s clinical proce-dures involved analytic inference and the symbolic interpre-tation of symptoms to trace back to memories of infantilesexual abuse.[109] His claim of one hundred percent confir-mation of his theory only served to reinforce previously ex-pressed reservations from his colleagues about the validityof findings obtained through his suggestive techniques.[110]

Freud subsequently showed inconsistency as to whetherhis seduction theory was still compatible with his laterfindings.[111] In an addendum to The Aetiology of Hyste-ria he stated: “All this is true [the sexual abuse of chil-dren]; but it must be remembered that at the time I wroteit I had not yet freed myself from my overvaluation of real-ity and my low valuation of phantasy”.[112] Some years laterFreud explicitly rejected the claim of his colleague Ferenczithat his patients’ reports of sexual molestation were actualmemories instead of fantasies, and he tried to dissuade Fer-enczi from making his views public.[111] Dr. Karin Ahbel-Rappe concludes in her study ""I no longer believe": didFreud abandon the seduction theory?’’: “Freud marked outand started down a trail of investigation into the nature ofthe experience of infantile incest and its impact on the hu-man psyche, and then abandoned this direction for the mostpart.”[113]

5.2.3 Cocaine

As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and pro-ponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. Hebelieved that cocaine was a cure for many mental and phys-ical problems, and in his 1884 paper “On Coca” he ex-tolled its virtues. Between 1883 and 1887 he wrote sev-eral articles recommending medical applications, includ-ing its use as an antidepressant. He narrowly missed outon obtaining scientific priority for discovering its anestheticproperties of which he was aware but had mentioned onlyin passing.[114] (Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud’s in Vi-enna, received that distinction in 1884 after reporting to amedical society the ways cocaine could be used in delicateeye surgery.) Freud also recommended cocaine as a curefor morphine addiction.[115] He had introduced cocaine tohis friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow who had become ad-dicted to morphine taken to relieve years of excruciatingnerve pain resulting from an infection acquired while per-forming an autopsy. His claim that Fleischl-Marxow wascured of his addiction was premature, though he never ac-knowledged he had been at fault. Fleischl-Marxow devel-

oped an acute case of “cocaine psychosis”, and soon re-turned to using morphine, dying a few years later after moresuffering from intolerable pain.[116]

The application as an anesthetic turned out to be one ofthe few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addic-tion and overdose began to filter in from many places inthe world, Freud’s medical reputation became somewhattarnished.[117]

After the “Cocaine Episode”[118] Freud ceased to publiclyrecommend use of the drug, but continued to take it him-self occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal in-flammation during the early 1890s, before discontinuing in1896.[119] In this period he came under the influence of hisfriend and confidant Fliess, who recommended cocaine forthe treatment of the so-called nasal reflex neurosis. Fliess,who operated on the noses of several of his own patients,also performed operations on Freud and on one of Freud’spatients whom he believed to be suffering from the disor-der, Emma Eckstein. The surgery proved disastrous.[120] Ithas been suggested that much of Freud’s early psychoana-lytical theory was a by-product of his cocaine use.[121]

5.2.4 The Unconscious

Main article: Unconscious mind

The concept of the unconscious was central to Freud’s ac-count of the mind. Freud believed that while poets andthinkers had long known of the existence of the uncon-scious, he had ensured that it received scientific recognitionin the field of psychology. The concept made an informalappearance in Freud’s writings.The unconscious was first introduced in connection with thephenomenon of repression, to explain what happens to ideasthat are repressed. Freud stated explicitly that the conceptof the unconscious was based on the theory of repression.He postulated a cycle in which ideas are repressed, but re-main in the mind, removed from consciousness yet opera-tive, then reappear in consciousness under certain circum-stances. The postulate was based upon the investigation ofcases of traumatic hysteria, which revealed cases where thebehavior of patients could not be explained without refer-ence to ideas or thoughts of which they had no awareness.This fact, combined with the observation that such behav-ior could be artificially induced by hypnosis, in which ideaswere inserted into people’s minds, suggested that ideas wereoperative in the original cases, even though their subjectsknew nothing of them.Freud, like Josef Breuer, found the hypothesis that hyster-ical manifestations were generated by ideas to be not onlywarranted, but given in observation. Disagreement between

5.2. IDEAS 95

them arose when they attempted to give causal explanationsof their data: Breuer favored a hypothesis of hypnoid states,while Freud postulated the mechanism of defense. RichardWollheim comments that given the close correspondencebetween hysteria and the results of hypnosis, Breuer’s hy-pothesis appears more plausible, and that it is only whenrepression is taken into account that Freud’s hypothesis be-comes preferable.[122]

Freud originally allowed that repression might be a con-scious process, but by the time he wrote his second paperon the “Neuro-Psychoses of Defence” (1896), he appar-ently believed that repression, which he referred to as “thepsychical mechanism of (unconscious) defense”, occurredon an unconscious level. Freud further developed his theo-ries about the unconscious in The Interpretation of Dreams(1899) and in Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious(1905), where he dealt with condensation and displacementas inherent characteristics of unconscious mental activ-ity. Freud presented his first systematic statement of hishypotheses about unconscious mental processes in 1912,in response to an invitation from the London Society ofPsychical Research to contribute to its Proceedings. In1915, Freud expanded that statement into a more ambitiousmetapsychological paper, entitled “The Unconscious”. Inboth these papers, when Freud tried to distinguish betweenhis conception of the unconscious and those that predatedpsychoanalysis, he found it in his postulation of ideas thatare simultaneously latent and operative.[122]

5.2.5 Dreams

Main article: Dream

Freud believed that the function of dreams is to preservesleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would other-wise awaken the dreamer.[123]

In Freud’s theory dreams are instigated by the daily occur-rences and thoughts of everyday life. His claim that theyfunction as wish fulfillments is based on an account of the“dreamwork” in terms of a transformation of “secondaryprocess” thought, governed by the rules of language and thereality principle, into the “primary process” of unconsciousthought governed by the pleasure principle, wish gratifica-tion and the repressed sexual scenarios of childhood.[124]

In order to preserve sleep the dreamwork disguises the re-pressed or “latent” content of the dream in an interplay ofwords and images which Freud describes in terms of con-densation, displacement and distortion. This produces the“manifest content” of the dream as recounted in the dreamnarrative. For Freud an unpleasant manifest content maystill represent the fulfilment of a wish on the level of the la-

tent content. In the clinical setting Freud encouraged freeassociation to the dream’s manifest content in order to facil-itate access to its latent content. Freud believed interpretingdreams in this way could provide important insights into theformation of neurotic symptoms and contribute to the mit-igation of their pathological effects.[125]

5.2.6 Psychosexual development

Main article: Psychosexual development

Freud’s theory of psychosexual development proposes that,following on from the initial polymorphous perversity of in-fantile sexuality, the sexual “drives” pass through the dis-tinct developmental phases of the oral, the anal and thephallic. Though these phases then give way to a latencystage of reduced sexual interest and activity (from aroundthe age of approximately five up until puberty), they leave,to a greater or lesser extent, a “perverse” and bisexualresidue which persists during the formation of adult genitalsexuality. Freud argued that neurosis or perversion could beexplained in terms of fixation or regression to these phaseswhereas adult character and cultural creativity could achievea sublimation of their perverse residue.[126]

After Freud’s later development of the theory of theOedipus Complex this normative developmental trajectorybecomes formulated in terms of the child’s renunciationof incestuous desires under the phantasised threat of (orphantasised fact of, in the case of the girl) castration.[127]

The “dissolution” of the Oedipus Complex is then achievedwhen the child’s rivalrous identification with the parentalfigure is transformed into the pacifying identifications ofthe Ego ideal which assume both similarity and differenceand acknowledge the separateness and autonomy of theother.[128]

Freud hoped to prove that his model was universallyvalid and turned to ancient mythology and contempo-rary ethnography for comparative material arguing thattotemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedi-pal conflict.[129]

5.2.7 Id, ego and super-ego

Main article: Id, ego and super-ego

Freud proposed that the human psyche could be dividedinto three parts: Id, ego and super-ego. Freud discussedthis model in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle,and fully elaborated upon it in The Ego and the Id (1923),in which he developed it as an alternative to his previoustopographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious and pre-

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conscious). The id is the completely unconscious, impul-sive, childlike portion of the psyche that operates on the“pleasure principle” and is the source of basic impulses anddrives; it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification.[130]

Freud acknowledged that his use of the term Id (das Es,“the It”) derives from the writings of Georg Groddeck.[131]

The super-ego is the moral component of the psyche, whichtakes into account no special circumstances in which themorally right thing may not be right for a given situation.The rational ego attempts to exact a balance between theimpractical hedonism of the id and the equally impracti-cal moralism of the super-ego; it is the part of the psychethat is usually reflected most directly in a person’s actions.When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it may em-ploy defence mechanisms including denial, repression, un-doing, rationalization, and displacement. This concept isusually represented by the “Iceberg Model”.[132] This modelrepresents the roles the Id, Ego, and Super Ego play in re-lation to conscious and unconscious thought.Freud compared the relationship between the ego and theid to that between a charioteer and his horses: the horsesprovide the energy and drive, while the charioteer providesdirection.[130]

5.2.8 Life and death drives

Main articles: Libido and Death drive

Freud believed that people are driven by two conflictingcentral desires: the life drive (libido or Eros) (survival,propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive.The death drive was also termed “Thanatos”, althoughFreud did not use that term; “Thanatos” was introduced inthis context by Paul Federn.[133] Freud hypothesized that li-bido is a form of mental energy with which processes, struc-tures and object-representations are invested.[134] Prior tothe war, Freud believes, fiction had constituted a differentmode of relation to death, a place of compensation in which“the condition for reconciling ourselves to death is fulfilled,namely, if beneath all vicissitudes of life a permanent lifestill remains to us”.[135]

In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud inferred the ex-istence of the death instinct. Its premise was a regula-tory principle that has been described as “the principleof psychic inertia”, “the Nirvana principle”, and “the con-servatism of instinct”. Its background was Freud’s earlierProject for a Scientific Psychology, where he had definedthe principle governing the mental apparatus as its tendencyto divest itself of quantity or to reduce tension to zero.Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition, sinceit proved adequate only to the most rudimentary kinds of

mental functioning, and replaced the idea that the appara-tus tends toward a level of zero tension with the idea that ittends toward a minimum level of tension.[136]

Freud in effect readopted the original definition in Beyondthe Pleasure Principle, this time applying it to a differentprinciple. He asserted that on certain occasions the mindacts as though it could eliminate tension entirely, or in ef-fect to reduce itself to a state of extinction; his key evidencefor this was the existence of the compulsion to repeat. Ex-amples of such repetition included the dream life of trau-matic neurotics and children’s play. In the phenomenon ofrepetition, Freud saw a psychic trend to work over earlierimpressions, to master them and derive pleasure from them,a trend was prior to the pleasure principle but not opposedto it. In addition to that trend, there was also a principle atwork that was opposed to, and thus “beyond” the pleasureprinciple. If repetition is a necessary element in the bindingof energy or adaptation, when carried to inordinate lengthsit becomes a means of abandoning adaptations and reinstat-ing earlier or less evolved psychic positions. By combiningthis idea with the hypothesis that all repetition is a formof discharge, Freud reached the conclusion that the com-pulsion to repeat is an effort to restore a state that is bothhistorically primitive and marked by the total draining ofenergy: death.[136]

5.2.9 Femininity and female sexuality

Initiating what became the first debate within psychoanaly-sis on femininity, Karen Horney of the Berlin Institute setout to challenge Freud’s account of the development of fem-inine sexuality. Rejecting Freud’s theories of the femininecastration complex and penis envy, Horney argued for a pri-mary femininity and penis envy as a defensive formationrather than arising from the fact, or “injury”, of biologicalasymmetry as Freud held. Horney had the influential sup-port of Melanie Klein and Ernest Jones who coined the term"phallocentrism" in his critique of Freud’s position.[137]

In defending Freud against this critique, feminist scholarJacqueline Rose has argued that it presupposes a more nor-mative account of female sexual development than thatgiven by Freud. She notes that Freud moved from a descrip-tion of the little girl stuck with her 'inferiority' or 'injury'in the face of the anatomy of the little boy to an accountin his later work which explicitly describes the process ofbecoming 'feminine' as an 'injury' or 'catastrophe' for thecomplexity of her earlier psychic and sexual life.[138]

According to Freud, “Elimination of clitoral sexuality isa necessary precondition for the development of feminin-ity, since it is immature and masculine in its nature.”[139]

Freud postulated the concept of "vaginal orgasm” as sepa-rate from clitoral orgasm, achieved by external stimulation

5.3. LEGACY 97

of the clitoris. In 1905, he stated that clitoral orgasms arepurely an adolescent phenomenon and that, upon reachingpuberty, the proper response of mature women is a change-over to vaginal orgasms, meaning orgasms without any cli-toral stimulation. This theory has been criticized on thegrounds that Freud provided no evidence for this basic as-sumption, and because it made many women feel inade-quate when they could not achieve orgasm via vaginal in-tercourse alone.[140][141][142][143]

5.2.10 Religion

Main article: Freud and religion

Freud regarded the monotheistic God as an illusion basedupon the infantile emotional need for a powerful, supernat-ural pater familias. He maintained that religion – once nec-essary to restrain man’s violent nature in the early stages ofcivilization – in modern times, can be set aside in favor ofreason and science.[144] “Obsessive Actions and ReligiousPractices” (1907) notes the likeness between faith (religiousbelief) and neurotic obsession.[145] Totem and Taboo (1913)proposes that society and religion begin with the patricideand eating of the powerful paternal figure, who then be-comes a revered collective memory.[146] These argumentswere further developed in The Future of an Illusion (1927)in which Freud argued that religious belief serves the func-tion of psychological consolation. Freud argues the beliefof a supernatural protector serves as a buffer from man’s“fear of nature” just as the belief in an afterlife serves as abuffer from man’s fear of death. The core idea of the workis that all of religious belief can be explained through itsfunction to society, not for its relation to the truth. This iswhy, according to Freud, religious beliefs are “illusions”. InCivilization and Its Discontents (1930), he quotes his friendRomain Rolland, who described religion as an “oceanicsensation”, but says he never experienced this feeling.[147]

Moses and Monotheism (1937) proposes that Moses was thetribal pater familias, killed by the Jews, who psychologi-cally coped with the patricide with a reaction formation con-ducive to their establishing monotheist Judaism;[148] analo-gously, he described the Roman Catholic rite of Holy Com-munion as cultural evidence of the killing and devouring ofthe sacred father.[89][149]

Moreover, he perceived religion, with its suppression of vi-olence, as mediator of the societal and personal, the publicand the private, conflicts between Eros and Thanatos, theforces of life and death.[150] Later works indicate Freud’spessimism about the future of civilization, which he notedin the 1931 edition of Civilization and its Discontents.[151]

In a footnote of his 1909 work, Analysis of a Phobia in aFive year old Boy, Freud theorized that the universal fear

of castration was provoked in the uncircumcised when theyperceived circumcision and that this was “the deepest un-conscious root of anti-Semitism.”[152]

5.3 Legacy

The Sigmund Freud memorial in Hampstead, North London. Thestatue is located near to where Sigmund and Anna Freud lived, nowthe Freud Museum. The building behind the statue is the TavistockClinic, a major psychological health care institution.

5.3.1 Psychotherapy

Though not the first methodology in the practice of in-dividual verbal psychotherapy,[153] Freud’s psychoanalyticsystem came to dominate the field from early in thetwentieth century, forming the basis for many later vari-ants. While these systems have adopted different theo-ries and techniques, all have followed Freud by attempt-ing to effect behavioral change through having patientstalk about their difficulties.[7] Psychoanalysis itself has, ac-cording to psychoanalyst Joel Kovel, declined as a dis-

98 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

tinct therapeutic practice, despite its pervasive influence onpsychotherapy.[154]

The neo-Freudians, a group including Alfred Adler, OttoRank, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan and ErichFromm, rejected Freud’s theory of instinctual drive, em-phasized interpersonal relations and self-assertiveness, andmade modifications to therapeutic practice that reflectedthese theoretical shifts. Adler originated the approach, al-though his influence was indirect due to his inability tosystematically formulate his ideas. In Kovel’s view, neo-Freudian practice shares the same assumption as most cur-rent therapeutic approaches in the United States: “If whatis wrong with people follows directly from bad experience,then therapy can be in its basics nothing but good expe-rience as a corrective.” Neo-Freudian analysis thereforeplaces more emphasis on the patient’s relationship with theanalyst and less on exploration of the unconscious.[154]

Carl Jung believed that the collective unconscious, whichreflects the cosmic order and the history of the humanspecies, is the most important part of the mind. It containsarchetypes, which are manifested in symbols that appearin dreams, disturbed states of mind, and various productsof culture. Jungians are less interested in infantile devel-opment and psychological conflict between wishes and theforces that frustrate them than in integration between differ-ent parts of the person. The object of Jungian therapy wasto mend such splits. Jung focused in particular on problemsof middle and later life. His objective was to allow peopleto experience the split-off aspects of themselves, such asthe anima (a man’s suppressed female self), the animus (awoman’s suppressed male self), or the shadow (an inferiorself-image), and thereby attain wisdom.[154]

Jacques Lacan approached psychoanalysis throughlinguistics and literature. Lacan believed that Freud’sessential work had been done prior to 1905 and concernedthe interpretation of dreams, neurotic symptoms, andslips, which had been based on a revolutionary way ofunderstanding language and its relation to experience andsubjectivity. Lacan believed that ego psychology andobject relations theory were based upon misreadings ofFreud’s work. For Lacan, the determinative dimension ofhuman experience is neither the self (as in ego psychology)nor relations with others (as in object relations theory), butlanguage. Lacan saw desire as more important than needand considered it necessarily ungratifiable.[155]

Wilhelm Reich developed ideas that Freud had developedat the beginning of his psychoanalytic investigation but thensuperseded but never finally discarded. These were the con-cept of the Actualneurosis and a theory of anxiety basedupon the idea of dammed-up libido. In Freud’s originalview, what really happened to a person (the “actual”) de-termined the resulting neurotic disposition. Freud applied

that idea both to infants and to adults. In the former case,seductions were sought as the causes of later neuroses andin the latter incomplete sexual release. Unlike Freud, Re-ich retained the idea that actual experience, especially sex-ual experience, was of key significance. By the 1920s, Re-ich had “taken Freud’s original ideas about sexual release tothe point of specifying the orgasm as the criteria of healthyfunction.” Reich was also “developing his ideas about char-acter into a form that would later take shape, first as “mus-cular armour”, and eventually as a transducer of universalbiological energy, the “orgone”."[154]

Fritz Perls, who helped to develop Gestalt therapy, wasinfluenced by Reich, Jung and Freud. The key idea ofgestalt therapy is that Freud overlooked the structure ofawareness, which, properly understood, is “an active pro-cess that moves toward the construction of organized mean-ingful wholes... between an organism and its environment.”These wholes, called gestalts, are “patterns involving all thelayers of organismic function – thought, feeling, and ac-tivity.” Neurosis is seen as splitting in the formation ofgestalts, and anxiety as the organism sensing “the struggletowards its creative unification.” Gestalt therapy attemptsto cure patients through placing them in contact with “im-mediate organismic needs.” Perls rejected the verbal ap-proach of classical psychoanalysis; talking in gestalt ther-apy serves the purpose of self-expression rather than gain-ing self-knowledge. Gestalt therapy usually takes place ingroups, and in concentrated “workshops” rather than beingspread out over a long period of time; it has been extendedinto new forms of communal living.[154]

Arthur Janov's primal therapy, which has been an influ-ential post-Freudian psychotherapy, resembles psychoana-lytic therapy in its emphasis on early childhood experience,but nevertheless has profound differences with it. WhileJanov’s theory is akin to Freud’s early idea of Actualneuro-sis, he does not have a dynamic psychology but a nature psy-chology like that of Reich or Perls, in which need is primarywhile wish is derivative and dispensable when need is met.Despite its surface similarity to Freud’s ideas, Janov’s the-ory lacks a strictly psychological account of the unconsciousand belief in infantile sexuality. While for Freud there was ahierarchy of danger situations, for Janov the key event in thechild’s life is awareness that the parents do not love it.[154]

Janov writes that primal therapy has in some ways returnedto Freud’s early ideas and techniques.[156]

Frederick Crews considers Freud the key influence upon“champions of survivorship” such as Ellen Bass and LauraDavis, co-authors of The Courage to Heal, although in hisview they are indebted not to classic psychoanalysis butto “the pre-psychoanalytic Freud, the one who supposedlytook pity on his hysterical patients, found that they wereall harboring memories of early abuse... and cured themby unknotting their repression.” Crews sees Freud as hav-

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ing anticipated the recovered memory movement’s “puri-tanical alarmism” by emphasizing “mechanical cause-and-effect relations between symptomatology and the prema-ture stimulation of one body zone or another”, and withpioneering its “technique of thematically matching a pa-tient’s symptom with a sexually symmetrical 'memory.'"Crews believes that Freud’s confidence in accurate recall ofearly memories anticipates the theories of recovered mem-ory therapists such as Lenore Terr, which in his view haveled to people being wrongfully imprisoned or involved inlitigation.[157]

Ethan Watters and Richard Ofshe write that thepsychodynamic conception of the mind may be at theend of its usefulness, which could affect “thousandsupon thousands and therapists and their patients.” Theybelieve that due to “the massive investment the field ofpsychotherapy has made in the psychodynamic approach,the dying convulsions of the paradigm will not be pretty”,even though uninformed or unsophisticated people maycontinue to accept the psychodynamic paradigm despite itslack of validity.[158]

5.3.2 Science

Research projects designed to test Freud’s theories empir-ically have led to a vast literature on the topic.[159] Sey-mour Fisher and Roger P. Greenberg concluded in 1977that some of Freud’s concepts were supported by empiricalevidence. Their analysis of research literature supportedFreud’s concepts of oral and anal personality constellations,his account of the role of Oedipal factors in certain aspectsof male personality functioning, his formulations about therelatively greater concern about loss of love in women’sas compared to men’s personality economy, and his viewsabout the instigating effects of homosexual anxieties on theformation of paranoid delusions. They also found limitedand equivocal support for Freud’s theories about the de-velopment of homosexuality. They found that several ofFreud’s other theories, including his portrayal of dreamsas primarily containers of secret, unconscious wishes, aswell as some of his views about the psychodynamics ofwomen, were either not supported or contradicted by re-search. Reviewing the issues again in 1996, they concludedthat much experimental data relevant to Freud’s work ex-ists, and supports some of his major ideas and theories.[160]

Fisher and Greenberg’s similar conclusions in their moreextensive earlier volume on experimental studies[161] havebeen strongly criticised for alleged methodological deficien-cies by Paul Kline, who writes that they “accept results attheir face value with almost no consideration of method-ological adequacy”,[162] and by Edward Erwin.[163]

Other viewpoints include that of Hans Eysenck, who be-

lieves that Freud set back the study of psychology andpsychiatry “by something like fifty years or more”,[164]

and that of Malcolm Macmillan, who concluded that“Freud’s method is not capable of yielding objective dataabout mental processes”.[165] Morris Eagle states that ithas been “demonstrated quite conclusively that because ofthe epistemologically contaminated status of clinical dataderived from the clinical situation, such data have ques-tionable probative value in the testing of psychoanalytichypotheses”.[166] Richard Webster considers psychoanaly-sis perhaps the most complex and successful pseudosciencein history.[167] Crews believes that psychoanalysis has noscientific or therapeutic merit.[168]

Allan Hobson believes that Freud, by rhetorically discred-iting 19th century investigators of dreams such as AlfredMaury and the Marquis de Hervey de Saint-Denis at a timewhen study of the physiology of the brain was only begin-ning, interrupted the development of scientific dream the-ory for half a century.[169] In a 1915 essay for The Journalof Abnormal Psychology, noted dream psychologist LydiardH. Horton dismissed Freud’s dream theory as “dangerouslyinaccurate” and claimed his approach to dream psychol-ogy “infinitely refined the guesses of earlier generations ofthinkers as to the relationship of sleep-fancies to the wakinglife.”[170]

Karl Popper was a critic of Freud.

Karl Popper, who argued that all proper scientific theoriesmust be potentially falsifiable, claimed that Freud’s psy-

100 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

choanalytic theories were presented in unfalsifiable form,meaning that no experiment could ever disprove them.[171]

Adolf Grünbaum has maintained, in opposition to Popper,that many of Freud’s theories are empirically testable.[172]

Whilst in agreement with Grünbaum regarding Popper,Donald Levy rejects Grünbaum’s argument that therapeu-tic success is the empirical basis on which Freud’s theoriesstand or fall in that it rests on a “false dichotomy betweenintra- and extraclinical evidence”.[173] In his wider consid-eration of and response to philosophical critics of Freud’sscientific credibility Levy argues for the importance of clin-ical case material and the concepts related to it, notablyresistance and transference, in establishing the evidentiarystatus of Freud’s work.[174]

In a study of psychoanalysis in the United States, NathanHale reported on the “decline of psychoanalysis in psychia-try” during the years 1965-1985.[175] The continuation ofthis trend was noted by Alan Stone: “As academic psy-chology becomes more 'scientific' and psychiatry more bi-ological, psychoanalysis is being brushed aside.”[176] PaulStepansky, while noting that psychoanalysis remains in-fluential in the humanities, records the “vanishingly smallnumber of psychiatric residents who choose to pursue psy-choanalytic training” and the “nonanalytic backgrounds ofpsychiatric chairpersons at major universities” among theevidence he cites for his conclusion that “Such historicaltrends attest to the marginalisation of psychoanalysis withinAmerican psychiatry.”[177]

Researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis,founded by neuroscientist and psychoanalyst MarkSolms,[178] have argued for Freud’s theories, pointing outbrain structures relating to Freudian concepts such aslibido, drives, the unconscious, and repression.[179][180]

Solms’s case frequently depends on the notion of neuro-scientific findings being “broadly consistent” with Freudiantheories,[181] rather than strict validations of thosetheories.[182] More generally, the dream researcher G.William Domhoff has disputed claims of specificallyFreudian dream theory being validated.[183] There has alsobeen criticism of the very concept of neuro-psychoanalysisby psychoanalysts.[184] Neuroscientist and Nobel laureateEric Kandel argues that “psychoanalysis still representsthe most coherent and intellectually satisfying view of themind.”[185]

5.3.3 Philosophy

Psychoanalysis has been interpreted as both radical andconservative. By the 1940s, it had come to be seen asconservative by the European and American intellectualcommunity. Critics outside the psychoanalytic movement,whether on the political left or right, saw Freud as a conser-

Herbert Marcuse saw similarities between psychoanalysis andMarxism.

vative. Fromm had argued that several aspects of psycho-analytic theory served the interests of political reaction inhis The Fear of Freedom (1942), an assessment confirmedby sympathetic writers on the right. Philip Rieff's Freud:The Mind of the Moralist (1959) portrayed Freud as a manwho urged men to make the best of an inevitably unhappyfate, and admirable for that reason. Three books publishedin the 1950s challenged the then prevailing interpretationof Freud as a conservative: Herbert Marcuse's Eros andCivilization (1955), Lionel Trilling's Freud and the Crisis ofOur Culture, and Norman O. Brown's Life Against Death(1959).[186] Eros and Civilization helped make the idea thatFreud and Marx were addressing similar questions fromdifferent perspectives credible to the left. Marcuse crit-icized neo-Freudian revisionism for discarding seeminglypessimistic theories such as the death instinct, arguing thatthey could be turned in a utopian direction. Freud’s theoriesalso influenced the Frankfurt School and critical theory asa whole.[187]

Freud has been compared to Marx by Reich, who sawFreud’s importance for psychiatry as parallel to that of Marxfor economics,[188] and by Paul Robinson, who sees Freudas a revolutionary whose contributions to twentieth cen-tury thought are comparable in importance to Marx’s con-tributions to nineteenth century thought.[189] Fromm callsFreud, Marx, and Einstein the “architects of the modernage”, but rejects the idea that Marx and Freud were equallysignificant, arguing that Marx was both far more histori-cally important and a finer thinker. Fromm neverthelesscredits Freud with permanently changing the way humannature is understood.[190] Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattariwrite in Anti-Oedipus (1972) that psychoanalysis resemblesthe Russian Revolution in that it became corrupted almostfrom the beginning. They believe this began with Freud’s

5.3. LEGACY 101

development of the theory of the Oedipus complex, whichthey see as idealist.[191]

Jean-Paul Sartre critiques Freud’s theory of the uncon-scious in Being and Nothingness, claiming that conscious-ness is essentially self-conscious. Sartre also attempts toadapt some of Freud’s ideas to his own account of hu-man life, and thereby develop an “existential psychoanal-ysis” in which causal categories are replaced by teleo-logical categories.[192] Maurice Merleau-Ponty considersFreud to be one of the anticipators of phenomenology,[193]

while Theodor W. Adorno considers Edmund Husserl, thefounder of phenomenology, to be Freud’s philosophicalopposite, writing that Husserl’s polemic against psycholo-gism could have been directed against psychoanalysis.[194]

Paul Ricœur sees Freud as a master of the “school of sus-picion”, alongside Marx and Nietzsche.[195] Ricœur andJürgen Habermas have helped create a "hermeneutic ver-sion of Freud”, one which “claimed him as the most sig-nificant progenitor of the shift from an objectifying, em-piricist understanding of the human realm to one stressingsubjectivity and interpretation.”[196] Louis Althusser drewon Freud’s concept of overdetermination for his reinterpre-tation of Marx’s Capital.[197] Jean-François Lyotard devel-oped a theory of the unconscious that reverses Freud’s ac-count of the dream-work: for Lyotard, the unconscious isa force whose intensity is manifest via disfiguration ratherthan condensation.[198] Jacques Derrida finds Freud to beboth a late figure in the history of western metaphysics and,with Nietzsche and Heidegger, a precursor of his own brandof radicalism.[199]

Several scholars see Freud as parallel to Plato, writing thatthey hold nearly the same theory of dreams and have sim-ilar theories of the tripartite structure of the human soulor personality, even if the hierarchy between the parts ofthe soul is almost reversed.[200][201] Ernest Gellner arguesthat Freud’s theories are an inversion of Plato’s. WhereasPlato saw a hierarchy inherent in the nature of reality,and relied upon it to validate norms, Freud was a natural-ist who could not follow such an approach. Both men’stheories drew a parallel between the structure of the hu-man mind and that of society, but while Plato wanted tostrengthen the super-ego, which corresponded to the aris-tocracy, Freud wanted to strengthen the ego, which corre-sponded to the middle class.[202] Michel Foucault writes thatPlato and Freud meant different things when they claimedthat dreams fulfill desires, since the meaning of a statementdepends on its relation to other propositions.[203]

Paul Vitz compares Freudian psychoanalysis to Thomism,noting St. Thomas’s belief in the existence of an “uncon-scious consciousness” and his “frequent use of the wordand concept 'libido' - sometimes in a more specific sensethan Freud, but always in a manner in agreement with theFreudian use.” Vitz suggests that Freud may have been

unaware that his theory of the unconscious was reminis-cent of Aquinas.[27] Bernard Williams writes that there hasbeen hope that some psychoanalytical theories may “sup-port some ethical conception as a necessary part of humanhappiness”, but that in some cases the theories appear tosupport such hopes because they themselves involve ethicalthought. In his view, while such theories may be better aschannels of individual help because of their ethical basis, itdisqualifies them from providing a basis for ethics.[204]

5.3.4 Literary criticism

Literary critic Harold Bloom has been influenced byFreud.[205] Camille Paglia has also been influenced byFreud, whom she calls “Nietzsche’s heir” and one of thegreatest sexual psychologists in literature, but has rejectedthe scientific status of his work in her Sexual Personae, writ-ing, “Freud has no rivals among his successors because theythink he wrote science, when in fact he wrote art.”[206]

5.3.5 Feminism

Betty Friedan criticizes Freud in The Feminine Mystique.[207]

The decline in Freud’s reputation has been attributed partlyto the revival of feminism.[208] Simone de Beauvoir criti-cizes psychoanalysis from an existentialist standpoint in The

102 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

Second Sex, arguing that Freud saw an “original superior-ity” in the male that is in reality socially induced.[209] BettyFriedan criticizes Freud and what she considered his Victo-rian view of women in The Feminine Mystique.[207] Freud’sconcept of penis envy was attacked by Kate Millett, whoseSexual Politics accused him of confusion and oversights.[210]

Naomi Weisstein writes that Freud and his followers erro-neously thought that his “years of intensive clinical expe-rience” added up to scientific rigor.[211] Freud is also crit-icized by Shulamith Firestone and Eva Figes. In The Di-alectic of Sex, Firestone argues that Freud was a “poet”who produced metaphors rather than literal truths; in herview, Freud, like feminists, recognized that sexuality wasthe crucial problem of modern life, but ignored the socialcontext and failed to question society itself. Firestone inter-prets Freudian “metaphors” in terms of the literal facts ofpower within the family. Figes tries in Patriarchal Attitudesto place Freud within a “history of ideas”. Juliet Mitchelldefends Freud against his feminist critics in Psychoanaly-sis and Feminism, accusing them of misreading him andmisunderstanding the implications of psychoanalytic theoryfor feminism. Mitchell helped introduce English-speakingfeminists to Lacan.[209] Mitchell is criticized by Jane Gallopin The Daughter’s Seduction. Gallop compliments Mitchellfor her criticism of “the distortions inflicted by feministsupon Freud’s text and his discoveries”, but finds her treat-ment of Lacanian theory lacking.[212]

Some French feminists, among them Julia Kristeva andLuce Irigaray, have been influenced by Freud as inter-preted by Lacan.[213] Irigaray has produced a theoreticalchallenge to Freud and Lacan, using their theories againstthem to put forward a “psychoanalytic explanation for the-oretical bias”. Irigaray claims that “the cultural uncon-scious only recognizes the male sex”, and “details the ef-fects of this unconscious belief on accounts of the psy-chology of women”.[214] Feminist scholars such as RanjanaKhanna and Elizabeth Grosz have used Freud’s work totry to create an understanding of sexual difference thataccounts for the materiality of the body without reifyingthe biological and the neurological. They suggest that psy-choanalysis can be put to work in ways which challengeanti-biologism and its reinforcement of binary oppositionssuch as human/animal, nature/the social, empirical real-ity/interpretation and man/woman.[215][216]

Carol Gilligan writes that “The penchant of developmen-tal theorists to project a masculine image, and one that ap-pears frightening to women, goes back at least to Freud.”She sees Freud’s criticism of women’s sense of justice reap-pearing in the work of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg.Gilligan notes that Nancy Chodorow, in contrast to Freud,attributes sexual difference not to anatomy but to the factthat male and female children have different early social en-vironments. Chodorow, writing against the masculine bias

of psychoanalysis, “replaces Freud’s negative and derivativedescription of female psychology with a positive and directaccount of her own.”[217]

5.4 Works

Main article: Sigmund Freud bibliography

5.4.1 Books

• 1891 On Aphasia

• 1895 Studies on Hysteria (co-authored with JosefBreuer)

• 1900 The Interpretation of Dreams

• 1901 On Dreams (abridged version of The Interpreta-tion of Dreams)

• 1904 The Psychopathology of Everyday Life

• 1905 Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious

• 1905 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality

• 1907 Delusion and Dream in Jensen’s Gradiva

• 1910 Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis

• 1910 Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood

• 1913 Totem and Taboo: Resemblances between thePsychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics

• 1915–17 Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis

• 1920 Beyond the Pleasure Principle

• 1921 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

• 1923 The Ego and the Id

• 1926 Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety

• 1926 The Question of Lay Analysis

• 1927 The Future of an Illusion

• 1930 Civilization and Its Discontents

• 1933 New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis

• 1938 An Outline of Psycho-Analysis

• 1939 Moses and Monotheism

5.4. WORKS 103

5.4.2 Case histories

• 1905 Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria(the Dora case history)

• 1909 Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy (theLittle Hans case history)

• 1909 Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis (theRat Man case history)

• 1911 Psycho-Analytic Notes on an AutobiographicalAccount of a Case of Paranoia (the Schreber case his-tory)

• 1918 From the History of an Infantile Neurosis (theWolfman case history)

• 1920 The Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexualityin a Woman[218]

• 1923 A Seventeenth-Century Demonological Neuro-sis (the Haizmann case)

5.4.3 Papers on sexuality

• 1906 My Views on the Part Played by Sexuality in theAetiology of the Neuroses

• 1908 “Civilized” Sexual Morality and Modern Ner-vous Illness

• 1910 A Special Type of Choice of Object made byMen

• 1912 Types of Onset of Neurosis

• 1912 The Most Prevalent Form of Degradation inErotic Life

• 1913 The Disposition to Obsessional Neurosis

• 1915 A Case of Paranoia Running Counter to thePsycho-Analytic Theory of the Disease

• 1919 A Child is Being Beaten: A Contribution to theOrigin of Sexual Perversions

• 1922 Medusa’s Head

• 1922 Some Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy, Para-noia and Homosexuality

• 1923 Infantile Genital Organisation

• 1924 The Dissolution of the Oedipus Complex

• 1925 Some Psychical Consequences of the Anatomi-cal Distinction between the Sexes

• 1927 Fetishism

• 1931 Female Sexuality

• 1938 The Splitting of the Ego in the Process of De-fence

5.4.4 Autobiographical papers

• 1914 The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement

• 1925 An Autobiographical Study

5.4.5 The Standard Edition

The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Worksof Sigmund Freud. Trans. from the German under thegeneral editorship of James Strachey, in collaboration withAnna Freud, assisted by Alix Strachey, Alan Tyson, andAngela Richards. 24 volumes, London: Hogarth Press andthe Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953-1974.

• Vol. I Pre-Psycho-Analytic Publications and Unpub-lished Drafts (1886-1899).

• Vol. II Studies in Hysteria (1893-1895). By JosefBreuer and S. Freud.

• Vol. III Early Psycho-Analytic Publications (1893-1899)

• Vol. IV The Interpretation of Dreams (I) (1900)

• Vol. V The Interpretation of Dreams (II) and OnDreams (1900-1901)

• Vol. VI The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901)

• Vol. VII A Case of Hysteria, Three Essays on Sexual-ity and Other Works (1901-1905)

• Vol. VIII Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious(1905)

• Vol. IX Jensen’s 'Gradiva,' and Other Works (1906-1909)

• Vol. X The Cases of 'Little Hans’ and the Rat Man'(1909)

• Vol. XI Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, Leonardoand Other Works (1910)

• Vol. XIII Totem and Taboo and Other Works (1913-1914)

104 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

• Vol. XIV On the History of the Psycho-AnalyticMovement, Papers on Meta-psychology and OtherWorks (1914-1916)

• Vol. XV Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis(Parts I and II) (1915-1916)

• Vol. XVI Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis(Part III) (1916-1917)

• Vol. XVII An Infantile Neurosis and Other Works(1917-1919)

• Vol. XVIII Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Group Psy-chology and Other Works (1920-1922)

• Vol. XIX The Ego and the Id and Other Works (1923-1925)

• Vol. XX An Autobiographical Study, Inhibitions,Symptoms and Anxiety, Lay Analysis and OtherWorks (1925-1926)

• Vol. XXI The Future of an Illusion, Civilization andits Discontents and Other Works (1927-1931)

• Vol. XXII New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis and Other Works (1932-1936)

• Vol. XXIII Moses and Monotheism, An Outline ofPsycho-Analysis and Other Works (1937 - 1939)

• Vol. XXIV Indexes and Bibliographies (Compiled byAngela Richards,1974)

5.5 Correspondence• Correspondence: Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Cam-

bridge: Polity 2014. ISBN 978-0-7456-4149-2

• The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Otto Rank: In-side Psychoanalysis (eds. E. J. Lieberman and RobertKramer). Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012.

• The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to WilhelmFliess, 1887–1904, (editor and translator Jeffrey Mous-saieff Masson), 1985, ISBN 978-0-674-15420-9

• The Sigmund Freud Carl Gustav Jung Letters, Pub-lisher: Princeton University Press; Abr edition, 1994,ISBN 978-0-691-03643-4

• The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud andKarl Abraham, 1907–1925, Publisher: Karnac Books,2002, ISBN 978-1-85575-051-7

• The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud andErnest Jones, 1908–1939., Belknap Press, HarvardUniversity Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-674-15424-7

• The Sigmund Freud Ludwig Binswanger Letters, Pub-lisher: Open Gate Press, 2000, ISBN 978-1-871871-45-6

• The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sán-dor Ferenczi, Volume 1, 1908–1914, Belknap Press,Harvard University Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-674-17418-4

• The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sán-dor Ferenczi, Volume 2, 1914–1919, Belknap Press,Harvard University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0-674-17419-1

• The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sán-dor Ferenczi, Volume 3, 1920–1933, Belknap Press,Harvard University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-674-00297-5

• The Letters of Sigmund Freud to Eduard Silberstein,1871–1881, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press,ISBN 978-0-674-52828-4

• Psycho-Analysis and Faith: The Letters of SigmundFreud and Oskar Pfister. Trans. Eric Mosbacher.Heinrich Meng and Ernst L. Freud. eds London: Hog-arth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1963.

• Sigmund Freud and Lou Andreas-Salome; Letters,Publisher: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; 1972, ISBN978-0-15-133490-2

• The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Arnold Zweig, Pub-lisher: New York University Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-8147-2585-6

• Letters of Sigmund Freud – selected and edited by ErnstLudwig Freud, Publisher: New York: Basic Books,1960, ISBN 978-0-486-27105-7

5.6 See also

• Afterwardsness

• Sigmund Freud Archives

• Freud Museum (London)

• Sigmund Freud Museum (Vienna)

• Freudian slip

• Freudo-Marxism

• Hedgehog’s dilemma

• Mesmerism

5.7. NOTES 105

• Histrionic personality disorder

• Psychoanalytic literary criticism

• Psychodynamics

• Signorelli parapraxis

• The Freudian Coverup

• The Standard Edition of the Complete PsychologicalWorks of Sigmund Freud

• Uncanny

• The Passions of the Mind

• A Clinical Lesson at the Salpêtrière

5.7 Notes[1] Tansley, A. G. (1941). "Sigmund Freud. 1856–1939”.

Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 3 (9): 246–226. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1941.0002. JSTOR 768889 .

[2] “Freud”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.

[3] Noel Sheehy, Alexandra Forsythe (2013). “SigmundFreud”. Fifty Key Thinkers in Psychology. Routledge. ISBN1134704933.

[4] Eric R. Kandel The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understandthe Unconscious in Art, Mind and Brain, from Vienna 1900to the Present. New York: Random House 2012, pp. 45-46.

[5] Gay 2006, pp. 136-7

[6] Sigmund Freud; Translated by J.A. Underwood; John For-rester (2006). Interpreting Dreams. Penguin Books Lim-ited. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-14-191553-1. Affiliated Pro-fessor' seems to me to be the best translation of professorextraordinarius, which position has the rank of full Profes-sor, but without payment by the University. A professor ex-traordinarius is not an employee of the University, but is ...appointed professor extraordinarius would not alter his po-sition – there were no duties attached to the position - butwould be a mark of recognition and prestige,...

[7] Ford & Urban 1965, p. 109

[8] Mannoni, Octave, Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious,London: NLB 1971, p. 49-51

[9] Mannoni, Octave, Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious,London: NLB 1971, pp. 146-47

[10] For its efficacy and the influence of psychoanalysis on psy-chiatry and psychotherapy, see The Challenge to Psychoanal-ysis and Psychotherapy, Chapter 9, Psychoanalysis and Psy-chiatry: A Changing Relationship by Robert Michels, 1999and Tom Burns Our Necessary Shadow: The Nature andMeaning of Psychiatry London: Allen Lane 2013 p. 96-97.

• For the influence of psychoanalysis in the humani-ties, see J. Forrester The Seductions of PsychoanalysisCambridge University Press 1990, pp. 2-3.

• For the debate on efficacy, see Fisher, S. and Green-berg, R. P., Freud Scientifically Reappraised: Testingthe Theories and Therapy, New York: John Wiley,1996, pp. 193-217.

• For the debate on the scientific status of psychoanal-ysis see Stevens, R. 1985 Freud and PsychoanalysisMilton Keynes: Open University Press, pp. 91-116.

• For the debate on psychoanalysis and feminism, seeAppignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. Freud’s Women.London: Penguin Books, 1992, pp. 455-474

[11] Auden 1935

• Also see Alexander, Sam “In Memory of SigmundFreud” (undated) and Thurschwell, P. Sigmund FreudLondon: Routledge 2009, p. 1

[12] Peter Gay (1995) Freud: A Life for Our Time, picture cap-tion “his adored mother”

[13] Gresser 1994, p. 225.

[14] Emanuel Rice (1990). Freud and Moses: The Long JourneyHome. SUNY Press. p. 55. ISBN 0791404536.

[15] Gay 2006, pp. 4–8; Clark 1980, p. 4

• For Jakob’s Torah study, see Meissner 1993, p. 233.• For the date of the marriage, see Rice 1990, p. 55.

[16] Deborah P. Margolis, M.A. “Margolis 1989”. Pep-web.org.Retrieved 17 January 2014.

[17] Jones, Ernest (1964) Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Editedand abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Har-mondsworth: Penguin Books p. 37

[18] Hothersall 2004, p. 276.

[19] Bloom 1994, p. 346

[20] Hothersall 1995

[21] See Past studies of the eels and references therein.

[22] Gay 2006, p. 42-47

[23] Peter J. Swales, “Freud, Minna Bernays and the Conquestof Rome: New Light on the Origins of Psychoanalysis”,The New American Review, Spring/Summer 1982, pp. 1-23, which also includes speculation over an abortion.

• see Gay 2006, pp. 76, 752-53 for a sceptical rejoinderto Swales.

• for the discovery of the hotel log see http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/24/world/europe/24iht-web.1224freud.3998915.html?pagewanted=all

[24] Gay 2006, pp. 77, 169

106 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

[25] Freud and Bonaparte 2009, pp. 238-239

[26] Pigman, G. W. (1995). “Freud and the history of empa-thy”. The International journal of psycho-analysis. 76 ( Pt2): 237–256. PMID 7628894.

[27] Vitz 1988, pp. 53–54

[28] Sulloway 1979, pp. 243, 253

[29] Paul Roazen, in Dufresne, Todd (ed). Returns of the FrenchFreud: Freud, Lacan, and Beyond. New York and London:Routledge Press, 1997, p. 13

[30] Gay 2006, p. 45

[31] Holt 1989, p. 242

[32] Robert, Marthe (1976) From Oedipus to Moses: Freud’s Jew-ish Identity New York: Anchor pp. 3-6

[33] Frosh, Stephen (2004). “Freud, Psychoanalysis and Anti-Semitism”. The Psychoanalytic Review 91: 309–330.doi:10.1521/prev.91.3.309.38302.

[34] Freud had a small lithographic version of the painting, cre-ated by Eugène Pirodon (1824-1908), framed and hung onthe wall of his Vienna rooms from 1886 to 1938. OnceFreud reached England, it was immediately placed directlyover the analytical couch in his London rooms.

[35] Joseph Aguayo, PhD. “Joseph Aguayo Charcot and Freud:Some Implications of Late 19th-century French Psychiatryand Politics for the Origins of Psychoanalysis (1986). Psy-choanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 9:223–260”. Pep-web.org. Retrieved 6 February 2011.

[36] Gay 2006, pp. 64–71

[37] “jewishvirtuallibrary Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)". jew-ishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 20 May 2013.

[38] Freud 1896c, pp. 203, 211, 219; Eissler 2005, p. 96

[39] J. Forrester The Seductions of Psychoanalysis CambridgeUniversity Press 1990, pp. 75-76

[40] Gay 2006, pp. 88-96

[41] Mannoni, Octave, Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious,London: NLB 1971,pp. 55-81

[42] Mannoni, Octave, Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious,London: NLB 1971, p. 91

[43] Charles Bernheimer and Claire Kahane (eds) In Dora’s Case:Freud - Hysteria - Feminism, London: Virago 1985

[44] Rose, Louis (1998). The Freudian Calling: Early Psycho-analysis and the Pursuit of Cultural Science. Detroit: WayneState University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-8143-2621-3.

[45] Freud Archives, Library of Congress, Washington, Box B21.

[46] Professor extraordinarius, or professor without a chair. Gay2006, pp. pp. 136-7, 153

[47] Schwartz, Joseph (2003). Cassandra’s daughter: a historyof psychoanalysis. London: Karnac. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-85575-939-8.

[48] Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Un-conscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry([Repr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 443, 454. ISBN978-0-465-01673-0.

[49] Stekel’s review appeared in 1902. In it, he declared thatFreud’s work heralded “a new era in psychology”.Rose,Louis (1998). The Freudian Calling: Early Psychoanalysisand the Pursuit of Cultural Science. Detroit: Wayne StateUniversity Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-8143-2621-3.

[50] Rose, Louis (1998). “Freud and fetishism: previously un-published minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society”.Psychoanalytic Quartery 57: 147.

[51] Reitler’s family had converted to Catholicism. Makari,George (2008). Revolution in Mind: the Creation of Psycho-analysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne Univer-sity Publishing. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0.

[52] Makari, George (2008). Revolution in Mind: the Creation ofPsychoanalysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: MelbourneUniversity Publishing. pp. 130–131. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0.

[53] Stekel, Wilhelm (2007). 'On the history of the psychoana-lytic movmement'. Jap Bos (trans. and annot.). In Japp Bossand Leendert Groenendijk (eds). The Self-Marginalizationof Wilhelm Stekel: Freudian Circles Inside and Out. NewYork. p. 131

[54] Gay 2006, pp. 174–175

[55] The real name of “Little Hans” was Herbert Graf. See Gay2006, page. 156, 174.

[56] Sulloway, Frank J. (1991). “Reassessing Freud’s case histo-ries: the social construction of psychoanalysis”. Isis 82 (2):266. doi:10.1086/355727.

[57] Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Un-conscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychia-try ([Repr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. p. 455. ISBN978-0-465-01673-0.

[58] Martin Miller(1998) Freud and the Bolsheviks, Yale Univer-sity Press, pp. 24, 45

[59] Jones, E. 1955, pp. 44-45

[60] Jones, Ernest (1964) Sigmund Freud: Life and Work.Edited and abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus.Harmondsworth: Penguin Books p. 332

[61] Jones, Ernest (1964) Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Editedand abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Har-mondsworth: Penguin Books pp. 334, 352, 361

5.7. NOTES 107

[62] Gay 2006, p. 186

[63] Gay 2006, p. 212

[64] Jacoby, Russell (21 September 2009). “Freud’s Visit toClark U.”. The Chronicle Review. Retrieved 21 May 2012.

[65] Three members of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society re-signed at the same time as Adler to establish the Societyfor Free Psychoanalysis. Six other members of the Vien-nese Psychoanalytic Society who attempted to retain links toboth the Adlerian and Freudian camps were forced out af-ter Freud insisted that they must chose one side or another.Makari, George (2008). Revolution in Mind: the Creation ofPsychoanalysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: MelbourneUniversity Publishing. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0.

[66] Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Un-conscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry([Repr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 456, 584–85.ISBN 978-0-465-01673-0.

[67] Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Un-conscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychia-try ([Repr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. p. 456. ISBN978-0-465-01673-0.

[68] Gay 2006, p. 229-230, 241

[69] Gay 2006, pp. 474-481

[70] Gay 2006, p. 460

[71] Danto, Elizabeth Ann (2005). Freud’s Free Clinics: Psy-choanalysis and Social Justice, 1918-1938. New York:Columbia University Press, pp. 3, 104, 185-186.

[72] Miller, Martin (1998) Freud and the Bolsheviks, Yale Uni-versity Press p 24, 59

[73] Miller (1998), p. 94.

[74] Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. Freud’s Women. Lon-don: Penguin Books, 1992, p.108

[75] Breger, Louis. Freud: Darkness in the Midst of Vision. Wi-ley, 2011, p.262

[76] Lynn, D.J. (2003). “Freud’s psychoanalysis of Edith Ban-field Jackson, 1930-1936.”. Journal of the AmericanAcademy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry 31(4): 609–625. doi:10.1521/jaap.31.4.609.23009. PMID14714630.

[77] Lynn, D.J. (1997). “Freud’s analysis of Albert Hirst, 1903-1910.”. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 71 (1): 69–93.doi:10.1353/bhm.1997.0045. PMID 9086627.

[78] http://www.sulloway.org/freudfrauds.htm

[79] Gay 2006, pp. 419–420

[80] “Freud, Sigmund, quote: What progress”. Quotations-book.com. 23 September 1939. Retrieved 6 February 2011.

[81] Gay 2006, pp. 618–620, 624–625

[82] Cohen 2009, pp. 152–153

[83] Cohen 2009, pp. 157–159

[84] Cohen 2009, p. 160

[85] Cohen 2009, p. 166

[86] Cohen 2009, pp. 178, 205–207

[87] Cohen 2009, p. 194

[88] Cohen 2009, p. 213

[89] Chaney, Edward (2006). 'Egypt in England and Amer-ica: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Re-ligion', Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Fault-lines, eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado. Amsterdam and NewYork: Rodopi, Chaney'Freudian Egypt', The London Maga-zine (April/May 2006), pp. 62–69, and Chaney, 'Moses andMonotheism, by Sigmund Freud', 'The Canon', THE (TimesHigher Education), 3–9 June 2010, No. 1,950, p. 53.

[90] Gay 2006, pp. 650-51

[91] http://sydney.edu.au/museums/publications/catalogues/freud-catalogue.pdf

[92] List of the works of architect Ernst Freud

[93] Burke, Janine The Sphinx at the Table: Sigmund Freud’sArt Collection and the Development of Psychoanalysis, NewYork: Walker and Co. 2006, p. 340.

[94] Strutzmann, Helmut (2008). “An overview of Freud’s life”.In Joseph P. Merlino, Marilyn S. Jacobs, Judy Ann Kaplan,K. Lynne Moritz. Freud at 150: 21st century Essays on aMan of Genius. Plymouth. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-7657-0547-1.

[95] “The History of Psychiatry” (PDF). Retrieved 6 February2011.

[96] Rycroft, Charles. A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis.London: Penguin Books, 1995, p.59

[97] Rycroft, Charles. A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis.London: Penguin Books, 1995, pp.185–186

[98] Hirschmuller, Albrecht. The Life and Work of Josef Breuer.New York: New York University Press, 1989, pp. 101–116;276–307.

[99] Hirschmuller, Albrecht. The Life and Work of Josef Breuer.New York: New York University Press, 1989, p.115.

[100] Ellenberger, E. H., “The Story of 'Anna O.': A Critical Ac-count with New Data”, J. of the Hist. of the Behavioral Sci-ences, 8 (3), 1972, pp. 693–717.

[101] Borch-Jacobsen, Mikkel. Remembering Anna O.: A Centuryof Mystification. London: Routledge, 1996.

108 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

[102] Macmillan, Malcolm. Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc.Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1997, pp. 3–24.

[103] Miller, Gavin (25 November 2009). “Book Review: RichardA. Skues (2009) Sigmund Freud and the History of AnnaO.: Reopening a Closed Case (Basingstoke and New York:Palgrave Macmillan). Pp. xii + 204. 19.99. ISBN 978-0-230-22421-6". History of Psychiatry 20 (4): 509–510.doi:10.1177/0957154X090200040205. Skues, Richard A.Sigmund Freud and the History of Anna O.: Reopening aClosed Case. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan,2006.

[104] Freud, Standard Edition, vol. 7, 1906, p. 274; S.E. 14, 1914,p. 18; S.E. 20, 1925, p. 34; S.E. 22, 1933, p. 120; Schimek,J.G. (1987), Fact and Fantasy in the Seduction Theory: aHistorical Review. Journal of the American PsychoanalyticAssociation, xxxv: 937–965; Esterson, Allen (1998), JeffreyMasson and Freud’s seduction theory: a new fable based onold myths. History of the Human Sciences, 11 (1), pp. 1–21.Human-nature.com

[105] Masson (ed), 1985, pp. 141, 144. Esterson, Allen (1998),Jeffrey Masson and Freud’s seduction theory: a new fablebased on old myths. History of the Human Sciences, 11 (1),pp. 1–21.

[106] Freud, Standard Edition 3, (1896a), (1896b), (1896c); Is-raëls, H. & Schatzman, M. (1993), The Seduction Theory.History of Psychiatry, iv: 23–59; Esterson, Allen (1998).

[107] Freud, Sigmund (1896c). The Aetiology of Hysteria. Stan-dard Edition, Vol. 3, p. 204; Schimek, J. G. (1987). Factand Fantasy in the Seduction Theory: a Historical Review.Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, xxxv:937-65; Toews, J.E. (1991). Historicizing Psychoanalysis:Freud in His Time and for Our Time, Journal of ModernHistory, vol. 63 (pp. 504–545), p. 510, n.12; McNally, R.J.Remembering Trauma, Harvard University Press, 1993, pp.159–169.

[108] Freud, Standard Edition 3, 1896c, pp. 204, 211; Schimek,J. G. (1987); Esterson, Allen (1998); Eissler, 2001, p. 114-115; McNally, R.J. (2003).

[109] Freud, Standard Edition 3, 1896c, pp. 191–193; Cioffi,Frank. (1998 [1973]). Was Freud a liar? Freud and theQuestion of Pseudoscience. Chicago: Open Court, pp. 199–204; Schimek, J. G. (1987); Esterson, Allen (1998); Mc-Nally, (2003), pp, 159–169.

[110] Borch-Jacobsen, Mikkel. (1996), Neurotica: Freud and theseduction theory. October, vol. 76, Spring 1996, MIT, pp.15–43; Hergenhahn, B.R. (1997), An Introduction to the His-tory of Psychology, Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, pp.484–485; Esterson, Allen (2002). The myth of Freud’s os-tracism by the medical community in 1896–1905: JeffreyMasson’s assault on truth. History of Psychology, 5(2), pp.115–134

[111] Andrews, B. and Brewin, C. What did Freud get right?, Thepsychologist, December 2000, page 606

[112] Freud, S. 1924/1961, page 204 The aetiology of hysteria.In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.),The standard edition of thecomplete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 3,pp. 189–224). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work pub-lished 1896, addendum originally published 1924)

[113] Ahbel-Rappe, K. (2006) ""I no longer believe": did Freudabandon the seduction theory?"" Journal of the AmericanPsychoanalytical Association, 54(1): pp. 195.

[114] Jones, Ernest. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work, vol. 1. Lon-don: Hogarth Press, 1953, pp. 94–96.

[115] Byck, Robert. Cocaine Papers by Sigmund Freud. Editedwith an Introduction by Robert Byck. New York, Stonehill,1974.

[116] Borch-Jacobsen (2001) Review of Israëls, Han. Der FallFreud: Die Geburt der Psychoanalyse aus der Lüge. Ham-burg: Europäische Verlagsanstalt, 1999.

[117] Thornton, Elizabeth. Freud and Cocaine: The Freudian Fal-lacy. London: Blond and Briggs, 1983, pp. 45–46.

[118] Jones, E., 1953, pp. 86–108.

[119] Masson, Jeffrey M. (ed.) The Complete Letters of SigmundFreud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887–1904. Harvard UniversityPress, 1985, pp. 49, 106, 126, 127, 132, 201.

[120] Schur, Max. “Some Additional 'Day Residues’ of the Spec-imen Dream of Psychoanalysis.” In Psychoananalysis, AGeneral Psychology, ed. R. M. Loewenstein et al. New York:International Universities Press, 1966, pp. 45–95; Masson,Jeffrey M. The Assault on Truth: Freud’s Suppression of theSeduction Theory. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux,1984, pp. 55–106.

[121] Scheidt, Jürgen vom (1973). “Sigmund Freud and cocaine”.Psyche: 385–430.; Thornton, E., 1983, pp. 151–169.

[122] Wollheim, Richard. Freud. London, Fontana Press, pp.157-176

[123] Rycroft, Charles. A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis.London: Penguin Books, 1995, p.41

[124] Mannoni, Octave, Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious,London: NLB 1971, pp. 55-58

[125] Gay 2006, pp. 108-117

[126] Mannoni 1971, pp. 93-97

[127] Gay 2006, pp. 515-18

[128] Cavell, Marcia The Psychoanalytic Mind, Cambridge, Mass:Harvard University Press 1996, p. 225

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[129] Paul, Robert A. (1991). “Freud’s anthropology”. In JamesNeu ed. The Cambridge Companion to Freud. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. p. 274. ISBN 978-0-521-37779-9.

[130] Hothersall, D. 2004. “History of Psychology”, 4th ed.,Mcgraw-Hill:NY p. 290

[131] Freud, S. The Ego and the Id, Standard Edition 19, pp. 7,23.

[132] Heffner, Christopher. “Freud’s Structural and Topograph-ical Models of Personality”. Psychology 101. Retrieved 5September 2011.

[133] See Civilization and its discontents, Freud, translator JamesStrachey, 2005 edition, p. 18

[134] Rycroft, Charles. A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis.London: Penguin Books, 1995, p.95

[135] TY - JOUR T1 - Fiction, Death and Testimony: Towarda Politics of the Limits of Thought A1 - Felipe VictorianoA1 - Aaron Walker A1 - Carl Good JF - Discourse VL -25 IS - 1 SP - 211 EP - 230 PY - 2003 PB - Wayne StateUniversity Press SN - 1536-1810|url= http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/discourse/v025/25.1victoriano.html N1 - 25.1&2,Winter & Spring 2003 ER

[136] Wollheim, Richard. Freud. London, Fontana Press, pp.184–186

[137] Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. Freud’s Women. Lon-don: Penguin Books, 1992, pp. 433-437

[138] Rose, J. Sexuality in the Field of Vision, London: Verso 1986p. 91-93

[139] Julie M.L.C.L. Dobbeleir; Koenraad Van Landuyt; StanJ. Monstre (May 2011). “Aesthetic Surgery of the Fe-male Genitalia”. Seminars in Plastic Surgery 25 (2): 130–141. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1281482. PMC 3312147. PMID22547970.

[140] Charles Zastrow (2007). Introduction to Social Work andSocial Welfare: Empowering People. Cengage Learning. p.228. ISBN 0495095109. Retrieved 15 March 2014.

[141] Janice M. Irvine (2005). Disorders of Desire: Sexuality andGender in Modern American Sexology. Temple UniversityPress. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-1592131518. Retrieved 3January 2012.

[142] Stephen Jay Gould (2002). The Structure of EvolutionaryTheory. Harvard University Press. pp. 1262–1263. ISBN0674006135. Retrieved 27 August 2012.

[143] “Difference between clitoral and vaginal orgasm”. Go AskAlice!. 28 March 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2010.

[144] Jones, James W., 'Foreword' in Charles Spezzano and Ger-ald J. Gargiulo (eds), Soul on the Couch: Spirituality, Re-ligion and Morality in Contemporary Psychoanalysis (Hills-dale, 2003), p. xi. Kepnes, Steven D. (Dec 1986). “Bridgingthe gap between understanding and explanation approachesto the study of religion”. Journal for the Scientific Study ofReligion 25 (4): 510.

[145] Gay 1995, p. 435.

[146] Chapman, Christopher N. (2007). Freud, Religion and Anx-iety. Morrisville, NC. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-1-4357-0571-5. Freud, Sigmund Totem and Taboo (New York: W.W.Norton & Co. 1950) pp x, 142, ISBN 978-0-393-00143-3

[147] Rubin, Jeffrey B., 'Psychoanalysis is self-centred' in CharlesSpezzano and Gerald J. Gargiulo (eds), Soul on the Couch:Spirituality, Religion and Morality in Contemporary Psycho-analysis (Hillsdale, 2003), p. 79. Freud, Sigmund, Civi-lization and its Discontents (New York: Norton 1962), pp.11–12 ISBN 978-0-393-09623-1 Fuller, Andrew R. (2008).Psychology and religion: classical theorists and contemporarydevelopments (4th ed.). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Little-field Publishers. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-7425-6022-2.

[148] Costello, Stephen (2010). Hermeneutics and the psychoanal-ysis of religion. Bern: Peter Lang. pp. 72–77. ISBN 978-3-0343-0124-4.

[149] Assoun, Paul-Laurent; translated by Richard L. Collier,(2002). Freud and Nietzsche. London: Continuum. p. 166.ISBN 978-0-8264-6316-6. Friedman, R.Z. (May 1998).“Freud’s religion: Oedipus and Moses”. Religious Studies34 (2): 145. Roustang, Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen; translatedby Catherine Porter (1989). The Freudian subject. Bas-ingstoke: Macmillan. p. 271 n. 42. ISBN 978-0-333-48986-4. Freud, Sigmund, Moses and Monotheism (NewYork: Vintage Books, 1967). Freud, Sigmund, An Auto-biographical Study (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1952)pp. 130–131 ISBN 0-393-00146-6

[150] Juergensmeyer 2004, p. 171; Juergensmeyer 2009, p. 895;Marlan, Leeming and Madden 2008, p. 439; Fuller 1994,pp. 42, 67; Palmer 1997, pp. 35–36

[151] Perry, Marvin (2010). Western Civilization A Brief His-tory. Boston: Wadsworth Pub Co. p. 405. ISBN 978-0-495-90115-0. Acquaviva, Gary J. (2000). Values, Vio-lence, and Our Future (2. ed.). Amsterdam [u.a.]: Rodopi.p. 26. ISBN 978-90-420-0559-4. Lehrer, Ronald (1995).Nietzsche’s Presence in Freud’s Life and Thought: on the Ori-gins of a Psychology of Dynamic Unconscious Mental Func-tioning. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press. pp.180–181. ISBN 978-0-7914-2145-1. Freud, Sigmund, Civ-ilization and its Discontents (New York: Norton 1962), pp.92 and editor’s footnote ISBN 978-0-393-09623-1) Hergen-hahn, B.R. (2009). An Introduction to the History of Psy-chology (6th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learn-ing. pp. 536–537. ISBN 978-0-495-50621-8. Anderson,James William; Anderson, James William (2001). “Sig-mund Freud’s life and work: an unofficial guide to the Freud

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exhibit”. In Jerome A. Winer (ed.). Sigmund Freud and hisimpact on the modern world. Hillsdale, NJ; London: An-alytical Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-88163-342-9. But cf.,Drassinower, Abraham (2003). Freud’s theory of culture:Eros, loss and politics. Lanham (Md.): Rowman & Little-field. pp. 11–15. ISBN 978-0-7425-2262-6.

[152] Avner Falk. Anti-semitism: A History and Psychoanalysis ofContemporary Hatred.

[153] H. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, 1970, pp.301, 486, 536, 331-409.

[154] Kovel, Joel (1991). A Complete Guide to Therapy. London:Penguin Books. pp. 96, 123–135, 165–198. ISBN 0-14-013631-2.

[155] Mitchell, Stephen A. & Black, Margaret J. Freud and Be-yond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. NewYork: Basic Books, 1995, pp. 193–203

[156] Janov, Arthur. The Primal Scream. Primal Therapy: TheCure for Neurosis. London: Sphere Books, 1977, p.206

[157] Crews, Frederick, et al. The Memory Wars: Freud’s Legacyin Dispute. New York: The New York Review of Books,1995, pp. 206–212

[158] Watters, Ethan & Ofshe, Richard. Therapy’s Delusions.Scribner, 1999, pp.24–25

[159] Stevens, R. Freud and Psychoanalysis Milton Keynes: OpenUniversity Press 1985 p. 96: “the number of relevant studiesruns into thousands”.

[160] Fisher, Seymour & Greenberg, Roger P. Freud ScientificallyReappraised: Testing the Theories and Therapy. New York:John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1996, pp. 13-15, 284–285

[161] S. Fisher and R. P. Greenberg, The Scientific Credibility ofFreud’s Theories and Therapy, 1977.

[162] P. Kline, Fact and Fantasy in Freudian Theory, Second Edi-tion 1981, p. vii.

[163] A Final Accounting: Philosophical and Empirical Issues inFreudian Psychology MIT, 1996, pp. 181-188.

[164] Eysenck, Hans, Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire(Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1986, p. 202.

[165] Malcolm Macmillan, Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc,MIT Press, 1997, p. xxiii.

[166] p. 32, Morris N. Eagle, “The Epistemological Status of Re-cent Developments in Psychoanalytic Theory”, in 'R. S. Co-hen and L. Lauden (eds.), Physics, Philosophy and Psycho-analysis, Reidel 1983, pp. 31-55.

[167] Webster, Richard (2005). Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Sci-ence and Psychoanalysis. Oxford: The Orwell Press. pp.12, 437. ISBN 0-9515922-5-4.

[168] http://pss.sagepub.com/content/7/2/63.abstract

[169] Hobson, Allan (1988). The Dreaming Brain. New York:Penguin Books. p. 42. ISBN 0-14-012498-5.

[170] Lydiard H. Horton (19 April 1915). Scientific Method in theInterpretation of Dreams. The Journal of Abnormal Psychol-ogy. Retrieved 4 March 2015.

[171] Popper, Karl. Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth ofScientific Knowledge. London: Routledge and Keagan Paul,1963, pp. 33–39

[172] Grünbaum, A. The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philo-sophical Critique. University of California Press, 1984, pp.97–126.

[173] Levy, Donald Freud Among the Philosophers, Yale Univer-sity Press 1996, pp. 7, 129-165, 173-179

[174] Levy, Donald Freud Among the Philosophers Yale UniversityPress 1996 pp. 23-56.

[175] Nathan G. Hale, The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis inthe United States, 1917-1985, Oxford University Press, 1995(pp. 300-321).

[176] Alan A. Stone, “Where Will Psychoanalysis Survive?"Keynote address to the American Academy of Psychoanal-ysis, 9 December 1995.

[177] Paul E. Stepansky, Psychoanalysis at the Margins, 2009,New York: Other Press, pp. 11, 14.

[178] Kaplan-Solms, K. & Solms, Mark. Clinical studies in neuro-psychoanalysis: Introduction to a depth neuropsychology.London: Karnac Books, 2000; Solms, Mark & Turbull, O.The brain and the inner world: An introduction to the neu-roscience of subjective experience. New York: Other Press,2002.

[179] Lambert AJ, Good KS, Kirk IJ (2009). Testing the repres-sion hypothesis: Effects of emotional valence on memorysuppression in the think – No think task. Conscious Cogni-tion, 3 October 2009 [Epub ahead of print]

[180] Depue, BE; Curran, T; Banich, MT (2007). “Prefrontalregions orchestrate suppression of emotional memoriesvia a two-phase process”. Science 317 (5835): 215–9.doi:10.1126/science.1139560.

[181] Solms, M. “Reply to Domhoff (2004): Dream Research inthe Court of Public Opinion”, Dreaming, Vol 14(1), Mar2004, pp. 18–20.

[182] “Freud Returns?". Butterflies and Wheels. 3 May 2004. Re-trieved 21 May 2012.

[183] “Domhoff: Beyond Freud and Jung”. Psych.ucsc.edu. 23September 2000. Retrieved 21 May 2012.

[184] Blass, R. Z. & Carmeli Z. “The case against neuropsycho-analysis: On fallacies underlying psychoanalysis’ latest sci-entific trend and its negative impact on psychoanalytic dis-course.”, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, Volume88, Issue 1, pp. 19–40, February 2007.

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[185] Kandel, ER. (1999). “Biology and the future of psychoanal-ysis: a new intellectual framework for psychiatry revisited”.American Journal of Psychiatry 156 (4): 505–24.

[186] Robinson, Paul (1990). The Freudian Left. Ithaca and Lon-don: Cornell University Press. pp. 147–149. ISBN 0-8014-9716-7.

[187] Jay, Martin. The Dialectical Imagination: A History ofthe Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research.Berekely: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 86–112.

[188] Reich, Wilhelm (1976). People in Trouble. New York: Far-rar, Straus and Giroux. p. 53. ISBN 0-374-51035-0.

[189] Robinson, Paul. The Freudian Left: Wilhelm Reich, GezaRoheim, Herbert Marcuse. Ithaca and London: Cornell Uni-versity Press, 1990, p. 7

[190] Fromm, Erich. Beyond the Chains of Illusion: My Encounterwith Marx & Freud. London: Sphere Books, 1980, p. 11

[191] Deleuze, Gilles & Guattari, Félix. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalismand Schizophrenia. Minneapolis: University of MinnesotaPress, 1992, p. 55

[192] Thomas Baldwin (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The OxfordCompanion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.p. 792. ISBN 0-19-866132-0.

[193] priest, Stephen. Merleau-Ponty. New York: Routledge,2003, p. 28

[194] Adorno, Theodor W. Against Epistemology: A Metacritique.Studies in Husserl and the Phenomenological Antinomies.Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1985, p. 96

[195] Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Inter-pretation. New Haven and London: Yale University Press,1970, p. 32

[196] Robinson, Paul. Freud and His Critics. Berekely: Universityof California Press, 1993, p. 14.

[197] Cleaver, Harry (2000). Reading Capital Politically. Leeds:Ak Press. p. 50. ISBN 1-902593-29-4.

[198] Tony Purvis (2011). Sim, Stuart, ed. The Lyotard Dictio-nary. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 199–200. ISBN 978-0-7486-4006-5.

[199] Dufresne, Todd. Tales from the Freudian Crypt: The DeathDrive in Text and Context. Stanford, California: StanfordUniversity Press, 2000, p. 130

[200] Plato is perhaps the only major philosopher to anticipatesome of the central discoveries of twentieth-century depthpsychology, which is, of Freud and his school.” Kahn,Charles H. Plato’s Theory of Desire. The Review of Meta-physics 41 (1987), p. 77

[201] " for Freud the basic nature of our mind is the appetite-idpart, which is the main source for agency, for Plato it is theother way around: we are divine, and reason is the essentialnature and the origin of our agencies which together with theemotions temper the extreme and disparate tendencies of ourbehavior.” Calian, Florian. Plato’s Psychology of Action andthe Origin of Agency. Affectivity, Agency (2012), p. 21

[202] Gellner, Ernest. The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cun-ning of Unreason. London: Fontana Press, 1993, p. 140-143

[203] Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. London:Routledge Classics, 2002, p.116

[204] Williams, Bernard. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy.London: Fontana Press, 1993, p.45

[205] Bolla, Peter de. Harold Bloom: Towards HistoricalRhetorics. London: Routledge, 1988, p.19

[206] Paglia, Camille. Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence fromNefertiti to Emily Dickinson. London and New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1990, p. 2, 228

[207] Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. W.W. Norton,1963, pp.166–194

[208] P. Robinson, Freud and His Critics, 1993, pp. 1-2.

[209] Mitchell, Juliet. Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A RadicalReassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis. London: PenguinBooks, 2000, pp. xxix, 303–356

[210] Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. University of Chicago Press,2000, pp.176–203

[211] Weisstein, Naomi (1994). “Kinder, Küche, Kirche as Scien-tific Law: Psychology Constructs the Female”. In Schneir,Miriam. Feminism in Our Time. Vintage. p. 217. ISBN0-679-74508-4.

[212] Gallop, Jane. The Daughter’s Seduction: Feminism and Psy-choanalysis. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press,1992

[213] Gallop, Jane & Burke, Carolyn, in Eisenstein, Hester &Jardine, Alice (eds.). The Future of Difference. NewBrunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1987, pp.106–108

[214] Whitford, Margaret. Luce Irigaray: Philosophy in the Femi-nine. London and New York: Routledge, 1991, pp. 31–32

[215] Khanna, Ranjana (2008). “Indignity.”. Positions 16:1.

[216] Wilson, Elizabeth (1998). “Neural Geographies: Feminismand the Microstructure of Cognition”. Routledge.

[217] Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theoryand Women’s Development. Cambridge, Massachusetts andLondon, England: Harvard University Press, 1982, pp. 6–8,18

112 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

[218] “The Psychogenesis of a case of Homosexuality in a Woman:1920: Sigmund Freud « Lacanian Works”. Lacanian-works.net. Retrieved 20 August 2014.

5.8 References

• Alexander, Sam. “In Memory of Sigmund Freud”,The Modernism Lab, Yale University, retrieved 23June 2012.

• Appignanesi, Lisa and Forrester, John. Freud’sWomen. Penguin Books, 2000.

• Auden, W.H. “In Memory of Sigmund Freud”, 1935,poets.org, retrieved 23 June 2012.

• Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon. RiverheadBooks, 1994.

• Blumenthal, Ralph. “Hotel log hints at desire thatFreud didn't repress”, International Herald Tribune,24 December 2006.

• Clark, Ronald W. (June 1980). Freud: The Man andthe Cause (1st ed.). Random House Inc (T). ISBN978-0394409832.

• Cohen, David. The Escape of Sigmund Freud. JRBooks, 2009.

• Cohen, Patricia. “Freud Is Widely Taught at Universi-ties, Except in the Psychology Department”, The NewYork Times, 25 November 2007.

• Eissler, K.R. Freud and the Seduction Theory: A BriefLove Affair. Int. Univ. Press, 2005.

• Eysenck, Hans. J. Decline and Fall of the FreudianEmpire. Pelican Books, 1986.

• Ford, Donald H. & Urban, Hugh B. Systems of Psy-chotherapy: A Comparative Study. John Wiley &Sons, Inc, 1965.

• Freud, Sigmund (1896c). The Aetiology of Hysteria.Standard Edition 3.

• Freud, Sigmund and Bonaparte, Marie (ed.). TheOrigins of Psychoanalysis. Letters to Wilhelm Fliess:Drafts and Notes 1887-1902. Kessinger Publishing,2009.

• Fuller, Andrew R. Psychology and Religion: EightPoints of View, Littlefield Adams, 1994.

• Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. W. W. Nor-ton & Company, 2006 (first published 1988).

• Gay, Peter (ed.) The Freud Reader. W.W. Norton &Co., 1995.

• Gresser, Moshe. Dual Allegiance: Freud As a ModernJew. SUNY Press, 1994.

• Holt, Robert. Freud Reappraised: A Fresh Look AtPsychoanalytic Theory. The Guilford Press, 1989.

• Hothersall, D. History of Psychology. 3rd edition,Mcgraw-Hill, 1995.

• Jones, E. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work Vol 1: TheYoung Freud 1856-1900, Hogarth Press, 1953.

• Jones, E. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work Vol 2: TheYears of Maturity 1901-1919, Hogarth Press, 1955

• Jones, E. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work Vol 3: TheFinal Years 1919-1939, Hogarth Press, 1957

• Juergensmeyer, Mark. Terror in the Mind of God: TheGlobal Rise of Religious Violence. University of Cali-fornia Press, 2004.

• Juergensmeyer, Mark. “Religious Violence”, in PeterB. Clarke (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Sociologyof Religion. Oxford University Press, 2009.

• Kovel, Joel. A Complete Guide to Therapy: FromPsychoanalysis to Behaviour Modification. PenguinBooks, 1991 (first published 1976).

• Leeming, D.A.; Madden, Kathryn; and Marlan,Stanton. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion.Springer Verlag u. Co., 2004.

• Mannoni, Octave. Freud: The Theory of the Uncon-scious, London: NLB, 1971

• Margolis, Deborah P. (1989). “Freud and hisMother”. Modern Psychoanalsys 14: 37–56.

• Masson, Jeffrey M. (ed.). The Complete Letters of Sig-mund Freud to Wilhelm Fless, 1887–1904. HarvardUniversity Press, 1985.

• Meissner, William W. “Freud and the Bible” in BruceM. Metzger and Michael David Coogan (eds.). TheOxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford UniversityPress, 1993.

• Michels, Robert. “Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry:A Changing Relationship”, American Mental HealthFoundation, retrieved 23 June 2012.

• Mitchell, Juliet. Psychoanalysis and Feminism: ARadical Reassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis.Penguin Books, 2000.

5.9. FURTHER READING 113

• Palmer, Michael. Freud and Jung on Religion. Rout-ledge, 1997.

• Pigman, G.W. (1995). “Freud and the history of em-pathy”. The International journal of psycho-analysis76 (2): 237–256. PMID 7628894.

• Rice, Emmanuel. Freud and Moses: The Long JourneyHome. SUNY Press, 1990.

• Roudinesco, Elisabeth. Jacques Lacan. Polity Press,1997.

• Sadock, Benjamin J. and Sadock, Virginia A. Kaplanand Sadock’s Synopsis of Psychiatry. 10th ed. Lippin-cott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

• Sulloway, Frank. Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyondthe Psychoanalytic Legend. Burnett Books, 1979.

• Vitz, Paul C. Sigmund Freud’s Christian Unconscious.The Guilford Press, 1988.

• Webster, Richard. Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Sci-ence and Psychoanalysis. HarperCollins, 1995.

5.9 Further reading

• Brown, Norman O.. Life Against Death: The Psycho-analytic Meaning of History. Hanover, NH: WesleyanUniversity Press, Second Edition 1985.

• Cioffi, Frank. Freud and the Question of Pseudo-science. Peru, IL: Open Court, 1999.

• Cole, J. Preston. The Problematic Self in Kierkegaardand Freud. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,1971.

• Crews, Frederick. The Memory Wars: Freud’s Legacyin Dispute. New York: The New York Review ofBooks, 1995.

• Crews, Frederick. Unauthorized Freud: DoubtersConfront a Legend. New York: Penguin Books, 1998.

• Dufresne, Todd. Killing Freud: Twentieth-CenturyCulture and the Death of Psychoanalysis. New York:Continuum, 2003.

• Dufresne, Todd, ed. Against Freud: Critics Talk Back.Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.

• Ellenberger, Henri. Beyond the Unconscious: Essaysof Henri F. Ellenberger in the History of Psychiatry.Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.

• Ellenberger, Henri. The Discovery of the Unconscious:The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry.New York: Basic Books, 1970.

• Esterson, Allen. Seductive Mirage: An Exploration ofthe Work of Sigmund Freud. Chicago: Open Court,1993.

• Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London:Papermac, 1988; 2nd revised hardcover edition, Lit-tle Books (1 May 2006), 864 pages, ISBN 978-1-904435-53-2; Reprint hardcover edition, W. W. Nor-ton & Company (1988); trade paperback, W. W. Nor-ton & Company (17 May 2006), 864 pages, ISBN978-0-393-32861-5

• Gellner, Ernest. The Psychoanalytic Movement: TheCunning of Unreason. London: Fontana Press, 1993.

• Grünbaum, Adolf. The Foundations of Psychoanaly-sis: A Philosophical Critique. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1984.

• Grünbaum, Adolf. Validation in the Clinical Theory ofPsychoanalysis: A Study in the Philosophy of Psycho-analysis. Madison, Connecticut: International Uni-versities Press, 1993.

• Hale, Nathan G., Jr. Freud and the Americans: TheBeginnings of Psychoanalysis in the United States,1876–1917. New York: Oxford University Press,1971.

• Hale, Nathan G., Jr. The Rise and Crisis of Psycho-analysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans,1917–1985. New York and Oxford: Oxford Univer-sity Press, 1995.

• Hirschmüller, Albrecht. The Life and Work of JosefBreuer. New York University Press, 1989.

• Jones, Ernest. The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud.3 vols. New York: Basic Books, 1953–1957

• Jung, Carl Gustav. The Collected Works of C. G. JungVolume 4: Freud and Psychoanalysis. Routledge &Kegan Paul Ltd, 1961.

• Macmillan, Malcolm. Freud Evaluated: The Com-pleted Arc. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1997.

• Marcuse, Herbert. Eros and Civilization: A Philosoph-ical Inquiry into Freud. Boston: Beacon Press, 1974

• Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. The Assault on Truth:Freud’s Suppression of the Seduction Theory. NewYork: Pocket Books, 1998

114 CHAPTER 5. SIGMUND FREUD

• Puner, Helen Walker. Freud: His Life and His Mind.New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1947

• Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy. New Haven:Yale University Press, 1970.

• Rieff, Philip. Freud: The Mind of the Moralist. Gar-den City, New York: Anchor Books, 1961

• Roazen, Paul. Freud and His Followers. New York:Knopf, 1975, hardcover; trade paperback, De CapoPress (22 March 1992), 600 pages, ISBN 978-0-306-80472-4

• Roazen, Paul. Freud: Political and Social Thought.London: Hogarth Press, 1969.

• Roth, Michael, ed. Freud: Conflict and Culture. NewYork: Vintage, 1998.

• Schur, Max. Freud: Living and Dying. New York:International Universities Press, 1972.

• Stannard, David E. Shrinking History: On Freud andthe Failure of Psychohistory. Oxford: Oxford Univer-sity Press, 1982.

• Sulloway, Frank J. Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Be-yond the Psychoanalytic Legend. London: BasicBooks, 1979

• Webster, Richard. Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Sci-ence and Psychoanalysis. Oxford: The Orwell Press,2005.

• Wollheim, Richard. Freud. Fontana, 1971.

• Wollheim, Richard, and James Hopkins, eds. Philo-sophical Essays on Freud. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1982.

5.10 External links• Sigmund Freud at the Encyclopædia Britannica

• A BBC recording of Freud speaking on YouTube,made in 1938

• Sigmund Freud Assists Friend Paul Federn, 1936:Original Letter Shapell Manuscript Foundation

• Essays by Freud at Quotidiana.org

• Freud Archives at Library of Congress

• Freud Museum, Maresfield Gardens, London

• Freud, Sigmund and Anna Collection available onKansas Memory

• International Network of Freud Critics

• International Psychoanalytical Association, foundedby Freud in 1910

• Sigmund Freud Collection at Bartleby.com (15 worksin English)

• Works by Sigmund Freud (public domain in Canada)

• Works by Sigmund Freud at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Sigmund Freud at Internet Archive

• Works by Sigmund Freud at LibriVox (public domainaudiobooks)

• Bibliography of Sigmund Freud’s writings

• A Young Girl’s Diary (1921) probably by HermineHug-Hellmuth, prefaced with a letter from Freuddated 27 April 1915[1]

[1]

Chapter 6

Martin Luther King, Jr.

“Martin Luther King” and “MLK” redirect here. For otheruses, see Martin Luther King (disambiguation) and MLK(disambiguation).

Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April4, 1968), was an American Baptist minister, activist,humanitarian, and leader in the African-American CivilRights Movement. He is best known for his role in theadvancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobe-dience based on his Christian beliefs.King became a civil rights activist early in his career. Heled the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped foundthe Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in1957, serving as its first president. With the SCLC, Kingled an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation inAlbany, Georgia (the Albany Movement), and helped orga-nize the 1963 nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama,that attracted national attention following television newscoverage of the brutal police response. King also helpedto organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he de-livered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. There, heestablished his reputation as one of the greatest orators inAmerican history.On October 14, 1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prizefor combating racial inequality through nonviolence. In1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomerymarches, and the following year he and SCLC took themovement north to Chicago to work on segregated hous-ing. In the final years of his life, King expanded his focus toinclude poverty and speak against the Vietnam War, alien-ating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled"Beyond Vietnam".In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Wash-ington, D.C., to be called the Poor People’s Campaign,when he was assassinated on April 4 in Memphis, Ten-nessee. His death was followed by riots in many U.S.cities. Allegations that James Earl Ray, the man convictedof killing King, had been framed or acted in concert withgovernment agents persisted for decades after the shooting.

King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medalof Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. MartinLuther King, Jr. Day was established as a holiday in nu-merous cities and states beginning in 1971, and as a U.S.federal holiday in 1986. Hundreds of streets in the U.S.have been renamed in his honor, and a county in Washing-ton State was also renamed for him. The Martin LutherKing, Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington,D.C., was dedicated in 2011.

6.1 Early life and education

King’s high school alma mater was named after African-Americanscholar Booker T. Washington.

King was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, toReverend Martin Luther King, Sr., and Alberta WilliamsKing.[1] King’s legal name at birth was Michael King,[2]

and his father was also born Michael King, but the elderKing changed his and his son’s names following a 1934trip to Germany to attend the Fifth Baptist World AllianceCongress in Berlin. It was during this time he chose to becalled Martin Luther King in honor of the German reformerMartin Luther.[3][4] King had Irish ancestry through his pa-

115

116 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

ternal great-grandfather.[5][6]

Martin, Jr., was a middle child, between an older sis-ter, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, AlfredDaniel Williams King.[7] King sang with his church choirat the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with theWind.[8] King liked singing and music. King’s mother, anaccomplished organist and choir leader, took him to vari-ous churches to sing. He received attention for singing “IWant to Be More and More Like Jesus.” King later becamea member of the junior choir in his church.[9]

King said his father regularly whipped him until he was fif-teen and a neighbor reported hearing the elder King tellinghis son “he would make something of him even if he had tobeat him to death.” King saw his father’s proud and unafraidprotests in relation to segregation, such as Martin, Sr., re-fusing to listen to a traffic policeman after being referred toas “boy” or stalking out of a store with his son when beingtold by a shoe clerk that they would have to move to the rearto be served.[10]

When King was a child, he befriended a white boy whosefather owned a business near his family’s home. When theboys were 6, they attended different schools, with King at-tending a segregated school for African-Americans. Kingthen lost his friend because the child’s father no longerwanted them to play together.[11]

King suffered from depression throughout much of his life.In his adolescent years, he initially felt some resentmentagainst whites due to the “racial humiliation” that he, hisfamily, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segre-gated South.[12] At age 12, shortly after his maternal grand-mother died, King blamed himself and jumped out of a sec-ond story window, but survived.[13]

King was originally skeptical of many of Christianity’sclaims.[14] At the age of thirteen, he denied the bodily res-urrection of Jesus during Sunday school. From this point,he stated, “doubts began to spring forth unrelentingly”.[15]

However, he later concluded that the Bible has “many pro-found truths which one cannot escape” and decided to enterthe seminary.[14]

Growing up in Atlanta, King attended Booker T. Washing-ton High School. He became known for his public speakingability and was part of the school’s debate team.[16] King be-came the youngest assistant manager of a newspaper deliv-ery station for the Atlanta Journal in 1942 at age 13.[17] Dur-ing his junior year, he won first prize in an oratorical contestsponsored by the Negro Elks Club in Dublin, Georgia. Re-turning home to Atlanta by bus, he and his teacher wereordered by the driver to stand so white passengers could sitdown. King refused initially, but complied after his teacherinformed him that he would be breaking the law if he didnot go along with the order. He later characterized this inci-

dent as “the angriest I have ever been in my life”.[16] A pre-cocious student, he skipped both the ninth and the twelfthgrades of high school.[18] It was during King’s junior yearthat Morehouse College announced it would accept any highschool juniors who could pass its entrance exam. At thattime, most of the students had abandoned their studies toparticipate in World War II. Due to this, the school becamedesperate to fill in classrooms. At age 15, King passed theexam and entered Morehouse.[16] The summer before hislast year at Morehouse, in 1947, an eighteen-year-old Kingmade the choice to enter the ministry after he concluded thechurch offered the most assuring way to answer “an innerurge to serve humanity”. King’s “inner urge” had begun de-veloping and he made peace with the Baptist Church, as hebelieved he would be a “rational” minister with sermons thatwere “a respectful force for ideas, even social protest.”[19]

In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a B.A. degreein sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminaryin Chester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with aB.Div. degree in 1951.[20][21] King’s father fully supportedhis decision to continue his education. King was joined inattending Crozer by Walter McCall, a former classmate atMorehouse.[22] At Crozer, King was elected president of thestudent body.[23] The African-American students of Crozerfor the most part conducted their social activity on EdwardsStreet. King was endeared to the street due to a classmatehaving an aunt that prepared the two collard greens, whichthey both relished.[24] King once called out a student forkeeping beer in his room because of their shared responsi-bility as African-Americans to bear “the burdens of the Ne-gro race.” For a time, he was interested in Walter Rauschen-busch's “social gospel”.[23] In his third year there, he be-came romantically involved with the daughter of an immi-grant German woman working as a cook in the cafeteria.The daughter had been involved with a professor prior to herrelationship with King. King had plans of marrying her, butwas advised not to by friends due to the reaction an interra-cial relationship would spark from both blacks and whites,as well as the chances of it destroying his chances of everpastoring a church in the South. King tearfully told a friendthat he could not endure his mother’s pain over the marriageand broke the relationship off around six months later. Hewould continue to have lingering feelings, with one friendbeing quoted as saying, “He never recovered.”[23]

King married Coretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on thelawn of her parents’ house in her hometown of Heiberger,Alabama.[25] They became the parents of four children:Yolanda King (b. 1955), Martin Luther King III (b.1957), Dexter Scott King (b. 1961), and Bernice King(b. 1963).[26] During their marriage, King limited Coretta’srole in the Civil Rights Movement, expecting her to be ahousewife and mother.[27]

6.2. IDEAS, INFLUENCES, AND POLITICAL STANCES 117

6.1.1 Doctoral studies

See also: Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues

King then began doctoral studies in systematic theology atBoston University and received his Ph.D. degree on June 5,1955, with a dissertation on “A Comparison of the Concep-tions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nel-son Wieman". An academic inquiry concluded in October1991 that portions of his dissertation had been plagiarizedand he had acted improperly. However, "[d]espite its find-ing, the committee said that 'no thought should be givento the revocation of Dr. King’s doctoral degree,' an actionthat the panel said would serve no purpose.”[28][29][30] Thecommittee also found that the dissertation still “makes anintelligent contribution to scholarship.” However, a letter isnow attached to King’s dissertation in the university library,noting that numerous passages were included without theappropriate quotations and citations of sources.[31]

6.2 Ideas, influences, and politicalstances

6.2.1 Religion

King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Churchin Montgomery, Alabama, when he was twenty-five yearsold, in 1954.[32] As a Christian minister, his main influencewas Jesus Christ and the Christian gospels, which he wouldalmost always quote in his religious meetings, speeches atchurch, and in public discourses. King’s faith was stronglybased in Jesus’ commandment of loving your neighbor asyourself, loving God above all, and loving your enemies,praying for them and blessing them. His nonviolent thoughtwas also based in the injunction to turn the other cheek inthe Sermon on the Mount, and Jesus’ teaching of puttingthe sword back into its place (Matthew 26:52).[33] In hisfamous Letter from Birmingham Jail, King urged actionconsistent with what he describes as Jesus’ “extremist” love,and also quoted numerous other Christian pacifist authors,which was very usual for him. In another sermon, he stated:

“Before I was a civil rights leader, I was apreacher of the Gospel. This was my first callingand it still remains my greatest commitment.You know, actually all that I do in civil rights Ido because I consider it a part of my ministry.I have no other ambitions in life but to achieveexcellence in the Christian ministry. I don't planto run for any political office. I don't plan to doanything but remain a preacher. And what I'm

doing in this struggle, along with many others,grows out of my feeling that the preacher mustbe concerned about the whole man.”—King, 1967[34][35]

In his speech "I've Been to the Mountaintop", he stated thathe just wanted to do God’s will.

6.2.2 Nonviolence

King at a Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C.

Veteran African-American civil rights activist BayardRustin was King’s first regular advisor on nonviolence.[36]

King was also advised by the white activists Harris Wof-ford and Glenn Smiley.[37] Rustin and Smiley came fromthe Christian pacifist tradition, and Wofford and Rustinboth studied Gandhi's teachings. Rustin had applied non-violence with the Journey of Reconciliation campaign inthe 1940s,[38] and Wofford had been promoting Gandhismto Southern blacks since the early 1950s.[37] King had ini-tially known little about Gandhi and rarely used the term“nonviolence” during his early years of activism in the early1950s. King initially believed in and practiced self-defense,even obtaining guns in his household as a means of de-fense against possible attackers. The pacifists guided Kingby showing him the alternative of nonviolent resistance, ar-guing that this would be a better means to accomplish hisgoals of civil rights than self-defense. King then vowed tono longer personally use arms.[39][40]

In the aftermath of the boycott, King wrote Stride TowardFreedom, which included the chapter Pilgrimage to Non-violence. King outlined his understanding of nonviolence,which seeks to win an opponent to friendship, rather than tohumiliate or defeat him. The chapter draws from an address

118 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

by Wofford, with Rustin and Stanley Levison also providingguidance and ghostwriting.[41]

Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's success with nonviolent ac-tivism, King had “for a long time...wanted to take a tripto India”.[42] With assistance from Harris Wofford, theAmerican Friends Service Committee, and other support-ers, he was able to fund the journey in April 1959.[43] [44]

The trip to India affected King, deepening his understand-ing of nonviolent resistance and his commitment to Amer-ica’s struggle for civil rights. In a radio address made duringhis final evening in India, King reflected, “Since being in In-dia, I am more convinced than ever before that the methodof nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon availableto oppressed people in their struggle for justice and humandignity”.Bayard Rustin’s open homosexuality, support of democraticsocialism, and his former ties to the Communist PartyUSA caused many white and African-American leadersto demand King distance himself from Rustin,[45] whichKing agreed to do.[46] However, King agreed that Rustinshould be one of the main organizers of the 1963 March onWashington.[47]

King’s admiration of Gandhi’s nonviolence did not dimin-ish in later years. He went so far as to hold up his examplewhen receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, hailing the“successful precedent” of using nonviolence “in a magnifi-cent way by Mohandas K. Gandhi to challenge the might ofthe British Empire... He struggled only with the weaponsof truth, soul force, non-injury and courage.”[48]

Gandhi seemed to have influenced him with certain moralprinciples,[49] though Gandhi himself had been influencedby The Kingdom of God Is Within You, a nonviolent clas-sic written by Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy. In turn,both Gandhi and Martin Luther King had read Tolstoy, andKing, Gandhi and Tolstoy had been strongly influenced byJesus' Sermon on the Mount. King quoted Tolstoy’s Warand Peace in 1959.[50]

Another influence for King’s nonviolent method was HenryDavid Thoreau's essay On Civil Disobedience, which Kingread in his student days. He was influenced by the ideaof refusing to cooperate with an evil system.[51] He alsowas greatly influenced by the works of Protestant theolo-gians Reinhold Niebuhr and Paul Tillich,[52] as well asWalter Rauschenbusch’s Christianity and the Social Crisis.King also sometimes used the concept of "agape" (brotherlyChristian love).[53] However, after 1960, he ceased employ-ing it in his writings.[54]

Even after renouncing his personal use of guns, Kinghad a complex relationship with the phenomenon of self-defense in the movement. He publicly discouraged it as awidespread practice, but acknowledged that it was some-

times necessary.[55] Throughout his career King was fre-quently protected by other civil rights activists who carriedarms, such as Colonel Stone Johnson,[56] Robert Hayling,and the Deacons for Defense and Justice.[57][58]

6.2.3 Politics

As the leader of the SCLC, King maintained a policy ofnot publicly endorsing a U.S. political party or candidate: “Ifeel someone must remain in the position of non-alignment,so that he can look objectively at both parties and be theconscience of both—not the servant or master of either.”[59]

In a 1958 interview, he expressed his view that neither partywas perfect, saying, “I don't think the Republican party is aparty full of the almighty God nor is the Democratic party.They both have weaknesses ... And I'm not inextricablybound to either party.”[60] King did praise Democratic Sen-ator Paul Douglas of Illinois as being the “greatest of all sen-ators” because of his fierce advocacy for civil rights causesover the years.[61]

King critiqued both parties’ performance on promotingracial equality:

Actually, the Negro has been betrayed byboth the Republican and the Democratic party.The Democrats have betrayed him by capitulat-ing to the whims and caprices of the SouthernDixiecrats. The Republicans have betrayed himby capitulating to the blatant hypocrisy of reac-tionary right wing northern Republicans. Andthis coalition of southern Dixiecrats and rightwing reactionary northern Republicans defeatsevery bill and every move towards liberal legis-lation in the area of civil rights.[62]

Although King never publicly supported a political partyor candidate for president, in a letter to a civil rights sup-porter in October 1956 he said that he was undecided asto whether he would vote for Adlai Stevenson or DwightEisenhower, but that “In the past I always voted the Demo-cratic ticket.”[63] In his autobiography, King says that in1960 he privately voted for Democratic candidate John F.Kennedy: “I felt that Kennedy would make the best presi-dent. I never came out with an endorsement. My father did,but I never made one.” King adds that he likely would havemade an exception to his non-endorsement policy for a sec-ond Kennedy term, saying “Had President Kennedy lived,I would probably have endorsed him in 1964.”[64] In 1964,King urged his supporters “and all people of goodwill” tovote against Republican Senator Barry Goldwater for pres-ident, saying that his election “would be a tragedy, andcertainly suicidal almost, for the nation and the world.”[65]

King supported the ideals of democratic socialism, although

6.3. MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT, 1955 119

he was reluctant to speak directly of this support due tothe anti-communist sentiment being projected throughoutAmerica at the time, and the association of socialism withcommunism. King believed that capitalism could not ad-equately provide the basic necessities of many Americanpeople, particularly the African American community.[66]

6.2.4 Compensation

King stated that black Americans, as well as other disad-vantaged Americans, should be compensated for historicalwrongs. In an interview conducted for Playboy in 1965,he said that granting black Americans only equality couldnot realistically close the economic gap between them andwhites. King said that he did not seek a full restitution ofwages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but pro-posed a government compensatory program of $50 billionover ten years to all disadvantaged groups.[67]

He posited that “the money spent would be more than am-ply justified by the benefits that would accrue to the na-tion through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, fam-ily breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls,rioting and other social evils”.[68] He presented this idea asan application of the common law regarding settlement ofunpaid labor, but clarified that he felt that the money shouldnot be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, “It shouldbenefit the disadvantaged of all races”.[69]

6.2.5 The lack of attention given to familyplanning

On being awarded the Planned Parenthood Federation ofAmerica's Margaret Sanger Award on 5th May, 1966, Kingsaid:

Recently, the press has been filled with re-ports of sightings of flying saucers. While weneed not give credence to these stories, they al-low our imagination to speculate on how visitorsfrom outer space would judge us. I am afraid theywould be stupefied at our conduct. They wouldobserve that for death planning we spend billionsto create engines and strategies for war. Theywould also observe that we spend millions to pre-vent death by disease and other causes. Finallythey would observe that we spend paltry sums forpopulation planning, even though its spontaneousgrowth is an urgent threat to life on our planet.Our visitors from outer space could be forgivenif they reported home that our planet is inhabitedby a race of insane men whose future is bleak anduncertain.

There is no human circumstance more tragicthan the persisting existence of a harmful con-dition for which a remedy is readily available.Family planning, to relate population to world re-sources, is possible, practical and necessary. Un-like plagues of the dark ages or contemporarydiseases we do not yet understand, the modernplague of overpopulation is soluble by means wehave discovered and with resources we possess.What is lacking is not sufficient knowledge of thesolution but universal consciousness of the grav-ity of the problem and education of the billionswho are its victims. ...[70][71]

6.3 Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955

Main articles: Montgomery Bus Boycott and Jim Crow laws§ Public arenaIn March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl in Mont-

Rosa Parks with King, 1955

gomery, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seatto a white man in compliance with Jim Crow laws, laws inthe US South that enforced racial segregation. King wason the committee from the Birmingham African-Americancommunity that looked into the case; because Colvin waspregnant and unmarried, E.D. Nixon and Clifford Durr de-cided to wait for a better case to pursue.[72]

On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for re-fusing to give up her seat.[73] The Montgomery Bus Boy-cott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King, soonfollowed.[74] The boycott lasted for 385 days,[75] and the sit-uation became so tense that King’s house was bombed.[76]

King was arrested during this campaign, which concludedwith a United States District Court ruling in Browder v.Gayle that ended racial segregation on all Montgomery pub-lic buses.[77][78] King’s role in the bus boycott transformedhim into a national figure and the best-known spokesman of

120 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

the civil rights movement.[79]

6.4 Southern Christian LeadershipConference

In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, Fred Shuttlesworth,Joseph Lowery, and other civil rights activists founded theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Thegroup was created to harness the moral authority and or-ganizing power of black churches to conduct nonviolentprotests in the service of civil rights reform. One of thegroup’s inspirations was the crusades of evangelist BillyGraham, who befriended King after he attended a Gra-ham crusade in New York City in 1957.[80] King led theSCLC until his death.[81] The SCLC’s 1957 Prayer Pilgrim-age for Freedom was the first time King addressed a nationalaudience.[82]

On September 20, 1958, while signing copies of his bookStride Toward Freedom in Blumstein’s department store inHarlem,[83] King narrowly escaped death when Izola Curry,a mentally ill black woman who believed he was conspiringagainst her with communists, stabbed him in the chest witha letter opener. After emergency surgery, King was hospi-talized for several weeks, while Curry was found mentallyincompetent to stand trial.[84][85] In 1959, he published ashort book called The Measure of A Man, which containedhis sermons "What is Man?" and “The Dimensions of aComplete Life”. The sermons argued for man’s need forGod’s love and criticized the racial injustices of Westerncivilization.[86]

Harry Wachtel—who joined King’s legal advisor ClarenceB. Jones in defending four ministers of the SCLC in a li-bel suit over a newspaper advertisement (New York TimesCo. v. Sullivan)—founded a tax-exempt fund to cover theexpenses of the suit and to assist the nonviolent civil rightsmovement through a more effective means of fundraising.This organization was named the “Gandhi Society for Hu-man Rights”. King served as honorary president for thegroup. Displeased with the pace of President Kennedy’saddressing the issue of segregation, King and the GandhiSociety produced a document in 1962 calling on the Presi-dent to follow in the footsteps of Abraham Lincoln and usean Executive Order to deliver a blow for Civil Rights as akind of Second Emancipation Proclamation - Kennedy didnot execute the order.[87]

The FBI, under written directive from Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedy, began tapping King’s telephone in thefall of 1963.[88] Concerned that allegations of communistsin the SCLC, if made public, would derail the administra-tion’s civil rights initiatives, Kennedy warned King to dis-continue the suspect associations, and later felt compelled

Lyndon Johnson and Robert Kennedy with Civil Rights leaders,June 22, 1963

to issue the written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretapKing and other SCLC leaders.[89] J. Edgar Hoover fearedCommunists were trying to infiltrate the Civil Rights move-ment, but when no such evidence emerged, the bureau usedthe incidental details caught on tape over the next five yearsin attempts to force King out of the preeminent leadershipposition.[90]

King believed that organized, nonviolent protest against thesystem of southern segregation known as Jim Crow lawswould lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle forblack equality and voting rights. Journalistic accounts andtelevised footage of the daily deprivation and indignitiessuffered by southern blacks, and of segregationist violenceand harassment of civil rights workers and marchers, pro-duced a wave of sympathetic public opinion that convincedthe majority of Americans that the Civil Rights Movementwas the most important issue in American politics in theearly 1960s.[91][92]

King organized and led marches for blacks’ right to vote,desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights.[78]

Most of these rights were successfully enacted into the lawof the United States with the passage of the Civil Rights Actof 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.[93][94]

King and the SCLC put into practice many of the princi-ples of the Christian Left and applied the tactics of non-violent protest with great success by strategically choos-ing the method of protest and the places in which protestswere carried out. There were often dramatic stand-offs withsegregationist authorities. Sometimes these confrontationsturned violent.[95]

Throughout his participation in the civil rights movement,King was criticized by many groups. This included opposi-tion by more militant blacks such as Nation of Islam mem-

6.4. SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE 121

ber Malcolm X.[96] Stokely Carmichael was a separatist anddisagreed with King’s plea for racial integration becausehe considered it an insult to a uniquely African-Americanculture.[97] Omali Yeshitela urged Africans to rememberthe history of violent European colonization and how powerwas not secured by Europeans through integration, but byviolence and force.[98]

6.4.1 Albany Movement

Main article: Albany Movement

The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalitionformed in Albany, Georgia, in November 1961. In Decem-ber, King and the SCLC became involved. The movementmobilized thousands of citizens for a broad-front nonvio-lent attack on every aspect of segregation within the cityand attracted nationwide attention. When King first visitedon December 15, 1961, he “had planned to stay a day orso and return home after giving counsel.”[99] The followingday he was swept up in a mass arrest of peaceful demonstra-tors, and he declined bail until the city made concessions.According to King, “that agreement was dishonored and vi-olated by the city” after he left town.[99]

King returned in July 1962, and was sentenced to forty-fivedays in jail or a $178 fine. He chose jail. Three days into hissentence, Police Chief Laurie Pritchett discreetly arrangedfor King’s fine to be paid and ordered his release. “We hadwitnessed persons being kicked off lunch counter stools ...ejected from churches ... and thrown into jail ... But for thefirst time, we witnessed being kicked out of jail.”[100] It waslater acknowledged by the King Center that Billy Grahamwas the one who bailed King out of jail during this time.[101]

After nearly a year of intense activism with few tangible re-sults, the movement began to deteriorate. King requesteda halt to all demonstrations and a “Day of Penance” to pro-mote nonviolence and maintain the moral high ground. Di-visions within the black community and the canny, low-keyresponse by local government defeated efforts.[102] Thoughthe Albany effort proved a key lesson in tactics for Dr. Kingand the national civil rights movement,[103] the national me-dia was highly critical of King’s role in the defeat, and theSCLC’s lack of results contributed to a growing gulf be-tween the organization and the more radical SNCC. AfterAlbany, King sought to choose engagements for the SCLCin which he could control the circumstances, rather than en-tering into pre-existing situations.[104]

6.4.2 Birmingham campaign

Main article: Birmingham campaignIn April 1963, the SCLC began a campaign against racial

King following his arrest in Birmingham

segregation and economic injustice in Birmingham, Al-abama. The campaign used nonviolent but intentionallyconfrontational tactics, developed in part by Rev. WyattTee Walker. Black people in Birmingham, organizing withthe SCLC, occupied public spaces with marches and sit-ins,openly violating laws that they considered unjust.King’s intent was to provoke mass arrests and “create a situ-ation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door tonegotiation”.[105] However, the campaign’s early volunteersdid not succeed in shutting down the city, or in drawing me-dia attention to the police’s actions. Over the concerns of anuncertain King, SCLC strategist James Bevel changed thecourse of the campaign by recruiting children and youngadults to join in the demonstrations.[106] Newsweek calledthis strategy a Children’s Crusade.[107][108]

During the protests, the Birmingham Police Department,led by Eugene “Bull” Connor, used high-pressure waterjets and police dogs against protesters, including children.Footage of the police response was broadcast on nationaltelevision news and dominated the nation’s attention, shock-ing many white Americans and consolidating black Ameri-cans behind the movement.[109] Not all of the demonstratorswere peaceful, despite the avowed intentions of the SCLC.In some cases, bystanders attacked the police, who re-sponded with force. King and the SCLC were criticized forputting children in harm’s way. But the campaign was a suc-cess: Connor lost his job, the “Jim Crow” signs came down,and public places became more open to blacks. King’s rep-utation improved immensely.[107]

King was arrested and jailed early in the campaign—his13th arrest[110] out of 29.[111] From his cell, he composedthe now-famous Letter from Birmingham Jail which re-sponds to calls on the movement to pursue legal channels

122 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

for social change. King argues that the crisis of racism istoo urgent, and the current system too entrenched: “Weknow through painful experience that freedom is never vol-untarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by theoppressed.”[112] He points out that the Boston Tea Party, acelebrated act of rebellion in the American colonies, wasillegal civil disobedience, and that, conversely, “everythingAdolf Hitler did in Germany was 'legal'".[112] King also ex-presses his frustration with white moderates and clergymentoo timid to oppose an unjust system:

I have almost reached the regrettable conclu-sion that the Negro’s great stumbling block inhis stride toward freedom is not the White Cit-izen’s Councilor or the Ku Klux Klanner, butthe white moderate, who is more devoted to “or-der” than to justice; who prefers a negative peacewhich is the absence of tension to a positive peacewhich is the presence of justice; who constantlysays: “I agree with you in the goal you seek, butI cannot agree with your methods of direct ac-tion"; who paternalistic-ally believes he can setthe timetable for another man’s freedom; wholives by a mythical concept of time and who con-stantly advises the Negro to wait for a “more con-venient season”.[112]

6.4.3 St. Augustine, Florida

Main article: St. Augustine movement

In March 1964, King and the SCLC joined forces withRobert Hayling’s then-controversial movement in St. Au-gustine, Florida. Hayling’s group had been affiliated withthe NAACP but was forced out of the organization for ad-vocating armed self-defense alongside nonviolent tactics.Ironically, the pacifist SCLC accepted them.[113] King andthe SCLC worked to bring white Northern activists to St.Augustine, including a delegation of rabbis and the 72-year-old mother of the governor of Massachusetts, all of whomwere arrested.[114][115] During June, the movement marchednightly through the city, “often facing counter demonstra-tions by the Klan, and provoking violence that garnered na-tional media attention.” Hundreds of the marchers were ar-rested and jailed. During the course of this movement, theCivil Rights Act of 1964 was passed.[116]

6.4.4 Selma, Alabama

Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches

In December 1964, King and the SCLC joined forces withthe Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)in Selma, Alabama, where the SNCC had been working onvoter registration for several months.[117] A local judge is-sued an injunction that barred any gathering of 3 or morepeople affiliated with the SNCC, SCLC, DCVL, or any of41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarilyhalted civil rights activity until King defied it by speaking atBrown Chapel on January 2, 1965.[118]

6.4.5 New York City

On February 6, 1964, King delivered the inaugural speechof a lecture series initiated at the New School called “TheAmerican Race Crisis”. No audio record of his speechhas been found, but in August 2013, almost 50 years later,the school discovered an audiotape with 15 minutes of aquestion-and-answer session that followed King’s address.In these remarks, King referred to a conversation he hadrecently had with Jawaharlal Nehru in which he comparedthe sad condition of many African Americans to that of In-dia’s untouchables.[119]

6.5 March on Washington, 1963

Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and FreedomKing, representing the SCLC, was among the leaders of

the so-called “Big Six” civil rights organizations who wereinstrumental in the organization of the March on Washing-ton for Jobs and Freedom, which took place on August 28,1963. The other leaders and organizations comprising theBig Six were Roy Wilkins from the National Associationfor the Advancement of Colored People; Whitney Young,National Urban League; A. Philip Randolph, Brotherhoodof Sleeping Car Porters; John Lewis, SNCC; and James L.Farmer, Jr., of the Congress of Racial Equality.[120]

The primary logistical and strategic organizer was King’scolleague Bayard Rustin.[121] For King, this role was an-other which courted controversy, since he was one of thekey figures who acceded to the wishes of President JohnF. Kennedy in changing the focus of the march.[122][123]

Kennedy initially opposed the march outright, because hewas concerned it would negatively impact the drive forpassage of civil rights legislation. However, the organiz-ers were firm that the march would proceed.[124] With themarch going forward, the Kennedys decided it was impor-tant to work to ensure its success. President Kennedy wasconcerned the turnout would be less than 100,000. There-fore, he enlisted the aid of additional church leaders andthe UAW union to help mobilize demonstrators for thecause.[125]

6.5. MARCH ON WASHINGTON, 1963 123

March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom

The march originally was conceived as an event to dra-matize the desperate condition of blacks in the southernU.S. and an opportunity to place organizers’ concerns andgrievances squarely before the seat of power in the nation’scapital. Organizers intended to denounce the federal gov-ernment for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and phys-ical safety of civil rights workers and blacks. However, thegroup acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence, andthe event ultimately took on a far less strident tone.[126] Asa result, some civil rights activists felt it presented an in-accurate, sanitized pageant of racial harmony; Malcolm Xcalled it the “Farce on Washington”, and the Nation of Islamforbade its members from attending the march.[126][127]

The march did, however, make specific demands: an end toracial segregation in public schools; meaningful civil rightslegislation, including a law prohibiting racial discrimina-tion in employment; protection of civil rights workers frompolice brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all workers; andself-government for Washington, D.C., then governed bycongressional committee.[128][129][130] Despite tensions, themarch was a resounding success.[131] More than a quarterof a million people of diverse ethnicities attended the event,sprawling from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial onto the

King is most famous for his “I Have a Dream” speech, given in frontof the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington forJobs and Freedom.

National Mall and around the reflecting pool. At the time,it was the largest gathering of protesters in Washington,D.C.'s history.[131]

King delivered a 17-minute speech, later known as "I Have aDream". In the speech’s most famous passage—in which hedeparted from his prepared text, possibly at the promptingof Mahalia Jackson, who shouted behind him, “Tell themabout the dream!"[132][133]—King said:[134]

I say to you today, my friends, so even thoughwe face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, Istill have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted inthe American dream.I have a dream that one day this nation will riseup and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'Wehold these truths to be self-evident: that all menare created equal.'I have a dream that one day on the red hills ofGeorgia the sons of former slaves and the sons offormer slave owners will be able to sit down to-gether at the table of brotherhood.I have a dream that one day even the state of Mis-sissippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injus-tice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, willbe transformed into an oasis of freedom and jus-tice.I have a dream that my four little children will oneday live in a nation where they will not be judgedby the color of their skin but by the content of

124 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

their character.I have a dream today.I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama,with its vicious racists, with its governor havinghis lips dripping with the words of interpositionand nullification; one day right there in Alabama,little black boys and black girls will be able tojoin hands with little white boys and white girlsas sisters and brothers.I have a dream today.

“I Have a Dream” came to be regarded as one of thefinest speeches in the history of American oratory.[135]

The March, and especially King’s speech, helped put civilrights at the top of the agenda of reformers in the UnitedStates and facilitated passage of the Civil Rights Act of1964.[136][137]

The original, typewritten copy of the speech, including Dr.King’s handwritten notes on it, was discovered in 1984 to bein the hands of George Raveling, the first African-Americanbasketball coach of the University of Iowa. In 1963, Rav-eling, then 26, was standing near the podium, and immedi-ately after the oration, impulsively asked King if he couldhave his copy of the speech. He got it.[138]

6.6 Selma Voting Rights Movementand “Bloody Sunday”, 1965

Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches

Acting on James Bevel’s call for a march from Selma toMontgomery, King, Bevel, and the SCLC, in partial collab-oration with SNCC, attempted to organize the march to thestate’s capital. The first attempt to march on March 7, 1965,was aborted because of mob and police violence against thedemonstrators. This day has become known as Bloody Sun-day, and was a major turning point in the effort to gainpublic support for the Civil Rights Movement. It was theclearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic po-tential of King’s nonviolence strategy. King, however, wasnot present.[139]

King met with officials in the Lyndon B. Johnson Adminis-tration on March 5 in order to request an injunction againstany prosecution of the demonstrators. He did not attendthe march due to church duties, but he later wrote, “If Ihad any idea that the state troopers would use the kind ofbrutality they did, I would have felt compelled to give upmy church duties altogether to lead the line.”[140] Footageof police brutality against the protesters was broadcast ex-tensively and aroused national public outrage.[141]

The civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama in1965

King next attempted to organize a march for March 9. TheSCLC petitioned for an injunction in federal court againstthe State of Alabama; this was denied and the judge issuedan order blocking the march until after a hearing. Nonethe-less, King led marchers on March 9 to the Edmund Pet-tus Bridge in Selma, then held a short prayer session beforeturning the marchers around and asking them to disperse soas not to violate the court order. The unexpected ending ofthis second march aroused the surprise and anger of manywithin the local movement.[142] The march finally wentahead fully on March 25, 1965.[143][144] At the conclusionof the march on the steps of the state capitol, King delivereda speech that became known as "How Long, Not Long". Init, King stated that equal rights for African Americans couldnot be far away, “because the arc of the moral universe islong, but it bends toward justice”.[lower-alpha 1][145][146]

6.7 Chicago Open Housing Move-ment, 1966

Main article: Chicago Freedom MovementIn 1966, after several successes in the South, King, Bevel,

and others in the civil rights organizations tried to spreadthe movement to the North, with Chicago as their first des-tination. King and Ralph Abernathy, both from the middleclass, moved into a building at 1550 S. Hamlin Ave., in theslums of North Lawndale[147] on Chicago’s West Side, asan educational experience and to demonstrate their supportand empathy for the poor.[148]

The SCLC formed a coalition with CCCO, Coordinat-ing Council of Community Organizations, an organizationfounded by Albert Raby, and the combined organizations’efforts were fostered under the aegis of the Chicago Free-dom Movement.[149] During that spring, several white cou-ple / black couple tests of real estate offices uncovered

6.8. OPPOSITION TO THE VIETNAM WAR 125

President Lyndon Johnson with King in 1966

racial steering: discriminatory processing of housing re-quests by couples who were exact matches in income, back-ground, number of children, and other attributes.[150] Sev-eral larger marches were planned and executed: in Bogan,Belmont Cragin, Jefferson Park, Evergreen Park (a suburbsouthwest of Chicago), Gage Park, Marquette Park, andothers.[149][151][152]

Abernathy later wrote that the movement received a worsereception in Chicago than in the South. Marches, espe-cially the one through Marquette Park on August 5, 1966,were met by thrown bottles and screaming throngs. Riot-ing seemed very possible.[153][154] King’s beliefs militatedagainst his staging a violent event, and he negotiated anagreement with Mayor Richard J. Daley to cancel a march inorder to avoid the violence that he feared would result.[155]

King was hit by a brick during one march but continued tolead marches in the face of personal danger.[156]

When King and his allies returned to the South, theyleft Jesse Jackson, a seminary student who had previ-ously joined the movement in the South, in charge oftheir organization.[157] Jackson continued their struggle forcivil rights by organizing the Operation Breadbasket move-ment that targeted chain stores that did not deal fairly withblacks.[158]

6.8 Opposition to the Vietnam War

See also: Opposition to the U.S. involvement in theVietnam War

King long opposed American involvement in the VietnamWar,[159] but at first avoided the topic in public speechesin order to avoid the interference with civil rights goalsthat criticism of President Johnson’s policies might havecreated.[159] However, at the urging of SCLC’s former Di-

rector of Direct Action and now the head of the SpringMobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam,James Bevel,[160] King eventually agreed to publicly opposethe war as opposition was growing among the Americanpublic.[159] In an April 4, 1967, appearance at the NewYork City Riverside Church—exactly one year before hisdeath—King delivered a speech titled "Beyond Vietnam:A Time to Break Silence".[161] He spoke strongly againstthe U.S.'s role in the war, arguing that the U.S. was in Viet-nam “to occupy it as an American colony”[162] and callingthe U.S. government “the greatest purveyor of violence inthe world today”.[163] He also connected the war with eco-nomic injustice, arguing that the country needed seriousmoral change:

A true revolution of values will soon lookuneasily on the glaring contrast of poverty andwealth. With righteous indignation, it will lookacross the seas and see individual capitalists ofthe West investing huge sums of money in Asia,Africa and South America, only to take the prof-its out with no concern for the social bettermentof the countries, and say: “This is not just.”[164]

King also opposed the Vietnam War because it took moneyand resources that could have been spent on social welfare athome. The United States Congress was spending more andmore on the military and less and less on anti-poverty pro-grams at the same time. He summed up this aspect by say-ing, “A nation that continues year after year to spend moremoney on military defense than on programs of social up-lift is approaching spiritual death”.[164] He stated that NorthVietnam “did not begin to send in any large number of sup-plies or men until American forces had arrived in the tens ofthousands”,[165] and accused the U.S. of having killed a mil-lion Vietnamese, “mostly children”.[166] King also criticizedAmerican opposition to North Vietnam’s land reforms.[167]

King’s opposition cost him significant support among whiteallies, including President Johnson, Billy Graham,[168]

union leaders and powerful publishers.[169] “The press isbeing stacked against me”, King said,[170] complaining ofwhat he described as a double standard that applauded hisnonviolence at home, but deplored it when applied “towardlittle brown Vietnamese children”.[171] Life magazine calledthe speech “demagogic slander that sounded like a script forRadio Hanoi",[164] and The Washington Post declared thatKing had “diminished his usefulness to his cause, his coun-try, his people”.[171][172]

The “Beyond Vietnam” speech reflected King’s evolvingpolitical advocacy in his later years, which paralleled theteachings of the progressive Highlander Research and Ed-ucation Center, with which he was affiliated.[173][174] Kingbegan to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the

126 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

King speaking to an anti-Vietnam war rally at the University ofMinnesota, St. Paul on April 27, 1967

political and economic life of the nation, and more fre-quently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire tosee a redistribution of resources to correct racial and eco-nomic injustice.[175] He guarded his language in public toavoid being linked to communism by his enemies, but inprivate he sometimes spoke of his support for democraticsocialism.[176][177] In a 1952 letter to Coretta Scott, he said“I imagine you already know that I am much more socialis-tic in my economic theory than capitalistic...”[178] In onespeech, he stated that “something is wrong with capital-ism” and claimed, “There must be a better distribution ofwealth, and maybe America must move toward a demo-cratic socialism.”[179] King had read Marx while at More-house, but while he rejected “traditional capitalism”, healso rejected communism because of its “materialistic in-terpretation of history” that denied religion, its “ethical rel-ativism”, and its “political totalitarianism”.[180]

King also stated in “Beyond Vietnam” that “true com-passion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar ... itcomes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needsrestructuring”.[181] King quoted a United States official whosaid that, from Vietnam to Latin America, the country was“on the wrong side of a world revolution”.[181] King con-demned America’s “alliance with the landed gentry of LatinAmerica”, and said that the U.S. should support “the shirt-less and barefoot people” in the Third World rather thansuppressing their attempts at revolution.[181]

On April 15, 1967, King participated in and spoke at ananti-war march from New York’s Central Park to the UnitedNations organized by the Spring Mobilization Committeeto End the War in Vietnam and initiated by its chairman,James Bevel. At the U.N. King also brought up issues ofcivil rights and the draft.

I have not urged a mechanical fusion of thecivil rights and peace movements. There are peo-

ple who have come to see the moral imperative ofequality, but who cannot yet see the moral imper-ative of world brotherhood. I would like to seethe fervor of the civil-rights movement imbuedinto the peace movement to instill it with greaterstrength. And I believe everyone has a duty tobe in both the civil-rights and peace movements.But for those who presently choose but one, Iwould hope they will finally come to see the moralroots common to both.[182]

Seeing an opportunity to unite civil rights activists and anti-war activists,[160] Bevel convinced King to become evenmore active in the anti-war effort.[160] Despite his growingpublic opposition towards the Vietnam War, King was alsonot fond of the hippie culture which developed from theanti-war movement.[183] In his 1967 Massey Lecture, Kingstated:

The importance of the hippies is not in theirunconventional behavior, but in the fact that hun-dreds of thousands of young people, in turningto a flight from reality, are expressing a pro-foundly discrediting view on the society theyemerge from.[183]

On January 13, 1968, the day after President Johnson’sState of the Union Address, King called for a large march onWashington against “one of history’s most cruel and sense-less wars”.[184][185]

We need to make clear in this political year,to congressmen on both sides of the aisle and tothe president of the United States, that we will nolonger tolerate, we will no longer vote for menwho continue to see the killings of Vietnameseand Americans as the best way of advancingthe goals of freedom and self-determination inSoutheast Asia.[184][185]

6.9 Poor People’s Campaign, 1968

Main article: Poor People’s Campaign

In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the “Poor People’sCampaign” to address issues of economic justice. Kingtraveled the country to assemble “a multiracial army of thepoor” that would march on Washington to engage in nonvio-lent civil disobedience at the Capitol until Congress createdan “economic bill of rights” for poor Americans.[186][187]

The campaign was preceded by King’s final book, WhereDo We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?, which laid out

6.10. ASSASSINATION AND AFTERMATH 127

his view of how to address social issues and poverty. Kingquoted from Henry George and George’s book, Progressand Poverty, particularly in support of a guaranteed basicincome.[188][189][190] The campaign culminated in a marchon Washington, D.C., demanding economic aid to the poor-est communities of the United States.King and the SCLC called on the government to investin rebuilding America’s cities. He felt that Congress hadshown “hostility to the poor” by spending “military fundswith alacrity and generosity”. He contrasted this with thesituation faced by poor Americans, claiming that Congresshad merely provided “poverty funds with miserliness”.[187]

His vision was for change that was more revolutionary thanmere reform: he cited systematic flaws of “racism, poverty,militarism and materialism”, and argued that “reconstruc-tion of society itself is the real issue to be faced”.[191]

The Poor People’s Campaign was controversial even withinthe civil rights movement. Rustin resigned from the march,stating that the goals of the campaign were too broad, thatits demands were unrealizable, and that he thought thatthese campaigns would accelerate the backlash and repres-sion on the poor and the black.[192]

6.9.1 After King’s death

The plan to set up a shantytown in Washington, D.C., wascarried out soon after the April 4 assassination. Criticismof King’s plan was subdued in the wake of his death, andthe SCLC received an unprecedented wave of donations forthe purpose of carrying it out. The campaign officially be-gan in Memphis, on May 2, at the hotel where King wasmurdered.[193]

Thousands of demonstrators arrived on the National Malland established a camp they called “Resurrection City”.They stayed for six weeks.[194]

6.10 Assassination and aftermath

Main article: Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee, in

support of the black sanitary public works employees, rep-resented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on strikesince March 12 for higher wages and better treatment. Inone incident, black street repairmen received pay for twohours when they were sent home because of bad weather,but white employees were paid for the full day.[195][196][197]

On April 3, King addressed a rally and delivered his “I'veBeen to the Mountaintop” address at Mason Temple, theworld headquarters of the Church of God in Christ. King’sflight to Memphis had been delayed by a bomb threat against

The Lorraine Motel, where King was assassinated, is now the siteof the National Civil Rights Museum.

his plane.[198] In the close of the last speech of his career,in reference to the bomb threat, King said the following:

And then I got to Memphis. And some beganto say the threats, or talk about the threats thatwere out. What would happen to me from someof our sick white brothers?

Well, I don't know what will happen now.We've got some difficult days ahead. But itdoesn't matter with me now. Because I've beento the mountaintop. And I don't mind. Like any-body, I would like to live a long life. Longevityhas its place. But I'm not concerned about thatnow. I just want to do God’s will. And He’s al-lowed me to go up to the mountain. And I'velooked over. And I've seen the promised land. Imay not get there with you. But I want you toknow tonight, that we, as a people, will get to thepromised land. So I'm happy, tonight. I'm notworried about anything. I'm not fearing any man.Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming ofthe Lord.[199]

King was booked in room 306 at the Lorraine Motel, ownedby Walter Bailey, in Memphis. Abernathy, who was presentat the assassination, testified to the United States HouseSelect Committee on Assassinations that King and his en-tourage stayed at room 306 at the Lorraine Motel so oftenit was known as the “King-Abernathy suite”.[200] Accordingto Jesse Jackson, who was present, King’s last words on thebalcony before his assassination were spoken to musicianBen Branch, who was scheduled to perform that night at anevent King was attending: “Ben, make sure you play 'TakeMy Hand, Precious Lord' in the meeting tonight. Play itreal pretty.”[201]

128 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

Then, at 6:01 p.m., April 4, 1968, a shot rang out asKing stood on the motel’s second-floor balcony. The bul-let entered through his right cheek, smashing his jaw,then traveled down his spinal cord before lodging in hisshoulder.[202][203] Abernathy heard the shot from inside themotel room and ran to the balcony to find King on thefloor.[204] Jackson stated after the shooting that he cradledKing’s head as King lay on the balcony, but this accountwas disputed by other colleagues of King’s; Jackson laterchanged his statement to say that he had “reached out” forKing.[205]

After emergency chest surgery, King died at St. Joseph’sHospital at 7:05 p.m.[206] According to biographer TaylorBranch, King’s autopsy revealed that though only 39 yearsold, he “had the heart of a 60 year old”, which Branchattributed to the stress of 13 years in the Civil RightsMovement.[207]

6.10.1 Aftermath

Further information: King assassination riots

The assassination led to a nationwide wave of race ri-ots in Washington, D.C.; Chicago; Baltimore; Louisville;Kansas City; and dozens of other cities.[208][209] Presiden-tial candidate Robert F. “Bobby” Kennedy was on his wayto Indianapolis for a campaign rally when he was informedof King’s death. He gave a short speech to the gatheringof supporters informing them of the tragedy and urgingthem to continue King’s ideal of nonviolence.[210] JamesFarmer, Jr., and other civil rights leaders also called for non-violent action, while the more militant Stokely Carmichaelcalled for a more forceful response.[211] The city of Mem-phis quickly settled the strike on terms favorable to the san-itation workers.[212]

President Lyndon B. Johnson declared April 7 a nationalday of mourning for the civil rights leader.[213] Vice Pres-ident Hubert Humphrey attended King’s funeral on behalfof the President, as there were fears that Johnson’s pres-ence might incite protests and perhaps violence.[214] At hiswidow’s request, King’s last sermon at Ebenezer BaptistChurch was played at the funeral,[215] a recording of his“Drum Major” sermon, given on February 4, 1968. Inthat sermon, King made a request that at his funeral nomention of his awards and honors be made, but that it besaid that he tried to “feed the hungry”, “clothe the naked”,“be right on the [Vietnam] war question”, and “love andserve humanity”.[216] His good friend Mahalia Jackson sanghis favorite hymn, “Take My Hand, Precious Lord”, at thefuneral.[217]

Two months after King’s death, escaped convict James Earl

Ray was captured at London Heathrow Airport while tryingto leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian passport inthe name of Ramon George Sneyd on his way to white-ruledRhodesia.[218] Ray was quickly extradited to Tennessee andcharged with King’s murder. He confessed to the assas-sination on March 10, 1969, though he recanted this con-fession three days later.[219] On the advice of his attorneyPercy Foreman, Ray pled guilty to avoid a trial convictionand thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty. Hewas sentenced to a 99-year prison term.[219][220] Ray laterclaimed a man he met in Montreal, Quebec, with the alias“Raoul” was involved and that the assassination was the re-sult of a conspiracy.[221][222] He spent the remainder of hislife attempting, unsuccessfully, to withdraw his guilty pleaand secure the trial he never had.[220]

6.10.2 Allegations of conspiracy

Ray’s lawyers maintained he was a scapegoat similar to theway that John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald isseen by conspiracy theorists.[223] Supporters of this asser-tion say that Ray’s confession was given under pressure andthat he had been threatened with the death penalty.[220][224]

They admit Ray was a thief and burglar, but claim he hadno record of committing violent crimes with a weapon.[222]

However, prison records in different U.S. cities have shownthat he was incarcerated on numerous occasions for chargesof armed robbery.[225] In a 2008 interview with CNN, JerryRay, the younger brother of James Earl Ray, claimed thatJames was smart and was sometimes able to get away witharmed robbery. Jerry Ray said that he had assisted hisbrother on one such robbery. “I never been with nobody asbold as he is,” Jerry said. “He just walked in and put that gunon somebody, it was just like it’s an everyday thing.”[225]

Those suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point tothe two successive ballistics tests which proved that a ri-fle similar to Ray’s Remington Gamemaster had been themurder weapon. Those tests did not implicate Ray’s spe-cific rifle.[220][226] Witnesses near King at the moment ofhis death said that the shot came from another location.They said that it came from behind thick shrubbery near theboarding house—which had been cut away in the days fol-lowing the assassination—and not from the boarding housewindow.[227] However, Ray’s fingerprints were found onvarious objects (a rifle, a pair of binoculars, articles ofclothing, a newspaper) that were left in the bathroom whereit was determined the gunfire came from.[225] An exami-nation of the rifle containing Ray’s fingerprints also deter-mined that at least one shot was fired from the firearm at thetime of the assassination.[225]

In 1997, King’s son Dexter Scott King met with Ray, andpublicly supported Ray’s efforts to obtain a new trial.[228]

6.11. FBI AND KING’S PERSONAL LIFE 129

Martin Luther King and Coretta Scott King’s sarcophagus, locatedon the grounds of the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Sitein Atlanta, Georgia

Two years later, Coretta Scott King, King’s widow, alongwith the rest of King’s family, won a wrongful death claimagainst Loyd Jowers and “other unknown co-conspirators”.Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 to arrange King’sassassination. The jury of six whites and six blacks foundin favor of the King family, finding Jowers to be complicitin a conspiracy against King and that government agencieswere party to the assassination.[229][230] William F. Pepperrepresented the King family in the trial.[231]

In 2000, the U.S. Department of Justice completed the in-vestigation into Jowers’ claims but did not find evidenceto support allegations about conspiracy. The investigationreport recommended no further investigation unless somenew reliable facts are presented.[232] A sister of Jowers ad-mitted that he had fabricated the story so he could make$300,000 from selling the story, and she in turn corrobo-rated his story in order to get some money to pay her incometax.[233][234]

In 2002, The New York Times reported that a church minis-ter, Rev. Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, HenryClay Wilson—not James Earl Ray—assassinated King. Hestated, “It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Martin LutherKing was connected with communism, and he wanted toget him out of the way.” Wilson provided no evidence toback up his claims.[235]

King researchers David Garrow and Gerald Posner dis-agreed with William F. Pepper’s claims that the governmentkilled King.[236] In 2003, William Pepper published a bookabout the long investigation and trial, as well as his rep-resentation of James Earl Ray in his bid for a trial, layingout the evidence and criticizing other accounts.[237] King’sfriend and colleague, James Bevel, also disputed the argu-ment that Ray acted alone, stating, “There is no way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill a million-dollar

black man.”[238] In 2004, Jesse Jackson stated:

The fact is there were saboteurs to disruptthe march. And within our own organization,we found a very key person who was on the gov-ernment payroll. So infiltration within, saboteursfrom without and the press attacks. ... I will neverbelieve that James Earl Ray had the motive, themoney and the mobility to have done it himself.Our government was very involved in setting thestage for and I think the escape route for JamesEarl Ray.[239]

6.11 FBI and King’s personal life

6.11.1 FBI surveillance and wiretapping

FBI director J. Edgar Hoover personally ordered surveil-lance of King, with the intent to undermine his power as acivil rights leader.[169][240] According to the Church Com-mittee, a 1975 investigation by the U.S. Congress, “FromDecember 1963 until his death in 1968, Martin Luther KingJr. was the target of an intensive campaign by the FederalBureau of Investigation to 'neutralize' him as an effectivecivil rights leader.”[241]

The Bureau received authorization to proceed with wiretap-ping from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in the fallof 1963[242] and informed President John F. Kennedy, bothof whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade King to dissoci-ate himself from Stanley Levison, a New York lawyer whohad been involved with Communist Party USA.[243][244] Al-though Robert Kennedy only gave written approval for lim-ited wiretapping of King’s phones “on a trial basis, for amonth or so”,[245] Hoover extended the clearance so hismen were “unshackled” to look for evidence in any areasof King’s life they deemed worthy.[246] The Bureau placedwiretaps on Levison’s and King’s home and office phones,and bugged King’s rooms in hotels as he traveled acrossthe country.[243][247] In 1967, Hoover listed the SCLC as ablack nationalist hate group, with the instructions: “No op-portunity should be missed to exploit through counterintel-ligence techniques the organizational and personal conflictsof the leaderships of the groups ... to insure the targetedgroup is disrupted, ridiculed, or discredited.”[240][248]

6.11.2 NSA monitoring of King’s communi-cations

In a secret operation code-named "Minaret", the NationalSecurity Agency (NSA) monitored the communications ofleading Americans, including King, who criticized the U.S.

130 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

war in Vietnam.[249] A review by the NSA itself concludedthat Minaret was “disreputable if not outright illegal.”[249]

6.11.3 Allegations of communism

For years, Hoover had been suspicious about potential in-fluence of communists in social movements such as laborunions and civil rights.[250] Hoover directed the FBI to trackKing in 1957, and the SCLC as it was established (it did nothave a full-time executive director until 1960).[90] The in-vestigations were largely superficial until 1962, when theFBI learned that one of King’s most trusted advisers wasNew York City lawyer Stanley Levison.[251]

The FBI feared Levison was working as an “agent of in-fluence” over King, in spite of its own reports in 1963 thatLevison had left the Party and was no longer associated inbusiness dealings with them.[252] Another King lieutenant,Hunter Pitts O'Dell, was also linked to the Communist Partyby sworn testimony before the House Un-American Activ-ities Committee (HUAC).[253] However, by 1976 the FBIhad acknowledged that it had not obtained any evidence thatKing himself or the SCLC were actually involved with anycommunist organizations.[241]

For his part, King adamantly denied having any connec-tions to communism, stating in a 1965 Playboy interviewthat “there are as many Communists in this freedom move-ment as there are Eskimos in Florida”.[254] He argued thatHoover was “following the path of appeasement of politi-cal powers in the South” and that his concern for communistinfiltration of the civil rights movement was meant to “aidand abet the salacious claims of southern racists and theextreme right-wing elements”.[241] Hoover did not believeKing’s pledge of innocence and replied by saying that Kingwas “the most notorious liar in the country”.[255] After Kinggave his “I Have A Dream” speech during the March onWashington on August 28, 1963, the FBI described Kingas “the most dangerous and effective Negro leader in thecountry”.[247] It alleged that he was “knowingly, willinglyand regularly cooperating with and taking guidance fromcommunists”.[256]

The attempt to prove that King was a communist was re-lated to the feeling of many segregationists that blacks inthe South were happy with their lot but had been stirredup by “communists” and “outside agitators”.[257] However,the civil rights movement arose from activism within theblack community dating back to before World War I. Kingsaid that “the Negro revolution is a genuine revolution,born from the same womb that produces all massive socialupheavals—the womb of intolerable conditions and unen-durable situations.”[258]

6.11.4 Adultery

Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X, March 26, 1964

Having concluded that King was dangerous due to com-munist infiltration, the FBI shifted to attempting to dis-credit King through revelations regarding his private life.FBI surveillance of King, some of it since made public,attempted to demonstrate that he also engaged in numer-ous extramarital affairs.[247] Lyndon Johnson once said thatKing was a “hypocritical preacher”.[259]

Ralph Abernathy stated in his 1989 autobiography And theWalls Came Tumbling Down that King had a “weaknessfor women”, although they “all understood and believed inthe biblical prohibition against sex outside of marriage. Itwas just that he had a particularly difficult time with thattemptation”.[260] In a later interview, Abernathy said that heonly wrote the term “womanizing”, that he did not specifi-cally say King had extramarital sex and that the infidelitiesKing had were emotional rather than sexual.[261] Abernathycriticized the media for sensationalizing the statements hewrote about King’s affairs,[261] such as the allegation thathe admitted in his book that King had a sexual affair thenight before he was assassinated.[261] In his original word-ing, Abernathy had claimed he saw King coming out of hisroom with a lady when he awoke the next morning and laterclaimed that “he may have been in there discussing and de-bating and trying to get her to go along with the movement,I don't know.”[261]

In his 1986 book Bearing the Cross, David Garrow wroteabout a number of extramarital affairs, including onewoman King saw almost daily. According to Garrow, “that

6.12. LEGACY 131

relationship ... increasingly became the emotional center-piece of King’s life, but it did not eliminate the incidentalcouplings ... of King’s travels.” He alleged that King ex-plained his extramarital affairs as “a form of anxiety reduc-tion”. Garrow asserted that King’s supposed promiscuitycaused him “painful and at times overwhelming guilt”.[262]

King’s wife Coretta appeared to have accepted his affairswith equanimity, saying once that “all that other businessjust doesn't have a place in the very high level relationshipwe enjoyed.”[263] Shortly after Bearing the Cross was re-leased, civil rights author Howell Raines gave the book apositive review but opined that Garrow’s allegations aboutKing’s sex life were “sensational” and stated that Garrowwas “amassing facts rather than analyzing them”.[264]

The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to theexecutive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalitionpartners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King’sfamily.[265] The Bureau also sent anonymous letters to Kingthreatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civilrights work.[266] One anonymous letter sent to King just be-fore he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part:

The so-called “suicide letter”,[267] mailed anonymously by the FBI

The American public, the church orga-nizations that have been helping—Protestants,Catholics and Jews will know you for what youare—an evil beast. So will others who havebacked you. You are done. King, there is onlyone thing left for you to do. You know what it is.

You have just 34 days in which to do (this exactnumber has been selected for a specific reason, ithas definite practical significant [sic]). You aredone. There is but one way out for you. Youbetter take it before your filthy fraudulent self isbared to the nation.[268]

A tape recording of several of King’s extramarital liaisons,excerpted from FBI wiretaps, accompanied the letter.[269]

King interpreted this package as an attempt to drive himto suicide,[270] although William Sullivan, head of the Do-mestic Intelligence Division at the time, argued that it mayhave only been intended to “convince Dr. King to resignfrom the SCLC”.[241] King refused to give in to the FBI’sthreats.[247]

Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr., in 1977 ordered all knowncopies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcriptsresulting from the FBI’s electronic surveillance of King be-tween 1963 and 1968 to be held in the National Archivesand sealed from public access until 2027.[271]

6.11.5 Police observation during the assassi-nation

Across from the Lorraine Motel, next to the boarding housein which Ray was staying, was a fire station. Police offi-cers were stationed in the fire station to keep King undersurveillance.[272] Agents were watching King at the time hewas shot.[273] Immediately following the shooting, officersrushed out of the station to the motel. Marrell McCollough,an undercover police officer, was the first person to admin-ister first aid to King.[274] The antagonism between Kingand the FBI, the lack of an all points bulletin to find thekiller, and the police presence nearby led to speculation thatthe FBI was involved in the assassination.[275]

6.12 Legacy

King’s main legacy was to secure progress on civil rightsin the U.S. Just days after King’s assassination, Congresspassed the Civil Rights Act of 1968.[276] Title VIII of theAct, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, prohibiteddiscrimination in housing and housing-related transactionson the basis of race, religion, or national origin (later ex-panded to include sex, familial status, and disability). Thislegislation was seen as a tribute to King’s struggle in his finalyears to combat residential discrimination in the U.S.[276]

Internationally, King’s legacy includes influences on theBlack Consciousness Movement and Civil Rights Move-ment in South Africa.[277][278] King’s work was cited by and

132 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Among theguests behind him is Martin Luther King.

served as an inspiration for South African leader Albert Lu-tuli, who fought for racial justice in his country and was laterawarded the Nobel Prize.[279] The day following King’s as-sassination, school teacher Jane Elliott conducted her first“Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes” exercise with her class of elemen-tary school students in Riceville, Iowa. Her purpose was tohelp them understand King’s death as it related to racism,something they little understood as they lived in a predom-inately white community.[280] King has become a nationalicon in the history of American liberalism and Americanprogressivism.[281]

King’s wife, Coretta Scott King, followed in her husband’sfootsteps and was active in matters of social justice andcivil rights until her death in 2006. The same year thatMartin Luther King was assassinated, she established theKing Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preservinghis legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflictresolution and tolerance worldwide.[282] Their son, Dex-ter King, serves as the center’s chairman.[283][284] Daugh-ter Yolanda King, who died in 2007, was a motivationalspeaker, author and founder of Higher Ground Productions,an organization specializing in diversity training.[285]

Even within the King family, members disagree about hisreligious and political views about gay, lesbian, bisexualand transgender people. King’s widow Coretta said pub-licly that she believed her husband would have supportedgay rights.[286] However, his youngest child, Bernice King,has said publicly that he would have been opposed to gaymarriage.[287]

On February 4, 1968, at the Ebenezer Baptist Church, inspeaking about how he wished to be remembered after hisdeath, King stated:

I'd like somebody to mention that day thatMartin Luther King Jr. tried to give his life serv-ing others. I'd like for somebody to say that day

Martin Luther King, Jr., statue over the west entrance ofWestminster Abbey, installed in 1998

that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to love some-body.

I want you to say that day that I tried to beright on the war question. I want you to be ableto say that day that I did try to feed the hungry. Iwant you to be able to say that day that I did tryin my life to clothe those who were naked. I want

6.13. AWARDS AND RECOGNITION 133

Protesters at the 2012 Republican National Convention display Dr.King’s words and image on a banner

you to say on that day that I did try in my life tovisit those who were in prison. And I want you tosay that I tried to love and serve humanity.

Yes, if you want to say that I was a drum ma-jor. Say that I was a drum major for justice. Saythat I was a drum major for peace. I was a drummajor for righteousness. And all of the othershallow things will not matter. I won't have anymoney to leave behind. I won't have the fine andluxurious things of life to leave behind. But I justwant to leave a committed life behind.[211][288]

6.12.1 Martin Luther King, Jr. Day

Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Day

Beginning in 1971, cities such as St. Louis, Missouri, andstates established annual holidays to honor King.[289] At theWhite House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983, Presi-dent Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holidayto honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20,1986, it is called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Follow-ing President George H. W. Bush's 1992 proclamation, theholiday is observed on the third Monday of January eachyear, near the time of King’s birthday.[290][291] On January17, 2000, for the first time, Martin Luther King, Jr. Daywas officially observed in all fifty U.S. states.[292] Arizona(1992), New Hampshire (1999) and Utah (2000) were thelast three states to recognized the holiday. Utah previouslycelebrated the holiday at the same time but under the nameHuman Rights Day.[293]

6.12.2 Liturgical commemorations

King is remembered as a martyr by the Episcopal Churchin the United States of America with an annual feast day onthe anniversary of his death, April 4.[294] The EvangelicalLutheran Church in America commemorates King liturgi-cally on the anniversary of his birth, January 15.[295]

6.12.3 UK legacy and The Martin LutherKing Peace Committee

In the United Kingdom, The Northumbria and NewcastleUniversities Martin Luther King Peace Committee[296] ex-ists to honour King’s legacy, as represented by his final visitto the UK to receive an honorary degree from NewcastleUniversity in 1967.[297] The Peace Committee operates outof the chaplaincies of the city’s two universities, Northum-bria and Newcastle, both of which remain centres for thestudy of Martin Luther King and the US Civil Rights Move-ment. Inspired by King’s vision, it undertakes a range of ac-tivities across the UK as it seeks to “build cultures of peace.”

6.13 Awards and recognition

Martin Luther King, Jr., showing his medallion received fromMayor Wagner

134 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

Statue of King in Birmingham’s Kelly Ingram Park

King was awarded at least fifty honorary degrees from col-leges and universities.[298] On October 14, 1964, King be-came the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize,which was awarded to him for leading nonviolent resistanceto racial prejudice in the U.S.[299] In 1965, he was awardedthe American Liberties Medallion by the American JewishCommittee for his “exceptional advancement of the princi-ples of human liberty”.[298][300] In his acceptance remarks,King said, “Freedom is one thing. You have it all or you arenot free.”[301]

In 1957, he was awarded the Spingarn Medal from theNAACP.[302] Two years later, he won the Anisfield-Wolf

Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, where King ministered, was re-named Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church in 1978.

Book Award for his book Stride Toward Freedom: TheMontgomery Story.[303] In 1966, the Planned ParenthoodFederation of America awarded King the Margaret SangerAward for “his courageous resistance to bigotry and his life-long dedication to the advancement of social justice andhuman dignity”.[304] Also in 1966, King was elected as afellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[305]

In November 1967 he made a 24 hour trip to the UnitedKingdom to receive an honorary degree from NewcastleUniversity, being the first African American to be so hon-oured by Newcastle.[306] In a moving impromptu accep-tance speech,[307] he said

There are three urgent and indeed great prob-lems that we face not only in the United States ofAmerica but all over the world today. That is theproblem of racism, the problem of poverty andthe problem of war.

In 1971 he was posthumously awarded a Grammy Awardfor Best Spoken Word Album for his Why I Oppose the Warin Vietnam.[308]

In 1977, the Presidential Medal of Freedom was posthu-

6.13. AWARDS AND RECOGNITION 135

mously awarded to King by President Jimmy Carter. Thecitation read:

Martin Luther King, Jr., was the conscienceof his generation. He gazed upon the great wall ofsegregation and saw that the power of love couldbring it down. From the pain and exhaustion ofhis fight to fulfill the promises of our founding fa-thers for our humblest citizens, he wrung his elo-quent statement of his dream for America. Hemade our nation stronger because he made it bet-ter. His dream sustains us yet.[309]

King and his wife were also awarded the CongressionalGold Medal in 2004.[310]

King was second in Gallup’s List of Most Widely AdmiredPeople of the 20th Century.[311] In 1963, he was namedTime Person of the Year, and in 2000, he was voted sixthin an online “Person of the Century” poll by the samemagazine.[312] King placed third in the Greatest Americancontest conducted by the Discovery Channel and AOL.[313]

6.13.1 Memorials and eponymous placesand buildings

Martin Luther King Jr. Street at Liberty Bell Park in Jerusalem,Israel

There are numerous memorials to King in the United States,including:

• More than 730 cities in the United States have streetsnamed after King.[314]

• King County, Washington, rededicated its name in hishonor in 1986, and changed its logo to an image of hisface in 2007.[315]

Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial in Yerba Buena Gardens

• The city government center in Harrisburg, Pennsylva-nia, is named in honor of King.[316]

• In 1980, the U.S. Department of the Interior desig-nated King’s boyhood home in Atlanta and severalnearby buildings the Martin Luther King, Jr. NationalHistoric Site.[317]

• A bust of King was added to the “gallery of notables”in the United States Capitol in 1986, portraying himin a “restful, nonspeaking pose.”[318]

• The beginning words of King’s “I Have a Dream”speech are etched on the steps of the Lincoln Memo-rial, at the place where King stood during thatspeech.[319] These words from the speech—"five shortlines of text carved into the granite on the steps ofthe Lincoln Memorial”—were etched in 2003, onthe 40th anniversary of the march to Washington,by stone carver Andy Del Gallo, after a law waspassed by Congress providing authorization for theinscription.[319]

• In 1996, Congress authorized the Alpha Phi Alphafraternity, of which King is still a member, to estab-lish a foundation to manage fund raising and design ofa national Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial on theNational Mall in Washington, D.C.[320] King was thefirst African American and the fourth non-presidenthonored with his own memorial in the National Mallarea.[321] The memorial opened in August 2011[322]

and is administered by the National Park Service.[323]

The address of the monument, 1964 IndependenceAvenue, S.W., commemorates the year that the CivilRights Act of 1964 became law.[324]

• The Landmark for Peace Memorial in Indianapolis, In-diana[317]

• The Homage to King sculpture in Atlanta, Georgia[317]

136 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

• The Dream sculpture in Portland, Oregon• The National Civil Rights Museum, at the Lorraine

Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, where King died[317]

• Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church in Selma, Alabama[317]

Numerous other memorials honor him around the world,including:

• The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. Church inDebrecen, Hungary[317]

• The King-Luthuli Transformation Center inJohannesburg, South Africa[317]

• The Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. Forest in Israel'sSouthern Galilee region (along with the Coretta ScottKing Forest in Biriya Forest, Israel)[317]

• The Martin Luther King, Jr. School in Accra,Ghana[317]

• The Gandhi-King Plaza (garden), at the India Interna-tional Center in New Delhi, India

6.14 Bibliography• Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story

(1958) ISBN 978-0-06-250490-6• The Measure of a Man (1959) ISBN 978-0-8006-

0877-4• Strength to Love (1963) ISBN 978-0-8006-9740-2• Why We Can't Wait (1964) ISBN 978-0-8070-0112-7• Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?

(1967) ISBN 978-0-8070-0571-2• The Trumpet of Conscience (1968) ISBN 978-0-8070-

0170-7• A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and

Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1986) ISBN 978-0-06-250931-4

• The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1998),ed. Clayborne Carson ISBN 978-0-446-67650-2

• “All Labor Has Dignity” (2011) ed. Michael HoneyISBN 978-0-8070-8600-1

• “Thou, Dear God": Prayers That Open Hearts and Spir-its Collection of Dr. King’s prayers. (2011), ed. Dr.Lewis Baldwin ISBN 978-0-8070-8603-2

• MLK: A Celebration in Word and Image Photographedby Bob Adelman, introduced by Charles JohnsonISBN 978-0-8070-0316-9

6.15 See also• Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues

• Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.

• The Meeting

Concepts

• Equality before the law

• Violence begets violence

General

• List of American philosophers

• List of civil rights leaders

• List of peace activists

After Martin Luther King

• Post–Civil Rights era in African-American history

6.16 References

6.16.1 Notes[1] Though commonly attributed to King, this expression origi-

nated with 19th-century abolitionist Theodore Parker.[145]

6.16.2 Citations[1] Ogletree, Charles J. (2004). All Deliberate Speed: Reflections

on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education.W W Norton & Co. p. 138. ISBN 0-393-05897-2.

[2] “Upbringing & Studies”. The King Center. Archived fromthe original on January 9, 2013. Retrieved September 2,2012.

[3] Mohn, Tanya (January 12, 2012). “Martin Luther KingJr.: The German Connection and How He Got His Name”.Forbes.com. Retrieved January 16, 2012.

[4] “Martin Luther King Jr. name change”. German-way.com.Retrieved July 9, 2013.

[5] “King, James Albert”.

[6] Nsenga, Burton. “AfricanAncestry.com Reveals Roots ofMLK and Marcus Garvey”.

[7] King 1992, p. 76.

6.16. REFERENCES 137

[8] Katznelson, Ira (2005). When Affirmative Action was White:An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-CenturyAmerica. WW Norton & Co. p. 5. ISBN 0-393-05213-3.

[9] Millender, Dharathula H. (1986). Martin Luther King Jr.:Young Man with a Dream. Aladdin. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0020420101.

[10] Frady, Marshall (2005). Martin Luther King, Jr: A Life. pp.12–15. ISBN 978-0143036487.

[11] Pierce, Alan (2004). Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.Abdo Pub Co. p. 14. ISBN 978-1591977278.

[12] Blake, John. “How MLK became an angry black man”.

[13] Carson, Clayborn. “Martin Luther King Jr.”.

[14] “King’s God: The Unknown Faith of Dr. Martin LutherKing Jr”. Tikkun. November 2, 2001. Retrieved February8, 2010.

[15] King 1998, p. 6.

[16] Fleming, Alice (2008). Martin Luther King Jr.: A Dream ofHope. Sterling. p. 9. ISBN 978-1402744396.

[17] King, Martin Luther (1992). The Papers of Martin LutherKing, Jr, Volume 1. University of California Press. p. 82.ISBN 978-0520079502.

[18] Ching, Jacqueline (2002). The Assassination of MartinLuther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 0-8239-3543-4.

[19] Frady, p. 18.

[20] Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land:The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer Uni-versity Press. p. 150. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.

[21] Nojeim, Michael J. (2004). Gandhi and King: The Powerof Nonviolent Resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.179. ISBN 0-275-96574-0.

[22] Farris, Christine King (2009). Through It All: Reflections onMy Life, My Family, and My Faith. Atria Books. pp. 44–47.ISBN 978-1416548812.

[23] Frady, pp. 20-22.

[24] L. Lewis, David (2013). King: A Biography. University ofIllinois Press. p. 27.

[25] “Coretta Scott King”. The Daily Telegraph. February 1,2006. Archived from the original on January 9, 2013. Re-trieved September 8, 2008.

[26] Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pul-pit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press.p. 35. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.

[27] Civil Rights History from the Ground Up: Local Struggles, aNational Movement. University of Georgia Press. p. 410.

[28] Radin, Charles A. (October 11, 1991). “Panel Confirms Pla-giarism by King at BU”. The Boston Globe. p. 1.

[29] “Martin Luther King”. Snopes. Retrieved March 14, 2011.

[30] “Boston U. Panel Finds Plagiarism by Dr. King”. The NewYork Times. October 11, 1991. Archived from the originalon November 13, 2013. Retrieved November 13, 2013.

[31] “King’s Ph.D. dissertation, with attached note” (PDF). Re-trieved November 7, 2014.

[32] Fuller, Linda K. (2004). National Days, National Ways:Historical, Political, And Religious Celebrations around theWorld. Greenwood Publishing. p. 314. ISBN 0-275-97270-4.

[33] “Martin Luther King Jr., Justice Without Violence- April 3,1957”. Mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu. Retrieved July 9, 2013.

[34] The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Insti-tute. Why Jesus Called A Man A Fool. Delivered at MountPisgah Missionary Baptist Church, Chicago, Illinois, on 27August 1967.

[35] The Huffington Post. 2013. 'A Gift Of Love': Martin LutherKing’s Sermons From Strength To Love (EXCERPT).

[36] Farrell, James J. (1997). The Spirit of the Sixties: MakingPostwar Radicalism. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 0-415-91385-3.

[37] “Wofford, Harris Llewellyn” King Encyclopedia

[38] Kahlenberg, Richard D. (1997). “Book Review: BayardRustin: Troubles I've Seen”. Washington Monthly. Re-trieved June 12, 2008.

[39] Enger, Mark and Paul. “When Martin Luther King Jr. gaveup his guns”.

[40] Bennett, Scott H. (2003). Radical Pacifism: The War Re-sisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press. p. 217. ISBN 0-8156-3003-4.

[41] “Stride Toward Freedom” King Encyclopedia

[42] King Jr., Martin Luther; Clayborne Carson et al. (2005).The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., Volume V: Thresholdof a New Decade, January 1959 – December 1960 (PDF).University of California Press. p. 231. ISBN 0-520-24239-4.

[43] “India Trip (1959)" King Encyclopedia

[44] King 1992, p. 13.

[45] Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and theStruggle for Racial Justice. Oxford University Press. p. 62.ISBN 0-19-513674-8.

[46] Frady 2002, p. 42.

138 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

[47] De Leon, David (1994). Leaders from the 1960s: a bi-ographical sourcebook of American activism. GreenwoodPublishing. p. 138. ISBN 0-313-27414-2.

[48] Dr. Martin Luther King (December 11, 1964). “Nobel Lec-ture by MLK”. The King Center. p. 12.

[49] King 1992, pp. 135–36.

[50] King Jr., Martin Luther; Clayborne Carson et al. (2005).The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., Volume V: Thresholdof a New Decade, January 1959 – December 1960. Univer-sity of California Press. pp. 149, 269, 248. ISBN 0-520-24239-4.

[51] King, M. L. Morehouse College (Chapter 2 of The Autobi-ography of Martin Luther King Jr.)

[52] Reinhold Niebuhr and Contemporary Politics: God andPower

[53] “Agape”. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Global FreedomStruggle. The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Educa-tion Institute. Retrieved January 19, 2015.

[54] Wang, Lisa. “Martin Luther King Jr.'s Troubled Attitude to-ward Nonviolent Resistance” (PDF). Exposé. Harvard Col-lege Writing Program. Retrieved January 19, 2015.

[55] “Nonviolence: The Only Road to Freedom - TeachingAmerican History”. teachingamericanhistory.org.

[56] “Birmingham civil rights activist Colonel Stone Johnson hasdied (slideshow)". AL.com.

[57] “Armed Resistance in the Civil Rights Movement: CharlesE. Cobb and Danielle L. McGuire on Forgotten History”.The American Prospect.

[58] Lance Hill, The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistanceand the Civil Rights Movement (University of North CarolinaPress, 2006), p. 245-250

[59] Oates, Stephen B. (December 13, 1993). Let the TrumpetSound: A Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. p.159. ISBN 978-0-06-092473-7.

[60] King Jr., Martin Luther (2000). Carson, Clayborne; Hollo-ran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A., eds. The Papersof Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. p.364. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1.

[61] Merriner, James L. (March 9, 2003). “Illinois’ liberal giant,Paul Douglas”. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved May 17, 2015.

[62] King Jr., Martin Luther (2000). Carson, Clayborne; Hollo-ran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A., eds. The Papersof Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. p.84. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1.

[63] King Jr., Martin Luther (1992). Carson, Clayborne; Hollo-ran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A., eds. The papersof Martin Luther King Jr. University of California Press. p.384. ISBN 978-0-520-07951-9.

[64] King Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne (1998). TheAutobiography of Martin Luther King Jr. Hachette Digital.p. 187. ISBN 978-0-446-52412-4.

[65] “Mr. Conservative: Barry Goldwater’s Opposition to theCivil Rights Act of 1964”. September 18, 2006. RetrievedMay 17, 2015.

[66] Hendricks Jr., Obery M. “The Uncompromising Anti-Capitalism of Martin Luther King Jr.”.

[67] Washington 1991.

[68] Washington 1991, pp. 365–67.

[69] Washington 1991, pp. 367–68.

[70] “Quotes”. http://www.worldpopulationbalance.org/''. Re-trieved 9 July 2014.

[71] “Family Planning - A Special and Urgent Concern”. http://www.plannedparenthood.org/''. Retrieved 9 July 2014.

[72] Manheimer, Ann S. (2004). Martin Luther King Jr.: Dream-ing of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 103. ISBN1-57505-627-5.

[73] “December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks arrested”. CNN. March 11,2003. Retrieved June 8, 2008.

[74] Walsh, Frank (2003). The Montgomery Bus Boycott. GarethStevens. p. 24. ISBN 0-8368-5403-9.

[75] McMahon, Thomas F. (2004). Ethical Leadership ThroughTransforming Justice. University Press of America. p. 25.ISBN 0-7618-2908-3.

[76] Fisk, Larry J.; Schellenberg, John (1999). Patterns of Con-flict, Paths to Peace. Broadview Press. p. 115. ISBN 1-55111-154-3.

[77] King 1992, p. 9.

[78] Jackson 2006, p. 53.

[79] Frady 2002, p. 52.

[80] Miller, Steven P. (2009). Billy Graham and the Rise of theRepublican South. Philadelphia: University of PennsylvaniaPress. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-8122-4151-8. Retrieved April 8,2015.

[81] Marable, Manning; Mullings, Leith (2000). Let NobodyTurn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Re-newal: an African American Anthology. Rowman & Lit-tlefield. pp. 391–2. ISBN 0-8476-8346-X.

[82] “Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom”. Civil Rights Digital Li-brary. Retrieved October 25, 2013.

6.16. REFERENCES 139

[83] Pearson, Hugh (2002). When Harlem Nearly Killed King:The 1958 Stabbing of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. SevenStories Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8.

[84] Graham, Renee (February 4, 2002). "'King' is a Deft Ex-ploration of the Civil Rights Leader’s Stabbing”. The BostonGlobe. – via HighBeam Research (subscription required) .Retrieved January 20, 2013.

[85] “Today in History, September 20”. – via HighBeam Re-search (subscription required) . Associated Press. Septem-ber 19, 2012. Retrieved January 20, 2013.

[86] “Measure of a Man, The (1959)". Martin Luther KingJr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. Stanford University.Archived from the original on January 24, 2013. RetrievedJanuary 24, 2013.

[87] “Martin Luther King Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle:Gandhi Society for Human Rights”. Stanford University.

[88] Theoharis, Athan G.; Poveda, Tony G.; Powers, RichardGid; Rosenfeld, Susan (1999). The FBI: A ComprehensiveReference Guide. Greenwood Publishing. p. 148. ISBN0-89774-991-X.

[89] Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. BasicBooks. p. 41. ISBN 0-465-04195-7.

[90] Theoharis, Athan G.; Poveda, Tony G.; Powers, RichardGid; Rosenfeld, Susan (1999). The FBI: A ComprehensiveReference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 123.ISBN 0-89774-991-X.

[91] Wilson, Joseph; Marable, Manning; Ness, Immanuel(2006). Race and Labor Matters in the New U.S. Economy.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 47. ISBN 0-7425-4691-8.

[92] Schofield, Norman (2006). Architects of Political Change:Constitutional Quandaries and Social Choice Theory. Cam-bridge University Press. p. 189. ISBN 0-521-83202-0.

[93] Shafritz, Jay M. (1998). International Encyclopedia of Pub-lic Policy and Administration. Westview Press. p. 1242.ISBN 0-8133-9974-2.

[94] Loevy, Robert D.; Humphrey, Hubert H.; Stewart, John G.(1997). The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of theLaw that Ended Racial Segregation. SUNY Press. p. 337.ISBN 0-7914-3361-7.

[95] Glisson 2006, p. 190.

[96] Bobbitt, David (2007). The Rhetoric of Redemption: Ken-neth Burke’s Redemption Drama and Martin Luther King Jr.'s“I Have a Dream” Speech. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 105.ISBN 0-7425-2928-2.

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[288] “IBM advertisement”. The Dallas Morning News. January14, 1985. p. 13A.

[289] Joseph Leahy, “St. Louis Remains A Stronghold For Dr.King’s Dream”, News for St. Louis, St. Louis Public Radio,January 20, 2014

[290] “Proclamation 6401 – Martin Luther King, Jr., Federal Hol-iday”. The American Presidency Project. 1992. RetrievedSeptember 8, 2008.

6.16. REFERENCES 145

[291] “Martin Luther King Day”. U.S. Department of State.Archived from the original on March 28, 2008. RetrievedJune 15, 2008.

[292] Goldberg, Carey (May 26, 1999). “Contrarian New Hamp-shire To Honor Dr. King, at Last”. The New York Times.Retrieved June 15, 2008.

[293] “The History of Martin Luther King Day”. Infoplease.2007. Retrieved July 4, 2011.

[294] “Martin Luther King Day Weekend 2012” (PDF). Episco-pal Church. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013.Retrieved January 4, 2013.

[295] “Church Year and Calendar”. St. Bartholomew LutheranChurch. Archived from the original on January 10, 2013.Retrieved January 10, 2013.

[296] “Martin Luther King Peace Committee; Martin Luther KingPeace Committee; Newcastle University”. ncl.ac.uk.

[297] http://www.ncl.ac.uk/congregations/ceremonies/honorary/martinlutherking.php; see also Ward, Brian. “A Kingin Newcastle; Martin Luther King Jr. And British RaceRelations, 1967-1968.” The Gerogia Historical Quarterly79, no. 3 (1995): 599-632.

[298] Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pul-pit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press.p. 79. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.

[299] Wintle, Justin (2001). Makers of Modern Culture: Makersof Culture. Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 0-415-26583-5.

[300] Engel, Irving M. “Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.:Presentation of American Liberties Medallion”. AmericanJewish Committee. Retrieved June 13, 2008.

[301] King, Jr., Martin Luther. “Commemorating Martin LutherKing Jr.: Response to Award of American Liberties Medal-lion”. American Jewish Committee. Retrieved June 13,2008.

[302] “Spingarn Medal Winners: 1915 to Today”. NAACP. Re-trieved January 16, 2013.

[303] “Martin Luther King Jr.”. Anisfield-Wolf Book Awards.Retrieved October 2, 2011.

[304] “The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. upon acceptingThe Planned Parenthood Federation Of America MargaretSanger Award”. PPFA. Archived from the original onFebruary 24, 2008. Retrieved August 27, 2008.

[305] “SCLC Press Release”. SCLC via the King Center. May16, 1966. Archived from the original on January 9, 2013.Retrieved August 31, 2012.

[306] Ward, Brian. “A King in Newcastle; Martin Luther KingJr. And British Race Relations, 1967-1968.” The GeorgiaHistorical Quarterly 79, no. 3 (1995): 599-632.

[307] “Martin Luther King Honorary Ceremony - Congregations -Newcastle University”. ncl.ac.uk.

[308] Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana:The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Ex-perience. Basic Civitas Books. p. 1348. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.

[309] Carter, Jimmy (July 11, 1977). “Presidential Medal of Free-dom Remarks on Presenting the Medal to Dr. Jonas E. Salkand to Martin Luther King, Jr.”. The American PresidencyProject. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. Re-trieved January 4, 2013.

[310] “Congressional Gold Medal Recipients (1776 to Present)".Office of the Clerk: U.S. House of Representatives. Re-trieved June 16, 2008.

[311] Gallup, George; Gallup, Jr., Alec (2000). The Gallup Poll:Public Opinion 1999. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 249. ISBN0-8420-2699-1.

[312] Harpaz, Beth J. (December 27, 1999). “Time Names Ein-stein as Person of the Century”. – via HighBeam Research(subscription required) . Associated Press. Retrieved Jan-uary 20, 2013.

[313] “Reagan voted 'greatest American'". BBC. June 28, 2005.Retrieved August 27, 2008.

[314] Alderman, Derek H. (February 13, 2006). “Naming Streetsfor Martin Luther King, Jr.: No Easy Road” (PDF). Land-scape and Race in the United States. Routledge Press. Re-trieved July 4, 2011.

[315] “King County Was Rededicated For MLK”. The SeattleTimes. January 18, 1998. Retrieved June 13, 2008. Seealso: “New logo is an image of civil rights leader”. KingCounty. Retrieved June 13, 2008.

[316] “Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Essay Competition Win-ners Announced”. City of Harrisburg. January 19, 2003.Archived from the original on December 7, 2007. RetrievedAugust 27, 2008.

[317] Wax, Emily (2011-08-23). “Martin Luther King Jr. sitesacross the globe”. The Washington Post. Lifestyle: Full Cov-erage: The Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial. RetrievedOctober 20, 2011.

[318] Trescott, Jacqueline (2011-08-23). “Across D.C., statueshonor African Americans”. The Washington Post. RetrievedJanuary 19, 2012.

[319] Ramanathan, Levanya, “Pieces of Black History”, Washing-ton Post, January 27, 2012. Retrieved January 27, 2012.

[320] “Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. National Memo-rial Project Foundation Breaks Ground On Historic $100Million Memorial On The National Mall In Washington,D.C.”. Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. Na-tional Memorial Project Foundation. November 6, 2006.Archived from the original on September 8, 2012. RetrievedAugust 27, 2008.

146 CHAPTER 6. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

[321] Tobias, Randall L. (January 18, 2007). “Celebrating theBirthday of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.”. U.S. Departmentof State. Archived from the original on November 15, 2007.Retrieved January 16, 2012.

[322] Tavernise, Sabrina (August 23, 2011). “A Dream Fulfilled,Martin Luther King Memorial Opens”. New York Times.Archived from the original on January 4, 2013.

[323] “Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial”. National Park Service.Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. RetrievedJanuary 4, 2013.

[324] Guevara, Brittni (July 26, 2011). “FYIDC: Paying Trib-ute To Dr. King”. Washington Life. Retrieved January 20,2013.

6.16.3 Sources

• Abernathy, Ralph (1989). And the Walls Came Tum-bling Down: An Autobiography. Harper & Row. ISBN0-06-016192-2.

• Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaan’s Edge: America Inthe King Years, 1965–1968. Simon & Schuster. ISBN0-684-85712-X.

• Cohen, Adam Seth; Taylor, Elizabeth (2000).Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle forChicago and the Nation. Back Bay. ISBN 0-316-83489-0.

• Frady, Marshall (2002). Martin Luther King Jr.: ALife. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303648-7.

• Garrow, David J. (1981). The FBI and Martin LutherKing, Jr. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-006486-9.

• Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin LutherKing, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Con-ference (1989). Pulitzer Prize. ISBN 978-0-06-056692-0

• “James L. Bevel, The Strategist of the 1960s CivilRights Movement”, a 1984 paper by Randy Kryn, pub-lished with a 1988 addendum by Kryn in Prof. DavidGarrow's We Shall Overcome, Volume II (Carlson Pub-lishing Company, 1989).

• Glisson, Susan M. (2006). The Human Tradition in theCivil Rights Movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN0-7425-4409-5.

• Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edger. Carroll &Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1982-6.

• Jackson, Thomas F. (2006). From Civil Rights to Hu-man Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Strug-gle for Economic Justice. University of PennsylvaniaPress. ISBN 978-0-8122-3969-0.

• King Jr., Martin Luther (1998). Carson, Clayborne,ed. Autobiography. Warner Books. p. 6. ISBN 0-446-52412-3.

• King Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne; Hollo-ran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. (1992).The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University ofCalifornia Press. ISBN 0-520-07950-7.

• Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon BainesJohnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws thatChanged America. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-618-08825-3.

• Lawson, Steven F.; Payne, Charles M.; Patterson,James T. (2006). Debating the Civil Rights Movement,1945–1968. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5109-1.

• Robbins, Mary Susannah (2007). Against the Viet-nam War: Writings by Activists. Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN 0-7425-5914-9.

• Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope:The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin LutherKing, Jr. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-064691-8.

6.16.4 Further reading

• Ayton, Mel (2005). A Racial Crime: James Earl RayAnd The Murder Of Martin Luther King Jr. Arche-books Publishing. ISBN 1-59507-075-3.

• Branch, Taylor (1988). Parting the Waters: America inthe King Years, 1954–1963. Simon & Schuster. ISBN0-671-46097-8.

• Branch, Taylor (1998). Pillar of Fire: America in theKing Years, 1963–1965. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80819-6.

• King, Coretta Scott (1993) [1969]. My Life with Mar-tin Luther King, Jr. Henry Holth & Co. ISBN 0-8050-2445-X.

• King Jr., Martin Luther (2015). Cornel West, ed. TheRadical King. Beacon Press. ISBN 0807012823.

• Kirk, John A., ed. Martin Luther King Jr. and the CivilRights Movement: Controversies and Debates (2007).pp. 224

• Schulke, Flip; McPhee, Penelope. King Remembered,Foreword by Jesse Jackson (1986). ISBN 978-1-4039-9654-1

6.17. EXTERNAL LINKS 147

• Waldschmidt-Nelson, Britta. Dreams and Nightmares:Martin Luther King Jr. Malcolm X, and the Strugglefor Black Equality. Gainesville, FL: University Pressof Florida, 2012. ISBN 0-8130-3723-9.

6.17 External links

General

• Martin Luther King, Jr. at DMOZ

• The King Center

• “Martin Luther King, Jr. Collection”, Morehouse Col-lege, RWWL

• The Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project

• FBI file on Martin Luther King, Jr.

• FBI letter sent MLK to convince him to kill himselfVox, 2015.

• Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Nobel Peace Prize, CivilRights Digital Library

• Works by Martin Luther King, Jr. at Project Guten-berg

• Works by or about Martin Luther King, Jr. at InternetArchive

• Westminster Abbey: Martin Luther King, Jr.

• Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. at Buffalo, digital collec-tion of Dr. King’s visit and speech in Buffalo, NewYork on November 9, 1967, from the University atBuffalo Libraries

Speeches and interviews

• Audio from April 1961 King, “The Church on theFrontier of Racial Tensions”, speech at Southern Sem-inary

• “Martin Luther King, Jr. Historic Speeches and Inter-views”

• The New Negro, King interviewed by J. Waites War-ing

• “Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark”, PBS

• “Beyond Vietnam” speech text and audio

• King Institute Encyclopedia multimedia

• “Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam”, sermonat the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967 (au-dio of speech with video 23:31)

• “Walk to Freedom”, Detroit, June 23, 1963. Walter P.Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs. WayneState University.

• Chiastic outline of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s “I Have aDream” speech

Chapter 7

James Joyce

This article is about the 20th-century writer. For other peo-ple with the same name, see James Joyce (disambiguation).James Augustine[1] Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 –

Joyce in Zurich, c. 1918

13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist and poet, consideredto be one of the most influential writers in the modernistavant-garde of the early 20th century.Joyce is best known for Ulysses (1922), a landmark workin which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled inan array of contrasting literary styles, perhaps most promi-nent among these the stream of consciousness technique heutilized. Other well-known works are the short-story col-

lection Dubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of theArtist as a Young Man (1916) and Finnegans Wake (1939).His other writings include three books of poetry, a play,occasional journalism, and his published letters.Joyce was born in 41 Brighton Square, Rathgar, Dublin—about half a mile from his mother’s birthplace inTerenure—into a middle-class family on the way down. Abrilliant student, he excelled at the Jesuit schools Clongowesand Belvedere, despite the chaotic family life imposed byhis father’s alcoholism and unpredictable finances. He wenton to attend University College Dublin.In 1904, in his early twenties he emigrated permanently tocontinental Europe with his partner Nora Barnacle. Theylived in Trieste, Paris, and Zurich. Though most of his adultlife was spent abroad, Joyce’s fictional universe centres onDublin, and is populated largely by characters who closelyresemble family members, enemies and friends from histime there; Ulysses in particular is set with precision in thestreets and alleyways of the city. Shortly after the publica-tion of Ulysses he elucidated this preoccupation somewhat,saying, “For myself, I always write about Dublin, becauseif I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart ofall the cities of the world. In the particular is contained theuniversal.”[2]

7.1 Biography

7.1.1 1882–1904: Dublin

James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was born on 2 February1882 to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane “May” Mur-ray, in the Dublin suburb of Rathgar. He was baptized ac-cording to the Rites of the Catholic Church in the nearby StJoseph’s Church in Terenure on 5 February by Rev. JohnO'Mulloy. His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.He was the eldest of ten surviving children; two of his sib-lings died of typhoid. His father’s family, originally fromFermoy in Cork, had once owned a small salt and lime

148

7.1. BIOGRAPHY 149

Joyce’s birth and baptismal certificate

works. Joyce’s father and paternal grandfather both marriedinto wealthy families, though the family’s purported ances-tor, Seán Mór Seoighe (fl. 1680) was a stonemason fromConnemara.[3] In 1887, his father was appointed rate col-lector (i.e., a collector of local property taxes) by DublinCorporation; the family subsequently moved to the fashion-able adjacent small town of Bray 12 miles (19 km) fromDublin. Around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog,which engendered in him a lifelong cynophobia. He alsosuffered from astraphobia, as a superstitious aunt had de-scribed thunderstorms to him as a sign of God’s wrath.[4]

In 1891 Joyce wrote a poem on the death of Charles Stew-art Parnell. His father was angry at the treatment of Parnellby the Catholic church, the Irish Home Rule Party and theEnglish Liberal Party and the resulting collaborative fail-ure to secure Home Rule for Ireland. The Irish Party haddropped Parnell from leadership. But the Vatican’s rolein allying with the English Conservative Party to preventHome Rule left a lasting impression on the young Joyce.[5]

The elder Joyce had the poem printed and even sent a partto the Vatican Library. In November of that same year,John Joyce was entered in Stubbs Gazette (a publisher ofbankruptcies) and suspended from work. In 1893, JohnJoyce was dismissed with a pension, beginning the family’sslide into poverty caused mainly by John’s drinking and gen-eral financial mismanagement.[6]

Joyce had begun his education at Clongowes Wood Col-lege, a Jesuit boarding school near Clane, County Kildare,in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could nolonger pay the fees. Joyce then studied at home and brieflyat the Christian Brothers O'Connell School on North Rich-mond Street, Dublin, before he was offered a place in theJesuits’ Dublin school, Belvedere College, in 1893. Thiscame about because of a chance meeting his father had with

Joyce aged six, 1888

a Jesuit priest who knew the family and Joyce was given areduction in fees to attend Belvedere.[7] In 1895, Joyce, nowaged 13, was elected to join the Sodality of Our Lady by hispeers at Belvedere.[8] The philosophy of Thomas Aquinascontinued to have a strong influence on him for most of hislife.[9]

Joyce enrolled at the recently established University CollegeDublin (UCD) in 1898, studying English, French and Ital-ian. He also became active in theatrical and literary circlesin the city. In 1900 his laudatory review of Henrik Ibsen'sWhen We Dead Awaken was published in Fortnightly Re-view; it was his first publication and, after learning basicNorwegian to send a fan letter to Ibsen, he received a let-ter of thanks from the dramatist. Joyce wrote a number ofother articles and at least two plays (since lost) during thisperiod. Many of the friends he made at University CollegeDublin appeared as characters in Joyce’s works. His clos-est colleagues included leading figures of the generation,most notably, Thomas Kettle, Francis Sheehy-Skeffingtonand Oliver St. John Gogarty. Joyce was first introduced tothe Irish public by Arthur Griffith in his newspaper, TheUnited Irishman, in November 1901. Joyce had written anarticle on the Irish Literary Theatre and his college maga-zine refused to print it. Joyce had it printed and distributedlocally. Griffith himself wrote a piece decrying the censor-ship of the student James Joyce.[10][11] In 1901, the National

150 CHAPTER 7. JAMES JOYCE

Census of Ireland lists James Joyce (19) as an English- andIrish-speaking scholar living with his mother and father, sixsisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now InvernessRoad), Clontarf, Dublin.[12]

Bust of Joyce on St Stephen’s Green, Dublin

After graduating from UCD in 1902, Joyce left for Paris tostudy medicine, but he soon abandoned this after a time.

Richard Ellmann suggests that this may have been becausehe found the technical lectures in French too difficult. Joycehad already failed to pass chemistry in English in Dublin.But Joyce claimed ill health as the problem and wrote homethat he was unwell and complained about the cold weather.[13] He stayed on for a few months, appealing for finance hisfamily could ill afford and reading late in the BibliothèqueSainte-Geneviève. When his mother was diagnosed withcancer, his father sent a telegram which read, “NOTHER[sic] DYING COME HOME FATHER”.[14] Joyce returnedto Ireland. Fearing for her son’s impiety, his mother triedunsuccessfully to get Joyce to make his confession and totake communion. She finally passed into a coma and diedon 13 August, James and Stanislaus having refused to kneelwith other members of the family praying at her bedside.[15]

After her death he continued to drink heavily, and condi-tions at home grew quite appalling. He scraped a living re-viewing books, teaching, and singing—he was an accom-plished tenor, and won the bronze medal in the 1904 FeisCeoil.[16][17]

On 7 January 1904 he attempted to publish A Portrait of theArtist, an essay-story dealing with aesthetics, only to haveit rejected from the free-thinking magazine Dana. He de-cided, on his twenty-second birthday, to revise the story intoa novel he called Stephen Hero. It was a fictional renderingof Joyce’s youth, but he eventually grew frustrated with itsdirection and abandoned this work. It was never publishedin this form, but years later, in Trieste, Joyce completelyrewrote it as A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Theunfinished Stephen Hero was published after his death.[18]

The same year he met Nora Barnacle, a young woman fromGalway City who was working as a chambermaid. On 16June 1904, they first stepped out together, an event whichwould be commemorated by providing the date for the ac-tion of Ulysses.Joyce remained in Dublin for some time longer, drinkingheavily. After one of these drinking binges, he got into afight over a misunderstanding with a man in St Stephen’sGreen;[19] he was picked up and dusted off by a minor ac-quaintance of his father, Alfred H. Hunter, who broughthim into his home to tend to his injuries.[20] Hunter wasrumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, andwould serve as one of the models for Leopold Bloom, theprotagonist of Ulysses.[21] He took up with medical studentOliver St John Gogarty, who formed the basis for the char-acter Buck Mulligan in Ulysses. After staying for six nightsin the Martello Tower that Gogarty was renting in Sandy-cove, he left in the middle of the night following an alterca-tion which involved another student he lived with, the un-stable Dermot Chenevix Trench (Haines in Ulysses), firinga pistol at some pans hanging directly over Joyce’s bed.[22]

He walked the 13 kilometres back to Dublin to stay with rel-atives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower the next

7.1. BIOGRAPHY 151

day to pack his trunk. Shortly thereafter he left Ireland withNora to live on the Continent.

7.1.2 1904–20: Trieste and Zurich

Joyce in Zürich, in 1915

Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first toZurich in Switzerland, where he had supposedly acquired apost to teach English at the Berlitz Language School throughan agent in England. It turned out that the agent had beenswindled; the director of the school sent Joyce on to Trieste,which was then part of Austria-Hungary (until World WarI), and is today part of Italy. Once again, he found therewas no position for him, but with the help of Almidano Ar-tifoni, director of the Trieste Berlitz school, he finally se-cured a teaching position in Pola, then also part of Austria-Hungary (today part of Croatia). He stayed there, teach-ing English mainly to Austro-Hungarian naval officers sta-tioned at the Pola base, from October 1904 until March1905, when the Austrians—having discovered an espionagering in the city—expelled all aliens. With Artifoni’s help,

he moved back to Trieste and began teaching English there.He remained in Trieste for most of the next ten years.[23]

Later that year Nora gave birth to their first child, Gior-gio. Joyce then managed to talk his brother, Stanislaus, intojoining him in Trieste, and secured him a position teach-ing at the school. Joyce’s ostensible reasons were desirefor Stanislaus’s company and the hope of offering him amore interesting life than that of his simple clerking jobin Dublin. Joyce also hoped to augment his family’s mea-gre income with his brother’s earnings.[24] Stanislaus andJoyce had strained relations throughout the time they livedtogether in Trieste, with most arguments centring on Joyce’sdrinking habits and frivolity with money.[25]

Joyce became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved toRome in late 1906, having secured employment as a letter-writing clerk in a bank. He intensely disliked Rome, andmoved back to Trieste in early 1907. His daughter Luciawas born later that year.[26]

Joyce returned to Dublin in mid-1909 with George, to visithis father and work on getting Dubliners published. He vis-ited Nora’s family in Galway and liked Nora’s mother verymuch.[27] While preparing to return to Trieste he decided totake one of his sisters, Eva, back with him to help Nora runthe home. He spent only a month in Trieste before return-ing to Dublin, this time as a representative of some cinemaowners and businessmen from Trieste. With their back-ing he launched Ireland’s first cinema, the Volta Cinemato-graph, which was well-received, but fell apart after Joyceleft. He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with anothersister, Eileen, in tow.[28] Eva became homesick for Dublinand returned there a few years later, but Eileen spent therest of her life on the continent, eventually marrying Czechbank cashier Frantisek Schaurek.[29]

Joyce returned to Dublin again briefly in mid-1912 duringhis years-long fight with Dublin publisher George Robertsover the publication of Dubliners. His trip was once againfruitless, and on his return he wrote the poem “Gas froma Burner”, an invective against Roberts. After this trip,he never again came closer to Dublin than London, despitemany pleas from his father and invitations from fellow Irishwriter William Butler Yeats.One of his students in Trieste was Ettore Schmitz, betterknown by the pseudonym Italo Svevo. They met in 1907and became lasting friends and mutual critics. Schmitz wasa Catholic of Jewish origin and became a primary model forLeopold Bloom; most of the details about the Jewish faithin Ulysses came from Schmitz’s responses to queries fromJoyce.[30] While living in Trieste, Joyce was first beset witheye problems that ultimately required over a dozen surgicaloperations.[31]

Joyce concocted a number of money-making schemes dur-

152 CHAPTER 7. JAMES JOYCE

ing this period, including an attempt to become a cinemamagnate in Dublin. He also frequently discussed but ul-timately abandoned a plan to import Irish tweed to Tri-este. Correspondence relating to that venture with the IrishWoollen Mills were for a long time displayed in the win-dows of their premises in Dublin. Joyce’s skill at borrowingmoney saved him from indigence. What income he hadcame partially from his position at the Berlitz school andpartially from teaching private students.

The so-called James-Joyce-Kanzel (plateau) at the confluence ofthe Sihl and Limmat rivers in Zurich where Joyce loved to relax

In 1915, after most of his students in Trieste were con-scripted to fight in World War I, Joyce moved to Zurich.Two influential private students, Baron Ambrogio Ralli andCount Francesco Sordina, petitioned officials for an exitpermit for the Joyces, who in turn agreed not to take anyaction against the emperor of Austria-Hungary during thewar.[32] In Zurich, Joyce met one of his most enduring andimportant friends, the English socialist painter Frank Bud-gen, whose opinion Joyce constantly sought through thewriting of Ulysses and Finnegans Wake. It was also herethat Ezra Pound brought him to the attention of Englishfeminist and publisher Harriet Shaw Weaver, who wouldbecome Joyce’s patron, providing him with thousands ofpounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the bur-den of teaching to focus on his writing. While in Zurichhe wrote Exiles, published A Portrait..., and began seriouswork on Ulysses. Zurich during the war was home to exilesand artists from across Europe, and its bohemian, multilin-gual atmosphere suited him. Nevertheless, after four yearshe was restless, and after the war he returned to Trieste ashe had originally planned. He found the city had changed,and some of his old friends noted his maturing from teacherto artist. His relations with his brother Stanislaus (who hadbeen interned in an Austrian prison camp for most of thewar due to his pro-Italian politics) were more strained thanever. Joyce went to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from EzraPound, supposedly for a week, but the family ended up liv-

ing there for the next twenty years.

7.1.3 1920–41: Paris and Zurich

In Paris, 1924. Portrait by Patrick Tuohy.

Joyce set himself to finishing Ulysses in Paris, delighted tofind that he was gradually gaining fame as an avant-gardewriter. A further grant from Miss Shaw Weaver meant hecould devote himself full-time to writing again, as well asconsort with other literary figures in the city. During thisera, Joyce’s eyes began to give him more and more prob-lems. He was treated by Dr Louis Borsch in Paris, un-dergoing nine operations before Borsch’s death in 1929.Throughout the 1930s he travelled frequently to Switzer-land for eye surgeries and for treatments for his daugh-ter Lucia, who, according to the Joyces, suffered fromschizophrenia. Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung at the time,who after reading Ulysses, is said to have concluded that herfather had schizophrenia.[33] Jung said she and her fatherwere two people heading to the bottom of a river, exceptthat Joyce was diving and Lucia was sinking.[34][35][36]

In Paris, Maria and Eugene Jolas nursed Joyce during hislong years of writing Finnegans Wake. Were it not for theirsupport (along with Harriet Shaw Weaver’s constant finan-cial support), there is a good possibility that his books mightnever have been finished or published. In their literary mag-azine "transition,” the Jolases published serially various sec-tions of Finnegans Wake under the title Work in Progress.

7.1. BIOGRAPHY 153

Grave of James Joyce in Zurich-Fluntern

Joyce returned to Zurich in late 1940, fleeing the Nazi oc-cupation of France.On 11 January 1941, he underwent surgery in Zurich fora perforated ulcer. While he at first improved, he relapsedthe following day, and despite several transfusions, fell intoa coma. He awoke at 2 a.m. on 13 January 1941, and askedfor a nurse to call his wife and son, before losing conscious-ness again. They were still on their way when he died 15minutes later.Joyce’s body was interred in the Fluntern Cemetery nearZurich Zoo. Swiss tenor Max Meili sang Addio terra, ad-dio cielo from Monteverdi's L'Orfeo at the burial service.Although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland atthe time, neither attended Joyce’s funeral, and the Irish gov-ernment later declined Nora’s offer to permit the repatria-tion of Joyce’s remains. Nora, who had married Joyce inLondon in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buriedby his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976.

7.1.4 Joyce and religion

The issue of Joyce’s relationship with religion is somewhatcontroversial. Early in life, he lapsed from Catholicism, ac-cording to first-hand testimonies coming from himself, his

Blue plaque, 28 Campden Grove, Kensington, London

brother Stanislaus Joyce, and his wife:

My mind rejects the whole present socialorder and Christianity—home, the recognisedvirtues, classes of life, and religious doctrines.[...] Six years ago I left the Catholic church, hat-ing it most fervently. I found it impossible for meto remain in it on account of the impulses of mynature. I made secret war upon it when I was astudent and declined to accept the positions it of-fered me. By doing this I made myself a beggarbut I retained my pride. Now I make open warupon it by what I write and say and do.[37]

My brother’s breakaway from Catholicismwas due to other motives. He felt it was impera-tive that he should save his real spiritual life frombeing overlaid and crushed by a false one that hehad outgrown. He believed that poets in the mea-sure of their gifts and personality were the repos-itories of the genuine spiritual life of their raceand the priests were usurpers. He detested falsityand believed in individual freedom more thor-oughly than any man I have ever known. [...] Theinterest that my brother always retained in thephilosophy of the Catholic Church sprang fromthe fact that he considered Catholic philosophyto be the most coherent attempt to establish suchan intellectual and material stability.[38]

When the arrangements for Joyce’s burial were being made,a Catholic priest offered a religious service, which Joyce’swife Nora declined, saying: “I couldn't do that to him.”[39]

154 CHAPTER 7. JAMES JOYCE

However, L. A. G. Strong, William T. Noon, Robert Boyleand others have argued that Joyce, later in life, reconciledwith the faith he rejected earlier in life and that his part-ing with the faith was succeeded by a not so obvious re-union, and that Ulysses and Finnegans Wake are essentiallyCatholic expressions.[40] Likewise, Hugh Kenner and T.S.Eliot saw between the lines of Joyce’s work the outlook ofa serious Christian and that beneath the veneer of the worklies a remnant of Catholic belief and attitude.[41] Kevin Sul-livan maintains that, rather than reconciling with the faith,Joyce never left it.[42] Critics holding this view insist thatStephen, the protagonist of the semi-autobiographical APortrait of the Artist as a Young Man as well as Ulysses, is notJoyce.[42] Somewhat cryptically, in an interview after com-pleting Ulysses, in response to the question “When did youleave the Catholic Church”, Joyce answered, “That’s for theChurch to say.”[43] Eamonn Hughes maintains that Joycetakes a dialectic approach, both affirming and denying, say-ing that Stephen’s much noted non-serviam is qualified—"Iwill not serve that which I no longer believe...”, and that thenon-serviam will always be balanced by Stephen’s “I am aservant...” and Molly’s “yes”.[44] It is also known from firsthand testimonies and his own writing that Joyce attendedCatholic Mass and Orthodox Sacred Liturgy, especiallyduring Holy Week, purportedly for aesthetic reasons.[45]

His sisters also noted his Holy Week attendance and that hedid not seek to dissuade them.[45] One friend witnessed himcry “secret tears” upon hearing Jesus’ words on the cross andanother accused him of being a “believer at heart” becauseof his frequency in church.[45]

Umberto Eco compares Joyce to the ancient episcopi va-gantes (stray bishops) in the Middle Ages. They left a dis-cipline, not a cultural heritage or a way of thinking. Likethem, the writer retains the sense of blasphemy held as aliturgical ritual.[46]

Some critics and biographers have opined along the lines ofAndrew Gibson: “The modern James Joyce may have vig-orously resisted the oppressive power of Catholic tradition.But there was another Joyce who asserted his allegiance tothat tradition, and never left it, or wanted to leave it, be-hind him.” Gibson argues that Joyce “remained a Catholicintellectual if not a believer” since his thinking remainedinfluenced by his cultural background, even though he dis-sented from that culture.[47] His relationship with religionwas complex and not easily understood, even perhaps byhimself. He acknowledged the debt he owed to his early Je-suit training. Joyce told the sculptor August Suter, that fromhis Jesuit education, he had 'learnt to arrange things in sucha way that they become easy to survey and to judge.'[48]

7.1.5 Joyce and music

Music is central to Joyce’s biography and to the understand-ing of his writings.[49] In turn, Joyce’s poetry and prose be-came an inspiration for composers and musicians. Thereare at least five aspects to consider:1. Joyce’s musicality: Joyce had considerable musical tal-ent, which expressed itself in his singing, piano and gui-tar playing, as well as in a melody that he composed. Hisown musicality (which once made him consider music as aprofession) is the root of his strong adoption of music as amajor driving force in his fiction, in addition to his own ex-perience of music in Ireland before he left in 1904. Joycehad a light tenor voice; he was taught by Vincent O'Brienand Benedetto Palmieri; in 1904 won a bronze medal at thecompetitive music festival Feis Ceoil. His only compositionis a melody to his poem Bid adieu, to which a piano accom-paniment was added in the 1920s in Paris by the Americancomposer Edmund J. Pendleton (1899–1987).2. The music Joyce knew: Music frequently found itsway into Joyce’s poetry and prose. Often this happens inthe form of allusions to (or partial quotations from) textsof Irish traditional songs, popular ballads, Roman Catholicchant and opera arias. His operatic references includeworks by Balfe, Wallace and Arthur Sullivan, in additionto Meyerbeer, Mozart, and Wagner (among many others).Joyce also makes frequent use of the Irish Melodies ofThomas Moore and ballads such as George Barker’s DublinBay and J.L. Molloy's Love’s Old Sweet Song.3. Opera as a genre: Joyce had a lifelong preoccupationwith opera as a generic precedent for his own fiction. Al-though Joyce scholarship has long identified an explicit re-course to musical structures in Ulysses (in particular the'Sirens’ episode) and Finnegans Wake, more recent criti-cism has established a decisive reliance on Wagner’s Ring inFinnegans Wake[50] and an attempt to adapt the structuresof opera and oratorio to the medium of fiction, notably inthe 'Cyclops’ episode of Ulysses.[51] George Antheil's unfin-ished setting of 'Cyclops’ as an opera attests this attempt.4. Music to Joyce’s words: Music that uses Joyce’s textsmost frequently appear as settings of his poems in songs,and occasionally as excerpts from prose works. Irish com-posers were among the first to set Joyce’s poetry, includingGeoffrey Molyneux Palmer (1882–1957), Herbert Hughes(1882–1937) and Brian Boydell (1917–2000),[52] but themusical qualities of Joyce’s verse also attracted Europeanand North American composers, with early settings byKarol Szymanowski (Songs to Words by James Joyce op.54, 1926) and Samuel Barber (Three Songs op. 10, 1936)in addition to settings by major exponents of the 1950s and'60s avant-garde such as Elliot Carter (String Quartet No.1, 1951) and Luciano Berio (Chamber Music, 1953; Thema

7.2. MAJOR WORKS 155

(Ommagio a Joyce), 1958; etc.). In 2015 Waywords andMeansigns: Recreating Finnegans Wake [in its whole whol-ume] set Finnegans Wake to music, unabridged.[53]

5. Music inspired by Joyce: Often, instrumental mu-sic was also inspired by Joyce’s writings, including worksby Pierre Boulez, Klaus Huber, Rebecca Saunders, ToruTakemitsu and Gerard Victory. With Luciano Berio'sThema (Omaggio a Joyce) (1958) there is also a key workin the development of electro-acoustic music. In 2014 theEnglish composer Stephen Crowe set Joyce’s explicit lettersto Nora as a song-cycle for tenor and ensemble.Joyce himself took a keen interest in musical settings of hiswork, performed some of them himself, and correspondedwith many of the composers. He was particularly fond ofthe early settings by Palmer.[54]

7.2 Major works

7.2.1 Dubliners

Main article: DublinersJoyce’s Irish experiences constitute an essential element ofhis writings, and provide all of the settings for his fictionand much of its subject matter. His early volume of shortstories, Dubliners, is a penetrating analysis of the stagna-tion and paralysis of Dublin society. The stories incorpo-rate epiphanies, a word used particularly by Joyce, by whichhe meant a sudden consciousness of the “soul” of a thing.

7.2.2 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

Main article: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a nearly com-plete rewrite of the abandoned novel Stephen Hero. Joyceattempted to burn the original manuscript in a fit of rageduring an argument with Nora, though to his subsequentrelief it was rescued by his sister. A Künstlerroman, Por-trait is a heavily autobiographical[55] coming-of-age noveldepicting the childhood and adolescence of protagonistStephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness. Some hints of the techniques Joyce fre-quently employed in later works, such as stream of con-sciousness, interior monologue, and references to a charac-ter’s psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings,are evident throughout this novel.[56] Joseph Strick directeda film of the book in 1977 starring Luke Johnston, BoscoHogan, T. P. McKenna and John Gielgud.

The title page of the first edition of Dubliners

7.2.3 Exiles and poetry

Main articles: Pomes Penyeach and Chamber Music (book)

Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published onlyone play, Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of WorldWar I in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husbandand wife relationship, the play looks back to The Dead (thefinal story in Dubliners) and forward to Ulysses, which Joycebegan around the time of the play’s composition.Joyce also published a number of books of poetry. Hisfirst mature published work was the satirical broadside “TheHoly Office” (1904), in which he proclaimed himself to bethe superior of many prominent members of the Celtic re-vival. His first full-length poetry collection Chamber Music(1907) (referring, Joyce joked, to the sound of urine hit-ting the side of a chamber pot) consisted of 36 short lyrics.This publication led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthol-ogy, edited by Ezra Pound, who was a champion of Joyce’swork. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes“Gas From A Burner” (1912), Pomes Penyeach (1927) and

156 CHAPTER 7. JAMES JOYCE

“Ecce Puer” (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grand-son and the recent death of his father). It was published bythe Black Sun Press in Collected Poems (1936).

7.2.4 Ulysses

Main article: Ulysses (novel)As he was completing work on Dubliners in 1906, Joyce

Announcement of the initial publication of Ulysses.

considered adding another story featuring a Jewish advertis-ing canvasser called Leopold Bloom under the title Ulysses.Although he did not pursue the idea further at the time, heeventually commenced work on a novel using both the titleand basic premise in 1914. The writing was completed inOctober 1921. Three more months were devoted to work-ing on the proofs of the book before Joyce halted workshortly before his self-imposed deadline, his 40th birthday(2 February 1922).Thanks to Ezra Pound, serial publication of the novel in themagazine The Little Review began in 1918. This magazinewas edited by Margaret Anderson and Jane Heap, with thebacking of John Quinn, a New York attorney with an inter-est in contemporary experimental art and literature. Unfor-

tunately, this publication encountered censorship problemsin the United States; serialisation was halted in 1920 whenthe editors were convicted of publishing obscenity.[57] Al-though the conviction was based on the “Nausicaä" episodeof Ulysses, The Little Review had fuelled the fires of con-troversy with dada poet Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven'sdefence of Ulysses in an essay “The Modest Woman.”[58]

Joyce’s novel was not published in the United States until1933.[59]

Partly because of this controversy, Joyce found it difficultto get a publisher to accept the book, but it was publishedin 1922 by Sylvia Beach from her well-known Rive Gauchebookshop, Shakespeare and Company. An English editionpublished the same year by Joyce’s patron, Harriet ShawWeaver, ran into further difficulties with the United Statesauthorities, and 500 copies that were shipped to the Stateswere seized and possibly destroyed. The following year,John Rodker produced a print run of 500 more intendedto replace the missing copies, but these were burned by En-glish customs at Folkestone. A further consequence of thenovel’s ambiguous legal status as a banned book was thata number of “bootleg” versions appeared, most notably anumber of pirate versions from the publisher Samuel Roth.In 1928, a court injunction against Roth was obtained andhe ceased publication.With the appearance of both Ulysses and T. S. Eliot's poem,The Waste Land, 1922 was a key year in the history ofEnglish-language literary modernism. In Ulysses, Joyce em-ploys stream of consciousness, parody, jokes, and virtu-ally every other established literary technique to present hischaracters.[60] The action of the novel, which takes placein a single day, 16 June 1904, sets the characters and in-cidents of the Odyssey of Homer in modern Dublin andrepresents Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope and Telemachusin the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloomand Stephen Dedalus, parodically contrasted with their loftymodels. Both Bloom and Dedalus represent Joyce in dif-ference ages: youth and middle age. And both relate toeach other symbolically in the novel as father and son. Thekey to this father/son relationship is revealed by Stephen onthe Sandymount strand when he contemplates the NiceneCreed and the 'consubstantial' relationship of God the Fa-ther to Son.[61] The book explores various areas of Dublinlife, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Nevertheless,the book is also an affectionately detailed study of the city,and Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed insome catastrophe it could be rebuilt, brick by brick, usinghis work as a model.[62] To achieve this level of accuracy,Joyce used the 1904 edition of Thom’s Directory—a workthat listed the owners and/or tenants of every residential andcommercial property in the city. He also bombarded friendsstill living there with requests for information and clarifica-tion.

7.2. MAJOR WORKS 157

Joyce talking with publishers Sylvia Beach and Adrienne Monnierat Shakespeare & Co., Paris, 1920

The book consists of 18 chapters, each covering roughly onehour of the day, beginning around 8 a.m. and ending some-time after 2 a.m. the following morning. Each chapter em-ploys its own literary style, and parodies a specific episodein Homer’s Odyssey. Furthermore, each chapter is associ-ated with a specific colour, art or science, and bodily or-gan. This combination of kaleidoscopic writing with an ex-treme formal schematic structure renders the book a majorcontribution to the development of 20th-century modernistliterature.[63] The use of classical mythology as an organis-ing framework, the near-obsessive focus on external detail,and the occurrence of significant action within the mindsof characters have also contributed to the development ofliterary modernism. Nevertheless, Joyce complained that,“I may have oversystematised Ulysses,” and played downthe mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter ti-tles that had been taken from Homer.[64] Joyce was reluc-tant to publish the chapter titles because he wanted his workto stand separately from the Greek form. It was only whenStuart Gilbert published his critical work on Ulysses in 1930that the schema was supplied by Joyce to Gilbert. But asTerrence Killeen points out this schema was developed afterthe novel had been written and was not something that Joyceconsulted as he wrote the novel.[61] A first edition copy ofUlysses is on display at The Little Museum of Dublin

7.2.5 Finnegans Wake

Main article: Finnegans WakeHaving completed work on Ulysses, Joyce was so exhaustedthat he did not write a line of prose for a year.[65] On 10March 1923 he informed a patron, Harriet Weaver: “Yes-terday I wrote two pages—the first I have since the finalYes of Ulysses. Having found a pen, with some difficulty Icopied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet offoolscap so that I could read them. Il lupo perde il pelo manon il vizio, the Italians say. 'The wolf may lose his skin but

Joyce as depicted on the Irish £10 banknote, issued 1993–2002

not his vice' or 'the leopard cannot change his spots.'"[66]

Thus was born a text that became known, first, as Work inProgress and later Finnegans Wake.By 1926 Joyce had completed the first two parts of thebook. In that year, he met Eugene and Maria Jolas whooffered to serialise the book in their magazine transition.For the next few years, Joyce worked rapidly on the newbook, but in the 1930s, progress slowed considerably. Thiswas due to a number of factors, including the death ofhis father in 1931, concern over the mental health of hisdaughter Lucia and his own health problems, including fail-ing eyesight. Much of the work was done with the assis-tance of younger admirers, including Samuel Beckett. Forsome years, Joyce nursed the eccentric plan of turning overthe book to his friend James Stephens to complete, on thegrounds that Stephens was born in the same hospital asJoyce exactly one week later, and shared the first name ofboth Joyce and of Joyce’s fictional alter-ego, an example ofJoyce’s superstitions.[67]

Reaction to the work was mixed, including negative com-ment from early supporters of Joyce’s work, such as Poundand the author’s brother, Stanislaus Joyce.[68] To counter-act this hostile reception, a book of essays by supporters ofthe new work, including Beckett, William Carlos Williamsand others was organised and published in 1929 under thetitle Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incam-ination of Work in Progress. At his 57th birthday partyat the Jolases’ home, Joyce revealed the final title of thework and Finnegans Wake was published in book form on4 May 1939. Later, further negative comments surfacedfrom doctor and author Hervey Cleckley, who questionedthe significance others had placed on the work. In his book,The Mask of Sanity, Cleckley refers to Finnegans Wake as“a 628-page collection of erudite gibberish indistinguish-able to most people from the familiar word salad producedby hebephrenic patients on the back wards of any statehospital.”[69]

Joyce’s method of stream of consciousness, literary allu-sions and free dream associations was pushed to the limitin Finnegans Wake, which abandoned all conventions ofplot and character construction and is written in a peculiarand obscure language, based mainly on complex multi-levelpuns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensivethan that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky. This has

158 CHAPTER 7. JAMES JOYCE

led many readers and critics to apply Joyce’s oft-quoted de-scription in the Wake of Ulysses as his “usylessly unreadableBlue Book of Eccles”[70] to the Wake itself. However, read-ers have been able to reach a consensus about the centralcast of characters and general plot.Much of the wordplay in the book stems from the use ofmultilingual puns which draw on a wide range of languages.The role played by Beckett and other assistants includedcollating words from these languages on cards for Joyce touse and, as Joyce’s eyesight worsened, of writing the textfrom the author’s dictation.[71]

The view of history propounded in this text is very stronglyinfluenced by Giambattista Vico, and the metaphysics ofGiordano Bruno of Nola are important to the interplay ofthe “characters.” Vico propounded a cyclical view of his-tory, in which civilisation rose from chaos, passed throughtheocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and thenlapsed back into chaos. The most obvious example of theinfluence of Vico’s cyclical theory of history is to be foundin the opening and closing words of the book. FinnegansWake opens with the words “riverrun, past Eve and Adam’s,from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a com-modius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and En-virons.” (“vicus” is a pun on Vico) and ends “A way a lone alast a loved a long the.” In other words, the book ends withthe beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of thesame sentence, turning the book into one great cycle.[72] In-deed, Joyce said that the ideal reader of the Wake would suf-fer from “ideal insomnia”[73] and, on completing the book,would turn to page one and start again, and so on in an end-less cycle of reading.

7.3 Legacy

Joyce’s work has been subject to intense scrutiny by schol-ars of all types. He has also been an important influence onwriters and scholars as diverse as Samuel Beckett,[74] SeánÓ Ríordáin,[75] Jorge Luis Borges,[76] Flann O'Brien,[77]

Salman Rushdie,[78] Robert Anton Wilson,[79] John Up-dike,[80] David Lodge[81] and Joseph Campbell.[82] Ulysseshas been called “a demonstration and summation of theentire [Modernist] movement”.[83] French literary theoristJulia Kristéva characterised Joyce’s novel writing as “poly-phonic” and a hallmark of postmodernity alongside poetsMallarmé and Rimbaud.[84]

Some scholars, most notably Vladimir Nabokov, havemixed feelings on his work, often championing some of hisfiction while condemning other works. In Nabokov’s opin-ion, Ulysses was brilliant,[85] Finnegans Wake horrible[86]—an attitude Jorge Luis Borges shared.[87]

Joyce’s influence is also evident in fields other than lit-

erature. The sentence “Three quarks for Muster Mark!"in Joyce’s Finnegans Wake[88] is the source of the word"quark", the name of one of the elementary particles, pro-posed by the physicist, Murray Gell-Mann in 1963.[89] TheFrench philosopher Jacques Derrida has written a book onthe use of language in Ulysses, and the American philoso-pher Donald Davidson has written similarly on FinnegansWake in comparison with Lewis Carroll. PsychoanalystJacques Lacan used Joyce’s writings to explain his conceptof the sinthome. According to Lacan, Joyce’s writing is thesupplementary cord which kept Joyce from psychosis.[90]

In 1999, Time Magazine named Joyce one of the 100 MostImportant People of the 20th century,[91] and stated; “Joyce... revolutionised 20th century fiction”.[92] In 1998, theModern Library, US publisher of Joyce’s works, rankedUlysses No. 1, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man No.3, and Finnegans Wake No. 77, on its list of the 100 bestEnglish-language novels of the 20th century.[93]

The work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasingnumber of cities worldwide, and critical studies in scholarlypublications, such as the James Joyce Quarterly, continue.Both popular and academic uses of Joyce’s work were ham-pered by restrictions placed by Stephen J. Joyce, Joyce’sgrandson and executor of his literary estate.[94] On 1 Jan-uary 2012, those restrictions were lessened by the expiryof copyright protection for much of the published work ofJames Joyce.[95][96]

In April 2013 the Central Bank of Ireland issued a silver€10 commemorative coin in honour of Joyce that mis-quoted a famous line from his masterwork Ulysses[97] de-spite being warned on at least two occasions by the De-partment of Finance over difficulties with copyright anddesign.[98]

On 9 July 2013 it was announced that the second ship of theSamuel Beckett-class offshore patrol vessel (OPV) wouldbe named in Joyce’s honour.[99] The LÉ James Joyce (P62)is due to be delivered to the Irish Naval Service in May2015.[100]

7.4 Bibliography• Chamber Music (poems, 1907)

• Dubliners (short-story collection, 1914)

• A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (novel, 1916)

• Exiles (play, 1918)

• Ulysses (novel, 1922)

• Pomes Penyeach (poems, 1927)

7.6. NOTES 159

• Collected Poems (poems, 1936, which includes Cham-ber Music, Pomes Penyeach, and other previously pub-lished works)

• Finnegans Wake (novel, 1939)

Posthumous publications

• Stephen Hero (precursor to A Portrait; written 1904–06, published 1944)

• Giacomo Joyce (written 1907, published 1968)

• Letters of James Joyce Vol. 1 (Ed. Stuart Gilbert,1957)

• The Critical Writings of James Joyce (Eds. EllsworthMason and Richard Ellmann, 1959)

• The Cat and the Devil (London: Faber and Faber,1965)

• Letters of James Joyce Vol. 2 (Ed. Richard Ellmann,1966)

• Letters of James Joyce Vol. 3 (Ed. Richard Ellman,1966)

• Selected Letters of James Joyce (Ed. Richard Ellmann,1975)

• The Cats of Copenhagen (Ithys Press, 2012)

• Finn’s Hotel (Ithys Press, 2013)

7.5 See also

• 2012 in public domain

7.6 Notes[1] The second name was mistakenly registered as “Augusta”.

Joyce was actually named and baptized James AugustineJoyce, for his paternal grandfather, Costello (1992) p. 53,and the Birth and Baptismal Certificate reproduced in thearticle also shows “Augustine”. Ellman says: “The secondchild, James Augusta (as the birth was incorrectly registered)...”. Ellmann (1982) p. 21.

[2] Ellman, p. 505, citing Power, From an Old Waterford House(London, n.d.), pp. 63–64

[3] Jackson, John Wyse; Costello, Peter (July 1998). “JohnStanislaus Joyce: the voluminous life and genius of JamesJoyce’s father” (book excerpt). excerpt appearing in the New

York Times (New York: St. Martin’s Press). ch.1 “Ances-tral Joyces”. ISBN 9780312185992. OCLC 38354272. Re-trieved 25 September 2012. To find the missing link in thechain it is necessary to turn south to County Kerry. Sometime about 1680, William FitzMaurice, nineteenth of theLords of Kerry ... required a new steward for the house-hold at his family seat at Lixnaw on the Brick river, a fewmiles south-west of Listowel in the Barony of Clanmauricein North Kerry. He found Seán Mór Seoighe (Big JohnJoyce) ... Seán Mór Seoighe came from Connemara, mostlikely from in or near the Irish-speaking Joyce Country itself,in that wild area south of Westport, County Mayo.

[4] "'Why are you so afraid of thunder?' asked [Arthur] Power,'your children don't mind it.' 'Ah,' said Joyce contemptu-ously, 'they have no religion.' Joyce’s fears were part of hisidentity, and he had no wish, even if he had had the power,to slough any of them off.” (Ellmann (1982), p. 514, citingPower, From an Old Waterford House (London, n.d.), p. 71

[5] In Search of Ireland’s Heroes: Carmel McCaffrey pp 279-286

[6] Ellmann (1982), pp. 32–34.

[7] James Joyce: Richard Ellmann 1982 PP 54-55

[8] Themodernworld.com

[9] Ellmann (1982), pp. 60, 190, 340, 342; Cf. Portrait of theArtist as a Young Man, Wordsworth 1992, Intro. & NotesJ. Belanger, 2001, 136, n. 309: "Synopsis Philosophiae admentem D. Thomae This appears to be a reference to Ele-menta Philosophiae ad mentem D. Thomae Aquinatis, a se-lection of Thomas Aquinas’s writings edited and publishedby G. M. Mancini,” professor of theology at the PontificalUniversity of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum in Rome(see The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, Vol V, Year 32, No.378, June 1899, p. 570

[10] Jordan, Anthony, “An Irishman’s Diary”, Irish Times, 20February 2012

[11] Arthur Griffith with James Joyce & WB Yeats- LiberatingIreland by Anthony J. Jordan p. 53. Westport Books 2013.ISBN 978-0-957622906

[12] “Residents of a house 8.1 in Royal Terrace (Clontarf West,Dublin)". National Archives of Ireland. 1901. Retrieved 16May 2012.

[13] Richard Ellmann: James Joyce (1959)pp 117-118

[14] She was originally diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver, butthis proved incorrect, and she was diagnosed with cancer inApril 1903. Ellmann (1982), pp. 128–129

[15] Ellmann (1982), pp. 129, 136

[16] History of the Feis Ceoil Association at the Wayback Ma-chine (archived 1 April 2007). Siemens Feis Ceoil Associa-tion. 1 April 2007 version retrieved from the Internet archiveon 9 November 2009.

160 CHAPTER 7. JAMES JOYCE

[17] http://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/homes-and-property/fine-art-antiques/michael-flatley-confirms-he-owns-medal-won-by-james-joyce-1.1833446

[18] “Joyce – Other works”. The James Joyce Centre. Retrieved22 February 2010.

[19] “On this day...30 September”

[20] Ellmann (1982), pp. 161–62.

[21] Ellmann (1982), p. 230.

[22] Ellmann, p. 175.

[23] McCourt 2001.

[24] According to Ellmann, Stanislaus allowed Joyce to collecthis pay, “to simplify matters” (p. 213).

[25] The worst of the conflicts were during July 1910 (Ellmann(1982), pp. 311–13).

[26] Williams, Bob. Joycean Chronology. The Modern World, 6November 2002, Retrieved on 9 November 2009.

[27] Beja, Morris (1992). James Joyce: A Literary Life. Colum-bus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. p. 54. ISBN 0-8142-0599-2.

[28] Ellmann (1982), pp. 300–03, 308, 311.

[29] Ellmann (1982), pp. 384–85.

[30] Ellmann (1982), p. 272.

[31] Ellmann (1982), pp. 268, 417.

[32] Ellman (1982), p. 386.

[33] Shloss, p. 278.

[34] Pepper, Tara

[35] Shloss p. 297.

[36] The literary executor of the Joyce estate, Stephen J. Joyce,burned letters written by Lucia that he received upon Lucia’sdeath in 1982.(Stanley, Alessandra. "Poet Told All; Ther-apist Provides the Record,” The New York Times, 15 July1991. Retrieved 9 July 2007). Stephen Joyce stated in aletter to the editor of The New York Times that “Regardingthe destroyed correspondence, these were all personal lettersfrom Lucia to us. They were written many years after bothNonno and Nonna [i.e. Mr and Mrs Joyce] died and did notrefer to them. Also destroyed were some postcards and onetelegram from Samuel Beckett to Lucia. This was done atSam’s written request.” Joyce, Stephen (31 December 1989).“The Private Lives of Writers” (Letter to the Editor). TheNew York Times. Retrieved 9 November 2009.

[37] Letter to Nora Barnacle. 29 August 1904. In Selected Lettersof James Joyce. Richard Ellmann, ed. London: Faber andFaber, 1975. ISBN 0-571-09306-X pp. 25–26

[38] Joyce, Stanislaus. My Brother’s Keeper. Faber and Faber.London, 1982. ISBN 0-571-11803-8 p. 120

[39] Ellmann (1982), p. 742, citing a 1953 interview with George(“Giorgio”) Joyce.

[40] Segall, Jeffrey Joyce in America: cultural politics and thetrials of Ulysses, p. 140, University of California Press 1993

[41] Segall, Jeffrey Joyce in America: cultural politics and thetrials of Ulysses, p. 142, University of California Press 1993

[42] Segall, Jeffrey Joyce in America: cultural politics and thetrials of Ulysses, p. 160, University of California Press 1993

[43] Davison, Neil R., James Joyce, Ulysses, and the Construc-tion of Jewish Identity: Culture, Biography, and 'the Jew'in Modernist Europe , p. 78, Cambridge University Press,1998

[44] Hughs, Eamonn in Robert Welch’s Irish writers and religion, pp.116–137, Rowman & Littlefield 1992

[45] R.J. Schork, “James Joyce and the Eastern OrthodoxChurch” in Journal of Modern Greek Studies, vol. 17, 1999

[46] Free translation from: Eco, Umberto. Las poéticas de Joyce.Barcelona: DeBolsillo, 2011. ISBN 978-84-9989-253-5, p.17

[47] Gibson, Andrew, James Joyce, p. 41, Reaktion Books 2006

[48] http://www.catholicireland.net/james-joyce-and-the-jesuits-a-sort-of-homecoming/

[49] See, among others, Martin Ross: Music and James Joyce(Chicago, 1936); Matthew J.C. Hodgart & Mabel P. Wor-thington: Songs in the Works of James Joyce (New York,1959); Zack R. Bowen: Musical Allusions in the Worksof James Joyce: Early Poetry Through Ulysses (New York,1975); Ruth Bauerle (ed.): Picking up Airs: Hearingthe Music in Joyce’s Text (Gainesville, Florida, 1993);M.J.C. Hodgart & R. Bauerle: Joyce’s Grand Operoar:Opera in Finnegan’s Wake (Urbana, Illinois, 1997); Se-bastian D.G. Knowles (ed.): Bronze by Gold: The Mu-sic of Joyce (New York, 1999); Judith Harrington: JamesJoyce, Suburban Tenor (Dublin, 2005); see also http://www.james-joyce-music.com.

[50] Timothy P. Martin: Joyce and Wagner. A Study of Influence(Cambridge, 1991)

[51] Harry White: “The 'Thought-Tormented Music' of JamesJoyce”, in: H. White: Music and the Irish Literary Imagina-tion (Oxford, 2008)

[52] Axel Klein: "'The Distant Music Mournfully Murmereth':The Influence of James Joyce on Irish Composers”, in: ArsLyrica 14 (2004), p. 71–94.

[53] http://jamesjoyce.ie/finnegans-wake-set-to-music-by-waywards-and-meansigns/

[54]

7.6. NOTES 161

[55] MacBride, p. 14.

[56] Deming, p. 749.

[57] Gillers, pp. 251–62.

[58] Gammel, Irene. Baroness Elsa: Gender, Dada and EverydayModernity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002, 253.

[59] The fear of prosecution for publication ended with the courtdecision of United States v. One Book Called Ulysses, 5F.Supp. 182 (S.D.N.Y. 1933). Ellman, pp. 666–67.

[60] Examined at length in Vladimir Nabokov's Lectures onUlysses. A Facsimile of the Manuscript. BloomfieldHills/Columbia: Bruccoli Clark, 1980.

[61] Ulysses Unbound: Terence Killeen

[62] Adams, David. Colonial Odysseys: Empire and Epic in theModernist Novel. Cornell University Press, 2003, p. 84.

[63] Sherry, Vincent B. James Joyce: Ulysses. Cambridge Uni-versity Press, 2004, p. 102.

[64] Dettmar, Kevin J. H. Rereading the New: A BackwardGlance at Modernism. University of Michigan Press, 1992,p. 285.

[65] Bulson, Eric. The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce.Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 14.

[66] Joyce, James. Ulysses: The 1922 Text. Oxford UniversityPress, 1998, p. xlvii.

[67] Ellmann (1982), pp. 591–592.

[68] Ellmann (1982), pp. 577–85.

[69] Cleckley, Hervey (1982). The Mask of Sanity. Revised Edi-tion. Mosby Medical Library. ISBN 0-452-25341-1.

[70] Finnegans Wake, 179.26–27.

[71] Gluck, p. 27.

[72] Shockley, Alan (2009). “Playing the Square Circle: Musi-cal Form and Polyphony in the Wake". In Friedman, AlanW.; Rossman, Charles. De-Familiarizing Readings: Essaysfrom the Austin Joyce Conference. European Joyce Studies18. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi. p. 104. ISBN 978-90-420-2570-7.

[73] Finnegans Wake, 120.9–16.

[74] Friedman, Melvin J. A review of Barbara Reich Gluck’sBeckett and Joyce: friendship and fiction, Bucknell Univer-sity Press (June 1979), ISBN 0-8387-2060-9. Retrieved 3December 2006.

[75] Sewell, Frank (2000). Modern Irish Poetry: A New Alham-bra (PDF). Oxford University Press. pp. Introduction p3.ISBN 9780198187370. Retrieved 26 May 2012.

[76] Williamson, pp. 123–124, 179, 218.

[77] For example, Hopper, p. 75, says “In all of O'Brien’s workthe figure of Joyce hovers on the horizon ...”.

[78] Interview of Salman Rushdie, by Margot Dijkgraaf for theDutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad, translated by K. GwanGo. Retrieved 3 December 2006.

[79] Edited transcript of an 23 April 1988 interview of RobertAnton Wilson by David A. Banton, broadcast on HFJC, 89.7FM, Los Altos Hills, California. Retrieved 3 December2006.

[80] Updike has referred to Joyce as influential in a number ofinterviews and essays. The most recent of such referencesis in the foreword to The Early Stories:1953–1975 (London:Hamish Hamilton, 2003),p. x. John Collier wrote favorablyof “that city of modern prose,” and added, “I was struck bythe great number of magnificent passages in which words areused as they are used in poetry, and in which the emotionwhich is originally Other instances include an interview withFrank Gado in First Person:Conversations with Writers andtheir Writing (New York:Union College Press, 1973), p.92,and James Plath’s Conversations with John Updike (Jackson:University of Mississippi Press, 1994), p.197 and p.223.

[81] Guignery, Vanessa; François Gallix (2007). Pre and Post-publication Itineraries of the Contemporary Novel in English.Publibook. p. 126. ISBN 9782748335101. Retrieved 26May 2012.

[82] “About Joseph Campbell” at the Wayback Machine(archived 1 January 2007), Joseph Campbell Foundation. 1January 2007 version retrieved from the Internet archive on9 November 2009.

[83] Beebe, p. 176.

[84] Julia Kristéva, La Révolution du langage poétique, Paris,Seuil, 1974.

[85] “When I want good reading I reread Proust’s A la Recherchedu Temps Perdu or Joyce’s Ulysses" (Nabokov, letter to ElenaSikorski, 3 August 1950, in Nabokov’s Butterflies: Unpub-lished and Uncollected Writings [Boston: Beacon, 2000], pp.464–465). Nabokov put Ulysses at the head of his list of the“greatest twentieth century masterpieces” (Nabokov, StrongOpinions [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974] excerpt).

[86] “Of course, it would have been unseemly for a monarch toappear in the robes of learning at a university lectern andpresent to rosy youths Finnigan’s Wake [sic] as a monstrousextension of Angus MacDiarmid's “incoherent transactions”and of Southey's Lingo-Grande. . .” (Nabokov, Pale Fire[New York: Random House, 1962], p. 76). The compar-ison is made by an unreliable narrator, but Nabokov in anunpublished note had compared “the worst parts of JamesJoyce” to McDiarmid and to Swift's letters to Stella (quotedby Brian Boyd, “Notes” in Nabokov’s Novels 1955–1962:Lolita / Pnin / Pale Fire [New York: Library of America,1996], 893).

[87] Borges, p. 195.

162 CHAPTER 7. JAMES JOYCE

[88] Three quarks for Muster Mark! Text of Finnegans Wake atTrent University, Peterborough, Ontario. Retrieved 11 June2011.

[89] “quark” at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 July 2007),American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,Fourth Edition 2000. 2 July 2007 version retrieved fromthe Internet archive on 9 November 2009.

[90] Evans, Dylan, An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psy-choanalysis, Routledge, 1996, p.189

[91] “TIME 100 Persons of the Century”. Time. 14 June 1999.Retrieved 11 January 2010.

[92] “James Joyce – Time 100 People of the Century”. Time. 8June 1998. Retrieved 11 January 2010.

[93] “100 Best Novels”. Random House. 1999. Retrieved 11January 2010. This ranking was by the Modern Library Ed-itorial Board of authors.

[94] Max, D.T. (19 June 2006). “The Injustice Collector”. TheNew Yorker.

[95] Kileen, Terence (16 June 2011). “Joyce enters the publicdomain”. The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 4January 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2012.

[96] Kileen, Terence (31 December 2011). “EU copyright onJoyce works ends at midnight”. The Irish Times. Archivedfrom the original on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 4 January2012.

[97] “Error in Ulysses line on special €10 coin issued by CentralBank”. RTÉ News. 10 April 2013.

[98] “Bank alerted to Joyce coin risk”. Evening Herald. 25 May2013.

[99] “Houses of the Oireachtas - Naval Service Vessels”.Oireachtas (Hansard).

[100] “Navy to use drones to improve surveillance”. Irish Exam-iner. Retrieved 30 September 2014.

7.7 References

• Beebe, Maurice (Fall 1972). "Ulysses and the Ageof Modernism”. James Joyce Quarterly (University ofTulsa) 10 (1): 172–88

• Beja, Morris. James Joyce: A Literary Life. Colum-bus: Ohio State University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8142-0599-2.

• Borges, Jorge Luis, (ed.) Eliot Weinberger, Borges:Selected Non-Fictions, Penguin (31 October 2000).ISBN 0-14-029011-7.

• Bulson, Eric. The Cambridge Introduction to JamesJoyce. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge Uni-versity Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-84037-8.

• Cavanaugh, Tim, “Ulysses Unbound: Why does abook so bad it “defecates on your bed” still have somany admirers?", reason, July 2004.

• Costello, Peter. James Joyce: the years of growth,1892–1915. New York: Pantheon Books, a divisionof Random House, 1992. ISBN 0-679-42201-3.

• Deming, Robert H. James Joyce: The Critical Heritage.Routledge, 1997.

• Ellmann, Richard, James Joyce. Oxford Univer-sity Press, 1959, revised edition 1982. ISBN 0-19-503103-2.

• Gammel, Irene. Baroness Elsa: Gender, Dada and Ev-eryday Modernity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002,253.

• Gillers, Stephen (2007). “A Tendency to Deprave andCorrupt: The Transformation of American Obscen-ity Law from Hicklin to Ulysses" (PDF). WashingtonUniversity Law Review 85 (2): 215–96. Retrieved 5October 2009.

• Gluck, Barbara Reich. Beckett and Joyce: Friendshipand Fiction. Bucknell University Press, 1979.

• Hopper, Keith, Flann O'Brien: A Portrait of the Artistas a Young Post-Modernist, Cork University Press(May 1995). ISBN 1-85918-042-6.

• Jordan, Anthony J, 'Arthur Griffith with James Joyce& WB Yeats - Liberating Ireland', [Westport Books ](September 2013) ISBN 978-0-957622906.

• Joyce, Stanislaus, My Brother’s Keeper, New York:Viking Press, 1969.

• MacBride, Margaret. Ulysses and the Metamorphosisof Stephen Dedalus. Bucknell University Press, 2001.

• McCourt, John, The Years of Bloom: James Joyce inTrieste, 1904–1920, The Lilliput Press, May 2001.ISBN 1-901866-71-8.

• McCourt, John, ed. James Joyce in Context. Cam-bridge and New York: Cambridge University Press,2009. ISBN 978-0-521-88662-8.

• Pepper, Tara. “Portrait of the Daughter: Two worksseek to reclaim the legacy of Lucia Joyce.” NewsweekInternational . 8 March 2003.

7.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 163

• Shloss, Carol Loeb. Lucia Joyce: To Dance in theWake. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2004. ISBN0-374-19424-6.

• Williamson, Edwin, Borges: A Life, Viking Adult (5August 2004). ISBN 0-670-88579-7.

7.8 Further reading• Burgess, Anthony, Here Comes Everybody: An In-

troduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader,Faber & Faber (1965). (Published in America as ReJoyceHamlyn Paperbacks Rev. ed edition (1982)).ISBN 0-600-20673-4.

• Burgess, Anthony, Joysprick: An Introduction to theLanguage of James Joyce (1973), Harcourt (March1975). ISBN 0-15-646561-2.

• Clark, Hilary, The Fictional Encyclopaedia: Joyce,Pound, Sollers. Taylor & Francis, 1990.

• Fennell, Conor. A Little Circle of Kindred Minds:Joyce in Paris. Green Lamp Editions, 2011.

• Levin, Harry (ed. with introduction and notes). TheEssential James Joyce. Cape, 1948. Revised editionPenguin in association with Jonathan Cape, 1963.

• Jordan, Anthony J, 'Arthur Griffith with James Joyce& WB Yeats. Liberating Ireland'. Westport Books2013.

• Levin, Harry, James Joyce. Norfolk, CT: New Direc-tions, 1941 (1960).

• Quillian, William H. Hamlet and the new poetic: JamesJoyce and T. S. Eliot. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI ResearchPress, 1983.

• Read, Forrest. Pound/Joyce: The Letters of EzraPound to James Joyce, with Pound’s Essays on Joyce.New Directions, 1967.

• Special issue on James Joyce, In-between: Essays &Studies in Literary Criticism, Vol. 12, 2003. [Articles]

• Irish Writers on Writing featuring James Joyce. Editedby Eavan Boland (Trinity University Press, 2007).

7.9 External links• James Joyce Centre (Dublin)

Joyce Papers

• The Joyce Papers 2002, c.1903–1928 from theNational Library of Ireland.

• The James Joyce – Paul Léon Papers, 1930–1940 fromthe National Library of Ireland.

• Hans E. Jahnke Bequest at the Zurich James JoyceFoundation online at the National Library Of Ireland,2014 from the National Library of Ireland.

Resources

• Archival material relating to James Joyce listed at theUK National Archives

• The James Joyce Scholars’ Collection from theUniversity of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.

• The James Joyce Collection from the University atBuffalo Libraries.

• James Joyce from Dublin to Ithaca Exhibition from thecollections of Cornell University

• Bibliography of Joycean Scholarship and LiteraryCriticism

• The James Joyce Checklist: A Bibliography of Pri-mary and Secondary Materials from the Harry Ran-som Center, The University of Texas at Austin.

• Works by James Joyce at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about James Joyce at Internet Archive

Portraits

• Portraits of James Joyce at the National PortraitGallery, London

• Photos of James Joyce from the University at BuffaloLibraries.

• Gisèle Freund Photographs of James Joyce in Paris atUniversity of Victoria,

Audio

• Works by James Joyce at LibriVox (public domain au-diobooks)

• An Audio tour of the history of James Joyce’s writings

164 CHAPTER 7. JAMES JOYCE

Statue of James Joyce on North Earl Street, Dublin.

Wax figure of James Joyce at the National Wax Plus Museum,Dublin, Ireland.

7.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 165

James Joyce’s bust at St Stephen’s Green in Dublin, Ireland.

Chapter 8

Mahatma Gandhi

“Gandhi” redirects here. For other uses, see Gandhi(disambiguation).

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (/ˈɡɑːndi, ˈɡæn-/;[2]

Hindustani: [ˈmoːɦənd̪aːs ˈkərəmtʃənd̪ ˈɡaːnd̪ʱi]; 2 Octo-ber 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the preeminent leaderof the Indian independence movement in British-ruled In-dia. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi ledIndia to independence and inspired movements for civilrights and freedom across the world. The honorific Ma-hatma (Sanskrit: “high-souled”, “venerable”)[3]—appliedto him first in 1914 in South Africa,[4]—is now used world-wide. He is also called Bapu (Gujarati: endearment for“father”,[5] “papa”[5][6]) in India.Born and raised in a Hindu merchant caste family in coastalGujarat, western India, and trained in law at the Inner Tem-ple, London, Gandhi first employed nonviolent civil disobe-dience as an expatriate lawyer in South Africa, in the resi-dent Indian community’s struggle for civil rights. After hisreturn to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants,farmers, and urban labourers to protest against excessiveland-tax and discrimination. Assuming leadership of theIndian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwidecampaigns for easing poverty, expanding women’s rights,building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability,but above all for achieving Swaraj or self-rule.Gandhi famously led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi SaltMarch in 1930, and later in calling for the British to QuitIndia in 1942. He was imprisoned for many years, uponmany occasions, in both South Africa and India. Gandhiattempted to practise nonviolence and truth in all situa-tions, and advocated that others do the same. He lived mod-estly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore thetraditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn hand-spun on a charkha. He ate simple vegetarian food, and alsoundertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification andsocial protest.Gandhi’s vision of an independent India based on religious

pluralism, however, was challenged in the early 1940s bya new Muslim nationalism which was demanding a sepa-rate Muslim homeland carved out of India.[7] Eventually, inAugust 1947, Britain granted independence, but the BritishIndian Empire[7] was partitioned into two dominions, aHindu-majority India and Muslim Pakistan.[8] As many dis-placed Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to theirnew lands, religious violence broke out, especially in thePunjab and Bengal. Eschewing the official celebration ofindependence in Delhi, Gandhi visited the affected areas,attempting to provide solace. In the months following, heundertook several fasts unto death to promote religious har-mony. The last of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 atage 78,[9] also had the indirect goal of pressuring India topay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan.[9] Some Indiansthought Gandhi was too accommodating.[9][10] NathuramGodse, a Hindu nationalist, assassinated Gandhi on 30 Jan-uary 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest at point-blankrange.[10]

Indians widely describe Gandhi as the father of the na-tion.[11][12] His birthday, 2 October, is commemorated asGandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and world-wide as theInternational Day of Nonviolence.

8.1 Early life and background

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi[13] was born on 2 Oc-tober 1869[1] to a Hindu Modh Baniya family[14] inPorbandar (also known as Sudamapuri), a coastal townon the Kathiawar Peninsula and then part of the smallprincely state of Porbandar in the Kathiawar Agency ofthe Indian Empire. His father, Karamchand UttamchandGandhi (1822–1885), served as the diwan (chief minister)of Porbandar state.The Gandhi family originated from the village of Kutiana inwhat was then Junagadh State.[15] In the late 17th or early18th century, one Lalji Gandhi moved to Porbandar andentered the service of its ruler, the Rana. Successive gener-ations of the family served as civil servants in the state ad-

166

8.1. EARLY LIFE AND BACKGROUND 167

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in his earliest known photo, aged7, c. 1876

ministration before Uttamchand, Mohandas’s grandfather,became diwan in the early 19th century under the thenRana of Porbandar, Khimojiraji.[15][16] In 1831, Rana Khi-mojiraji died suddenly and was succeeded by his 12-year-old only son, Vikmatji.[16] As a result, Rana Khimojirajji’swidow, Rani Rupaliba, became Regent for her son. Shesoon fell out with Uttamchand and forced him to return tohis ancestral village in Junagadh. While in Junagadh, Ut-tamchand appeared before its Nawab and saluted him withhis left hand instead of his right, replying that his right handwas pledged to Porbandar’s service.[15] In 1841, Vikmatjiassumed the throne and reinstated Uttamchand as his di-wan.In 1847, Rana Vikmatji appointed Uttamchand’s son,Karamchand, as diwan after disagreeing with Uttamchand

over the state’s maintenance of a British garrison.[15] Al-though he only had an elementary education and had pre-viously been a clerk in the state administration, Karamc-hand proved a capable chief minister.[17] During his tenure,Karamchand married four times. His first two wives diedyoung, after each had given birth to a daughter, and his thirdmarriage was childless. In 1857, Karamchand sought histhird wife’s permission to remarry; that year, he marriedPutlibai (1844–1891), who also came from Junagadh,[15]

and was from a Pranami Vaishnava family.[18][19][20][21]

Karamchand and Putlibai had three children over the en-suing decade, a son, Laxmidas (c. 1860 – March 1914),a daughter, Raliatbehn (1862–1960) and another son,Karsandas (c. 1866–1913).[22][23]

On 2 October 1869, Putlibai gave birth to her last child,Mohandas, in a dark, windowless ground-floor room of theGandhi family residence in Porbandar city. As a child,Gandhi was described by his sister Raliat as “restless asmercury...either playing or roaming about. One of hisfavourite pastimes was twisting dogs’ ears.”[24] The In-dian classics, especially the stories of Shravana and kingHarishchandra, had a great impact on Gandhi in his child-hood. In his autobiography, he admits that they left anindelible impression on his mind. He writes: “It hauntedme and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself timeswithout number.” Gandhi’s early self-identification withtruth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epiccharacters.[25][26]

The family’s religious background was eclectic. Gandhi’sfather was Hindu[27] and his mother was from a PranamiVaishnava family. Religious figures were frequent visi-tors to the home.[28] Gandhi was deeply influenced by hismother Putlibai, an extremely pious lady who “would notthink of taking her meals without her daily prayers...shewould take the hardest vows and keep them without flinch-ing. To keep two or three consecutive fasts was nothing toher.”[29]

In the year of Mohandas’s birth, Rana Vikmatji was ex-iled, stripped of direct administrative power and demoted inrank by the British political agent, after having ordered thebrutal executions of a slave and an Arab bodyguard. Possi-bly as a result, in 1874 Karamchand left Porbandar for thesmaller state of Rajkot, where he became a counsellor toits ruler, the Thakur Sahib; though Rajkot was a less pres-tigious state than Porbandar, the British regional politicalagency was located there, which gave the state’s diwan ameasure of security.[30] In 1876, Karamchand became di-wan of Rajkot and was succeeded as diwan of Porbandarby his brother Tulsidas. His family then rejoined him inRajkot.[31]

On 21 January 1879, Mohandas entered the local taluk (dis-trict) school in Rajkot, not far from his home. At school,

168 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

he was taught the rudiments of arithmetic, history, theGujarati language and geography.[31] Despite being onlyan average student in his year there, in October 1880 hesat the entrance examinations for Kathiawar High School,also in Rajkot. He passed the examinations with a cred-itable average of 64 percent and was enrolled the follow-ing year.[32] During his years at the high school, Mohandasintensively studied the English language for the first time,along with continuing his lessons in arithmetic, Gujarati,history and geography.[32] His attendance and marks re-mained mediocre to average, possibly due to Karamchandfalling ill in 1882 and Mohandas spending more time athome as a result.[32] Gandhi shone neither in the classroomnor on the playing field. One of the terminal reports ratedhim as “good at English, fair in Arithmetic and weak in Ge-ography; conduct very good, bad handwriting”.While at high school, Mohandas came into contact with stu-dents of other castes and faiths, including several Parsis andMuslims. A Muslim friend of his elder brother Karsan-das, named Sheikh Mehtab, befriended Mohandas and en-couraged the strictly vegetarian boy to try eating meat toimprove his stamina. He also took Mohandas to a brothelone day, though Mohandas “was struck blind and dumb inthis den of vice,” rebuffed the prostitutes’ advances and waspromptly sent out of the brothel. As experimenting withmeat-eating and carnal pleasures only brought Mohandasmental anguish, he abandoned both and the company ofMehtab, though they would maintain their association formany years afterwards.[33]

In May 1883, the 13-year-old Mohandas was married to 14-year-old Kasturbai Makhanji Kapadia (her first name wasusually shortened to “Kasturba”, and affectionately to “Ba”)in an arranged child marriage, according to the custom ofthe region.[34] In the process, he lost a year at school.[35] Re-calling the day of their marriage, he once said, “As we didn'tknow much about marriage, for us it meant only wearingnew clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives.” How-ever, as was prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride wasto spend much time at her parents’ house, and away fromher husband.[36] Writing many years later, Mohandas de-scribed with regret the lustful feelings he felt for his youngbride, “even at school I used to think of her, and the thoughtof nightfall and our subsequent meeting was ever hauntingme.”[37]

In late 1885, Karamchand died, on a night when Mohan-das had just left his father to sleep with his wife, despitethe fact she was pregnant.[38] The couple’s first child wasborn shortly after, but survived only a few days. The doubletragedy haunted Mohandas throughout his life, “the shame,to which I have referred in a foregoing chapter, was thisof my carnal desire even at the critical hour of my fa-ther’s death, which demanded wakeful service. It is a blotI have never been able to efface or forget...I was weighed

and found unpardonably wanting because my mind was atthe same moment in the grip of lust.[38][39] Mohandas andKasturba had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, born in 1897; andDevdas, born in 1900.[34]

In November 1887, he sat the regional matriculation examsin Ahmedabad, writing exams in arithmetic, history, ge-ography, natural science, English and Gujarati. He passedwith an overall average of 40 percent, ranking 404th of 823successful matriculates.[40] In January 1888, he enrolled atSamaldas College in Bhavnagar State, then the sole degree-granting institution of higher education in the region. Dur-ing his first and only term there, he suffered from headachesand strong feelings of homesickness, did very poorly in hisexams in April and withdrew from the college at the end ofthe term, returning to Porbandar.[41]

8.2 English barrister

Gandhi and his wife Kasturba (1902)

As the best-educated of his brothers, Gandhi was seen byhis family as the best candidate to one day succeed his fatherand his uncle Tulsidas as diwan.[42] Mavji Dave, a Brahminpriest and family friend, advised Gandhi and his family thathe should qualify as a barrister in London, after which hewould be certain to achieve the diwanship.[43] Initially, Put-libai did not want her youngest son to leave India and travelacross the “black waters”, thereby losing his caste. Gandhi’suncle Tulsidas also tried to dissuade his nephew. Finally,Gandhi made a vow to his mother in the presence of a Jainmonk to observe the precepts of sexual abstinence as wellas abstinence from meat and alcohol, after which Putlibaigave her permission and blessing.[44][45] In July, Kasturbagave birth to the couple’s first surviving son, Harilal.[46]

On 10 August, Gandhi left Porbandar for Bombay (Mum-bai). Upon arrival in the port, he was met by the head ofthe Modh Bania community, who had known Gandhi’s fam-ily. Having learned of Gandhi’s plans, he and other elders

8.3. CIVIL RIGHTS ACTIVIST IN SOUTH AFRICA (1893–1914) 169

warned Gandhi that he would be excommunicated if he didnot obey their wishes and remain in India. After Gandhireiterated his intentions to leave for England, the elders de-clared him an outcast.[47]

In London, Gandhi studied law and jurisprudence and en-rolled at the Inner Temple with the intention of becominga barrister. His time in London was influenced by the vowhe had made to his mother. Gandhi tried to adopt “En-glish” customs, including taking dancing lessons. However,he could not appreciate the bland vegetarian food offered byhis landlady and was frequently hungry until he found one ofLondon’s few vegetarian restaurants. Influenced by HenrySalt’s writing, he joined the Vegetarian Society, was electedto its executive committee,[48] and started a local Bayswaterchapter.[20] Some of the vegetarians he met were membersof the Theosophical Society, which had been founded in1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was de-voted to the study of Buddhist and Hindu literature. Theyencouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the BhagavadGita both in translation as well as in the original.[48] Nothaving shown interest in religion before, he became inter-ested in religious thought.Gandhi was called to the bar in June 1891 and then leftLondon for India, where he learned that his mother haddied while he was in London and that his family had keptthe news from him.[48] His attempts at establishing a lawpractice in Bombay failed because he was psychologicallyunable to cross-question witnesses. He returned to Ra-jkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants,but he was forced to stop when he ran foul of a Britishofficer.[20][48] In 1893, he accepted a year-long contractfrom Dada Abdulla & Co., an Indian firm, to a post inthe Colony of Natal, South Africa, a part of the BritishEmpire.[20]

8.3 Civil rights activist in SouthAfrica (1893–1914)

Gandhi was 24 when he arrived in South Africa[49] to workas a legal representative for the Muslim Indian Tradersbased in the city of Pretoria.[50] He spent 21 years in SouthAfrica, where he developed his political views, ethics andpolitical leadership skills.Indians in South Africa were led by wealthy Muslims, whoemployed Gandhi as a lawyer, and by impoverished Hinduindentured labourers with very limited rights. Gandhi con-sidered them all to be Indians, taking a lifetime view that“Indianness” transcended religion and caste. He believed hecould bridge historic differences, especially regarding reli-gion, and he took that belief back to India where he tried toimplement it. The South African experience exposed hand-

Gandhi in South Africa (1895)

icaps to Gandhi that he had not known about. He realisedhe was out of contact with the enormous complexities ofreligious and cultural life in India, and believed he under-stood India by getting to know and leading Indians in SouthAfrica.[51]

In South Africa, Gandhi faced the discrimination directedat all coloured people. He was thrown off a train atPietermaritzburg after refusing to move from the first-class.He protested and was allowed on first class the next day.[52]

Travelling farther on by stagecoach, he was beaten by adriver for refusing to move to make room for a Europeanpassenger.[53] He suffered other hardships on the journey aswell, including being barred from several hotels. In anotherincident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhito remove his turban, which he refused to do.[54]

These events were a turning point in Gandhi’s life andshaped his social activism and awakened him to social in-justice. After witnessing racism, prejudice and injusticeagainst Indians in South Africa, Gandhi began to questionhis place in society and his people’s standing in the BritishEmpire.[55]

Gandhi with the stretcher-bearers of the Indian Ambulance Corps

170 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

Gandhi extended his original period of stay in South Africato assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the rightto vote. He asked Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colo-nial Secretary, to reconsider his position on this bill.[50]

Though unable to halt the bill’s passage, his campaign wassuccessful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indiansin South Africa. He helped found the Natal Indian Congressin 1894,[20][52] and through this organisation, he mouldedthe Indian community of South Africa into a unified politi-cal force. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban,a mob of white settlers attacked him[56] and he escaped onlythrough the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent.However, he refused to press charges against any memberof the mob, stating it was one of his principles not to seekredress for a personal wrong in a court of law.[20]

In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a newAct compelling registration of the colony’s Indian popu-lation. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburgon 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolv-ing methodology of Satyagraha (devotion to the truth), ornonviolent protest, for the first time.[57] He urged Indi-ans to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments fordoing so. The community adopted this plan, and duringthe ensuing seven-year struggle, thousands of Indians werejailed, flogged, or shot for striking, refusing to register, forburning their registration cards or engaging in other formsof nonviolent resistance. The government successfully re-pressed the Indian protesters, but the public outcry over theharsh treatment of peaceful Indian protesters by the SouthAfrican government forced South African leader Jan Chris-tiaan Smuts, himself a philosopher, to negotiate a compro-mise with Gandhi. Gandhi’s ideas took shape, and the con-cept of Satyagraha matured during this struggle.

8.3.1 Gandhi and the Africans

Gandhi focused his attention on Indians while in SouthAfrica and opposed the idea that Indians should be treatedat the same level as native Africans while in SouthAfrica.[58][59][60] He also stated that he believed “that thewhite race of South Africa should be the predominat-ing race.”[61] After several incidents with Whites in SouthAfrica, Gandhi began to change his thinking and appar-ently increased his interest in politics.[62] White rule en-forced strict segregation among all races and generated con-flict between these communities. Bhana and Vahed arguethat Gandhi, at first, shared racial notions prevalent of thetimes and that his experiences in jail sensitised him to theplight of South Africa’s indigenous peoples.[63]

During the Boer War, Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to forma group of ambulance drivers. He wanted to disprove theBritish idea that Hindus were not fit for “manly” activi-

Gandhi photographed in South Africa (1909)

ties involving danger and exertion. Gandhi raised elevenhundred Indian volunteers. They were trained and med-ically certified to serve on the front lines. At Spion KopGandhi and his bearers had to carry wounded soldiers formiles to a field hospital because the terrain was too roughfor the ambulances. Gandhi was pleased when someonesaid that European ambulance corpsmen could not makethe trip under the heat without food or water. General Red-vers Buller mentioned the courage of the Indians in his dis-patch. Gandhi and thirty-seven other Indians received theWar Medal.[64]

In 1906, when the British declared war against the ZuluKingdom in Natal, Gandhi encouraged the British to recruitIndians.[65] He argued that Indians should support the warefforts to legitimise their claims to full citizenship.[65] TheBritish accepted Gandhi’s offer to let a detachment of 20 In-dians volunteer as a stretcher-bearer corps to treat woundedBritish soldiers. This corps was commanded by Gandhiand operated for less than two months.[66] The experiencetaught him it was hopeless to directly challenge the over-whelming military power of the British army—he decidedit could only be resisted in nonviolent fashion by the pureof heart.[67]

In 1910, Gandhi established an idealistic community called'Tolstoy Farm' near Johannesburg, where he nurtured hispolicy of peaceful resistance.[68]

8.4. STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (1915–47) 171

After blacks gained the right to vote in South Africa,Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerousmonuments.[69]

8.4 Struggle for Indian Indepen-dence (1915–47)

See also: Indian independence movement

At the request of Gokhale, conveyed to him by C.F. An-drews, Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He brought aninternational reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, the-orist and organiser. He joined the Indian National Congressand was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indianpeople primarily by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Gokhale wasa key leader of the Congress Party best known for his re-straint and moderation, and his insistence on working insidethe system. Gandhi took Gokhale’s liberal approach basedon British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to makeit look wholly Indian.[70]

Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and be-gan escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the In-dian National Congress declared the independence of India.The British did not recognise the declaration but negotia-tions ensued, with the Congress taking a role in provincialgovernment in the late 1930s. Gandhi and the Congresswithdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy de-clared war on Germany in September 1939 without consul-tation. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded imme-diate independence in 1942 and the British responded byimprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress lead-ers. Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate withBritain and moved, against Gandhi’s strong opposition, todemands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. InAugust 1947 the British partitioned the land with India andPakistan each achieving independence on terms that Gandhidisapproved.[71]

8.4.1 Role in World War I

See also: The role of India in World War I

In April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, theViceroy invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi.[72]

Perhaps to show his support for the Empire and help hiscase for India’s independence,[73] Gandhi agreed to activelyrecruit Indians for the war effort.[74] In contrast to the ZuluWar of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914,when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, thistime Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June

1918 leaflet entitled “Appeal for Enlistment”, Gandhi wrote“To bring about such a state of things we should have theability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear armsand to use them...If we want to learn the use of arms withthe greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist our-selves in the army.”[75] He did, however, stipulate in a letterto the Viceroy’s private secretary that he “personally willnot kill or injure anybody, friend or foe.”[76]

Gandhi’s war recruitment campaign brought into questionhis consistency on nonviolence. Gandhi’s private secre-tary noted that “The question of the consistency betweenhis creed of 'Ahimsa' (nonviolence) and his recruiting cam-paign was raised not only then but has been discussed eversince.”[74]

8.4.2 Champaran and Kheda

Main article: Champaran and Kheda SatyagrahaGandhi’s first major achievements came in 1918 with the

Gandhi in 1918, at the time of the Kheda and Champaran Satya-grahas

Champaran and Kheda agitations of Bihar and Gujarat.

172 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry againsttheir largely British landlords who were backed by the localadministration. The peasantry was forced to grow Indigo,a cash crop whose demand had been declining over twodecades, and were forced to sell their crops to the plantersat a fixed price. Unhappy with this, the peasantry appealedto Gandhi at his ashram in Ahmedabad. Pursuing a strat-egy of nonviolent protest, Gandhi took the administrationby surprise and won concessions from the authorities.[77]

In 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peas-antry was demanding relief from taxes. Gandhi moved hisheadquarters to Nadiad,[78] organising scores of supportersand fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable be-ing Vallabhbhai Patel.[79] Using non-cooperation as a tech-nique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peas-ants pledged non-payment of revenue even under the threatof confiscation of land. A social boycott of mamlatdars andtalatdars (revenue officials within the district) accompa-nied the agitation. Gandhi worked hard to win public sup-port for the agitation across the country. For five months,the administration refused but finally in end-May 1918, theGovernment gave way on important provisions and relaxedthe conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famineended. In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farm-ers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenuecollection and released all the prisoners.[80]

8.4.3 Khilafat movement

In 1919, Gandhi, with his weak position in Congress, de-cided to broaden his political base by increasing his ap-peal to Muslims. The opportunity came in the form of theKhilafat movement, a worldwide protest by Muslims againstthe collapsing status of the Caliph, the leader of their reli-gion. The Ottoman Empire had lost the First World Warand was dismembered, as Muslims feared for the safetyof the holy places and the prestige of their religion.[81]

Although Gandhi did not originate the All-India MuslimConference,[82] which directed the movement in India, hesoon became its most prominent spokesman and attracteda strong base of Muslim support with local chapters in allMuslim centres in India.[83] As a mark of solidarity withIndian Muslims he returned the medals that had been be-stowed on him by the British government for his work inthe Boer and Zulu Wars. He believed that the British gov-ernment was not being honest in its dealings with Muslimson the Khilafat issue. His success made him India’s firstnational leader with a multicultural base and facilitated hisrise to power within Congress, which had previously beenunable to influence many Indian Muslims. In 1920 Gandhibecame a major leader in Congress.[84][85] By the end of1922 the Khilafat movement had collapsed.[86]

Gandhi always fought against “communalism”, which pit-ted Muslims against Hindus in Indian politics, but he couldnot reverse the rapid growth of communalism after 1922.Deadly religious riots broke out in numerous cities, includ-ing 91 in Uttar Pradesh alone.[87][88] At the leadership level,the proportion of Muslims among delegates to Congress fellsharply, from 11% in 1921 to under 4% in 1923.[89]

8.4.4 Non-cooperation

Main article: Non-cooperation movementIn his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Gandhi declared

Mahatma Gandhi spinning yarn, in the late 1920s

that British rule was established in India with the co-operation of Indians and had survived only because of thisco-operation. If Indians refused to co-operate, British rulewould collapse and swaraj would come.[90]

With Congress now behind him in 1920, Gandhi had thebase to employ non-cooperation, nonviolence and peace-ful resistance as his “weapons” in the struggle against theBritish Raj. His wide popularity among both Hindus andMuslims made his leadership possible; he even convincedthe extreme faction of Muslims to support peaceful non-cooperation.[83] The spark that ignited a national protestwas overwhelming anger at the Jallianwala Bagh massacre(or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of peaceful civilians byBritish troops in Punjab. Many Britons celebrated the ac-tion as needed to prevent another violent uprising similar tothe Rebellion of 1857, an attitude that caused many Indianleaders to decide the Raj was controlled by their enemies.Gandhi criticised both the actions of the British Raj andthe retaliatory violence of Indians. He authored the reso-lution offering condolences to British civilian victims andcondemning the riots which, after initial opposition in theparty, was accepted following Gandhi’s emotional speechadvocating his principle that all violence was evil and couldnot be justified.[91]

8.4. STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (1915–47) 173

After the massacre and subsequent violence, Gandhi be-gan to focus on winning complete self-government andcontrol of all Indian government institutions, maturingsoon into Swaraj or complete individual, spiritual, politi-cal independence.[92] During this period, Gandhi claimedto be a “highly orthodox Hindu" and in January 1921 dur-ing a speech at a temple in Vadtal, he spoke of the relevanceof non-cooperation to Hindu Dharma, “At this holy place,I declare, if you want to protect your 'Hindu Dharma', non-cooperation is first as well as the last lesson you must learnup.”[93]

Sabarmati Ashram, Gandhi’s home in Gujarat as seen in 2006.

In December 1921, Gandhi was invested with executive au-thority on behalf of the Indian National Congress. Underhis leadership, the Congress was reorganised with a newconstitution, with the goal of Swaraj. Membership in theparty was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee.A hierarchy of committees was set up to improve disci-pline, transforming the party from an elite organisation toone of mass national appeal. Gandhi expanded his nonvio-lence platform to include the swadeshi policy—the boycottof foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked tothis was his advocacy that khadi (homespun cloth) be wornby all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi ex-horted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend timeeach day spinning khadi in support of the independencemovement.[94]

Gandhi even invented a small, portable spinning wheel thatcould be folded into the size of a small typewriter.[95] Thiswas a strategy to inculcate discipline and dedication toweeding out the unwilling and ambitious and to includewomen in the movement at a time when many thought thatsuch activities were not respectable activities for women. In

addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged thepeople to boycott British educational institutions and lawcourts, to resign from government employment, and to for-sake British titles and honours.[96]

“Non-cooperation” enjoyed widespread appeal and success,increasing excitement and participation from all strata ofIndian society. Yet, just as the movement reached its apex,it ended abruptly as a result of a violent clash in the townof Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, in February 1922. Fear-ing that the movement was about to take a turn towards vi-olence, and convinced that this would be the undoing ofall his work, Gandhi called off the campaign of mass civildisobedience.[97] This was the third time that Gandhi hadcalled off a major campaign.[98] Gandhi was arrested on 10March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years’imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922.He was released in February 1924 for an appendicitis oper-ation, having served only two years.[99]

Without Gandhi’s unifying personality, the Indian NationalCongress began to splinter during his years in prison, split-ting into two factions, one led by Chitta Ranjan Das andMotilal Nehru favouring party participation in the legis-latures, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachariand Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this move. Further-more, co-operation among Hindus and Muslims, which hadbeen strong at the height of the nonviolence campaign, wasbreaking down. Gandhi attempted to bridge these differ-ences through many means, including a three-week fast inthe autumn of 1924, but with limited success.[100] In thisyear, Gandhi was persuaded to preside over the Congresssession to be held in Belgaum. Gandhi agreed to becomepresident of the session on one condition: that Congress-men should take to wearing homespun khadi. In his longpolitical career, this was the only time when he presidedover a Congress session.[101]

8.4.5 Salt Satyagraha (Salt March)

Main article: Salt SatyagrahaGandhi stayed out of active politics and, as such, the lime-light for most of the 1920s. He focused instead on resolvingthe wedge between the Swaraj Party and the Indian NationalCongress, and expanding initiatives against untouchability,alcoholism, ignorance, and poverty. He returned to the forein 1928. In the preceding year, the British government hadappointed a new constitutional reform commission underSir John Simon, which did not include any Indian as itsmember. The result was a boycott of the commission byIndian political parties. Gandhi pushed through a resolu-tion at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling onthe British government to grant India dominion status orface a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete in-

174 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

Original footage of Gandhi and his followers marching to Dandiin the Salt Satyagraha

dependence for the country as its goal. Gandhi had not onlymoderated the views of younger men like Subhas ChandraBose and Jawaharlal Nehru, who sought a demand for im-mediate independence, but also reduced his own call to aone-year wait, instead of two.[102]

The British did not respond. On 31 December 1929, theflag of India was unfurled in Lahore. 26 January 1930was celebrated as India’s Independence Day by the In-dian National Congress meeting in Lahore. This day wascommemorated by almost every other Indian organisation.Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the tax onsalt in March 1930. This was highlighted by the famousSalt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, wherehe marched 388 kilometres (241 mi) from Ahmedabad toDandi, Gujarat to make salt himself. Thousands of Indiansjoined him on this march to the sea. This campaign wasone of his most successful at upsetting British hold on India;Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people.[103]

Women

Gandhi strongly favoured the emancipation of women, andhe went so far as to say that “the women have come tolook upon me as one of themselves.” He opposed purdah,child marriage, untouchability, and the extreme oppressionof Hindu widows, up to and including sati. He especially re-cruited women to participate in the salt tax campaigns andthe boycott of foreign products.[104] Sarma concludes thatGandhi’s success in enlisting women in his campaigns, in-cluding the salt tax campaign, the anti-untouchability cam-paign and the peasant movement, gave many women a newself-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indianpublic life.[105]

Mahadev Desai (left) reading out a letter to Gandhi from theViceroy at Birla House, Bombay, 7 April 1939

Gandhi as folk hero

Congress in the 1920s appealed to peasants by portrayingGandhi as a sort of messiah, a strategy that succeeded inincorporating radical forces within the peasantry into thenonviolent resistance movement. In thousands of villagesplays were performed that presented Gandhi as the rein-carnation of earlier Indian nationalist leaders, or even asa demigod. The plays built support among illiterate peas-ants steeped in traditional Hindu culture. Similar mes-sianic imagery appeared in popular songs and poems, andin Congress-sponsored religious pageants and celebrations.The result was that Gandhi became not only a folk hero butthe Congress was widely seen in the villages as his sacredinstrument.[106]

Negotiations

The government, represented by Lord Edward Irwin, de-cided to negotiate with Gandhi. The Gandhi–Irwin Pactwas signed in March 1931. The British Government agreedto free all political prisoners, in return for the suspensionof the civil disobedience movement. Also as a result of thepact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Con-ference in London as the sole representative of the Indian

8.4. STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (1915–47) 175

A 1932 cartoon; Lord Willingdon goes on hunger strike to force Mr.Gandhi to admit the new constitution as “touchable”

National Congress. The conference was a disappointmentto Gandhi and the nationalists, because it focused on the In-dian princes and Indian minorities rather than on a transferof power. Lord Irwin’s successor, Lord Willingdon, takinga hard line against nationalism, began a new campaign ofcontrolling and subduing the nationalist movement. Gandhiwas again arrested, and the government tried and failed tonegate his influence by completely isolating him from hisfollowers.[107]

In Britain, Winston Churchill, a prominent Conservativepolitician who was then out of office, became a vigorousand articulate critic of Gandhi and opponent of his long-term plans. Churchill often ridiculed Gandhi, saying in awidely reported 1931 speech:

It is alarming and also nauseating to see MrGandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, nowposing as a fakir of a type well known in the East,striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regalpalace....to parley on equal terms with the repre-sentative of the King-Emperor.[108]

8.4.6 Untouchables

In 1932, through the campaigning of the Dalit leader B.R. Ambedkar, the government granted untouchables sep-arate electorates under the new constitution, known as theCommunal Award. In protest, Gandhi embarked on a six-day fast on 20 September 1932, while he was imprisonedat the Yerwada Jail, Pune.[109] The resulting public out-cry successfully forced the government to adopt an equi-table arrangement (Poona Pact) through negotiations medi-ated by Palwankar Baloo.[109] This was the start of a newcampaign by Gandhi to improve the lives of the untouch-ables, whom he named Harijans, the children of God.[110]

On 8 September 1931, Gandhi who was sailing on SS Ra-

jputana, to the second Round Table Conference in London,met Meher Baba in his cabin on board the ship, and dis-cussed issues of untouchables, politics, state Independenceand spirituality[111]

On 8 May 1933, Gandhi began a 21-day fast of self-purification and launched a one-year campaign to help theHarijan movement.[112] This new campaign was not uni-versally embraced within the Dalit community, as Ambed-kar condemned Gandhi’s use of the term Harijans as say-ing that Dalits were socially immature, and that privilegedcaste Indians played a paternalistic role. Ambedkar andhis allies also felt Gandhi was undermining Dalit politicalrights. Gandhi had also refused to support the untouchablesin 1924–25 when they were campaigning for the right topray in temples. Because of Gandhi’s actions, Ambedkardescribed him as “devious and untrustworthy”.[98] Gandhi,although born into the Vaishya caste, insisted that he wasable to speak on behalf of Dalits, despite the presence ofDalit activists such as Ambedkar.[113] Gandhi and Ambed-kar often clashed because Ambedkar sought to remove theDalits out of the Hindu community, while Gandhi triedto save Hinduism by exorcising untouchability. Ambed-kar complained that Gandhi moved too slowly, while Hindutraditionalists said Gandhi was a dangerous radical who re-jected scripture. Guha noted in 2012 that, “Ideologues havecarried these old rivalries into the present, with the demo-nization of Gandhi now common among politicians whopresume to speak in Ambedkar’s name.”[114]

8.4.7 Congress politics

In 1934 Gandhi resigned from Congress party membership.He did not disagree with the party’s position but felt that ifhe resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to sti-fle the party’s membership, which actually varied, includingcommunists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religiousconservatives, and those with pro-business convictions, andthat these various voices would get a chance to make them-selves heard. Gandhi also wanted to avoid being a targetfor Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarilyaccepted political accommodation with the Raj.[115]

Gandhi returned to active politics again in 1936, with theNehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the Congress.Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on the task of win-ning independence and not speculation about India’s fu-ture, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting so-cialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with Subhas Chan-dra Bose, who had been elected president in 1938, andwho had previously expressed a lack of faith in nonvio-lence as a means of protest.[116] Despite Gandhi’s opposi-tion, Bose won a second term as Congress President, againstGandhi’s nominee, Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya; but left the

176 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

Congress when the All-India leaders resigned en masse inprotest of his abandonment of the principles introduced byGandhi.[117][118] Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya’s defeatwas his defeat.[119]

8.4.8 World War II and Quit India

Main article: Quit India MovementGandhi initially favoured offering “nonviolent moral sup-

Gandhi and Nehru in 1942

port” to the British effort when World War II broke out in1939, but the Congressional leaders were offended by theunilateral inclusion of India in the war without consultationof the people’s representatives. All Congressmen resignedfrom office.[120] After long deliberations, Gandhi declaredthat India could not be party to a war ostensibly being foughtfor democratic freedom while that freedom was denied toIndia itself. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified hisdemand for independence, calling for the British to Quit In-dia in a speech at Gowalia Tank Maidan. This was Gandhi’sand the Congress Party’s most definitive revolt aimed at se-curing the British exit from India.[121]

Gandhi was criticised by some Congress party membersand other Indian political groups, both pro-British and anti-British. Some felt that not supporting Britain more in itsstruggle against Nazi Germany was unethical. Others feltthat Gandhi’s refusal for India to participate in the war wasinsufficient and more direct opposition should be taken,while Britain fought against Nazism, it continued to refuseto grant India Independence. Quit India became the mostforceful movement in the history of the struggle, with mass

arrests and violence on an unprecedented scale.[122]

In 1942, although still committed in his efforts to “launch anonviolent movement”, Gandhi clarified that the movementwould not be stopped by individual acts of violence, sayingthat the “ordered anarchy” of “the present system of admin-istration” was “worse than real anarchy.” [123][124] He calledon all Congressmen and Indians to maintain discipline viaahimsa, and Karo ya maro (“Do or die”) in the cause ofultimate freedom.[125]

Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Bombay, 1944

Gandhi and the entire Congress Working Committee werearrested in Bombay by the British on 9 August 1942.Gandhi was held for two years in the Aga Khan Palace inPune. It was here that Gandhi suffered two terrible blowsin his personal life. His 50-year-old secretary Mahadev De-sai died of a heart attack 6 days later and his wife Kasturbadied after 18 months’ imprisonment on 22 February 1944;six weeks later Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack. Hewas released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 be-cause of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Rajdid not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation.He came out of detention to an altered political scene—the Muslim League for example, which a few years earlierhad appeared marginal, “now occupied the centre of the po-litical stage”[126] and the topic of Muhammad Ali Jinnah'scampaign for Pakistan was a major talking point. Gandhimet Jinnah in September 1944 in Bombay but Jinnah re-jected, on the grounds that it fell short of a fully indepen-dent Pakistan, his proposal of the right of Muslim provincesto opt out of substantial parts of the forthcoming politicalunion.[127][128]

While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, theother parties supported the war and gained organizationalstrength. Underground publications flailed at the ruth-less suppression of Congress, but it had little control overevents.[129] At the end of the war, the British gave clear in-dications that power would be transferred to Indian hands.At this point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around100,000 political prisoners were released, including the

8.5. ASSASSINATION 177

Congress’s leadership.[130]

8.4.9 Partition and independence, 1947

See also: Partition of IndiaAs a rule, Gandhi was opposed to the concept of partition

Gandhi in 1947, with Lord Louis Mountbatten, Britain’s lastViceroy of India, and his wife Vicereine Edwina Mountbatten.

as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.[131] Concern-ing the partition of India to create Pakistan, while the In-dian National Congress and Gandhi called for the Britishto quit India, the Muslim League passed a resolution forthem to divide and quit, in 1943.[132] Gandhi suggestedan agreement which required the Congress and MuslimLeague to co-operate and attain independence under a pro-visional government, thereafter, the question of partitioncould be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Mus-lim majority.[133] When Jinnah called for Direct Action, on16 August 1946, Gandhi was infuriated and personally vis-ited the most riot-prone areas to stop the massacres.[134] Hemade strong efforts to unite the Indian Hindus, Muslims,and Christians and struggled for the emancipation of the"untouchables" in Hindu society.[135]

India’s partition and independence were accompanied bymore than half a million killed in riots as 10–12 millionHindus, Sikhs and Muslims crossed the borders dividingIndia and Pakistan.[136] Gandhi, having vowed to spend theday of independence fasting and spinning, was in Calcuttaon August 15, 1947 where he prayed, confronted rioters andworked with Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy to stop the com-munal killing.[137] But for his teachings, the efforts of hisfollowers, and his own presence, there perhaps could havebeen much more bloodshed during the partition, accordingto prominent Norwegian historian, Jens Arup Seip.[138]

Stanley Wolpert has argued, the “plan to carve up BritishIndia was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi...who

realised too late that his closest comrades and disciples weremore interested in power than principle, and that his ownvision had long been clouded by the illusion that the strugglehe led for India’s independence was a nonviolent one.”[139]

8.5 Assassination

See also: Assassination of Mahatma GandhiMohandas Karamchand Gandhi was assassinated in the

Memorial at the former Birla House, New Delhi, where Gandhi wasassassinated at 5:17 pm on 30 January 1948 on his way to a prayermeeting. Stylised footsteps are shown leading to the memorial.

garden of the former Birla House (now Gandhi Smriti) at5:17 pm on 30 January 1948. Accompanied by his grand-nieces, Gandhi was on his way to address a prayer meet-ing, when his assassin, Nathuram Godse, fired three bul-lets from a Beretta 9 mm pistol into his chest at point-blank range.[140] Godse was a Hindu nationalist with linksto the extremist Hindu Mahasabha, who held Gandhi guiltyof favouring Pakistan and strongly opposed the doctrine ofnonviolence.[141] Godse and his co-conspirator were triedand executed in 1949. Gandhi’s memorial (or Samādhi)at Rāj Ghāt, New Delhi, bears the epigraph “Hē Ram”(Devanagari: ! or, He Rām), which may betranslated as “Oh God”. These are widely believed to beGandhi’s last words after he was shot, though the verac-ity of this statement has been disputed.[142] Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehru addressed the nation through radio:[143]

Friends and comrades, the light has gone outof our lives, and there is darkness everywhere,and I do not quite know what to tell you or howto say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we calledhim, the father of the nation, is no more. Per-haps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, wewill not see him again, as we have seen him for

178 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

these many years, we will not run to him for ad-vice or seek solace from him, and that is a ter-rible blow, not only for me, but for millions andmillions in this country.—Jawaharlal Nehru’s ad-dress to Gandhi[144]

Gandhi’s death was mourned nationwide. Over two millionpeople joined the five-mile long funeral procession that tookover five hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla house, wherehe was assassinated. Gandhi’s body was transported on aweapons carrier, whose chassis was dismantled overnight toallow a high-floor to be installed so that people could catcha glimpse of his body. The engine of the vehicle was notused; instead four drag-ropes manned by 50 people eachpulled the vehicle.[145] All Indian-owned establishments inLondon remained closed in mourning as thousands of peo-ple from all faiths and denominations and Indians from allover Britain converged at India House in London.[146]

While India mourned and communal (inter-religious) vio-lence escalated, there were calls for retaliation, and evenan invasion of Pakistan by the Indian army. Nehru andPatel, the two strongest figures in the government and inCongress, had been pulling in opposite directions; the assas-sination pushed them together. They agreed the first objec-tive must be to calm the hysteria.[147] They called on Indiansto honour Gandhi’s memory and even more his ideals.[148]

They used the assassination to consolidate the authority ofthe new Indian state. The government made sure everyoneknew the guilty party was not a Muslim. Congress tightlycontrolled the epic public displays of grief over a two-weekperiod—the funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution ofthe martyr’s ashes—as millions participated and hundredsof millions watched. The goal was to assert the power ofthe government and legitimise the Congress Party’s control.This move built upon the massive outpouring of Hindu ex-pressions of grief. The government suppressed the RSS,the Muslim National Guards, and the Khaksars, with some200,000 arrests. Gandhi’s death and funeral linked the dis-tant state with the Indian people and made more understandwhy religious parties were being suppressed during the tran-sition to independence for the Indian people.[149]

8.5.1 Ashes

By Hindu tradition the ashes were to be spread on a river.Gandhi’s ashes were poured into urns which were sentacross India for memorial services.[150] Most were im-mersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February 1948,but some were secretly taken away. In 1997, TusharGandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bankvault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam atAllahabad.[151][152] Some of Gandhi’s ashes were scatteredat the source of the Nile River near Jinja, Uganda, and a

memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 January 2008, thecontents of another urn were immersed at Girgaum Chow-patty. Another urn is at the palace of the Aga Khan inPune[151] (where Gandhi had been imprisoned from 1942 to1944) and another in the Self-Realization Fellowship LakeShrine in Los Angeles.[153]

8.6 Principles, practices and beliefs

Main article: Gandhism

Gandhism designates the ideas and principles Gandhi pro-moted. Of central importance is nonviolent resistance. AGandhian can mean either an individual who follows, or aspecific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.[77] M.M. Sankhdher argues that Gandhism is not a systematic po-sition in metaphysics or in political philosophy. Rather, it isa political creed, an economic doctrine, a religious outlook,a moral precept, and especially, a humanitarian world view.It is an effort not to systematise wisdom but to transform so-ciety and is based on an undying faith in the goodness of hu-man nature.[154] However Gandhi himself did not approveof the notion of “Gandhism”, as he explained in 1936:

There is no such thing as “Gandhism”, andI do not want to leave any sect after me. I donot claim to have originated any new principleor doctrine. I have simply tried in my own wayto apply the eternal truths to our daily life andproblems...The opinions I have formed and theconclusions I have arrived at are not final. I maychange them tomorrow. I have nothing new toteach the world. Truth and nonviolence are asold as the hills.[155]

8.6.1 Influences

Historian R.B. Cribb argues that Gandhi’s thought evolvedover time, with his early ideas becoming the core or scaf-folding for his mature philosophy. In London he commit-ted himself to truthfulness, temperance, chastity, and veg-etarianism. His return to India to work as a lawyer was afailure, so he went to South Africa for a quarter century,where he absorbed ideas from many sources, most of themnon-Indian.[156] Gandhi grew up in an eclectic religious at-mosphere and throughout his life searched for insights frommany religious traditions.[157] He was exposed to Jain ideasthrough his mother who was in contact with Jain monks.Themes from Jainism that Gandhi absorbed included as-ceticism; compassion for all forms of life; the importanceof vows for self-discipline; vegetarianism; fasting for self-

8.6. PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES AND BELIEFS 179

Gandhi with famous poet Rabindranath Tagore, 1940

purification; mutual tolerance among people of differentcreeds; and “syadvad”, the idea that all views of truth arepartial, a doctrine that lies at the root of Satyagraha.[158]

He received much of his influence from Jainism particularlyduring his younger years.[159]

Gandhi’s London experience provided a solid philosophi-cal base focused on truthfulness, temperance, chastity, andvegetarianism. When he returned to India in 1891, hisoutlook was parochial and he could not make a living asa lawyer. This challenged his belief that practicality andmorality necessarily coincided. By moving in 1893 to SouthAfrica he found a solution to this problem and developedthe central concepts of his mature philosophy.[160] N. A.Toothi[161] felt that Gandhi was influenced by the reformsand teachings of Swaminarayan, stating “Close parallelsdo exist in programs of social reform based on to nonvio-lence, truth-telling, cleanliness, temperance and upliftmentof the masses.”[162] Vallabhbhai Patel, who grew up in aSwaminarayan household was attracted to Gandhi due tothis aspect of Gandhi’s doctrine.[163]

Gandhi’s ethical thinking was heavily influenced by a hand-ful of books, which he repeatedly meditated upon. Theyincluded especially Plato's Apology and John Ruskin's Untothis Last (1862) (both of which he translated into his na-tive Gujarati); William Salter’s Ethical Religion (1889);Henry David Thoreau's On the Duty of Civil Disobedience(1849); and Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is WithinYou (1894). Ruskin inspired his decision to live an austerelife on a commune, at first on the Phoenix Farm in Natal andthen on the Tolstoy Farm just outside Johannesburg, SouthAfrica.[51]

Balkrishna Gokhale argues that Gandhi took his philosophyof history from Hinduism and Jainism, supplemented by se-

lected Christian traditions and ideas of Tolstoy and Ruskin.Hinduism provided central concepts of God’s role in his-tory, of man as the battleground of forces of virtue and sin,and of the potential of love as an historical force. FromJainism, Gandhi took the idea of applying nonviolence tohuman situations and the theory that Absolute Reality canbe comprehended only relatively in human affairs.[164]

Historian Howard Spodek argues for the importance of theculture of Gujarat in shaping Gandhi’s methods. Spodekfinds that some of Gandhi’s most effective methods suchas fasting, non-cooperation and appeals to the justice andcompassion of the rulers were learned as a youth in Gu-jarat. Later on, the financial, cultural, organizational andgeographical support needed to bring his campaigns to a na-tional audience were drawn from Ahmedabad and Gujarat,his Indian residence 1915–1930.[165]

8.6.2 Tolstoy

Mohandas K. Gandhi and other residents of Tolstoy Farm, SouthAfrica, 1910

Along with the book mentioned above, in 1908 Leo Tol-stoy wrote A Letter to a Hindu, which said that only by usinglove as a weapon through passive resistance could the Indianpeople overthrow colonial rule. In 1909, Gandhi wrote toTolstoy seeking advice and permission to republish A Let-ter to a Hindu in Gujarati. Tolstoy responded and the twocontinued a correspondence until Tolstoy’s death in 1910(Tolstoy’s last letter was to Gandhi).[166] The letters concernpractical and theological applications of nonviolence.[167]

Gandhi saw himself a disciple of Tolstoy, for they agreedregarding opposition to state authority and colonialism;both hated violence and preached non-resistance. How-ever, they differed sharply on political strategy. Gandhicalled for political involvement; he was a nationalist andwas prepared to use nonviolent force. He was also willingto compromise.[168] It was at Tolstoy Farm where Gandhiand Hermann Kallenbach systematically trained their disci-ples in the philosophy of nonviolence.[169]

180 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

8.6.3 Truth and Satyagraha

“God is truth. The way to truth lies through ahimsa(nonviolence)"—Sabarmati 13 March 1927

Gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose of discover-ing truth, or Satya. He tried to achieve this by learning fromhis own mistakes and conducting experiments on himself.He called his autobiography The Story of My Experimentswith Truth.[170]

Bruce Watson argues that Gandhi based Satyagraha on theVedantic ideal of self-realization, and notes it also con-tains Jain and Buddhist notions of nonviolence, vegetarian-ism, the avoidance of killing, and 'agape' (universal love).Gandhi also borrowed Christian-Islamic ideas of equality,the brotherhood of man, and the concept of turning theother cheek.[171]

Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fightwas overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities.Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said “God isTruth”. He would later change this statement to “Truthis God”. Thus, satya (truth) in Gandhi’s philosophy is“God”.[172]

The essence of Satyagraha (a name Gandhi invented mean-ing “adherence to truth”[173]) is that it seeks to eliminateantagonisms without harming the antagonists themselvesand seeks to transform or “purify” it to a higher level. Aeuphemism sometimes used for Satyagraha is that it is a“silent force” or a “soul force” (a term also used by Mar-tin Luther King Jr. during his famous "I Have a Dream"speech). It arms the individual with moral power ratherthan physical power. Satyagraha is also termed a “universalforce”, as it essentially “makes no distinction between kins-men and strangers, young and old, man and woman, friendand foe.”[174]

Gandhi wrote: “There must be no impatience, no barbar-ity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to cultivatea true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intoler-

ant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one’s cause.”[175]

Civil disobedience and non-cooperation as practised un-der Satyagraha are based on the “law of suffering”,[176] adoctrine that the endurance of suffering is a means to anend. This end usually implies a moral upliftment or progressof an individual or society. Therefore, non-cooperation inSatyagraha is in fact a means to secure the co-operation ofthe opponent consistently with truth and justice.[177]

8.6.4 Nonviolence

Gandhi with textile workers at Darwen, Lancashire, 26 September1931.

Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principleof nonviolence, he was the first to apply it in the politi-cal field on a large scale.[178] The concept of nonviolence(ahimsa) and nonresistance has a long history in Indian re-ligious thought. Gandhi explains his philosophy and wayof life in his autobiography The Story of My Experimentswith Truth. Gandhi realised later that this level of nonvi-olence required incredible faith and courage, which he be-lieved everyone did not possess. He therefore advised thateveryone need not keep to nonviolence, especially if it wereused as a cover for cowardice, saying, “where there is onlya choice between cowardice and violence, I would adviseviolence.”[179][180]

Gandhi thus came under some political fire for his criticism

8.6. PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES AND BELIEFS 181

of those who attempted to achieve independence throughmore violent means. His refusal to protest against the hang-ing of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Udham Singh and Rajguruwere sources of condemnation among some parties.[181][182]

Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, “There was a time whenpeople listened to me because I showed them how to givefight to the British without arms when they had no arms... but today I am told that my nonviolence can be of noavail against the [Hindu–Moslem riots] and, therefore, peo-ple should arm themselves for self-defense.”[183]

Gandhi’s views came under heavy criticism in Britain whenit was under attack from Nazi Germany, and later when theHolocaust was revealed. He told the British people in 1940,“I would like you to lay down the arms you have as beinguseless for saving you or humanity. You will invite HerrHitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of thecountries you call your possessions... If these gentlemenchoose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If theydo not give you free passage out, you will allow yourselves,man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you willrefuse to owe allegiance to them.”[184] George Orwell re-marked that Gandhi’s methods confronted 'an old-fashionedand rather shaky despotism which treated him in a fairlychivalrous way', not a totalitarian Power, 'where politicalopponents simply disappear.'[185]

In a post-war interview in 1946, he said, “Hitler killed fivemillion Jews. It is the greatest crime of our time. Butthe Jews should have offered themselves to the butcher’sknife. They should have thrown themselves into the seafrom cliffs... It would have aroused the world and thepeople of Germany... As it is they succumbed anyway intheir millions.”[186] Gandhi believed this act of “collectivesuicide”, in response to the Holocaust, “would have beenheroism”.[187]

Muslims

One of Gandhi’s major strategies, first in South Africa andthen in India, was uniting Muslims and Hindus to work to-gether in opposition to British imperialism. In 1919–22 hewon strong Muslim support for his leadership in the KhilafatMovement to support the historic Ottoman Caliphate. By1924, that Muslim support had largely evaporated.[188][189]

Jews

In 1931, he suggested that while he could understand thedesire of European Jews to emigrate to Palestine, he op-posed any movement that supported British colonialism orviolence. Muslims throughout India and the Middle Eaststrongly opposed the Zionist plan for a Jewish state in Pales-tine, and Gandhi (and Congress) supported the Muslims in

this regard. By the 1930s all major political groups in Indiaopposed a Jewish state in Palestine.[190]

This led to discussions concerning the persecution of theJews in Germany and the emigration of Jews from Eu-rope to Palestine, which Gandhi framed through the lensof Satyagraha.[137][191] In 1937, Gandhi discussed Zionismwith his close Jewish friend Hermann Kallenbach.[192] Hesaid that Zionism was not the right answer to the Jew-ish problem[193] and instead recommended Satyagraha.Gandhi thought the Zionists in Palestine represented Euro-pean imperialism and used violence to achieve their goals;he argued that “the Jews should disclaim any intention ofrealizing their aspiration under the protection of arms andshould rely wholly on the goodwill of Arabs. No exceptioncan possibly be taken to the natural desire of the Jews tofound a home in Palestine. But they must wait for its fulfill-ment till Arab opinion is ripe for it.”[137] In 1938, Gandhistated that his “sympathies are all with the Jews. I haveknown them intimately in South Africa. Some of thembecame life-long companions.” Philosopher Martin Buberwas highly critical of Gandhi’s approach and in 1939 wrotean open letter to him on the subject. Gandhi reiterated hisstance on the use of Satyagraha in Palestine in 1947.[194]

8.6.5 Vegetarianism, food, and animals

Stephen Hay argues that Gandhi looked into numerous re-ligious and intellectual currents during his stay in London. He especially appreciated how the theosophical move-ment encouraged a religious eclecticism and an antipathy toatheism. Hay says the vegetarian movement had the great-est impact for it was Gandhi’s point of entry into other re-formist agendas of the time.[195] The idea of vegetarianismis deeply ingrained in Hindu and Jain traditions in India, es-pecially in his native Gujarat.[196] Gandhi was close to thechairman of the London Vegetarian Society, Dr. JosiahOldfield, and corresponded with Henry Stephens Salt, avegetarian campaigner. Gandhi became a strict vegetarian.He wrote the book The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism andwrote for the London Vegetarian Society’s publication.[197]

Gandhi was somewhat of a food faddist taking his own goatto travels so he could always have fresh milk.[198]

Gandhi noted in The Story of My Experiments with Truth,that vegetarianism was the beginning of his deep commit-ment to Brahmacharya; without total control of the palate,his success in following Brahmacharya would likely falter.“You wish to know what the marks of a man are who wantsto realise Truth which is God”, he wrote. “He must reducehimself to zero and have perfect control over all his senses-beginning with the palate or tongue.”[199][200] Gandhi alsostated that he followed a fruitarian diet for five years but dis-continued it due to pleurisy and pressure from his doctor.

182 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

He thereafter resumed a vegetarian diet.Gandhi also opposed vivisection: “Vivisection in my opin-ion is the blackest of all the blackest crimes that man is atpresent committing against god and his fair creation.”[201]

8.6.6 Fasting

See also: List of fasts undertaken by Mahatma GandhiGandhi used fasting as a political device, often threatening

Fasting, with young Indira Gandhi, mid-1920s

suicide unless demands were met. Congress publicised thefasts as a political action that generated widespread sympa-thy. In response the government tried to manipulate newscoverage to minimise his challenge to the Raj. He fastedin 1932 to protest the voting scheme for separate politicalrepresentation for Dalits; Gandhi did not want them seg-regated. The government stopped the London press fromshowing photographs of his emaciated body, because itwould elicit sympathy. Gandhi’s 1943 hunger strike tookplace during a two-year prison term for the anticolonial QuitIndia movement. The government called on nutritional ex-perts to demystify his action, and again no photos were al-lowed. However, his final fast in 1948, after India was in-dependent, was lauded by the British press and this time didinclude full-length photos.[202]

Alter argues that Gandhi’s fixation on diet and celibacy weremuch deeper than exercises in self-discipline. Rather, hisbeliefs regarding health offered a critique of both the tra-ditional Hindu system of ayurvedic medicine and Westernconcepts. This challenge was integral to his deeper chal-lenge to tradition and modernity, as health and nonviolencebecame part of the same ethics.[203]

8.6.7 Brahmacharya, celibacy

In 1906 Gandhi, although married and a father, vowed toabstain from sexual relations. In the 1940s, in his mid-

seventies, he brought his grandniece Manubehn to sleepnaked in his bed as part of a spiritual experiment in whichGandhi could test himself as a “brahmachari”. Severalother young women and girls also sometimes shared hisbed as part of his experiments.[204] Gandhi’s behaviourwas widely discussed and criticised by family members andleading politicians, including Nehru. His “half naked” cos-tume had long been the topic of ridicule in Britain andAmerica.[205] Some members of his staff resigned, includ-ing two editors of his newspaper who left after refusing toprint parts of Gandhi’s sermons dealing with his sleeping ar-rangements. But Gandhi said that if he wouldn't let Manusleep with him, it would be a sign of weakness.[206]

Gandhi discussed his experiment with friends and relations;most disagreed and the experiment ceased in 1947.[207] Re-ligious studies scholar Veena Howard argues that Gandhimade “creative use”[208]:130 of his celibacy and his authorityas a mahatma “to reinterpret religious norms and confrontunjust social and religious conventions relegating womento lower status.”[208]:130 According to Howard, Gandhi “de-veloped his discourse as a religious renouncer within In-dia’s traditions to confront repressive social and religiouscustoms regarding women and to bring them into the pub-lic sphere, during a time when the discourse on celibacywas typically imbued with masculine rhetoric and misogy-nist inferences.... his writings show a consistent evolution ofhis thought toward creating an equal playing field for mem-bers of both sexes and even elevating women to a higherplane—all through his discourse and unorthodox practiceof brahmacharya.”[208]:137

8.6.8 Nai Talim, basic education

Main article: Nai Talim

Gandhi’s educational policies reflected Nai Talim ('BasicEducation for all'), a spiritual principle which states thatknowledge and work are not separate. It was a reactionagainst the British educational system and colonialism ingeneral, which had the negative effect of making Indianchildren alienated and career-based; it promoted disdain formanual work, the development of a new elite class, and theincreasing problems of industrialisation and urbanisation.The three pillars of Gandhi’s pedagogy were its focus onthe lifelong character of education, its social character andits form as a holistic process. For Gandhi, education is 'themoral development of the person', a process that is by def-inition 'lifelong'.[209]

Nai Talim evolved out of the spiritually oriented educationprogram at Tolstoy Farm in South Africa, and Gandhi’swork at the ashram at Sevagram after 1937.[210] After1947 the Nehru government’s vision of an industrialised,

8.7. LITERARY WORKS 183

centrally planned economy had scant place for Gandhi’svillage-oriented approach.[211]

8.6.9 Swaraj, self-rule

Main article: Swaraj

Rudolph argues that after a false start in trying to emulatethe English in an attempt to overcome his timidity, Gandhidiscovered the inner courage he was seeking by helping hiscountrymen in South Africa. The new courage consistedof observing the traditional Bengali way of “self-suffering”and, in finding his own courage, he was enabled also topoint out the way of 'Satyagraha' and 'ahimsa' to the wholeof India.[212] Gandhi’s writings expressed four meanings offreedom: as India’s national independence; as individualpolitical freedom; as group freedom from poverty; and asthe capacity for personal self-rule.[213]

Gandhi was a self-described philosophical anarchist,[214]

and his vision of India meant an India without an underly-ing government.[215] He once said that “the ideally nonvio-lent state would be an ordered anarchy.”[216] While politicalsystems are largely hierarchical, with each layer of authorityfrom the individual to the central government have increas-ing levels of authority over the layer below, Gandhi believedthat society should be the exact opposite, where nothing isdone without the consent of anyone, down to the individ-ual. His idea was that true self-rule in a country means thatevery person rules his or herself and that there is no statewhich enforces laws upon the people.[217]

This would be achieved over time with nonviolent conflictmediation, as power is divested from layers of hierarchicalauthorities, ultimately to the individual, which would cometo embody the ethic of nonviolence. Rather than a systemwhere rights are enforced by a higher authority, people areself-governed by mutual responsibilities. On returning fromSouth Africa, when Gandhi received a letter asking for hisparticipation in writing a world charter for human rights, heresponded saying, “in my experience, it is far more impor-tant to have a charter for human duties.”[218]

An independent India did not mean merely transferringthe established British administrative structure into Indianhands. He warned, “you would make India English. Andwhen it becomes English, it will be called not Hindustanbut Englishtan. This is not the Swaraj I want.”[219] Tewariargues that Gandhi saw democracy as more than a system ofgovernment; it meant promoting both individuality and theself-discipline of the community. Democracy was a moralsystem that distributed power and assisted the developmentof every social class, especially the lowest. It meant set-tling disputes in a nonviolent manner; it required freedom

of thought and expression. For Gandhi, democracy was away of life.[220]

8.6.10 Gandhian economics

A free India for Gandhi meant the flourishing of thousandsof self-sufficient small communities who rule themselveswithout hindering others. Gandhian economics focused onthe need for economic self-sufficiency at the village level.His policy of “sarvodaya”[221] called for ending povertythrough improved agriculture and small-scale cottage in-dustries in every village.[222] Gandhi challenged Nehru andthe modernizers in the late 1930s who called for rapidindustrialisation on the Soviet model; Gandhi denouncedthat as dehumanising and contrary to the needs of the vil-lages where the great majority of the people lived.[223] Af-ter Gandhi’s death Nehru led India to large-scale planningthat emphasised modernisation and heavy industry, whilemodernising agriculture through irrigation. Historian Ku-ruvilla Pandikattu says “it was Nehru’s vision, not Gandhi’s,that was eventually preferred by the Indian State.”[224] Af-ter Gandhi’s death activists inspired by his vision promotedtheir opposition to industrialisation through the teachingsof Gandhian economics. According to Gandhi, “Poverty isthe worst form of violence.”

8.7 Literary works

Gandhi was a prolific writer. One of Gandhi’s earliest pub-lications, Hind Swaraj, published in Gujarati in 1909, isrecognised as the intellectual blueprint of India’s indepen-dence movement. The book was translated into Englishthe next year, with a copyright legend that read “No RightsReserved”.[225] For decades he edited several newspapersincluding Harijan in Gujarati, in Hindi and in the Englishlanguage; Indian Opinion while in South Africa and, YoungIndia, in English, and Navajivan, a Gujarati monthly, onhis return to India. Later, Navajivan was also published inHindi. In addition, he wrote letters almost every day to in-dividuals and newspapers.[226]

Gandhi also wrote several books including his autobiog-raphy, The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Gujarātī" "), of which he boughtthe entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted.[98] Hisother autobiographies included: Satyagraha in South Africaabout his struggle there, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule,a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of JohnRuskin's Unto This Last.[227] This last essay can be consid-ered his programme on economics. He also wrote exten-sively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social re-forms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also

184 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

Young India, a weekly journal published by Gandhi from 1919 to1932

revised the Hindi and English translations of his books.[228]

Gandhi’s complete works were published by the Indiangovernment under the name The Collected Works of Ma-hatma Gandhi in the 1960s. The writings comprise about50,000 pages published in about a hundred volumes. In2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked acontroversy, as it contained a large number of errors andomissions.[229] The Indian government later withdrew therevised edition.[230]

8.8 Legacy and depictions in popularculture

See also: List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi andList of roads named after Mahatma Gandhi

• The word Mahatma, while often mistaken forGandhi’s given name in the West, is taken fromthe Sanskrit words maha (meaning Great) and atma(meaning Soul). Rabindranath Tagore is said to haveaccorded the title to Gandhi.[231] In his autobiography,

A wall graffiti in San Francisco containing a quote and image ofGandhi

Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never valued thetitle, and was often pained by it.[232][233][234]

• Innumerable streets, roads and localities in India arenamed after M.K.Gandhi. These include M.G.Road(the main street of a number of Indian cities includingMumbai and Bangalore), Gandhi Market (near Sion,Mumbai) and Gandhinagar (the capital of the state ofGujarat, Gandhi’s birthplace).[235]

• In 2009, the search engine Google commemoratedGandhi in their Google Doodle.[236]

8.8.1 Followers and international influence

Statue of Mahatma Gandhi at York University.

Gandhi influenced important leaders and political move-ments. Leaders of the civil rights movement in theUnited States, including Martin Luther King, James

8.8. LEGACY AND DEPICTIONS IN POPULAR CULTURE 185

Mahatma Gandhi on a 1969 postage stamp of the Soviet Union

Mahatma Gandhi at Praça Túlio Fontoura, São Paulo, Brazil.Statue by Gautam Pal

Lawson, and James Bevel, drew from the writings ofGandhi in the development of their own theories aboutnonviolence.[237][238][239] King said “Christ gave us the goalsand Mahatma Gandhi the tactics.”[240] King sometimesreferred to Gandhi as “the little brown saint.”[241] Anti-apartheid activist and former President of South Africa,Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi.[242] Others in-clude Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan,[243] Steve Biko, and Aung

San Suu Kyi.[244]

In his early years, the former President of South Africa Nel-son Mandela was a follower of the nonviolent resistancephilosophy of Gandhi.[242] Bhana and Vahed commentedon these events as “Gandhi inspired succeeding generationsof South African activists seeking to end White rule. Thislegacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense Man-dela completed what Gandhi started.”[63]

Gandhi’s life and teachings inspired many who specificallyreferred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated theirlives to spreading Gandhi’s ideas. In Europe, Romain Rol-land was the first to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book Ma-hatma Gandhi, and Brazilian anarchist and feminist MariaLacerda de Moura wrote about Gandhi in her work on paci-fism. In 1931, notable European physicist Albert Einsteinexchanged written letters with Gandhi, and called him “arole model for the generations to come” in a letter writingabout him.[245] Einstein said of Gandhi:

Mahatma Gandhi’s life achievement standsunique in political history. He has invented acompletely new and humane means for the lib-eration war of an oppressed country, and prac-tised it with greatest energy and devotion. Themoral influence he had on the consciously think-ing human being of the entire civilized world willprobably be much more lasting than it seems inour time with its overestimation of brutal violentforces. Because lasting will only be the work ofsuch statesmen who wake up and strengthen themoral power of their people through their exam-ple and educational works. We may all be happyand grateful that destiny gifted us with such anenlightened contemporary, a role model for thegenerations to come.

Generations to come will scarce believe thatsuch a one as this walked the earth in flesh andblood.

Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to livewith Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi’sphilosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in1948 (modelled after Gandhi’s ashrams). Madeleine Slade(known as “Mirabehn”) was the daughter of a British admi-ral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee ofGandhi.[246][247]

In addition, the British musician John Lennon referredto Gandhi when discussing his views on nonviolence.[248]

At the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in2007, former US Vice-President and environmentalist AlGore spoke of Gandhi’s influence on him.[249]

186 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

Bust of Gandhi “Apostle of Non Violence” by Kenyan-born artist ofIndian origin, Kirti Mandir, in Edinburgh, Scotland

US President Barack Obama in a 2010 address to theParliament of India said that:

I am mindful that I might not be standing be-fore you today, as President of the United States,had it not been for Gandhi and the message heshared with America and the world.[250]

Obama in September 2009 said that his biggest inspirationcame from Mahatma Gandhi. His reply was in response tothe question 'Who was the one person, dead or live, that youwould choose to dine with?'. He continued that “He’s some-body I find a lot of inspiration in. He inspired Dr. King withhis message of nonviolence. He ended up doing so muchand changed the world just by the power of his ethics.”[251]

Time Magazine named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa,Martin Luther King, Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi,Benigno Aquino, Jr., Desmond Tutu, and Nelson Man-dela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual heirs tononviolence.[252] The Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston,Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, is officiallynamed after Gandhi.[253]

8.8.2 Global holidays

In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declaredGandhi’s birthday 2 October as “the International Day ofNonviolence.”[254] First proposed by UNESCO in 1948,as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace (DENIP inSpanish),[255] 30 January is observed as the School Day ofNonviolence and Peace in schools of many countries[256] Incountries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it isobserved on 30 March.[256]

8.8.3 Awards

Monument to M.K. Gandhi in New Belgrade, Serbia. On the mon-ument is written “Nonviolence is the essence of all religions”.

Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930.Gandhi was also the runner-up to Albert Einstein as "Personof the Century"[257] at the end of 1999. The Governmentof India awarded the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distin-guished social workers, world leaders and citizens. NelsonMandela, the leader of South Africa’s struggle to eradicateracial discrimination and segregation, was a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2011, Time magazine named Gandhi asone of the top 25 political icons of all time.[258]

Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, althoughhe was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, in-

8.9. SEE ALSO 187

cluding the first-ever nomination by the American FriendsService Committee,[259] though he made the short list onlytwice, in 1937 and 1947.[135] Decades later, the NobelCommittee publicly declared its regret for the omission, andadmitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying theaward.[135] Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was assassi-nated before nominations closed. That year, the committeechose not to award the peace prize stating that “there was nosuitable living candidate” and later research shows that thepossibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhiwas discussed and that the reference to no suitable livingcandidate was to Gandhi.[135] When the 14th Dalai Lamawas awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the com-mittee said that this was “in part a tribute to the memory ofMahatma Gandhi”.[135]

8.8.4 Film, theatre and literature

A 5 hours, 9 minutes long biographical documentaryfilm,[260] Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948, made byVithalbhai Jhaveri[261] in 1968, quoting Gandhi’s words andusing black & white archival footage and photographs, cap-tures the history of those times. Ben Kingsley portrayedhim in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, whichwon the Academy Award for Best Picture. The 1996 filmThe Making of the Mahatma documented Gandhi’s time inSouth Africa and his transformation from an inexperiencedbarrister to recognised political leader.[262] Gandhi was acentral figure in the 2006 Bollywood comedy film LageRaho Munna Bhai. Jahnu Barua’s Maine Gandhi Ko NahinMara (I did not kill Gandhi), places contemporary societyas a backdrop with its vanishing memory of Gandhi’s valuesas a metaphor for the senile forgetfulness of the protagonistof his 2005 film,[263] writes Vinay Lal.[264]

Anti-Gandhi themes have also been showcased throughfilms and plays. The 1995 Marathi play Gandhi VirudhGandhi explored the relationship between Gandhi and hisson Harilal. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father was inspiredon the same theme. The 1989 Marathi play Me NathuramGodse Boltoy and the 1997 Hindi play Gandhi Ambedkarcriticised Gandhi and his principles.[265][266]

Several biographers have undertaken the task of describ-ing Gandhi’s life. Among them are D. G. Tendulkar withhis Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ineight volumes, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar with theirMahatma Gandhi in 10 volumes. The 2010 biography,Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With Indiaby Joseph Lelyveld contained controversial material spec-ulating about Gandhi’s sexual life.[267] Lelyveld, however,stated that the press coverage “grossly distort[s]" the over-all message of the book.[268] The 2014 film Welcome BackGandhi takes a fictionalised look at how Gandhi might react

to modern day India.[269]

8.8.5 Current impact within India

The Gandhi Mandapam, a temple in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu inIndia. This temple was erected to honour M.K. Gandhi.

India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbani-sation, has rejected Gandhi’s economics[270] but acceptedmuch of his politics and continues to revere his memory.Reporter Jim Yardley notes that, “modern India is hardly aGandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetimeas rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos ofpersonal austerity and nonviolence has proved antitheticalto the goals of an aspiring economic and military power.”By contrast Gandhi is “given full credit for India’s politicalidentity as a tolerant, secular democracy.”[271]

Gandhi’s birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday in In-dia, Gandhi Jayanti. Gandhi’s image also appears on papercurrency of all denominations issued by Reserve Bank ofIndia, except for the one rupee note.[272] Gandhi’s date ofdeath, 30 January, is commemorated as a Martyrs’ Day inIndia.[273]

There are two temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.[274]

One is located at Sambalpur in Orissa and the other atNidaghatta village near Kadur in Chikmagalur district ofKarnataka.[274] The Gandhi Memorial in Kanyakumari re-sembles central Indian Hindu temples and the Tamukkamor Summer Palace in Madurai now houses the MahatmaGandhi Museum.[275]

8.9 See also

• List of peace activists

• List of civil rights leaders

188 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

• Daridra Narayana, an axiom enunciated by SwamiVivekananda that espouses service of the poor asequivalent in importance and piety to the service ofGod popularised by Mahatma Gandhi

• Gandhi cap

• Gandhi Teerth – Gandhi International Research Insti-tute and Museum for Gandhian study, research on Ma-hatma Gandhi and dialogue.

8.10 References[1] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 1–3.

[2] “Gandhi”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.

[3] McGregor, Ronald Stuart (1993). The Oxford Hindi-EnglishDictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 799. ISBN 978-0-19-864339-5. Retrieved 31 August 2013. Quote: (mahā-(S. “great, mighty, large, ..., eminent”) + ātmā (S. "1.soul,spirit; the self, the individual; the mind, the heart; 2. theultimate being.”): “high-souled, of noble nature; a noble orvenerable man.”

[4] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) p. 172: "... Kasturba wouldaccompany Gandhi on his departure from Cape Town forEngland in July 1914 en route to India. ... In differentSouth African towns (Pretoria, Cape Town, Bloemfontein,Johannesburg, and the Natal cities of Durban and Verulam),the struggle’s martyrs were honoured and the Gandhi’s badefarewell. Addresses in Durban and Verulam referred toGandhi as a 'Mahatma', 'great soul'. He was seen as a greatsoul because he had taken up the poor’s cause. The whitestoo said good things about Gandhi, who predicted a futurefor the Empire if it respected justice.” (p. 172).

[5] McAllister, Pam (1982). Reweaving the Web of Life: Fem-inism and Nonviolence. New Society Publishers. p. 194.ISBN 978-0-86571-017-7. Retrieved 31 August 2013.Quote: “With love, Yours, Bapu (You closed with the termof endearment used by your close friends, the term you usedwith all the movement leaders, roughly meaning 'Papa.'" An-other letter written in 1940 shows similar tenderness and car-ing.

[6] Eck, Diana L. (2003). Encountering God: A Spiritual Jour-ney from Bozeman to Banaras. Beacon Press. p. 210. ISBN978-0-8070-7301-8. Retrieved 31 August 2013. Quote: "...his niece Manu, who, like others called this immortal Gandhi'Bapu,' meaning not 'father,' but the familiar, 'daddy.'" (p.210)

[7] Khan, Yasmin (2007). The Great Partition: The Making ofIndia and Pakistan. Yale University Press. p. 18. ISBN978-0-300-12078-3. Retrieved 1 September 2013. Quote:“the Muslim League had only caught on among South AsianMuslims during the Second World War. ... By the late1940s, the League and the Congress had impressed in the

British their own visions of a free future for Indian people.... one, articulated by the Congress, rested on the idea of aunited, plural India as a home for all Indians and the other,spelt out by the League, rested on the foundation of Mus-lim nationalism and the carving out of a separate Muslimhomeland.” (p. 18)

[8] Khan, Yasmin (2007). The Great Partition: The Making ofIndia and Pakistan. Yale University Press. p. 1. ISBN978-0-300-12078-3. Retrieved 1 September 2013. Quote:“South Asians learned that the British Indian empire wouldbe partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the ra-dio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and,later, through government pamphlets. Among a populationof almost four hundred million, where the vast majority livedin the countryside, ..., it is hardly surprising that many ... didnot hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some,the butchery and forced relocation of the summer monthsof 1947 may have been the first they know about the cre-ation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary andterminally weakened British empire in India.” (p. 1)

[9] Brown (1991), p. 380: “Despite and indeed because of hissense of helplessness Delhi was to be the scene of what hecalled his greatest fast. ... His decision was made suddenly,though after considerable thought – he gave no hint of iteven to Nehru and Patel who were with him shortly beforehe announced his intention at a prayer-meeting on 12 Jan-uary 1948. He said he would fast until communal peace wasrestored, real peace rather than the calm of a dead city im-posed by police and troops. Patel and the government tookthe fast partly as condemnation of their decision to withholda considerable cash sum still outstanding to Pakistan as a re-sult of the allocation of undivided India’s assets, because thehostilities that had broken out in Kashmir; ... But even whenthe government agreed to pay out the cash, Gandhi wouldnot break his fast: that he would only do after a large num-ber of important politicians and leaders of communal bodiesagreed to a joint plan for restoration of normal life in the city.Although this six-day fast was a considerable physical strain,during it Gandhi experienced a great feeling of strength andpeace.”

[10] Cush, Denise; Robinson, Catherine; York, Michael (2008).Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Taylor & Francis. p. 544.ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0. Retrieved 31 August 2013.Quote: “The apotheosis of this contrast is the assassinationof Gandhi in 1948 by a militant Hindu nationalist, Nathu-ram Godse, on the basis of his 'weak' accommodationist ap-proach towards the new state of Pakistan.” (p. 544)

[11] “Gandhi not formally conferred 'Father of the Nation' title:Govt”, The Indian Express, 11 July 2012.

[12] “Constitution doesn't permit 'Father of the Nation' title:Government”, The Times of India, 26 October 2012.

[13] Todd, Anne M. (2012) Mohandas Gandhi, Infobase Pub-lishing, ISBN 1438106629, p. 8: The name Gandhi means“grocer”, although Mohandas’s father and grandfather werepoliticians not grocers.

8.10. REFERENCES 189

[14] Renard, John (1999). Responses to One Hundred and OneQuestions on Hinduism By John Renard. p. 139. ISBN9780809138456.

[15] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. pp.19–21. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[16] Buyers, Christopher. “Porbandar-India/SALUTE STATES-royalark.net”. Retrieved 16 March 2015.

[17] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp.19–21. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[18] Misra, Amalendu (2004). Identity and Religion: Foundationsof anti-Islamism in India. p. 67. ISBN 9780761932277.

[19] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006). Mohandas: A True Story of aMan, His People, and an Empire By Gandhi. p. 5. ISBN9780143104117.

[20] Tendulkar, D. G. (1951). Mahatma; life of MohandasKaramchand Gandhi. Delhi: Ministry of Information andBroadcasting, Government of India.

[21] Malhotra, S.L (2001). Lawyer to Mahatma: Life, Workand Transformation of M. K. Gandhi. p. 5. ISBN9788176292931.

[22] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. p.21. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[23] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. p.512. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[24] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. p.22. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[25] Sorokin, Pitirim Aleksandrovich (2002). The Ways andPower of Love: types, factors, and techniques of moral trans-formation. Templeton Foundation Press. p. 169. ISBN978-1-890151-86-7.

[26] Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber and Rudolph, Lloyd I. (1983).Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma. University ofChicago Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780226731360.

[27] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 2, 8, 269

[28] Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber and Rudolph, Lloyd I. (1983).Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma. University ofChicago Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780226731360.

[29] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. p.23. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[30] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp.24–25. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[31] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. pp.24–25. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[32] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp.25–26. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[33] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp.27–28. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[34] Mohanty, Rekha (2011). “From Satya to Sadbhavna”(PDF). Orissa Review (January 2011): 45–49. Retrieved 23February 2012.

[35] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “At the High School”.

[36] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “Playing the Husband”.

[37] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp.28–29. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[38] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. p. 29.ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[39] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “My Father’s Death and My DoubleShame”.

[40] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. p. 30.ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[41] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. p. 32.ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[42] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “Preparation for England”.

[43] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 12 April 2015. p. 32.ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[44] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 20–21.

[45] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. p. 32.ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[46] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp.33–34. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[47] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp.33–34. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

[48] Brown (1991).

[49] Giliomee, Hermann and Mbenga, Bernard (2007). “3”. InRoxanne Reid. New History of South Africa (1st ed.). Tafel-berg. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-624-04359-1.

[50] Power, Paul F. (1969). “Gandhi in South Africa”.The Journal of Modern African Studies 7 (3): 441–55.doi:10.1017/S0022278X00018590. JSTOR 159062.

[51] Parekh, Bhikhu C. (2001). Gandhi: a very short introduc-tion. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-19-285457-5.

[52] Fischer (2002)

[53] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “More Hardships”.

[54] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “Some Experiences”.

[55] Allen, Jeremiah (2011). Sleeping with Strangers: AVagabond’s Journey Tramping the Globe. Other Places Pub-lishing. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-935850-01-4.

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[56] " March 1897 Memorial". The Collected Works of Ma-hatma Gandhi. Wikisource: correspondence and newspaperaccounts of the incident.

[57] Rai, Ajay Shanker (2000). Gandhian Satyagraha: An An-alytical And Critical Approach. Concept Publishing Com-pany. p. 35. ISBN 978-81-7022-799-1.

[58] The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government ofIndia (CWMG), Vol. I, p. 150.

[59] The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government ofIndia (CWMG), Vol. I, p. 74.

[60] The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government ofIndia (CWMG), Vol. I, pp. 244–45.

[61] The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government ofIndia (CWMG), Vol. I, p. 105.

[62] Quinn, Edward (1 January 2009). Critical Companion toGeorge Orwell. Infobase Publishing. pp. 158–59. ISBN978-1-4381-0873-5. Retrieved 5 October 2012.

[63] Bhana, Surendra; Vahed, Goolam H. (2005). The Makingof a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914.Manohar. pp. 44–5, 149. ISBN 978-81-7304-612-4.

[64] Herman (2008) chapter 6.

[65] Beene, Gary (December 2010). The Seeds We Sow: Kind-ness That Fed a Hungry World. Sunstone Press. p. 272.ISBN 978-0-86534-788-5. Retrieved 5 October 2012.

[66] Herman (2008), p. 137.

[67] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 108–09.

[68] See “Gandhi – A Medium for Truth” (link to article in Phi-losophy Now magazine), accessed March 2014.

[69] Smith, Colleen (1 October 2006). “Mbeki: MahatmaGandhi Satyagraha 100th Anniversary (01/10/2006)".Speeches. Polityorg.za. Retrieved 20 January 2012.

[70] Prashad, Ganesh (September 1966). “Whiggism inIndia”. Political Science Quarterly 81 (3): 412–31.doi:10.2307/2147642. JSTOR 2147642.

[71] Markovits, Claude (2004). A History of Modern In-dia, 1480–1950. Anthem Press. pp. 367–86. ISBN9781843310044.

[72] Chronology of Mahatma Gandhi’s Life:India 1918 in Wik-iSource based on the Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi.Based on public domain volumes.

[73] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “Recruiting Campaign”.

[74] Desai, Mahadev Haribhai (1930). “Preface”. Day-to-daywith Gandhi: secretary’s diary. Hemantkumar Nilkanth(translation). Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan. Archived fromthe original on 3 June 2007.

[75] Gandhi (1965), Collected Works, Vol 17. Chapter “67. Ap-peal for enlistment”, Nadiad, 22 June 1918.

[76] Gandhi (1965), Collected Works, Vol 17. “Chapter 8. Letterto J. L. Maffey”, Nadiad, 30 April 1918.

[77] Hardiman, David (April 2001). “Champaran and Gandhi:Planters, Peasants and Gandhian Politics by JacquesPouchepadass (Review)". Journal of the Royal Asiatic So-ciety 11 (1): 99–101. doi:10.1017/S1356186301450152.JSTOR 25188108.

[78] “Satyagraha Laboratories of Mahatma Gandhi”. Indian Na-tional Congress website. All India Congress Committee.2004. Archived from the original on 6 December 2006. Re-trieved 25 February 2012.

[79] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 196–97.

[80] Brown, Judith M. (1974). Gandhi’s Rise to Power: IndianPolitics 1915–1922. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–102. ISBN 978-0-521-09873-1.

[81] Minault, Gail (1982) The Khilafat Movement Religious Sym-bolism and Political Mobilization in India, Columbia Univer-sity Press, ISBN 0231050720

[82] Kham, Aqeeluzzafar (1990). “The All-India Muslim Con-ference and the Origin of the Khilafat Movement in India”.Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society 38 (2): 155–62.

[83] Roberts, W. H. (1923). “A Review of the Gandhi Move-ment in India”. Political Science Quarterly 38 (2): 227–48.doi:10.2307/2142634. JSTOR 2142634.

[84] Bose, Sugata and Jalal, Ayesha (2004). Modern South Asia:History, Culture, Political Economy. Psychology Press. pp.112–14. ISBN 9780203712535.

[85] Brown (1991) pp. 140–47.

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[87] Sarkar, Sumit (1983). Modern India: 1885–1947. Macmil-lan. p. 233. ISBN 9780333904251.

[88] Markovits, Claude, ed. (2004). A History of Modern India,1480–1950. Anthem Press. p. 372. ISBN 9781843310044.

[89] Brown, Judith Margaret (1994). Modern India: the originsof an Asian democracy. Oxford U. Press. p. 228. ISBN9780198731122.

[90] Mary Elizabeth King, “Mohandas K, Gandhi and MartinLuther King, Jr.'s Bequest: Nonviolent Civil Resistance in aGlobalized World” in Lewis V. Baldwin and Paul R. Dekar(2013). “In an Inescapable Network of Mutuality": MartinLuther King, Jr. and the Globalization of an Ethical Ideal.Wipf and Stock. pp. 168–69.

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[91] Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1940). An Autobiographyor The Story of My Experiments With Truth (2 ed.). Ahmed-abad: Navajivan Publishing House. p. 82. ISBN 0-8070-5909-9. Also available at Wikisource.

[92] Chakrabarty, Bidyut (2008). Indian Politics and Societysince Independence: events, processes and ideology. Rout-ledge. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-415-40868-4. Retrieved 4 April2012.

[93] Hardiman (2003), p. 163.

[94] Desai, p. 89.

[95] “Gandhi Invents Spinning Wheel”. Popular Science (BonnierCorporation): 60. 1931.

[96] Shashi, p. 9.

[97] Desai, p. 105.

[98] Roberts, Andrew (26 March 2011). “Among the Hagiogra-phers (A book review of “Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi andHis Struggle With India” by Joseph Lelyveld)". Wall StreetJournal. Retrieved 14 January 2012.

[99] Datta, Amaresh (1 January 2006). The Encyclopaedia ofIndian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti). SahityaAkademi. p. 1345. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0. Retrieved 4April 2012.

[100] Desai, p. 131.

[101] Jain, Jagdishchandra (1987). Gandhi, the forgotten Ma-hatma. Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 17. ISBN 81-7099-037-8.

[102] Gandhi 1990, p. 172.

[103] Hatt (2002), p. 33.

[104] Norvell, Lyn (1997). “Gandhi and the Indian Women’sMovement”. British Library Journal 23 (1): 12–27. ISSN0305-5167.

[105] Sarma, Bina Kumari (January 1994). “Gandhian Movementand Women’s Awakening in Orissa”. Indian Historical Re-view 21 (1/2): 78–79. ISSN 0376-9836.

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[107] Herman (2008) pp. 375–77.

[108] Arthur Herman (2008). Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Ri-valry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age. Ran-dom House. p. 359.

[109] Kamath, M. V. (1995). Gandhi’s Coolie: Life & Timesof Ramkrishna Bajaj. Allied Publishers. p. 24. ISBN8170234875.

[110] Coward, Harold G. (2003). Indian Critiques of Gandhi.SUNY Press. pp. 52–3. ISBN 978-0-7914-5910-2.

[111] Kalchuri, Bhau (1986) “Meher Prabhu: Lord Meher, TheBiography of the Avatar of the Age, Meher Baba”, Manifes-tation, Inc., p. 1380.

[112] Desai, pp. 230–89.

[113] 100 Most Influential People of All Times. p. 354.

[114] Guha, Ramachandra (22 June 2012) “The Other LiberalLight”. The New Republic.

[115] Gandhi 1990, p. 246.

[116] Ghose, Sankar (1992). Jawaharlal Nehru, A Biography, p.137. Allied Publishers Limited.

[117] Gandhi 1990, pp. 277–281.

[118] Sarkar, Jayabrata (18 April 2006). “Power, Hege-mony and Politics: Leadership Struggle in Congress inthe 1930s”. Modern Asian Studies 40 (2): 333–70.doi:10.1017/S0026749X0600179X.

[119] Dash, Siddhartha (January 2005). “Gandhi and SubhasChandra Bose” (PDF). Orissa Review. Retrieved 12 April2012.

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[121] Gandhi 1990, p. 309.

[122] Gandhi 1990, p. 318.

[123] Brock, Peter (1983). The Mahatma and mother India: es-says on Gandhiʼs nonviolence and nationalism. NavajivanPublishing House. p. 34.

[124] Limaye, Madhu (1990). Mahatma Gandhi and JawaharlalNehru: a historic partnership. B. R. Publishing Corporation.p. 11. ISBN 8170185475.

[125] von Pochhammer, Wilhelm (2005). India’s Road to Nation-hood: A Political History of the Subcontinent. Allied Pub-lishers. p. 469. ISBN 8177647156.

[126] Lapping, Brian (1989). End of empire. Paladin. ISBN 978-0-586-08870-8.

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[129] Bhattacharya, Sanjoy (2001). Propaganda and informationin Eastern India, 1939–45: a necessary weapon of war. Psy-chology Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-7007-1406-3.

[130] Shashi, p. 13.

[131] Reprinted in Fischer (2002), pp. 106–08.

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[132] Keen, Shirin (Spring 1998). “The Partition of India”.Emory University.

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[134] Wolpert, Chapter 1.

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[157] Brown, Judith M. and Parel, Anthony (2011). The Cam-bridge Companion to Gandhi. Cambridge University Press.p. 93. ISBN 978-0-521-13345-6.

[158] Rudolph, Lloyd I. and Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber (1984).The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India.U. of Chicago Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-0-226-73137-7.

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[160] Crib (1985).

[161] Meller, Helen Elizabeth (1994). Patrick Geddes: social evo-lutionist and city planner. Routledge. p. 159. ISBN 0-415-10393-2.

[162] Williams, Raymond Brady (2001). An introduction toSwaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p.173. ISBN 0-521-65422-X.

[163] Low, D. A., ed. (2006). Congress and the Raj: Facets ofthe Indian Struggle 1917 – 47. Oxford University Press. pp.60–64. ISBN 0-19-568367-6.

[164] Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind (1972). “Gandhi and History”.History and Theory 11 (2): 214–25. doi:10.2307/2504587.JSTOR 2504587.

[165] Spodek, Howard (February 1971). “On the Origins ofGandhi’s Political Methodology: The Heritage of Kathiawadand Gujarat” (PDF). Journal of Asian Studies 30 (2): 361–72. JSTOR 2942919.

[166] B. Srinivasa Murthy, ed. (1987). Mahatma Gandhi and LeoTolstoy: Letters. ISBN 0-941910-03-2.

[167] Murthy, B. Srinivasa, ed. (1987). Mahatma Gandhi and LeoTolstoy: Letters (PDF). Long Beach, California: Long BeachPublications. ISBN 0-941910-03-2. Retrieved 14 January2012.

[168] Green, Martin Burgess (1986). The origins of nonviolence:Tolstoy and Gandhi in their historical settings. Pennsylva-nia State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-00414-3. Re-trieved 17 January 2012.

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[169] Bhana, Surendra (1979). “Tolstoy Farm, A Satyagrahi’s Bat-tle Ground”. Journal of Indian History 57 (2/3): 431–40.

[170] Johnson, Richard L. (2006). Gandhi’s Experiments WithTruth: Essential Writings By And About Mahatma Gandhi.Lexington Books. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7. Re-trieved 9 May 2012.

[171] Watson, I. Bruce (1977). “Satyagraha: The Gandhian Syn-thesis”. Journal of Indian History 55 (1/2): 325–35.

[172] Parel, Anthony (10 August 2006). Gandhi’s Philosophy andthe Quest for Harmony. Cambridge University Press. p. 195.ISBN 978-0-521-86715-3. Retrieved 13 January 2012.

[173] Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi’s pilgrimage of faith:from darkness to light. SUNY Press. p. 138. ISBN9780791464052.

[174] Gandhi, M.K. “Some Rules of Satyagraha Young India(Navajivan) 23 February 1930”. The Collected Works of Ma-hatma Gandhi 48: 340.

[175] Prabhu, R. K. and Rao, U. R. (eds.) (1967) from section“Power of Satyagraha”, of the book The Mind of MahatmaGandhi, Ahemadabad, India.

[176] Gandhi, M. K. (1982) [Young India, 16 June 1920]. “156.The Law of Suffering”. Collected Works of MahatmaGandhi (PDF) 20 (electronic ed.). New Delhi: PublicationsDivision, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt.of India. pp. 396–99. Retrieved 14 January 2012.

[177] Sharma, Jai Narain (2008). Satyagraha: Gandhi’s approachto conflict resolution. Concept Publishing Company. p. 17.ISBN 978-81-8069-480-6. Retrieved 26 January 2012.

[178] Asirvatham, Eddy. Political Theory. S.chand. ISBN 81-219-0346-7.

[179] Borman, William (1986). Gandhi and nonviolence. SUNYPress. p. 253. ISBN 9780887063312.

[180] Faisal Devji, The Impossible Indian: Gandhi and the Temp-tation of Violence (Harvard University Press; 2012)

[181] Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh.

[182] Rai, Raghunath. Themes in Indian History. FK Publications.p. 282. ISBN 9788189611620.

[183] reprinted in Fischer (2002), p. 311.

[184] Wolpert, p. 197.

[185] Orwell, review of Louis Fischer's Gandhi and Stalin, TheObserver, 10 October 1948, reprinted in It Is what I Think,pp. 452–453.

[186] Fischer, Louis (1950). The life of Mahatma Gandhi.Harper. p. 348.

[187] George Orwell, “Reflections on Gandhi”, Partisan Review,January 1949.

[188] Kumaraswamy, P. R. (1992). “Mahatma Gandhi and theJewish National Home: An Assessment”. Asian and Africanstudies: Journal of the Israel Oriental Society 26 (1): 1–13.

[189] Ghose, Sankar (1991). Mahatma Gandhi. Allied Publish-ers. p. 164. ISBN 9788170232056.

[190] Birendra Prasad, “Indian Opinion and the Peel Commissionon Palestine”, Indian Journal of Politics (1977), 11#3, pp.223–28.

[191] Panter-Brick, Simone (2008), Gandhi and the Middle East:Jews, Arabs and Imperial Interests. London: I.B. Tauris,ISBN 1845115848.

[192] Panter-Brick, Simone. “Gandhi’s Dream of Hindu-MuslimUnity and its two Offshoots in the Middle East”. DurhamAnthropology Journal, Volume 16(2), 2009: pp. 54–66.

[193] Jack, p. 317.

[194] Murti, Ramana V.V. (1968). “Buber’s Dialogue andGandhi’s Satyagraha”. Journal of the History of Ideas 29(4): 605–13. doi:10.2307/2708297. JSTOR 2708297.

[195] Hay, Stephen (1989). “The Making of a Late-VictorianHindu: M. K. Gandhi in London, 1888–1891”. VictorianStudies 33 (1): 75–98. JSTOR 3827899.

[196] Chitrita Banerji, Eating India: an odyssey into the food andculture of the land of spices (2007), p. 169.

[197] Wolpert, p. 22.

[198] Sen, Colleen Taylor (2004). Food Culture in India. Green-wood Publishing Group. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-313-32487-1.Retrieved 3 February 2013.

[199] Cited in Chakrabarti, Mohit (1997), Gandhian Socio-Aesthetics, M.D. Publications Pvt., ISBN 8175330481, p.24.

[200] Becker, Carol (2006). “Gandhi’s Body and Further Rep-resentations of War and Peace”. Art Journal 65 (4): 78.doi:10.2307/20068500.

[201] http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/views_on_sci.htm

[202] Pratt, Tim and Vernon, James (2005). "'Appeal from thisfiery bed...': The Colonial Politics of Gandhi’s Fasts andTheir Metropolitan Reception”. Journal of British Studies44 (1): 92–114. doi:10.1086/424944.

[203] Alter, Joseph S. (1996). “Gandhi’s body, Gandhi’struth: Nonviolence and the biomoral imperative of pub-lic health”. Journal of Asian Studies 35 (2): 301–22.doi:10.2307/2943361. JSTOR 2943361.

[204] Parekh, Bhikhu C. (1999) Colonialism, Tradition and Re-form: An Analysis of Gandhi’s Political Discourse. Sage,ISBN 0761993835, p. 210.

[205] Sean Scalmer (2011). Gandhi in the West: The Mahatmaand the Rise of Radical Protest. Cambridge University Press.pp. 15–24.

194 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

[206] Jad Adams (7 April 2010). “Thrill of the chaste: The truthabout Gandhi’s sex life”. The Independent.

[207] Lal, Vinay (Jan–Apr 2000). “Nakedness, Nonviolence, andBrahmacharya: Gandhi’s Experiments in Celibate Sexual-ity”. Journal of the History of Sexuality 9 (1/2): 105–36.JSTOR 3704634.

[208] Howard, Veena R. (2013). “Rethinking Gandhi’s celibacy:Ascetic power and women’s empowerment”. Journal of theAmerican Academy of Religion (Oxford University Press onbehalf of the American Academy of Religion) 81 (1): 130–161. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfs103.

[209] Dehury, Dinabandhu “Mahatma Gandhi’s Contribution toEducation”, Orissa Review, September/October 2006, pp.11–15; December 2008, pp. 1–5.

[210] Weber, Thomas (2004). Gandhi As Disciple And Mentor.Cambridge U. Press. p. 80. ISBN 9781139456579.

[211] Yencken, David; Fien, John and Sykes, Helen (2000).Environment, Education, and Society in the Asia-Pacific: Lo-cal Traditions and Global Discourses. Psychology Press. p.107. ISBN 9780203459263.

[212] Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber (1963). “The New Courage: AnEssay on Gandhi’s Psychology”. World Politics 16 (1): 98–117. doi:10.2307/2009253. JSTOR 2009253.

[213] Parel, Anthony (ed.) (2000), Gandhi, Freedom, and Self-Rule, Lexington Books, ISBN 0739101374, p. 166.

[214] Snow, Edgar. The Message of Gandhi. 27 September March1948. “Like Marx, Gandhi hated the state and wished toeliminate it, and he told me he considered himself 'a philo-sophical anarchist.'"

[215] Jesudasan, Ignatius (1987) A Gandhian theology of libera-tion. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash: Ananda India, pp. 236–37,ISBN 0883441543.

[216] Chakrabarty, Bidyut (2006). Social and political thought ofMahatma Gandhi. Routledge. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-415-36096-8.

[217] Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand; Tolstoy, Leo (September1987). B. Srinivasa Murthy, ed. Mahatma Gandhi and LeoTolstoy letters (PDF). Long Beach Publications. Retrieved21 January 2012.

[218] Easwaran, Eknath. Gandhi the Man. Nilgiri Press, 2011. p.49.

[219] Gillen, Paul and Ghosh, Devleena (2007). Colonialism andModernity. UNSW Press. p. 130. ISBN 9780868407357.

[220] Tewari, S. M. (1971). “The Concept of Democracy in thePolitical Thought of Mahatma Gandhi”. Indian Political Sci-ence Review 6 (2): 225–51.

[221] Bhatt, V. V. (1982). “Development Problem, Strategy, andTechnology Choice: Sarvodaya and Socialist Approaches inIndia”. Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1):85–99. doi:10.1086/451307. JSTOR 1153645.

[222] Rivett, Kenneth (1959). “The Economic Thought of Ma-hatma Gandhi”. British Journal of Sociology 10 (1): 1–15.doi:10.2307/587582. JSTOR 587582.

[223] Chakrabarty, Bidyut (1992). “Jawaharlal Nehru and Plan-ning, 1938–1941: India at the Crossroads”. Modern AsianStudies 26 (2): 275–87. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00009781.

[224] Pandikattu, Kuruvila (2001). Gandhi: the meaning of Ma-hatma for the millennium. CRVP. p. 237. ISBN 978-1-56518-156-4.

[225] “Would Gandhi have been a Wikipedian?". The Indian Ex-press. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012.

[226] “Peerless Communicator” by V. N. Narayanan. Life PositivePlus, October–December 2002.

[227] Gandhi, M. K. Unto this Last: A paraphrase (PDF) (in En-glish; trans. from Gujarati). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Pub-lishing House. ISBN 81-7229-076-4.

[228] Pareku, Bhikhu (2001). Gandhi. Oxford University Press.p. 159. ISBN 978-0-19-160667-0.

[229] “Revised edition of Bapu’s works to be withdrawn”. TheTimes of India. 16 November 2005. Retrieved 25 March2012.

[230] Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG) Contro-versy.

[231] Tagore, Rabindranath (15 December 1998). Dutta, Krishna,ed. Rabindranath Tagore: an anthology. Robinson, An-drew. Macmillan. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-312-20079-4.

[232] Desai, p. viii.

[233] Basu Majumdar, A. K. (1993), Rabindranath Tagore: ThePoet of India, Indus Publishing, ISBN 8185182922, p.83: “When Gandhi returned to India, Rabindranath’s eldestbrother Dwijendranath, was perhaps the first to address himas Mahatma. Rabindranath followed suit and then the wholeof India called him Mahatma Gandhi.”

[234] Ghose, Sankar (1991). Mahatma Gandhi. Allied Publish-ers. p. 158. ISBN 9788170232056. So Tagore differedfrom many of Gandhi’s ideas, but yet he had great regard forhim and Tagore was perhaps the first important Indian whocalled Gandhi a Mahatma. But in 1921 when Gandhi wasasked whether he was really a Mahatma Gandhi replied thathe did not feel like one, and that, in any event he could notdefine a Mahatma for he had never met any.

[235] Guha, Ramachandra (24 July 2007). India After Gandhi:The History of the World’s Largest Democracy. Delhi: EccoPress. ISBN 0060198818.

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[236] “Googel Doodle – Birthday of Mohandas KaramchandGandhi”. google .com /doodles December 2014.

[237] “King’s Trip to India”. Mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu. Archivedfrom the original on 21 March 2009. Retrieved 24 January2012.

[238] Sidner, Sara (17 February 2009). “King moved, as fatherwas, on trip to Gandhi’s memorial”. cnn.com Asia-Pacific(CNN). Retrieved 24 January 2012.

[239] D'Souza, Placido P. (20 January 2003). “CommemoratingMartin Luther King Jr.: Gandhi’s influence on King”. SanFrancisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 9 De-cember 2012. Retrieved 24 January 2012.

[240] Tougas, Shelley (1 January 2011). Birmingham 1963: Howa Photograph Rallied Civil Rights Support. Capstone Press.p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7565-4398-3. Retrieved 24 January2012.

[241] Cone, James (1992). Martin & Malcolm & America: ADream Or a Nightmare. Orbis Books. ISBN 0883448246.

[242] Nelson Mandela, “The Sacred Warrior: The liberator ofSouth Africa looks at the seminal work of the liberator ofIndia”, Time, 3 January 2000

[243] Pal, Amitabh (February 2002). “A pacifist uncovered- Ab-dul Ghaffar Khan, Pakistani pacifist”. The Progressive. Re-trieved 24 January 2012.

[244] “An alternative Gandhi”. The Tribune. India. 22 February2004. Retrieved 12 March 2009.

[245] “Einstein on Gandhi (Einstein’s letter to Gandhi – Courtesy:Saraswati Albano-Müller & Notes by Einstein on Gandhi –Source: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem )". Gandhis-erve.org. 18 October 1931. Retrieved 24 January 2012.

[246] Dhupelia-Mesthrie, Uma (1 January 2005). Gandhi’s pris-oner?: the life of Gandhi’s son Manilal. Permanent Black.p. 293. ISBN 978-81-7824-116-6. Retrieved 26 January2012.

[247] “In the company of Bapu”. The Telegraph. 3 October 2004.Retrieved 26 January 2012.

[248] Gilmore, Mikal (5 December 2005). “Lennon Lives For-ever”. Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 28 May2007. Retrieved 24 January 2012.

[249] Kar, Kalyan (23 June 2007). “Of Gandhigiri and GreenLion, Al Gore wins hearts at Cannes”. Cannes Lions 2007.exchange4media. Retrieved 24 January 2012.

[250] “Remarks by the President to the Joint Session of the In-dian Parliament in New Delhi, India”. The White House. 8November 2010. Retrieved 24 January 2012.

[251] “Obama steers clear of politics in school pep talk”. MSNBC.Associated Press. 8 September 2009. Retrieved 24 January2012.

[252] “The Children of Gandhi” (excerpt). Time. 31 December1999.

[253] Moreno, Jenalia (16 January 2010). “Houston communitycelebrates district named for Gandhi”. Houston Chronicle.Retrieved 24 January 2012.

[254] “UN declares 2 October, Gandhi’s birthday, as InternationalDay of Nonviolence”. UN News Centre. 15 June 2007. Re-trieved 2 April 2012.

[255] “School Day of Nonviolence And Peace”. Letter of Peaceaddressed to the UN. cartadelapaz.org. 30 January 2009.Retrieved 9 January 2012.

[256] Eulogio Díaz del Corral (31 January 1983). “DENIP: SchoolDay of Nonviolence and Peace”. DENIP (in Spanish). Re-trieved 30 January 2012.

[257] Rushdie, Salman (13 April 1998). “The Time 100”. Time.Retrieved 3 March 2009.

[258] “Top 25 Political Icons”. Time. 4 February 2011. Retrieved9 February 2011.

[259] “Nobel Peace Prize Nominations”. American Friends Ser-vice Committee. Retrieved 30 January 2012.

[260] “Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948 (1968 – 5hrs10min)". Channel of GandhiServe Foundation. Retrieved30 December 2014.

[261] “Vithalbhai Jhaveri”. GandhiServe Foundatiom. Retrieved30 December 2014.

[262] Melvani, Lavina (February 1997). “Making of the Ma-hatma”. Hinduism Today. hinduismtoday.com. Retrieved26 January 2012.

[263] Pandohar, Jaspreet (Reviewer). “Movies – Maine GandhiKo Nahin Mara (I Did Not Kill Gandhi) (2005)". BBC(British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 30 Decem-ber 2014.

[264] Lal, Vinay. “Moving Images of Gandhi” (PDF). Retrieved30 December 2014.

[265] “It’s fashionable to be anti-Gandhi”. DNA. 1 October 2005.Retrieved 25 January 2013.

[266] Dutt, Devina (20 February 2009). “Drama king”. Live Mint.Retrieved 25 January 2013.

[267] Kunzru, Hari (29 March 2011). “Appreciating GandhiThrough His Human Side”. The New York Times. Retrieved26 January 2012. (Review of Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhiand His Struggle With India by Joseph Lelyveld).

[268] “US author slams Gandhi gay claim”. The Australian (NewsLimited). Agence France-Presse. 29 March 2011. Re-trieved 26 January 2012.

[269] “A Welcome Effort”. The Hindu. Retrieved 24 January2014.

196 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

[270] Ghosh, B. N. (2001). Contemporary issues in developmenteconomics. Psychology Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-415-25136-5.

[271] Yardley, Jim (6 November 2010). “Obama Invokes Gandhi,Whose Ideal Eludes India”. Asia-Pacific. Retrieved 22 Jan-uary 2012.

[272] “Reserve Bank of India – Bank Notes”. Rbi.org.in. Re-trieved 5 November 2011.

[273] Chatterjee, Sailen. “Martyrs’ Day”. Features. Press Infor-mation Bureau. Retrieved 30 January 2012.

[274] Kaggere, Niranjan (2 October 2010). “Here, Gandhi isGod”. BangaloreMirror.com. Retrieved 29 January 2011.

[275] Abram, David; Edwards, Nick (27 November 2003). TheRough Guide to South India. Rough Guides. p. 506. ISBN978-1-84353-103-6. Retrieved 21 January 2012.

8.11 Bibliography

8.11.1 Books

• Bondurant, Joan Valérie (1971). Conquest of Vio-lence: the Gandhian philosophy of conflict. Universityof California Press.

• Brown, Judith M. “Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand[Mahatma Gandhi] (1869–1948)", Oxford Dictionaryof National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004;online edn, January 2011 accessed 25 February 2012(subscription required)

• Brown, Judith M., and Anthony Parel, eds. The Cam-bridge Companion to Gandhi (2012); 14 esssays byscholars excerpt and text search

• Brown, Judith Margaret (1991). Gandhi: Prisonerof Hope. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05125-4.

• Chadha, Yogesh (1997). Gandhi: a life. John Wiley.ISBN 978-0-471-24378-6.

• Easwaran, Eknath (2011). Gandhi the Man: How OneMan Changed Himself to Change the World. NilgiriPress. ISBN 978-1-586380-55-7.

• Hook, Sue Vander (1 September 2010). MahatmaGandhi: Proponent of Peace. ABDO. ISBN 978-1-61758-813-6.

• Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006). Gandhi: The Man, HisPeople, and the Empire. University of California Press.ISBN 978-0-520-25570-8.

• Gangrade, K.D. (2004). “Role of Shanti Sainiks in theGlobal Race for Armaments”. Moral Lessons FromGandhi’s Autobiography And Other Essays. ConceptPublishing Company. ISBN 978-81-8069-084-6.

• Guha, Ramachandra (2013). Gandhi Before India.Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

• Hardiman, David (2003). Gandhi in His Time andOurs: the global legacy of his ideas. C. Hurst & Co.ISBN 978-1-85065-711-8.

• Hatt, Christine (2002). Mahatma Gandhi. EvansBrothers. ISBN 978-0-237-52308-4.

• Herman, Arthur (2008). Gandhi and Churchill: theepic rivalry that destroyed an empire and forged ourage. Random House Digital, Inc. ISBN 978-0-553-80463-8.

• Jai, Janak Raj (1996). Commissions and Omissions byIndian Prime Ministers: 1947–1980. Regency Publi-cations. ISBN 978-81-86030-23-3.

• Johnson, Richard L. (2006). Gandhi’s Experimentswith Truth: Essential Writings by and about MahatmaGandhi. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7.

• Jones, Constance and Ryan, James D. (2007).Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. p.160. ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9.

• Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi’s Pilgrimage ofFaith: from darkness to light. SUNY Press. ISBN978-0-7914-6405-2.

• Mathew, Sarah; Afreen, Munnazza (9 July 2013). AnIntroduction to Education. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4772-0447-4.

• Miller, Jake C. (2002). Prophets of a just society. NovaPublishers. ISBN 978-1-59033-068-5.

• Pāṇḍeya, Viśva Mohana (2003). Historiography of In-dia’s Partition: an analysis of imperialist writings. At-lantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0314-6.

• Pilisuk, Marc; Nagler, Michael N. (2011). PeaceMovements Worldwide: Players and practices in resis-tance to war. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36482-2.

• Rühe, Peter (5 October 2004). Gandhi. Phaidon.ISBN 978-0-7148-4459-6.

• Schouten, Jan Peter (2008). Jesus as Guru: the im-age of Christ among Hindus and Christians in India.Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-2443-4.

8.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 197

• Sharp, Gene (1979). Gandhi as a Political Strategist:with essays on ethics and politics. P. Sargent Publish-ers. ISBN 978-0-87558-090-6.

• Shashi, S. S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India,Pakistan, Bangladesh. Anmol Publications. ISBN978-81-7041-859-7.

• Sofri, Gianni (1999). Gandhi and India: a century infocus. Windrush Press. ISBN 978-1-900624-12-1.

• Thacker, Dhirubhai (2006). ""Gandhi, MohandasKaramchand” (entry)". In Amaresh Datta. The Ency-clopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (DevrajTo Jyoti). Sahitya Akademi. p. 1345. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.

• Todd, Anne M (2004). Mohandas Gandhi. InfobasePublishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-7864-8.; short biogra-phy for children

• Wolpert, Stanley (2002). Gandhi’s Passion: the lifeand legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 9780199728725.

8.11.2 Primary sources

• Abel M (4 January 2005). Glimpses of Indian NationalMovement. ICFAI Books. ISBN 978-81-7881-420-9.

• Andrews, C. F. (2008) [1930]. “VII – The Teachingof Ahimsa”. Mahatma Gandhi’s Ideas Including Selec-tions from His Writings. Pierides Press. ISBN 978-1-4437-3309-0.

• Dalton, Dennis, ed. (1996). Mahatma Gandhi: Se-lected Political Writings. Hackett Publishing. ISBN978-0-87220-330-3.

• Duncan, Ronald, ed. (May 2011). Selected Writingsof Mahatma Gandhi. Literary Licensing, LLC. ISBN978-1-258-00907-6.

• Gandhi, M. K.; Fischer, Louis (2002). Louis Fischer,ed. The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writ-ings on His Life, Work and Ideas. Vintage Books.ISBN 978-1-4000-3050-7.

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). Satyagrahain South Africa (in Gujarati) (1 ed.). Ahmedabad:Navajivan Publishing House. Translated by Valji G.Desai Free online access at Wikilivres.ca (1/e). Pdfsfrom Gandhiserve (3/e) & Yann Forget (hosted byArvind Gupta) (1/e).

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1994). The Col-lected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Publications Divi-sion, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt.of India. ISBN 978-81-230-0239-2. (100 volumes).Free online access from Gandhiserve.

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). “Drain In-spector’s Report”. The United States of India 5 (6,7,8):3–4.

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1990). Desai, Ma-hadev H., ed. Autobiography: The Story of My Ex-periments With Truth. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover. ISBN0-486-24593-4.

• Gandhi, Rajmohan (9 October 2007). Mohandas:True Story of a Man, His People. Penguin Books Lim-ited. ISBN 978-81-8475-317-2.

• Guha, Ramachandra (2 October 2013). “1. MiddleCast, Middle Rank”. Gandhi Before India. PenguinBooks Limited. ISBN 978-93-5118-322-8.

• Jack, Homer A., ed. (1994). The Gandhi Reader: ASource Book of His Life and Writings. Grove Press.ISBN 978-0-8021-3161-4.

• Johnson, Richard L. and Gandhi, M. K. (2006).Gandhi’s Experiments With Truth: Essential Writingsby and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books.ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7.

• Todd, Anne M. (1 January 2009). Mohandas Gandhi.Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0662-5.

• Parel, Anthony J., ed. (2009). Gandhi: “Hind Swaraj”and Other Writings Centenary Edition. CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14602-9.

8.12 External links• Mahatma Gandhi at DMOZ

• Sannuti, Arun (6 April 2010). “Mohandas K. Gandhi(1869–1948) – Vegetarianism: The Road to Satya-graha”. International Vegetarian Union (IVU). Re-trieved 12 January 2012.

• Riggenbach, Jeff (2 February 2011). “Does GandhiDeserve a Place in the Libertarian Tradition?". MisesDaily (Ludwig von Mises Institute).

• About Mahatma Gandhi

• Gandhi Ashram at Sabarmati

• Gandhi Smriti — Government of India website

198 CHAPTER 8. MAHATMA GANDHI

• Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya Gandhi Museum& Library

• Sughosh, India (2 October 2010). “Bapu: CompleteLife History”. Research Work. http://www.bapu.sughosh.in. Retrieved 15 August 2012.

• Gandhi Research Foundation – One-Stop info onGandhi

• Mohandas K. Gandhi materials in the South AsianAmerican Digital Archive (SAADA)

• Works by Mahatma Gandhi at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Mahatma Gandhi at InternetArchive

• Works by Mahatma Gandhi at LibriVox (public do-main audiobooks)

Chapter 9

T. S. Eliot

For other people named Thomas Elliot, see Thomas Elliot(disambiguation).

Thomas Stearns Eliot OM (26 September 1888 – 4 Jan-uary 1965), usually known as T. S. Eliot, was an essayist,publisher, playwright, literary and social critic, and “one ofthe twentieth century’s major poets”.[1] He was born in St.Louis, Missouri, to the old Yankee Eliot family descendedfrom Andrew Eliot, who migrated to Boston, Massachusettsfrom East Coker, England in the 1660s. He emigrated toEngland in 1914 (at age 25), settling, working and marryingthere. He was eventually naturalised as a British subject in1927 at age 39, renouncing his American citizenship.[2]

Eliot attracted widespread attention for his poem The LoveSong of J. Alfred Prufrock (1915), which is seen as a mas-terpiece of the Modernist movement. It was followed bysome of the best-known poems in the English language, in-cluding The Waste Land (1922), The Hollow Men (1925),Ash Wednesday (1930), and Four Quartets (1945).[3] He isalso known for his seven plays, particularly Murder in theCathedral (1935). He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Lit-erature in 1948, “for his outstanding, pioneer contributionto present-day poetry.”[4][5]

9.1 Life

9.1.1 Early life and education

Eliot was born into the Eliot family, a Boston Brahminfamily with roots in England and New England. His pa-ternal grandfather, William Greenleaf Eliot, had moved toSt. Louis, Missouri,[3][6] to establish a Unitarian Christianchurch there. His father, Henry Ware Eliot (1843–1919),was a successful businessman, president and treasurer of theHydraulic-Press Brick Company in St. Louis; his mother,Charlotte Champe Stearns (1843–1929), wrote poetry andwas a social worker, a new profession in the early twenti-eth century. Eliot was the last of six surviving children; hisparents were both 44 years old when he was born. His four

sisters were between eleven and nineteen years older; hisbrother was eight years older. Known to family and friendsas Tom, he was the namesake of his maternal grandfather,Thomas Stearns.Several factors are responsible for Eliot’s infatuation withliterature during his childhood. First, he had to overcomephysical limitations as a child. Struggling from a congeni-tal double inguinal hernia, he could not participate in manyphysical activities and thus was prevented from socialis-ing with his peers. As he was often isolated, his love forliterature developed. Once he learned to read, the youngboy immediately became obsessed with books and was ab-sorbed in tales depicting savages, the Wild West, or MarkTwain's thrill-seeking Tom Sawyer.[7] In his memoir ofEliot, his friend Robert Sencourt comments that the youngEliot “would often curl up in the window-seat behind anenormous book, setting the drug of dreams against the painof living.”[8] Secondly, Eliot credited his hometown withfuelling his literary vision: “It is self-evident that St. Louisaffected me more deeply than any other environment hasever done. I feel that there is something in having passedone’s childhood beside the big river, which is incommuni-cable to those people who have not. I consider myself fortu-nate to have been born here, rather than in Boston, or NewYork, or London.”[9] Thus, from the onset, literature wasan essential part of Eliot’s childhood and both his disabilityand location influenced him.From 1898 to 1905, Eliot attended Smith Academy, wherehis studies included Latin, Ancient Greek, French, and Ger-man. He began to write poetry when he was fourteen un-der the influence of Edward Fitzgerald's Rubaiyat of OmarKhayyam, a translation of the poetry of Omar Khayyam.He said the results were gloomy and despairing and he de-stroyed them.[10] His first published poem, “A Fable ForFeasters”, was written as a school exercise and was pub-lished in the Smith Academy Record in February 1905.[11]

Also published there in April 1905 was his oldest surviv-ing poem in manuscript, an untitled lyric, later revised andreprinted as “Song” in The Harvard Advocate, Harvard Uni-versity's student magazine.[12] He also published three short

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stories in 1905, “Birds of Prey”, “A Tale of a Whale” and“The Man Who Was King”. The last mentioned story sig-nificantly reflects his exploration of Igorot Village whilevisiting the 1904 World’s Fair of St. Louis.[13][14][15] Sucha link with primitive people importantly antedates his an-thropological studies at Harvard.[16]

Following graduation, Eliot attended Milton Academy inMassachusetts for a preparatory year, where he met ScofieldThayer who would later publish The Waste Land. He stud-ied philosophy at Harvard College from 1906 to 1909, earn-ing his bachelor’s degree after three years, instead of theusual four.[3] While a student, Eliot was placed on aca-demic probation and graduated with a pass degree (i.e. nohonours).[17] Frank Kermode writes that the most impor-tant moment of Eliot’s undergraduate career was in 1908when he discovered Arthur Symons's The Symbolist Move-ment in Literature (1899). This introduced him to JulesLaforgue, Arthur Rimbaud, and Paul Verlaine. WithoutVerlaine, Eliot wrote, he might never have heard of TristanCorbière and his book Les amours jaunes, a work that af-fected the course of Eliot’s life.[18] The Harvard Advocatepublished some of his poems and he became lifelong friendswith Conrad Aiken the American novelist.After working as a philosophy assistant at Harvard from1909 to 1910, Eliot moved to Paris, where from 1910 to1911, he studied philosophy at the Sorbonne. He attendedlectures by Henri Bergson and read poetry with Alain-Fournier.[3][18] From 1911 to 1914, he was back at Har-vard studying Indian philosophy and Sanskrit.[3][19] Eliotwas awarded a scholarship to Merton College, Oxford in1914. He first visited Marburg, Germany, where he plannedto take a summer program, but when the First World Warbroke out, he went to Oxford instead. At the time so manyAmerican students attended Merton that the Junior Com-mon Room proposed a motion “that this society abhorsthe Americanization of Oxford”. It was defeated by twovotes, after Eliot reminded the students how much theyowed American culture.[20]

Eliot wrote to Conrad Aiken on New Year’s Eve 1914: “Ihate university towns and university people, who are thesame everywhere, with pregnant wives, sprawling children,many books and hideous pictures on the walls ... Oxford isvery pretty, but I don't like to be dead.”[20] Escaping Ox-ford, Eliot spent much of his time in London. This city hada monumental and life-altering effect on Eliot for multiplereasons, the most significant of which was his introductionto the influential American literary figure Ezra Pound. Aconnection through Aiken resulted in an arranged meetingand on 22 September 1914, Eliot paid a visit to Pound’s flat.Pound instantly deemed Eliot “worth watching” and wascrucial to Eliot’s beginning career as a poet, as he is creditedwith promoting Eliot through social events and literary gath-erings. Thus, according to biographer John Worthen, dur-

ing his time in England Eliot “was seeing as little of Oxfordas possible”. He was instead spending long periods of timein London, in the company of Ezra Pound and “some ofthe modern artists whom the war has so far spared... It wasPound who helped most, introducing him everywhere.”[21]

In the end, Eliot did not settle at Merton, and left after ayear. In 1915 he taught English at Birkbeck, University ofLondon.By 1916, he had completed a doctoral dissertation for Har-vard on Knowledge and Experience in the Philosophy ofF. H. Bradley, but he failed to return for the viva voceexam.[3][22]

Eliot was invited to study at the Institute for Advanced Studyby Director Frank Aydelotte[23] and was a visiting scholarthere in 1948 when he wrote The Cocktail Party.[24]

9.1.2 Marriage

Vivienne Haigh-Wood Eliot, passport photograph from 1920.

In a letter to Aiken late in December 1914, Eliot, aged26, wrote, “I am very dependent upon women (I meanfemale society).”[25] Less than four months later, Thayerintroduced Eliot to Vivienne Haigh-Wood, a Cambridgegoverness. They were married at Hampstead Register Of-fice on 26 June 1915.[26]

9.1. LIFE 201

After a short visit alone to his family in the United States,Eliot returned to London and took several teaching jobs,such as lecturing at Birkbeck College, University of Lon-don. The philosopher Bertrand Russell took an interestin Vivienne while the newlyweds stayed in his flat. Somescholars have suggested that she and Russell had an affair,but the allegations were never confirmed.[27]

The marriage was markedly unhappy, in part because ofVivienne’s health issues. In a letter addressed to EzraPound, she covers an extensive list of her symptoms, whichincluded a habitually high temperature, fatigue, insomnia,migraines, and colitis.[28] This, coupled with apparent men-tal instability, meant that she was often sent away by Eliotand her doctors for extended periods of time in the hopeof improving her health, and as time went on, he becameincreasingly detached from her. Their relationship becamethe subject of a 1984 play Tom & Viv, which in 1994 wasadapted as a film.In a private paper written in his sixties, Eliot confessed: “Icame to persuade myself that I was in love with Viviennesimply because I wanted to burn my boats and commit my-self to staying in England. And she persuaded herself (alsounder the influence of [Ezra] Pound) that she would savethe poet by keeping him in England. To her, the marriagebrought no happiness. To me, it brought the state of mindout of which came The Waste Land.”[29]

9.1.3 Teaching, Lloyds, Faber and Faber

A plaque at SOAS's Faber Building, 24 Russell Square, London

After leaving Merton, Eliot worked as a schoolteacher,most notably at Highgate School, a private school in Lon-

don, where he taught French and Latin—his students in-cluded the young John Betjeman.[3] Later he taught at theRoyal Grammar School, High Wycombe, a state school inBuckinghamshire. To earn extra money, he wrote book re-views and lectured at evening extension courses. In 1917,he took a position at Lloyds Bank in London, workingon foreign accounts. On a trip to Paris in August 1920with the artist Wyndham Lewis, he met the writer JamesJoyce. Eliot said he found Joyce arrogant—Joyce doubtedEliot’s ability as a poet at the time—but the two soon be-came friends, with Eliot visiting Joyce whenever he was inParis.[30] Eliot and Wyndham Lewis also maintained a closefriendship, leading to Lewis’s later making his well-knownportrait painting of Eliot in 1938.Charles Whibley recommended T.S. Eliot to GeoffreyFaber.[31] In 1925 Eliot left Lloyds to join the publishingfirm Faber and Gwyer, later Faber and Faber, where he re-mained for the rest of his career, eventually becoming a di-rector. At Faber and Faber, he was responsible for pub-lishing important English poets like W.H. Auden, StephenSpender, and Ted Hughes.[32]

9.1.4 Conversion to Anglicanism andBritishcitizenship

On 29 June 1927, Eliot converted to Anglicanism fromUnitarianism, and in November that year he took Britishcitizenship. He became a warden of his parish church,Saint Stephen’s, Gloucester Road, London, and a life mem-ber of the Society of King Charles the Martyr.[33][34] Hespecifically identified as Anglo-Catholic, proclaiming him-self “classicist in literature, royalist in politics, and anglo-catholic [sic] in religion”.[35][36] About thirty years laterEliot commented on his religious views that he combined“a Catholic cast of mind, a Calvinist heritage, and a Puri-tanical temperament”.[37] He also had wider spiritual inter-ests, commenting that “I see the path of progress for modernman in his occupation with his own self, with his inner be-ing” and citing Goethe and Rudolf Steiner as exemplars ofsuch a direction.[38]

One of Eliot’s biographers, Peter Ackroyd, commented that“the purposes of [Eliot’s conversion] were two-fold. One:the Church of England offered Eliot some hope for him-self, and I think Eliot needed some resting place. But sec-ondly, it attached Eliot to the English community and En-glish culture.”[32]

9.1.5 Separation and remarriage

By 1932, Eliot had been contemplating a separation fromhis wife for some time. When Harvard offered him the

202 CHAPTER 9. T. S. ELIOT

The Faber and Faber building where Eliot worked from 1925 to1965; the commemorative plaque is under the right-hand arch.

Charles Eliot Norton professorship for the 1932–1933 aca-demic year, he accepted and left Vivienne in England.Upon his return, he arranged for a formal separation fromher, avoiding all but one meeting with her between his leav-ing for America in 1932 and her death in 1947. Viviennewas committed to the Northumberland House mental hos-pital, Stoke Newington, in 1938, and remained there untilshe died. Although Eliot was still legally her husband, henever visited her.[39][40]

From 1938 to 1957 Eliot’s public companion was MaryTrevelyan of London University, who wanted to marry himand left a detailed memoir.[41][42][43]

From 1946 to 1957, Eliot shared a flat with his friendJohn Davy Hayward, who collected and managed Eliot’s pa-pers, styling himself “Keeper of the Eliot Archive”.[44] Hay-ward also collected Eliot’s pre-Prufrock verse, commer-cially published after Eliot’s death as Poems Written in EarlyYouth. When Eliot and Hayward separated their house-

hold in 1957, Hayward retained his collection of Eliot’s pa-pers, which he bequeathed to King’s College, Cambridge,in 1965.On 10 January 1957, at the age of 68, Eliot married EsméValerie Fletcher, who was 30. In contrast to his first mar-riage, Eliot knew Fletcher well, as she had been his secre-tary at Faber and Faber since August 1949. They kept theirwedding secret; the ceremony was held in a church at 6:15am with virtually no one in attendance other than his wife’sparents. Eliot had no children with either of his wives. Inthe early 1960s, by then in failing health, Eliot worked as aneditor for the Wesleyan University Press, seeking new po-ets in Europe for publication. After Eliot’s death, Valeriededicated her time to preserving his legacy, by editing andannotating The Letters of T. S. Eliot and a facsimile of thedraft of The Waste Land.[45] Valerie Eliot died on 9 Novem-ber 2012 at her home in London.[46]

9.1.6 Death and honours

Blue plaque, 3 Kensington Court Gardens, Kensington, London,home from 1957 until his death in 1965

For many years Eliot had suffered from lung-related healthproblems including bronchitis and tachycardia caused byheavy smoking. He died of emphysema at his home inKensington in London, on 4 January 1965, and was cre-mated at Golders Green Crematorium. In accordance withhis wishes, his ashes were taken to St. Michael’s Church inEast Coker, the village in Somerset from which his Eliot an-cestors had emigrated to America. A wall plaque commem-orates him with a quotation from his poem “East Coker”,“In my beginning is my end. In my end is my beginning.”

9.2. POETRY 203

In 1967, on the second anniversary of his death, Eliot wascommemorated by the installation of a large stone in thefloor of Poets’ Corner in London’s Westminster Abbey. Thestone, cut by designer Reynolds Stone, is inscribed withhis life dates, his Order of Merit, and a quotation from hispoem "Little Gidding", “the communication / of the deadis tongued with fire beyond / the language of the living.”[47]

The house where he died, No. 3 Kensington Court Gardens,has had a blue plaque on it since 1986.[48]

9.2 Poetry

For a poet of his stature, Eliot produced a relatively smallnumber of poems. He was aware of this even early in hiscareer. He wrote to J.H. Woods, one of his former Har-vard professors, “My reputation in London is built upon onesmall volume of verse, and is kept up by printing two orthree more poems in a year. The only thing that matters isthat these should be perfect in their kind, so that each shouldbe an event.”[49]

Typically, Eliot first published his poems individually inperiodicals or in small books or pamphlets, and then col-lected them in books. His first collection was Prufrock andOther Observations (1917). In 1920, he published morepoems in Ara Vos Prec (London) and Poems: 1920 (NewYork). These had the same poems (in a different order)except that “Ode” in the British edition was replaced with“Hysteria” in the American edition. In 1925, he collectedThe Waste Land and the poems in Prufrock and Poems intoone volume and added The Hollow Men to form Poems:1909–1925. From then on, he updated this work as Col-lected Poems. Exceptions are Old Possum’s Book of Practi-cal Cats (1939), a collection of light verse; Poems Written inEarly Youth, posthumously published in 1967 and consist-ing mainly of poems published between 1907 and 1910 inThe Harvard Advocate, and Inventions of the March Hare:Poems 1909–1917, material Eliot never intended to havepublished, which appeared posthumously in 1997.[50]

During an interview in 1959, Eliot said of his nationalityand its role in his work: “I'd say that my poetry has obvi-ously more in common with my distinguished contempo-raries in America than with anything written in my genera-tion in England. That I'm sure of. ... It wouldn't be what itis, and I imagine it wouldn't be so good; putting it as mod-estly as I can, it wouldn't be what it is if I'd been born inEngland, and it wouldn't be what it is if I'd stayed in Amer-ica. It’s a combination of things. But in its sources, in itsemotional springs, it comes from America.”[51]

It must also be acknowledged, as Chinmoy Guha showedin his book Where the Dreams Cross: T S Eliot and FrenchPoetry (Macmillan, 2011), that he was deeply influenced by

French poets from Baudelaire to Paul Valéry. He himselfwrote in his 1940 essay on W.B. Yeats: “The kind of poetrythat I needed to teach me the use of my own voice did notexist in English at all; it was only to be found in French.”(On Poetry and Poets, 1948)

9.2.1 The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock

Main article: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock

In 1915, Ezra Pound, overseas editor of Poetry magazine,recommended to Harriet Monroe, the magazine’s founder,that she publish “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”.Although the character Prufrock seems to be middle-aged,Eliot wrote most of the poem when he was only twenty-two. Its now-famous opening lines, comparing the eveningsky to “a patient etherised upon a table”, were consideredshocking and offensive, especially at a time when GeorgianPoetry was hailed for its derivations of the nineteenth cen-tury Romantic Poets.The poem follows the conscious experience of a man,Prufrock (relayed in the "stream of consciousness" formcharacteristic of the Modernists), lamenting his physicaland intellectual inertia with the recurrent theme of carnallove unattained. Critical opinion is divided as to whetherthe narrator leaves his residence during the course of thenarration. The locations described can be interpreted ei-ther as actual physical experiences, mental recollections, oras symbolic images from the unconscious mind, as, for ex-ample, in the refrain “In the room the women come andgo”.The poem’s structure was heavily influenced by Eliot’s ex-tensive reading of Dante and refers to a number of literaryworks, including Hamlet and those of the French Symbol-ists. Its reception in London can be gauged from an un-signed review in The Times Literary Supplement on 21 June1917. “The fact that these things occurred to the mind ofMr. Eliot is surely of the very smallest importance to any-one, even to himself. They certainly have no relation topoetry.”[52]

9.2.2 The Waste Land

Main article: The Waste Land

In October 1922, Eliot published The Waste Land in TheCriterion. Eliot’s dedication to il miglior fabbro (“the bettercraftsman”) refers to Ezra Pound’s significant hand in edit-ing and reshaping the poem from a longer Eliot manuscriptto the shortened version that appears in publication.[53]

204 CHAPTER 9. T. S. ELIOT

T. S. Eliot in 1923 by Lady Ottoline Morrell.

It was composed during a period of personal difficulty forEliot—his marriage was failing, and both he and Viviennewere suffering from nervous disorders. The poem is oftenread as a representation of the disillusionment of the post-war generation. Before the poem’s publication as a bookin December 1922, Eliot distanced himself from its visionof despair. On 15 November 1922, he wrote to RichardAldington, saying, “As for The Waste Land, that is a thingof the past so far as I am concerned and I am now feelingtoward a new form and style.”[54]

The poem is known for its obscure nature—its slippage be-tween satire and prophecy; its abrupt changes of speaker,location, and time. This structural complexity is one of thereasons that the poem has become a touchstone of modernliterature, a poetic counterpart to a novel published in thesame year, James Joyce's Ulysses.[55]

Among its best-known phrases are “April is the cruellestmonth”, “I will show you fear in a handful of dust” and"Shantih shantih shantih". The Sanskrit mantra ends thepoem.

9.2.3 The Hollow Men

Main articles: The Hollow Men and The Hollow Men inpopular culture

The Hollow Men appeared in 1925. For the critic EdmundWilson, it marked “The nadir of the phase of despair anddesolation given such effective expression in The WasteLand.”[56] It is Eliot’s major poem of the late 1920s. Sim-ilar to Eliot’s other works, its themes are overlapping andfragmentary. Post-war Europe under the Treaty of Ver-sailles (which Eliot despised), the difficulty of hope and re-ligious conversion, Eliot’s failed marriage.[57]

Allen Tate perceived a shift in Eliot’s method, writing that,“The mythologies disappear altogether in The Hollow Men.”This is a striking claim for a poem as indebted to Danteas anything else in Eliot’s early work, to say little of themodern English mythology—the “Old Guy Fawkes" of theGunpowder Plot—or the colonial and agrarian mythos ofJoseph Conrad and James George Frazer, which, at leastfor reasons of textual history, echo in The Waste Land.[58]

The “continuous parallel between contemporaneity and an-tiquity” that is so characteristic of his mythical method re-mained in fine form.[59] The Hollow Men contains some ofEliot’s most famous lines, notably its conclusion:

This is the way the world endsNot with a bang but a whimper.

9.2.4 Ash-Wednesday

Main article: Ash Wednesday (poem)

Ash-Wednesday is the first long poem written by Eliot afterhis 1927 conversion to Anglicanism. Published in 1930,it deals with the struggle that ensues when one who haslacked faith acquires it. Sometimes referred to as Eliot’s“conversion poem”, it is richly but ambiguously allusive,and deals with the aspiration to move from spiritual bar-renness to hope for human salvation. Eliot’s style of writingin Ash-Wednesday showed a marked shift from the poetryhe had written prior to his 1927 conversion, and his post-conversion style would continue in a similar vein. His stylewas to become less ironic, and the poems would no longerbe populated by multiple characters in dialogue. His sub-ject matter would also become more focused on Eliot’s spir-itual concerns and his Christian faith.Many critics were particularly enthusiastic about Ash-Wednesday. Edwin Muir maintained that it is one of themost moving poems Eliot wrote, and perhaps the “most per-fect”, though it was not well received by everyone. Thepoem’s groundwork of orthodox Christianity discomfitedmany of the more secular literati.[3][60]

9.3. PLAYS 205

9.2.5 Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats

Main article: Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats

In 1939, Eliot published a book of light verse, Old Possum’sBook of Practical Cats (“Old Possum” was Ezra Pound’snickname for him). This first edition had an illustrationof the author on the cover. In 1954, the composer AlanRawsthorne set six of the poems for speaker and orches-tra in a work entitled Practical Cats. After Eliot’s death,the book was adapted as the basis of the musical Cats byAndrew Lloyd Webber, first produced in London’s WestEnd in 1981 and opening on Broadway the following year.

9.2.6 Four Quartets

Main article: Four Quartets

Eliot regarded Four Quartets as his masterpiece, and it isthe work that led to his being awarded the Nobel Prize inLiterature.[3] It consists of four long poems, each first pub-lished separately: Burnt Norton (1936), East Coker (1940),The Dry Salvages (1941) and Little Gidding (1942). Eachhas five sections. Although they resist easy characterisation,each poem includes meditations on the nature of time insome important respect—theological, historical, physical—and its relation to the human condition. Each poem is as-sociated with one of the four classical elements: air, earth,water, and fire.Burnt Norton is a meditative poem that begins with the nar-rator trying to focus on the present moment while walkingthrough a garden, focusing on images and sounds like thebird, the roses, clouds, and an empty pool. The narrator’smeditation leads him/her to reach “the still point” in whichhe doesn't try to get anywhere or to experience place and/ortime, instead experiencing “a grace of sense”. In the finalsection, the narrator contemplates the arts (“Words” and“music”) as they relate to time. The narrator focuses par-ticularly on the poet’s art of manipulating “Words [which]strain, / Crack and sometimes break, under the burden [oftime], under the tension, slip, slide, perish, decay with im-precision, [and] will not stay in place, / Will not stay still.”By comparison, the narrator concludes that “Love is itselfunmoving, / Only the cause and end of movement, / Time-less, and undesiring.”East Coker continues the examination of time and meaning,focusing in a famous passage on the nature of language andpoetry. Out of darkness, Eliot offers a solution: “I said tomy soul, be still, and wait without hope.”The Dry Salvages treats the element of water, via images ofriver and sea. It strives to contain opposites: “The past and

future / Are conquered, and reconciled.”Little Gidding (the element of fire) is the most anthologisedof the Quartets. Eliot’s experiences as an air raid warden inThe Blitz power the poem, and he imagines meeting Danteduring the German bombing. The beginning of the Quartets(“Houses / Are removed, destroyed”) had become a violenteveryday experience; this creates an animation, where forthe first time he talks of Love as the driving force behind allexperience. From this background, the Quartets end withan affirmation of Julian of Norwich: “All shall be well and/ All manner of thing shall be well.”The Four Quartets cannot be understood without referenceto Christian thought, traditions, and history. Eliot drawsupon the theology, art, symbolism and language of suchfigures as Dante, and mystics St. John of the Cross andJulian of Norwich. The “deeper communion” sought inEast Coker, the “hints and whispers of children, the sick-ness that must grow worse in order to find healing”, and theexploration which inevitably leads us home all point to thepilgrim’s path along the road of sanctification.

9.3 Plays

Main articles: Sweeney Agonistes, Murder in the Cathe-dral, The Rock (play), The Family Reunion, The CocktailParty, The Confidential Clerk and The Elder Statesman

With the important exception of Four Quartets, Eliot di-rected much of his creative energies after Ash Wednesdayto writing plays in verse, mostly comedies or plays withredemptive endings. He was long a critic and admirer ofElizabethan and Jacobean verse drama; witness his allusionsto Webster, Thomas Middleton, William Shakespeare andThomas Kyd in The Waste Land. In a 1933 lecture he said“Every poet would like, I fancy, to be able to think that hehad some direct social utility . . . . He would like to besomething of a popular entertainer, and be able to think hisown thoughts behind a tragic or a comic mask. He wouldlike to convey the pleasures of poetry, not only to a largeraudience, but to larger groups of people collectively; andthe theatre is the best place in which to do it.”[61]

After The Waste Land (1922), he wrote that he was “nowfeeling toward a new form and style”. One project he had inmind was writing a play in verse, using some of the rhythmsof early jazz. The play featured “Sweeney”, a character whohad appeared in a number of his poems. Although Eliotdid not finish the play, he did publish two scenes from thepiece. These scenes, titled Fragment of a Prologue (1926)and Fragment of an Agon (1927), were published togetherin 1932 as Sweeney Agonistes. Although Eliot noted thatthis was not intended to be a one-act play, it is sometimes

206 CHAPTER 9. T. S. ELIOT

performed as one.[11]

A pageant play by Eliot called The Rock was performed in1934 for the benefit of churches in the Diocese of London.Much of it was a collaborative effort; Eliot accepted creditonly for the authorship of one scene and the choruses.[11]

George Bell, the Bishop of Chichester, had been instrumen-tal in connecting Eliot with producer E. Martin Browne forthe production of The Rock, and later commissioned Eliotto write another play for the Canterbury Festival in 1935.This one, Murder in the Cathedral, concerning the death ofthe martyr, Thomas Becket, was more under Eliot’s con-trol. Eliot biographer Peter Ackroyd comments that “for[Eliot], Murder in the Cathedral and succeeding verse playsoffered a double advantage; it allowed him to practice po-etry but it also offered a convenient home for his religioussensibility.”[32] After this, he worked on more “commer-cial” plays for more general audiences: The Family Reunion(1939), The Cocktail Party (1949), The Confidential Clerk,(1953) and The Elder Statesman (1958) (the latter threewere produced by Henry Sherek and directed by E. Mar-tin Browne[62]). The Broadway production in New York ofThe Cocktail Party received the 1950 Tony Award for BestPlay.Regarding his method of playwriting, Eliot explained, “If Iset out to write a play, I start by an act of choice. I settleupon a particular emotional situation, out of which charac-ters and a plot will emerge. And then lines of poetry maycome into being: not from the original impulse but from asecondary stimulation of the unconscious mind.”[32]

9.4 Literary criticism

Eliot also made significant contributions to the field ofliterary criticism, strongly influencing the school of NewCriticism. While somewhat self-deprecating and minimis-ing of his work—he once said his criticism was merelya “by-product” of his “private poetry-workshop”—Eliot isconsidered by some to be one of the greatest literary crit-ics of the twentieth century.[63] The critic William Empsononce said, “I do not know for certain how much of my ownmind [Eliot] invented, let alone how much of it is a reactionagainst him or indeed a consequence of misreading him. Heis a very penetrating influence, perhaps not unlike the eastwind.”[64]

In his critical essay "Tradition and the Individual Talent",Eliot argues that art must be understood not in a vacuum,but in the context of previous pieces of art. “In a peculiarsense [an artist or poet] ... must inevitably be judged by thestandards of the past.”[63] This essay was an important in-fluence over the New Criticism by introducing the idea thatthe value of a work of art must be viewed in the context of

the artist’s previous works, a “simultaneous order” of works(i.e., “tradition”). Eliot himself employed this concept onmany of his works, especially on his long-poem The WasteLand.[65]

Also important to New Criticism was the idea—as articu-lated in Eliot’s essay "Hamlet and His Problems"—of an"objective correlative", which posits a connection amongthe words of the text and events, states of mind, andexperiences.[66] This notion concedes that a poem meanswhat it says, but suggests that there can be a non-subjectivejudgment based on different readers’ different—but per-haps corollary—interpretations of a work.More generally, New Critics took a cue from Eliot in re-gard to his "'classical' ideals and his religious thought; hisattention to the poetry and drama of the early seventeenthcentury; his deprecation of the Romantics, especially Shel-ley; his proposition that good poems constitute 'not a turn-ing loose of emotion but an escape from emotion'; and hisinsistence that 'poets... at present must be difficult'.”[67]

Eliot’s essays were a major factor in the revival of inter-est in the metaphysical poets. Eliot particularly praisedthe metaphysical poets’ ability to show experience as bothpsychological and sensual, while at the same time infusingthis portrayal with—in Eliot’s view—wit and uniqueness.Eliot’s essay “The Metaphysical Poets”, along with givingnew significance and attention to metaphysical poetry, in-troduced his now well-known definition of “unified sensi-bility”, which is considered by some to mean the same thingas the term “metaphysical”.[68][69]

His 1922 poem The Waste Land[70] also can be better un-derstood in light of his work as a critic. He had arguedthat a poet must write “programmatic criticism”, that is, apoet should write to advance his own interests rather than toadvance “historical scholarship”. Viewed from Eliot’s crit-ical lens, The Waste Land likely shows his personal despairabout World War I rather than an objective historical un-derstanding of it.[71]

Late in his career, Eliot focused much of his creative energyon writing for the theatre, and some of his critical writing,in essays like “Poetry and Drama,” “Hamlet and his Prob-lems,” and “The Possibility of a Poetic Drama,” focused onthe aesthetics of writing drama in verse.

9.5 Critical reception

9.5.1 Responses to his poetry

The writer Ronald Bush notes that Eliot’s early poemslike “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”, “Portraitof a Lady”, “La Figlia Che Piange”, “Preludes”, and

9.5. CRITICAL RECEPTION 207

“Rhapsody on a Windy Night” had "[an] effect [that] wasboth unique and compelling, and their assurance staggered[Eliot’s] contemporaries who were privileged to read themin manuscript. [Conrad] Aiken, for example, marveled at'how sharp and complete and sui generis the whole thingwas, from the outset. The wholeness is there, from the verybeginning.'"[72]

The initial critical response to Eliot’s “The Waste Land”was mixed. Ronald Bush notes that "'The WasteLand' was at first correctly perceived as a work ofjazz-like syncopation—and, like 1920s jazz, essentiallyiconoclastic.”[72] Some critics, like Edmund Wilson,Conrad Aiken, and Gilbert Seldes thought it was the bestpoetry being written in the English language while othersthought it was esoteric and wilfully difficult. Edmund Wil-son, being one of the critics who praised Eliot, called him“one of our only authentic poets”.[73] Wilson also pointedout some of Eliot’s weaknesses as a poet. In regard to “TheWaste Land”, Wilson admits its flaws (“its lack of structuralunity”), but concluded, “I doubt whether there is a singleother poem of equal length by a contemporary Americanwhich displays so high and so varied a mastery of Englishverse.”[73]

Charles Powell was negative in his criticism of Eliot, callinghis poems incomprehensible.[74] And the writers of Timemagazine were similarly baffled by a challenging poem like“The Waste Land”.[75] John Crowe Ransom wrote nega-tive criticisms of Eliot’s work but also had positive thingsto say. For instance, though Ransom negatively criticised“The Waste Land” for its “extreme disconnection”, Ran-som was not completely condemnatory of Eliot’s work andadmitted that Eliot was a talented poet.[76]

Addressing some of the common criticisms directed against“The Waste Land” at the time, Gilbert Seldes stated, “Itseems at first sight remarkably disconnected and confused...[however] a closer view of the poem does more than illumi-nate the difficulties; it reveals the hidden form of the work,[and] indicates how each thing falls into place.”[77]

Following the publication of The Four Quartets, Eliot’s rep-utation as a poet, as well as his influence in the academy,was at its peak. In an essay on Eliot published in 1989, thewriter Cynthia Ozick refers to this peak of influence (fromthe 1940s through the early 1960s) as “the Age of Eliot”when Eliot “seemed pure zenith, a colossus, nothing lessthan a permanent luminary, fixed in the firmament like thesun and the moon”.[78] But during this post-war period, oth-ers, like Ronald Bush, observed that this time also markedthe beginning of the decline in Eliot’s literary influence:

As Eliot’s conservative religious and politicalconvictions began to seem less congenial in thepostwar world, other readers reacted with sus-

picion to his assertions of authority, obvious inFour Quartets and implicit in the earlier poetry.The result, fueled by intermittent rediscovery ofEliot’s occasional anti-Semitic rhetoric, has beena progressive downward revision of his once tow-ering reputation.[72]

Bush also notes that Eliot’s reputation “slipped” signif-icantly further after his death. He writes, “Sometimesregarded as too academic (William Carlos Williams'sview), Eliot was also frequently criticized for a deadeningneoclassicism (as he himself—perhaps just as unfairly—had criticized Milton). However, the multifarious tributesfrom practicing poets of many schools published during hiscentenary in 1988 was a strong indication of the intimidat-ing continued presence of his poetic voice.”[72]

Although Eliot’s poetry is not as influential as it once was,notable literary scholars, like Harold Bloom[79] and StephenGreenblatt,[80] still acknowledge that Eliot’s poetry is cen-tral to the literary English canon. For instance, the editorsof The Norton Anthology of English Literature write, “Thereis no disagreement on [Eliot’s] importance as one of thegreat renovators of the English poetry dialect, whose influ-ence on a whole generation of poets, critics, and intellectu-als generally was enormous. [However] his range as a poet[was] limited, and his interest in the great middle ground ofhuman experience (as distinct from the extremes of saintand sinner) [was] deficient.” Despite this criticism, thesescholars also acknowledge "[Eliot’s] poetic cunning, his finecraftsmanship, his original accent, his historical and repre-sentative importance as the poet of the modern symbolist-Metaphysical tradition”.[81]

9.5.2 Allegations of anti-Semitism

The depiction of Jews in some of Eliot’s poems has led sev-eral critics to accuse him of anti-Semitism. This case hasbeen presented most forcefully in a study by Anthony Julius:T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form (1996).[82][83]

In "Gerontion", Eliot writes, in the voice of the poem’s el-derly narrator, “And the jew squats on the window sill, theowner [of my building] / Spawned in some estaminet ofAntwerp.”[84] Another well-known example appears in thepoem, “Burbank with a Baedeker: Bleistein with a Cigar”.In this poem, Eliot wrote, “The rats are underneath thepiles. / The jew is underneath the lot. / Money in furs.”[85]

Interpreting the line as an indirect comparison of Jews torats, Julius writes, “The anti-Semitism is unmistakable. Itreaches out like a clear signal to the reader.” Julius’s view-point has been supported by literary critics such as HaroldBloom,[86] Christopher Ricks,[87] George Steiner,[87] TomPaulin[88] and James Fenton.[87]

208 CHAPTER 9. T. S. ELIOT

In a series of lectures delivered at the University of Vir-ginia in 1933, published under the title After Strange Gods:A Primer of Modern Heresy (1934), Eliot wrote of societaltradition and coherence, “What is still more important [thancultural homogeneity] is unity of religious background, andreasons of race and religion combine to make any largenumber of free-thinking Jews undesirable.”[89] Eliot neverre-published this book/lecture.[87] In his 1934 pageant playThe Rock, Eliot distances himself from Fascist movementsof the thirties by caricaturing Oswald Mosley’s Blackshirts,who 'firmly refuse/ To descend to palaver with anthropoidJews’.[90] The 'new evangels’[91] of totalitarianism are pre-sented as antithetic to the spirit of Christianity.Craig Raine, in his books In Defence of T. S. Eliot (2001)and T. S. Eliot (2006), sought to defend Eliot from thecharge of anti-Semitism. Reviewing the 2006 book, PaulDean stated that he was not convinced by Raine’s argu-ment. Nevertheless, he concluded, “Ultimately, as bothRaine and, to do him justice, Julius insist, however muchEliot may have been compromised as a person, as we allare in our several ways, his greatness as a poet remains.”[87]

In another review of Raine’s 2006 book, the literary criticTerry Eagleton also questioned the validity of Raine’s de-fence of Eliot’s character flaws as well as the entire basisfor Raine’s book, writing, “Why do critics feel a need to de-fend the authors they write on, like doting parents deaf to allcriticism of their obnoxious children? Eliot’s well-earnedreputation [as a poet] is established beyond all doubt, andmaking him out to be as unflawed as the Archangel Gabrieldoes him no favours.”[92]

9.5.3 Influence

Eliot’s influence extended beyond the English language. Hiswork, in particular The Waste Land but also The HollowMen and Ash Wednesday strongly influenced the poetry oftwo of the most significant post-War Irish language po-ets, Seán Ó Ríordáin and Máirtín Ó Díreáin as well as TheWeekend of Dermot and Grace (1964) by Eoghan O Tu-airisc.[93] Eliot additionally influenced, among many oth-ers, Virginia Woolf, Ezra Pound, Hart Crane, WilliamGaddis, Allen Tate, Ted Hughes, Geoffrey Hill, SeamusHeaney, Kamau Brathwaite,[94] Russell Kirk,[95] GeorgeSeferis (who in 1936 published a modern Greek translationof The Waste Land,) and James Joyce .[96]

9.5.4 Awards

• Order of Merit (awarded by King George VI (UnitedKingdom), 1948)[97]

• Nobel Prize in Literature “for his outstanding, pio-neer contribution to present-day poetry” (Stockholm,

1948)[5]

• Officier de la Legion d'Honneur (1951)

• Hanseatic Goethe Prize (Hamburg, 1955)

• Dante Medal (Florence, 1959)

• Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (1960)

• Presidential Medal of Freedom (1964)

• Thirteen honorary doctorates (including Oxford,Cambridge, the Sorbonne, and Harvard)

• Tony Award in 1950 for Best Play: The Broadway pro-duction of The Cocktail Party

• Two posthumous Tony Awards (1983) for his poemsused in the musical Cats

• Eliot College of the University of Kent, England,named after him

• Celebrated on commemorative postage stamps

• A star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame

9.6 Works

Main article: T. S. Eliot bibliography

9.6.1 Earliest works

• Prose

• “The Birds of Prey” (a short story; 1905)[98]

• “A Tale of a Whale” (a short story; 1905)• “The Man Who Was King” (a short story;

1905)[99]

• [A review of] “The Wine and the Puritans”(1909)

• “The Point of View” (1909)• “Gentlemen and Seamen” (1909)• [A review of] “Egoist” (1909)

• Poems

• “A Fable for Feasters” (1905)• "[A Lyric:]'If Time and Space as Sages say'"

(1905)• "[At Graduation 1905]" (1905)

9.6. WORKS 209

• “Song:'If space and time,as sages say'" (1907)• “Before Morning” (1908)• “Circe’s Palace” (1908)• “Song: 'When we came home across the hill'"

(1909)• “On a Portrait” (1909)• “Nocturne” (1909)• “Humoresque” (1910)• “Spleen” (1910)• "[Class]Ode” (1910)

9.6.2 Poetry

• Prufrock and Other Observations (1917)

• The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock

• Portrait of a Lady (poem)

• Aunt Helen

• Poems (1920)

• Gerontion

• Sweeney Among the Nightingales

• “The Hippopotamus”• “Whispers of Immortality”• “Mr. Eliot’s Sunday Morning Service”• “A Cooking Egg”

• The Waste Land (1922)

• The Hollow Men (1925)

• Ariel Poems (1927–1954)

• Journey of the Magi (1927)• A Song for Simeon (1928)

• Ash Wednesday (1930)

• Coriolan (1931)

• Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats (1939)

• The Marching Song of the Pollicle Dogs and BillyM'Caw: The Remarkable Parrot (1939) in The Queen’sBook of the Red Cross

• Four Quartets (1945)

9.6.3 Plays

• Sweeney Agonistes (published in 1926, first performedin 1934)

• The Rock (1934)

• Murder in the Cathedral (1935)

• The Family Reunion (1939)

• The Cocktail Party (1949)

• The Confidential Clerk (1953)

• The Elder Statesman (first performed in 1958, pub-lished in 1959)

9.6.4 Nonfiction

• Christianity & Culture (1939, 1948)

• The Second-Order Mind (1920)

• Tradition and the Individual Talent (1920)

• The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism(1920)

• "Hamlet and His Problems"

• Homage to John Dryden (1924)

• Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca (1928)

• For Lancelot Andrewes (1928)

• Dante (1929)

• Selected Essays, 1917–1932 (1932)

• The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (1933)

• After Strange Gods (1934)

• Elizabethan Essays (1934)

• Essays Ancient and Modern (1936)

• The Idea of a Christian Society (1939)

• A Choice of Kipling’s Verse (1941) made by Eliot,with an essay on Rudyard Kipling, London, Faber andFaber.

• Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (1948)

• Poetry and Drama (1951)

• The Three Voices of Poetry (1954)

• The Frontiers of Criticism (1956)

• On Poetry and Poets (1957)

210 CHAPTER 9. T. S. ELIOT

9.6.5 Posthumous publications

• To Criticize the Critic (1965)

• The Waste Land: Facsimile Edition (1974)

• Inventions of the March Hare: Poems 1909–1917(1996)

9.6.6 Critical editions

• Collected Poems, 1909–1962 (1963) excerpt and textsearch

• Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats, Illustrated Edition(1982) excerpt and text search

• Selected Prose of T.S. Eliot edited by Frank Kermode(1975) excerpt and text search

• The Waste Land (Norton Critical Editions) edited byMichael North (2000) excerpt and text search

• Selected essays (1932); enlarged (1960)

• The letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot andHugh Haughton, Volume 1: 1898–1922 (1988)

• The letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot andHugh Haughton, Volume 2: 1923–1925 (2009)

• The letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot andHugh Haughton, Volume 3: 1926–1927 (2012)

• The letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot andJohn Haffenden, Volume 4: 1928–1929 (2013)

• The letters of T. S. Eliot, edited by Valerie Eliot andJohn Haffenden, Volume 5: 1930–1931 (2014)

9.7 Notes[1] Bush, Ronald. “T.S. Eliot’s Life and Career.” American Na-

tional Biography. Ed. John A Garraty and Mark C. Carnes.New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

[2] Bloom, Harold (2003). T.S. Eliot. Bloom’s Biocritiques.Broomall: Chelsea House Publishing. p. 30.

[3] Thomas Stearns Eliot, Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed 7November 2009.

[4] “The Nobel Prize in Literature 1948”. Nobelprize.org. No-bel Media. Retrieved 26 April 2013.

[5] “The Nobel Prize in Literature 1948 – T.S. Eliot”, Nobel-prize.org, taken from Frenz, Horst (ed). Nobel Lectures, Lit-erature 1901–1967. Elsevier Publishing Company, Amster-dam, 1969, accessed 6 March 2012.

[6] Ronald Bush, T.S. Eliot: the modernist in history, (New York,1991), p. 72

[7] Worthen, John (2009). T.S. Eliot: A Short Biography. Lon-don: Haus Publishing. p. 9.

[8] Sencourt, Robert (1971). T.S. Eliot, A Memoir. London:Garnstone Limited. p. 18.

[9] Letter to Marquis Childs quoted in St. Louis Post Dispatch(15 October 1930) and in the address “American Literatureand the American Language” delivered at Washington Uni-versity in St. Louis (9 June 1953), published in WashingtonUniversity Studies, New Series: Literature and Language, no.23 (St. Louis: Washington University Press, 1953), p. 6.

[10] Hall, Donald. The Art of Poetry No. 1, The Paris Review, Is-sue 21, Spring–Summer 1959, accessed 29 November 2011.

[11] Gallup, Donald. T. S. Eliot: A Bibliography (A Revised andExtended Edition), Harcourt, Brace & World, New York,1969.

[12] Eliot, T.S. Poems Written in Early Youth, John Davy Hay-ward, ed. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 1967

[13] Narita, Tatsushi, “The Young T. S. Eliot and Alien Cultures:His Philippine Interactions”, The Review of English Studies,New Series, vol. 45, no. 180, 1994, pp. 523–525.

[14] Narita, Tatsush, T. S. Eliot, The World Fair of St. Louis and“Autonomy”, Nagoya: Kougaku Shuppan (2013), pp.9–104.

[15] Bush, Ronald, “The Presence of the Past: EthnographicThinking/ Literary Politics”, in Prehistories of the Future,ed. Elzar Barkan and Ronald Bush, Stanford UniversityPress,(1995), pp. 3–5; 25–31.

[16] Marsh, Alex and Elizabeth Daumer, “Pound and T. S. Eliot”,American Literary Scholarship, 2005, 182.

[17]

[18] Kermode, Frank. “Introduction” to The Waste Land andOther Poems, Penguin Classics, 2003.

[19] Perl, Jeffry M. and Andrew P. Tuck. “The Hidden Advan-tage of Tradition: On the Significance of T. S. Eliot’s IndicStudies”, Philosophy East & West V. 35 No. 2, April 1985,pp. 116–131.

[20] Seymour-Jones, Carole. Painted Shadow: The Life of Vivi-enne Eliot, First Wife of T. S. Eliot, Knopf Publishing Group,p. 1.

[21] Worthen, John (2009). T.S. Eliot: A Short Biography. Lon-don: Haus Publishing. pp. 34–36.

[22] For a reading of the dissertation, see Brazeal, Gregory (Fall2007). “The Alleged Pragmatism of T.S. Eliot”. Philosophy& Literature 31 (1): 248–264. Retrieved 17 January 2011.

[23] T. S. Eliot at the Institute for Advanced Study The InstituteLetter, Spring 2007

9.7. NOTES 211

[24] Eliot, Thomas Stearns IAS profile

[25] Eliot, T. S. The Letters of T. S. Eliot, Volume 1, 1898–1922.p. 75.

[26] Richardson, John, Sacred Monsters, Sacred Masters. Ran-dom House, 2001, p. 20.

[27] Seymour-Jones, Carole. Painted Shadow: A Life of VivienneEliot. Knopf Publishing Group, 2001, p. 17.

[28] The Letters of T.S. Eliot: Volume 1, 1898–1922. London:Faber and Faber. 1988. p. 533.

[29] Eliot, T. S. The Letters of T. S. Eliot, Volume 1, 1898–1922.London: Faber and Faber. 1988. p. xvii.

[30] Ellmann, Richard. James Joyce. pp. 492–495

[31] Kojecky, Roger (1972). T. S. Eliot’s Social Criticism. Faber& Faber. p. 55. ISBN 0571096921.

[32] T.S. Eliot. Voices and Visions Series. New York Center ofVisual History: PBS, 1988.

[33] plaque on interior wall of Saint Stephen’s

[34] obituary notice in Church and King, Vol. XVII, No. 4, 28February 1965,−− p. 3.

[35] Specific quote is “The general point of view [of the essays]may be described as classicist in literature, royalist in poli-tics, and anglo-catholic [sic] in religion”, in preface by T.S.Eliot to For Lancelot Andrewes: essays on style and order,(1929)

[36] Books: Royalist, Classicist, Anglo-Catholic, 25 May 1936,Time

[37] Eliot, T.S. (1986). On Poetry and Poets. London: Faber &Faber. p. 209. ISBN 0571089836.

[38] Radio interview on 26 September 1959, NordwestdeutscherRundfunk, as cited in Wilson, Colin (1988). Beyond the Oc-cult. London: Bantam Press. pp. 335–336.

[39] Seymour-Jones, Carole. Painted Shadow: A Life of VivienneEliot. Constable 2001, p. 561.

[40] “Vivienne suffered terribly each month from what we nowwould recognize as PMS.”“A Tribute to Dr. Katharina Dal-ton”. Retrieved 11 July 2014.

[41] Ronald Bush T. S. Eliot: The Modernist in History 1991 –Page 11 “Mary Trevelyan, then aged forty, was less impor-tant for Eliot’s writing. Where Emily Hale and Viviennewere part of Eliot’s private phantasmagoria, Mary Trevelyanplayed her part in what was essentially a public friendship.She was Eliot’s escort for nearly twenty years until his secondmarriage in 1957. A brainy woman, with the bracing organi-zational energy of a Florence Nightingale, she propped theouter structure of Eliot’s life, but for him she, too, repre-sented ..”

[42] Leon Surette The Modern Dilemma: Wallace Stevens, T.S.Eliot, and Humanism 2008 Page 343 “Later, sensible, effi-cient Mary Trevelyan served her long stint as support duringthe years of penitence. For her their friendship was a com-mitment; for Eliot quite peripheral. His passion for immor-tality was so commanding that it allowed him to ...”

[43] Santwana Haldar T.S. Eliot – A Twenty-first Century View2005 Page xv “Details of Eliot’s friendship with Emily Hale,who was very close to him in his Boston days and withMary Trevelyan, who wanted to marry him and left a riv-eting memoir of Eliot’s most inscrutable years of fame, shednew light on this period in ...”

[44] Gordon, Lyndall. T. S. Eliot: An Imperfect Life. Norton1998, p. 455.

[45] Gordon, Jane. The University of Verse, The New YorkTimes, 16 October 2005; Wesleyan University Press time-line, 1957

[46] Lawless, Jill (11 November 2012). “T.S. Eliot’s widow Va-lerie Eliot dies at 86”. Associated Press via Yahoo News.Retrieved 12 November 2012.

[47] http://www.tabathayeatts.com/Poets%20Corner.jpg

[48] “T. S. Eliot Blue Plaque”. openplaques.org. Retrieved 23November 2013.

[49] Eliot, T. S. “Letter to J. H. Woods, April 21, 1919.” TheLetters of T. S. Eliot, vol. I. Valerie Eliot, ed. New York:Harcourt Brace, 1988, p. 285.

[50] "''T. S. Eliot: The Harvard Advocate Poems’'. Retrieved 5February 2007”. Theworld.com. Retrieved 3 August 2009.

[51] Hall, Donald (Spring–Summer 1959). “The Art of PoetryNo. 1” (PDF). The Paris Review. Retrieved 7 November2009.

[52] Waugh, Arthur. The New Poetry, Quarterly Review, Oc-tober 1916, citing the Times Literary Supplement 21 June1917, no. 805, 299; Wagner, Erica (2001) “An eruption offury”, The Guardian, letters to the editor, 4 September 2001.Wagner omits the word “very” from the quote.

[53] Miller, James H., Jr. (2005). T. S. Eliot: the making of anAmerican poet, 1888–1922. University Park, PA: Pennsyl-vania State University Press. pp. 387–388. ISBN 0-271-02681-2.

[54] The letters of T. S. Eliot, Vol. 1, p. 596

[55] MacCabe, Colin. T. S. Eliot. Tavistock: Northcote House,2006.

[56] Wilson, Edmund. “Review of Ash Wednesday”, New Re-public, 20 August 1930.

[57] See, for instance, the biographically oriented work of one ofEliot’s editors and major critics, Ronald Schuchard.

212 CHAPTER 9. T. S. ELIOT

[58] Grant, Michael (ed.). T. S. Eliot: the Critical Heritage. Rout-ledge & Kegan Paul, 1982.

[59] " 'Ulysses’, Order, and Myth”, Selected Essays T. S. Eliot(orig 1923).

[60] Untermeyer, Louis. Modern American Poetry. HartcourtBrace, 1950, pp. 395–396.

[61] Eliot, T. S. The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism, Har-vard University Press, 1933 (penultimate paragraph)

[62] Darlington, W. A. (2004). “Henry Sherek”. Oxford Dictio-nary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Re-trieved 27 July 2014.

[63] “Tradition and the Individual Talent. Eliot, T. S. 1920. ''TheSacred Wood''". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 3 August 2009.

[64] quoted in Roger Kimball, “A Craving for Reality”, The NewCriterion Vol. 18, 1999

[65] Dirk Weidmann: And I Tiresias have foresuffered all.... In:LITERATURA 51 (3), 2009, pp.98–108.

[66] “Hamlet and His Problems. Eliot, T. S. 1920. ''The SacredWood''". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 3 August 2009.

[67] Burt, Steven and Lewin, Jennifer. “Poetry and the NewCriticism”. A Companion to Twentieth-Century Poetry, NeilRoberts, ed. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers,2001. p. 154

[68] “Project MUSE”. Muse.jhu.edu. Retrieved 3 August 2009.

[69] A. E. Malloch, “The Unified Sensibility and MetaphysicalPoetry”, College English, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Nov. 1953), pp.95–101

[70] “Eliot, T. S. 1922. ''The Waste Land''". Bartleby.com. Re-trieved 3 August 2009.

[71] “T. S. Eliot :: The Waste Land and criticism – ''BritannicaOnline Encyclopedia''". Britannica.com. 4 January 1965.Retrieved 3 August 2009.

[72] Bush, Ronald. “T.S. Eliot”. American National Biography.Ed. John A Garraty and Mark C. Carnes. New York: Ox-ford University Press, 1999..

[73] Wilson, Edmund. “The Poetry of Drouth”. The Dial 73.December 1922. 611-16.

[74] Powell, Charles. “So Much Waste Paper”. ManchesterGuardian. 31 October 1923.

[75] Time. 3 March 1923, 12.

[76] Ransom, John Crowe. “Waste Lands”. New York EveningPost Literary Review. 14 July 1923. 825-26.

[77] Seldes, Gilbert. “T. S. Eliot”. Nation. 6 December 1922.614–616.

[78] Ozick, Cynthia. T.S. Eliot at 100. The New Yorker:November 20, 1989

[79] Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon: Books and Schools ofthe Ages. NY: Riverhead, 1995.

[80] Eds. Stephen Greenblatt, et al. The Norton Anthology ofEnglish Literature, Volume 2. “T.S. Eliot”. W.W. Norton &Co.: NY, NY, 2000.

[81] The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Volume 2.“T.S. Eliot”. W.W. Norton & Co.: NY, NY, 2000.

[82] Gross, John. Was T.S. Eliot a Scoundrel?, Commentary mag-azine, November 1996

[83] Anthony, Julius. T.S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and LiteraryForm. Cambridge University Press, 1996 ISBN 0-521-58673-9

[84] Eliot, T.S. “Gerontion”. Collected Poems. Harcourt, 1963.

[85] Eliot, T.S. “Burbank with a Baedeker: Bleistein with aCigar”. Collected Poems. Harcourt, 1963.

[86] Bloom, Harold (7 May 2010). “The Jewish Question: BritishAnti-Semitism”. The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April2012.

[87] Dean, Paul (April 2007). “Academimic: on Craig Raine’sT.S. Eliot". The New Criterion. Retrieved 7 June 2011.

[88] London Review of Books, 9 May 1996

[89] Kirk, Russell. “T. S. Eliot on Literary Morals: On T. S.Eliot’s After Strange Gods", Touchstone Magazine, volume10, issue 4, Fall 1997.

[90] T.S. Eliot, The Rock (London: Faber and Faber, 1934), 44.

[91] The Rock, 44

[92] Eagleton, Terry. “Raine’s Sterile Thunder”. The ProspectMagazine. 22 March 2007.

[93] Irish Poetry

[94] [Brathwaite, Kamau, “History of the Voice”, Roots, Ann Ar-bor, University of Michigan Press, 1993, p. 286.]

[95] T.S. Eliot

[96] When Joyce met TS Eliot

[97] “Poet T.S. Eliot Dies in London”. This Day in History. Re-trieved 16 February 2012.

[98] The three short stories published in the Smith AcademyRecord (1905) have never been recollected in any form andhave virtually been neglected.

[99] As for a comparative study of this short story and RudyardKipling's "The Man Who Would Be King", see TatsushiNarita, T. S. Eliot and his Youth as “A Literary Columbus”(Nagoya: Kougaku Shuppan, 2011), 21–30.

9.8. FURTHER READING 213

9.8 Further reading

• Ackroyd, Peter. T. S. Eliot: A Life. (1984)

• Ali, Ahmed. Mr. Eliot’s Penny World of Dreams: AnEssay in the Interpretation of T.S. Eliot’s Poetry, Pub-lished for the Lucknow University by New Book Co.,Bombay, P.S. King & Staples Ltd., Westminster, Lon-don, 1942, pages 138.

• Asher, Kenneth T. S. Eliot and Ideology (1995)

• Bottum, Joseph, “What T. S. Eliot Almost Believed”,First Things 55 (August/September 1995): 25–30.

• Brand, Clinton A. “The Voice of This Calling: TheEnduring Legacy of T. S. Eliot”, Modern Age Volume45, Number 4; Fall 2003 online edition, conservativeperspective

• Brown, Alec. The Lyrical Impulse in Eliot’s Poetry,Scrutinies vol. 2.

• Bush, Ronald. T. S. Eliot: A Study in Character andStyle. (1984)

• Bush, Ronald, 'The Presence of the Past: Ethno-graphic Thinking/ Literary Politics’. In Prehistories ofthe Future, ed. Elzar Barkan and Ronald Bush, Stan-ford University Press. (1995).

• Crawford, Robert. The Savage and the City in the Workof T. S. Eliot. (1987).

• Christensen, Karen. “Dear Mrs. Eliot”, The GuardianReview. (29 January 2005).

• Dawson, J.L., P.D. Holland & D.J. McKitterick, AConcordance to 'The Complete Poems and Plays of T.S.Eliot'. Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press,1995.

• Forster, E. M. Essay on T. S. Eliot, in Life and Letters,June 1929.

• Gardner, Helen. The Art of T. S. Eliot. (1949)

• Gordon, Lyndall. T. S. Eliot: An Imperfect Life.(1998)

• Guha, Chinmoy. Where the Dreams Cross: T. S. Eliotand French Poetry. (2000, 2011)

• Harding, W. D. T. S. Eliot, 1925–1935, Scrutiny,September 1936: A Review.

• Hargrove, Nancy Duvall. Landscape as Symbol in thePoetry of T. S. Eliot. University Press of Mississippi(1978).

• --−. T. S. Eliot’s Parisian Year. University Press ofFlorida (2009).

• Julius, Anthony. T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Liter-ary Form. Cambridge University Press (1995)

• Kenner, Hugh. The Invisible Poet: T. S. Eliot. (1969)

• ---, editor, T. S. Eliot: A Collection of Critical Essays,Prentice-Hall. (1962)

• Kirk, Russell Eliot and His Age: T. S, Eliot’s MoralImagination in the Twentieth Century. (Introduc-tion by Benjamin G. Lockerd Jr.). Wilmington:Intercollegiate Studies Institute, Republication of therevised second edition, 2008.

• Kojecky, Roger. T.S. Eliot’s Social Criticism, Faber &Faber, Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1972, revised Kindleedn. 2014.

• Lal, P. (Editor), T. S. Eliot: Homage from India:A Commemoration Volume of 55 Essays & Elegies,Writer’s Workshop Calcutta, 1965.

• The Letters of T. S. Eliot. Ed. by Valerie Eliot. Vol.I, 1898–1922. San Diego [etc.] 1988. Vol. 2, 1923–1925. Edited by Valerie Eliot and Hugh Haughton,London, Faber, 2009. ISBN 978-0-571-14081-7

• Levy, William Turner and Victor Scherle. Affection-ately, T. S. Eliot: The Story of a Friendship: 1947–1965. (1968).

• Matthews, T. S. Great Tom: Notes Towards the Defi-nition of T. S. Eliot. (1973)

• Maxwell, D. E. S. The Poetry of T. S. Eliot, Routledgeand Keagan Paul. (1960).

• Miller, James E., Jr. T. S. Eliot. The Making of anAmerican Poet, 1888–1922. The Pennsylvania StateUniversity Press. 2005.

• North, Michael (ed.) The Waste Land (Norton CriticalEditions). New York: W.W. Norton, 2000.

• Raine, Craig. T. S. Eliot. Oxford University Press(2006).

• Ricks, Christopher.T. S. Eliot and Prejudice. (1988).

• Robinson, Ian “The English Prophets”, The BrynmillPress Ltd (2001)

• Schuchard, Ronald. Eliot’s Dark Angel: Intersectionsof Life and Art. (1999).

• Scofield, Dr. Martin, “T.S. Eliot: The Poems”, Cam-bridge University Press. (1988).

214 CHAPTER 9. T. S. ELIOT

• Seferis, George. “Introduction to T. S. Eliot” inModernism/modernity 16:1 ( January 2009), 146–60.

• Sencourt, Robert. T. S. Eliot: A Memoir. (1971)

• Seymour-Jones, Carole. Painted Shadow: A Life ofVivienne Eliot. (2001).

• Sinha, Arun Kumar and Vikram, Kumar. T. S. Eliot:An Intensive Study of Selected Poems, Spectrum BooksPvt. Ltd, New Delhi, (2005).

• Troy Southgate. Eliot: Thoughts & Perspectives, Vol-ume Seven, Black Front Press, 2012.

• Spender, Stephen. T. S. Eliot. (1975)

• Spurr, Barry, Anglo-Catholic in Religion: T. S. Eliotand Christianity, The Lutterworth Press (2009)

• Tate, Allen, editor. T. S. Eliot: The Man and HisWork, First published in 1966 – republished by Pen-guin 1971.

9.9 External links

9.9.1 Biography

• Biography From T. S. Eliot Lives’ and Legacies

• Eliot family genealogy, including T. S. Eliot

• Eliot’s grave

• T. S. Eliot’s biographic sketch at Find A Grave

• Lyndall Gordon, Eliot’s Early Years, Oxford Univer-sity Press, Oxford and New York, 1977, ISBN 978-0-19-812078-0.

9.9.2 Works

• doollee.com listing of T S Eliot’s works written for thestage

• Works by T. S. Eliot at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about T. S. Eliot at Internet Archive

• Works by T. S. Eliot at LibriVox (public domain au-diobooks)

• Poems by T.S. Eliot and biography at PoetryFounda-tion.org

• Text of early poems (1907–1910) printed in theHarvard Advocate

• T. S. Eliot Collection at Bartleby.com

9.9.3 Web sites

• T. S. Eliot Society (UK) Resource Hub

• T. S. Eliot Hypertext Project

• What the Thunder Said: T. S. Eliot

• T. S. Eliot at Faber and Faber

• T. S. Eliot Society (US) Home Page

9.9.4 Archives

• Archival material relating to T. S. Eliot listed at theUK National Archives

• Search for T.S. Eliot at Harvard University

• T. S. Eliot Collection at the Harry Ransom Center atthe University of Texas at Austin

• T. S. Eliot Collection at Merton College, Oxford Uni-versity

• T.S. Eliot collection at University of Victoria, SpecialCollections

9.9.5 Miscellaneous

• Links to audio recordings of Eliot reading his work

• An interview with Eliot: Donald Hall (Spring–Summer 1959). “T. S. Eliot, The Art of Poetry No.1”. Paris Review.

• Yale College Lecture on T.S. Eliot audio, video andfull transcripts from Open Yale Courses

Chapter 10

Charles Darwin

For other people named Charles Darwin, see CharlesDarwin (disambiguation).

Charles Robert Darwin, FRS[1] (/ˈdɑrwɪn/;[2] 12 Febru-ary 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist andgeologist,[3] best known for his contributions to evolution-ary theory.[I] He established that all species of life havedescended over time from common ancestors,[4] and in ajoint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced hisscientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution re-sulted from a process that he called natural selection, inwhich the struggle for existence has a similar effect to theartificial selection involved in selective breeding.[5]

Darwin published his theory of evolution with compellingevidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species,overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts oftransmutation of species.[6][7] By the 1870s, the scientificcommunity and much of the general public had acceptedevolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing ex-planations and it was not until the emergence of the modernevolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that abroad consensus developed in which natural selection wasthe basic mechanism of evolution.[8][9] In modified form,Darwin’s scientific discovery is the unifying theory of thelife sciences, explaining the diversity of life.[10][11]

Darwin’s early interest in nature led him to neglect hismedical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead,he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. Studies atthe University of Cambridge (Christ’s College) encouragedhis passion for natural science.[12] His five-year voyageon HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologistwhose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell'suniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of thevoyage made him famous as a popular author.[13]

Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife andfossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailedinvestigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natu-ral selection.[14] Although he discussed his ideas with sev-eral naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and

his geological work had priority.[15] He was writing up histheory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him anessay that described the same idea, prompting immedi-ate joint publication of both of their theories.[16] Darwin’swork established evolutionary descent with modificationas the dominant scientific explanation of diversification innature.[8] In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexualselection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation toSex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man andAnimals. His research on plants was published in a series ofbooks, and in his final book, he examined earthworms andtheir effect on soil.[17]

Darwin became internationally famous, has been de-scribed as one of the most influential figures in humanhistory,[18]and his pre-eminence as a scientist was honouredby burial in Westminster Abbey.[19] Darwin

10.1 Biography

10.1.1 Early life and education

See also: Charles Darwin’s education and Darwin-Wedgwood family

Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury,Shropshire, England, on 12 February 1809 at his familyhome, The Mount.[20] He was the fifth of six children ofwealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin, andSusannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). He was the grandsonof two prominent abolitionists: Erasmus Darwin on hisfather’s side, and of Josiah Wedgwood on his mother’s side.Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedg-woods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, him-self quietly a freethinker, had baby Charles baptised inNovember 1809 in the Anglican St Chad’s Church, Shrews-bury, but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarianchapel with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles al-ready had a taste for natural history and collecting when he

215

216 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

Painting of seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816.

joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July,his mother died. From September 1818, he joined his olderbrother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican ShrewsburySchool as a boarder.[21]

Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doc-tor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, be-fore going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School,at the time the best medical school in the UK, with hisbrother Erasmus in October 1825. He found lectures dulland surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learnedtaxidermy from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave whohad accompanied Charles Waterton in the South Americanrainforest, and often sat with this “very pleasant and intelli-gent man”.[22]

In Darwin’s second year, he joined the Plinian Society, astudent natural history group whose debates strayed intoradical materialism. He assisted Robert Edmond Grant'sinvestigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine in-vertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black sporesfound in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. Oneday, Grant praised Lamarck’s evolutionary ideas. Dar-win was astonished by Grant’s audacity, but had recentlyread similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus’ journals.[23]

Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural his-tory course, which covered geology - including the de-bate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned theclassification of plants, and assisted with work on the col-lections of the University Museum, one of the largest mu-seums in Europe at the time.[24]

This neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, whoshrewdly sent him to Christ’s College, Cambridge, for aBachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becom-ing an Anglican parson. As Darwin was unqualified forthe Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January1828.[25] He preferred riding and shooting to studying. Hiscousin William Darwin Fox introduced him to the popularcraze for beetle collecting; Darwin pursued this zealously,getting some of his finds published in Stevens’ Illustrationsof British entomology. He became a close friend and fol-lower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow and metother leading naturalists who saw scientific work as reli-gious natural theology, becoming known to these dons as“the man who walks with Henslow”. When his own examsdrew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delightedby the language and logic of William Paley's Evidences ofChristianity.[26] In his final examination in January 1831Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates forthe ordinary degree.[27]

Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June. He studiedPaley’s Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence andAttributes of the Deity, which made an argument for di-vine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God act-ing through laws of nature.[28] He read John Herschel's newbook, which described the highest aim of natural philoso-phy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoningbased on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Per-sonal Narrative of scientific travels. Inspired with “a burn-ing zeal” to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerifewith some classmates after graduation to study natural his-tory in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedg-wick's geology course, then travelled with him in the sum-mer for a fortnight, in order to map strata in Wales.[29]

10.1.2 Voyage of the Beagle

For more details on this topic, see Second voyage of HMSBeagle.

After a week with student friends at Barmouth, Dar-win returned home on 29 August to find a letter fromHenslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) gen-tleman naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary placeon HMS Beagle with captain Robert FitzRoy, more as acompanion than a mere collector. The ship was to leavein four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline ofSouth America.[30] Robert Darwin objected to his son’s

10.1. BIOGRAPHY 217

Plymouth

AzoresTenerife

Cape Verde

Bahia

Rio deJaneiro

Montevideo

FalklandIslands

Valparaiso

CallaoLima

Galapagos

Sydney

Hobart

King George's Sound

Cocos(Keeling) Isl.

Mauritius

Cape Town

The voyage of the Beagle, 1831–1836

planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time,but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood,to agree to (and fund) his son’s participation.[31] Darwintook care to remain in a private capacity to retain controlover his collection: the ship’s surgeon Robert McCormickexpected to be the official naturalist.[32]

After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; itlasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Dar-win spent most of that time on land investigating geologyand making natural history collections, while the Beaglesurveyed and charted coasts.[8][33] He kept careful notes ofhis observations and theoretical speculations, and at inter-vals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cam-bridge together with letters including a copy of his journalfor his family.[34] He had some expertise in geology, bee-tle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates, but in allother areas was a novice and ably collected specimens forexpert appraisal.[35] Despite suffering badly from seasick-ness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship.Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates,starting with plankton collected in a calm spell.[33][36]

On their first stop ashore at St Jago in Cape Verde, Dar-win found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffsincluded seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first vol-ume of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, which set outuniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling overimmense periods,[II] and Darwin saw things Lyell’s way,theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology.[37]

When they reached Brazil, Darwin was delighted by thetropical forest,[38] but detested the sight of slavery.[39] Mc-Cormick left the ship at this point, feeling that Darwin hadsupplanted him as naturalist.[32]

The survey continued to the south in Patagonia. Theystopped at Bahía Blanca, and in cliffs near Punta AltaDarwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge ex-tinct mammals beside modern seashells, indicating recentextinction with no signs of change in climate or catastro-phe. He identified the little-known Megatherium by a toothand its association with bony armour, which had at firstseemed to him to be like a giant version of the armour on

local armadillos. The finds brought great interest when theyreached England.[40][41]

On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geol-ogy and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, polit-ical and anthropological insights into both native and colo-nial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two typesof rhea had separate but overlapping territories.[42][43] Fur-ther south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashellsas raised beaches showing a series of elevations. He readLyell’s second volume and accepted its view of “centres ofcreation” of species, but his discoveries and theorising chal-lenged Lyell’s ideas of smooth continuity and of extinctionof species.[44][45]

As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin the-orised about geology and extinction of giant mammals.

Three Fuegians on board, who had been seized during thefirst Beagle voyage and had spent a year in England, weretaken back to Tierra del Fuego as missionaries. Darwinfound them friendly and civilised, yet their relatives seemed“miserable, degraded savages”, as different as wild from do-mesticated animals.[46] To Darwin, the difference showedcultural advances, not racial inferiority. Unlike his scientistfriends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap be-tween humans and animals.[47] A year on, the mission hadbeen abandoned. The Fuegian they had named Jemmy But-ton lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wishto return to England.[48]

Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile and saw signsthat the land had just been raised, including mussel-bedsstranded above high tide. High in the Andes he sawseashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sandbeach. He theorised that as the land rose, oceanic islandssank, and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls.[49][50]

On the geologically new Galápagos Islands, Darwin lookedfor evidence attaching wildlife to an older “centre of cre-ation”, and found mockingbirds allied to those in Chile butdiffering from island to island. He heard that slight vari-ations in the shape of tortoise shells showed which island

218 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eat-ing tortoises taken on board as food.[51][52] In Australia, themarsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusualthat Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinctCreators had been at work.[53] He found the Aborigines“good-humoured & pleasant”, and noted their depletion byEuropean settlement.[54]

The Beagle investigated how the atolls of the Cocos (Keel-ing) Islands had formed, and the survey supported Darwin’stheorising.[50] FitzRoy began writing the official Narrativeof the Beagle voyages, and after reading Darwin’s diaryhe proposed incorporating it into the account.[55] Darwin’sJournal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume,on natural history.[56]

In Cape Town, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Her-schel, who had recently written to Lyell praising hisuniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on “thatmystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct speciesby others” as “a natural in contradistinction to a mirac-ulous process”.[57] When organising his notes as the shipsailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicionsabout the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Is-lands Fox were correct, “such facts undermine the sta-bility of Species”, then cautiously added “would” before“undermine”.[58] He later wrote that such facts “seemed tome to throw some light on the origin of species”.[59]

10.1.3 Inception of Darwin’s evolutionarytheory

For more details on this topic, see Inception of Darwin’stheory.When the Beagle reached Falmouth, Cornwall, on 2 Octo-

ber 1836, Darwin was already a celebrity in scientific cir-cles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his formerpupil’s reputation by giving selected naturalists a pamphletof Darwin’s geological letters.[60] Darwin visited his homein Shrewsbury and saw relatives, then hurried to Cambridgeto see Henslow, who advised him on finding naturalistsavailable to catalogue the collections and agreed to take onthe botanical specimens. Darwin’s father organised invest-ments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman sci-entist, and an excited Darwin went round the London insti-tutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the col-lections. Zoologists had a huge backlog of work, and therewas a danger of specimens just being left in storage.[61]

Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29October and soon introduced him to the up-and-cominganatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the RoyalCollege of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collectedby Darwin. Owen’s surprising results included other gi-gantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium, a

While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific elite.

near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium anda hippopotamus-sized rodent-like skull named Toxodon re-sembling a giant capybara. The armour fragments wereactually from Glyptodon, a huge armadillo-like creature asDarwin had initially thought.[62][41] These extinct creatureswere related to living species in South America.[63]

In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge toorganise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal.[64]

He wrote his first paper, showing that the South Americanlandmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell’s enthusiasticbacking read it to the Geological Society of London on 4January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammaland bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithol-ogist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birdsthat Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, "gros-beaks" and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species offinches. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Councilof the Geological Society, and Lyell’s presidential addresspresented Owen’s findings on Darwin’s fossils, stressing ge-ographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformi-tarian ideas.[65]

Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near thiswork, joining Lyell’s social circle of scientists and expertssuch as Charles Babbage,[66] who described God as a pro-grammer of laws. Darwin stayed with his freethinking

10.1. BIOGRAPHY 219

brother Erasmus, part of this Whig circle and a closefriend of the writer Harriet Martineau, who promotedMalthusianism underlying the controversial Whig Poor Lawreforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation andmore poverty. As a Unitarian, she welcomed the radical im-plications of transmutation of species, promoted by Grantand younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy. Transmuta-tion was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,[67]

but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject andthere was wide interest in John Herschel's letter praisingLyell’s approach as a way to find a natural cause of the ori-gin of new species.[57]

Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagosmockingbirds from different islands were separate species,not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a"wren" was also in the finch group. Darwin had not la-belled the finches by island, but from the notes of otherson the Beagle, including FitzRoy, he allocated species toislands.[68] The two rheas were also distinct species, andon 14 March Darwin announced how their distributionchanged going southwards.[69]

By mid-March, Darwin was speculating in his Red Note-book on the possibility that “one species does change intoanother” to explain the geographical distribution of liv-ing species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as thestrange Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco.His thoughts on lifespan, asexual reproduction and sexualreproduction developed in his “B” notebook around mid-July on to variation in offspring “to adapt & alter the race tochanging world” explaining the Galápagos tortoises, mock-ingbirds and rheas. He sketched branching descent, thena genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, inwhich “It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher thananother”, discarding Lamarck’s independent lineages pro-gressing to higher forms.[70]

10.1.4 Overwork, illness, and marriage

See also: Charles Darwin’s health

While developing this intensive study of transmutation,Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting hisJournal, he took on editing and publishing the expert re-ports on his collections, and with Henslow’s help obtaineda Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volumeZoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalentto about £81,000 in 2013.[71] He stretched the funding toinclude his planned books on geology, and agreed unrealis-tic dates with the publisher.[72] As the Victorian era began,Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August1837 began correcting printer’s proofs.[73]

In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his “B” notebook on Transmu-tation of Species, and on page 36 wrote “I think” above his firstevolutionary tree.

Darwin’s health suffered under the pressure. On 20September he had “an uncomfortable palpitation of theheart”, so his doctors urged him to “knock off all work”and live in the country for a few weeks. After visitingShrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall,Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his trav-els to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, andcultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older thanDarwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Jos pointedout an area of ground where cinders had disappeared underloam and suggested that this might have been the work ofearthworms, inspiring “a new & important theory” on theirrole in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geo-logical Society on 1 November.[74]

William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties ofSecretary of the Geological Society. After initially declin-ing the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.[75] De-

220 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

spite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports,Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, takingevery opportunity to question expert naturalists and, uncon-ventionally, people with practical experience such as farm-ers and pigeon fanciers.[8][76] Over time, his research drewon information from his relatives and children, the familybutler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.[77] Heincluded mankind in his speculations from the outset, andon seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 notedits childlike behaviour.[78]

Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.

The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid upfor days on end with stomach problems, headaches andheart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeat-edly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomit-ing, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symp-toms, particularly during times of stress, such as attendingmeetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin’sillness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment hadlittle success.[79]

On 23 June, he took a break and went “geologising” inScotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to seethe parallel “roads” cut into the hillsides at three heights.He later published his view that these were marine raisedbeaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines ofa proglacial lake.[80]

Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Usedto jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawledrambling thoughts about career and prospects on two scraps

of paper, one with columns headed “Marry” and “NotMarry”. Advantages included “constant companion and afriend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow”, againstpoints such as “less money for books” and “terrible loss oftime.”[81] Having decided in favour, he discussed it with hisfather, then went to visit Emma on 29 July. He did not getaround to proposing, but against his father’s advice he men-tioned his ideas on transmutation.[82]

Malthus and natural selection

Continuing his research in London, Darwin’s wide readingnow included the sixth edition of Malthus’s An Essay on thePrinciple of Population, and on 28 September 1838 he notedits assertion that human “population, when unchecked, goeson doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases ina geometrical ratio”, a geometric progression so that pop-ulation soon exceeds food supply in what is known as aMalthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to com-pare this to de Candolle’s “warring of the species” of plantsand the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaininghow numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As speciesalways breed beyond available resources, favourable varia-tions would make organisms better at surviving and passingthe variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable vari-ations would be lost. He wrote that the “final cause of allthis wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adaptit to changes”, so that “One may say there is a force likea hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind ofadapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature,or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones.”[8][83]

This would result in the formation of new species.[8][84] Ashe later wrote in his Autobiography:

In October 1838, that is, fifteen months afterI had begun my systematic enquiry, I happenedto read for amusement Malthus on Population,and being well prepared to appreciate the strug-gle for existence which everywhere goes on fromlong-continued observation of the habits of ani-mals and plants, it at once struck me that underthese circumstances favourable variations wouldtend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to bedestroyed. The result of this would be the forma-tion of new species. Here, then, I had at last gota theory by which to work...”[85]

By mid December, Darwin saw a similarity between farm-ers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and aMalthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that“every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical andperfected”,[86] thinking this comparison “a beautiful part ofmy theory”.[87] He later called his theory natural selection,

10.1. BIOGRAPHY 221

an analogy with what he termed the artificial selection ofselective breeding.[8]

On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed toEmma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, thenin exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued hisopenness in sharing their differences, also expressing herstrong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubtsmight separate them in the afterlife.[88] While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emmawrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically re-marking “So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till Ican be with you to nurse you.” He found what they called“Macaw Cottage” (because of its gaudy interiors) in GowerStreet, then moved his “museum” in over Christmas. On24 January 1839, Darwin was elected a Fellow of the RoyalSociety (FRS) in 1839.[1][89]

On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were mar-ried at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit theUnitarians, then immediately caught the train to Londonand their new home.[90]

10.1.5 Geology books, Barnacles, evolution-ary research

For more details on this topic, see Development of Darwin’stheory.Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural se-

Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin

lection “by which to work”,[85] as his “prime hobby”.[91] Hisresearch included extensive experimental selective breedingof plants and animals, finding evidence that species werenot fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refineand substantiate his theory.[8] For fifteen years this workwas in the background to his main occupation of writingon geology and publishing expert reports on the Beaglecollections.[92]

When FitzRoy’s Narrative was published in May 1839, Dar-win’s Journal and Remarks was such a success as the thirdvolume that later that year it was published on its own.[93]

Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to CharlesLyell, who noted that his ally “denies seeing a beginningto each crop of species”.[94]

Darwin’s book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefson his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842after more than three years of work, and he then wrote hisfirst “pencil sketch” of his theory of natural selection.[95] Toescape the pressures of London, the family moved to ruralDown House in September.[96] On 11 January 1844, Dar-win mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dal-ton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour “it is likeconfessing a murder”.[97][98] Hooker replied “There may inmy opinion have been a series of productions on differentspots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be de-lighted to hear how you think that this change may havetaken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy meon the subject.”[99]

Darwin’s “sandwalk” at Down House was his usual “ThinkingPath”.[100]

By July, Darwin had expanded his “sketch” into a 230-page “Essay”, to be expanded with his research results if hedied prematurely.[101] In November, the anonymously pub-lished sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural Historyof Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwinscorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefullyreviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it

222 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal byscientists.[102][103]

Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. Henow renewed a fascination and expertise in marine inverte-brates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dis-secting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on thevoyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and think-ing about comparisons with allied structures.[104] In 1847,Hooker read the “Essay” and sent notes that provided Dar-win with the calm critical feedback that he needed, butwould not commit himself and questioned Darwin’s oppo-sition to continuing acts of creation.[105]

In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin wentin 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprisedto find some benefit from hydrotherapy.[106] Then, in 1851,his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fearsthat his illness might be hereditary, and after a long seriesof crises she died.[107]

In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Dar-win’s theory helped him to find "homologies" showing thatslightly changed body parts served different functions tomeet new conditions, and in some genera he found minutemales parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediatestage in evolution of distinct sexes.[108] In 1853, it earnedhim the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his rep-utation as a biologist.[109] In 1854 he became a Fellow ofthe Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to itslibrary.[110] He began a major reassessment of his theoryof species, and in November realised that divergence in thecharacter of descendants could be explained by them be-coming adapted to “diversified places in the economy ofnature”.[111]

10.1.6 Publication of the theory of naturalselection

For more details on this topic, see Publication of Darwin’stheory.

By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whethereggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spreadspecies across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the tra-ditional view that species were fixed, but their young friendThomas Henry Huxley was firmly against the transmuta-tion of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin’s specula-tions without realising their extent. When he read a paperby Alfred Russel Wallace, “On the Law which has Regu-lated the Introduction of New Species”, he saw similaritieswith Darwin’s thoughts and urged him to publish to estab-lish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, he beganwork on a short paper. Finding answers to difficult ques-tions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a“big book on species” titled Natural Selection. He continued

Charles Darwin, aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publi-cation of his theory of natural selection. He wrote to Hooker aboutthis portrait, “if I really have as bad an expression, as my photo-graph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising.”[112]

his researches, obtaining information and specimens fromnaturalists worldwide including Wallace who was workingin Borneo. The American botanist Asa Gray showed simi-lar interests and, on 5 September 1857, Darwin sent Gray adetailed outline of his ideas including an abstract of NaturalSelection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wal-lace asking if the book would examine human origins. Heresponded that he would avoid that subject, “so surroundedwith prejudices”, while encouraging Wallace’s theorisingand adding that “I go much further than you.”[113]

Darwin’s book was only partly written when, on 18 June1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing naturalselection. Shocked that he had been “forestalled”, Darwinsent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,[114][115]

and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Dar-win suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallacechose. His family was in crisis with children in the villagedying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands ofhis friends. After some discussion, Lyell and Hooker de-cided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and onthe Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means

10.1. BIOGRAPHY 223

of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin’s baby sondied of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness,and he was too distraught to attend.[116]

There was little immediate attention to this announcementof the theory; the president of the Linnean Society re-marked in May 1859 that the year had not been markedby any revolutionary discoveries.[117] Only one review ran-kled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor SamuelHaughton of Dublin claimed that “all that was new in themwas false, and what was true was old”.[118] Darwin strug-gled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his “bigbook”, suffering from ill health but getting constant encour-agement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to haveit published by John Murray.[119]

On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, withthe entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when itwent on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.[120] Inthe book, Darwin set out “one long argument” of detailedobservations, inferences and consideration of anticipatedobjections.[121] His only allusion to human evolution wasthe understatement that “light will be thrown on the originof man and his history”.[122] His theory is simply stated inthe introduction:

As many more individuals of each speciesare born than can possibly survive; and as, con-sequently, there is a frequently recurring strugglefor existence, it follows that any being, if it varyhowever slightly in any manner profitable toitself, under the complex and sometimes varyingconditions of life, will have a better chanceof surviving, and thus be naturally selected.From the strong principle of inheritance, anyselected variety will tend to propagate its newand modified form.[123]

He put a strong case for common descent, and at the end ofthe book concluded that:

There is grandeur in this view of life, with itsseveral powers, having been originally breathedinto a few forms or into one; and that, whilstthis planet has gone cycling on according to thefixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginningendless forms most beautiful and most wonderfulhave been, and are being, evolved.[124]

The last word was the only variant of “evolved” in thefirst five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that timewas associated with other concepts, most commonly withembryological development, and Darwin first used the word

evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding itin 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species.[125]

10.1.7 Responses to publication

During the Darwin family’s 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cot-tage, Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushybeard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866.

For more details on this topic, see Reaction to On theOrigin of Species.

The book aroused international interest, with less contro-versy than had greeted the popular Vestiges of the Natu-ral History of Creation.[127] Though Darwin’s illness kepthim away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinisedthe scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, re-views, articles, satires and caricatures, and correspondedon it with colleagues worldwide.[128] Darwin had only said“Light will be thrown on the origin of man”,[129] but the firstreview claimed it made a creed of the “men from monkeys”idea from Vestiges.[130] Amongst early favourable responses,Huxley’s reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the sci-entific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.[131]

In April, Owen’s review attacked Darwin’s friends and con-descendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,[132] butOwen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturallyguided evolution.[133]

224 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

An 1871 caricature following publication of The Descent of Manwas typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body, identify-ing him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionarytheory.[126]

The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin’sold Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissedthe ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural se-lection as an instrument of God’s design, with the clericCharles Kingsley seeing it as “just as noble a conception ofDeity”.[134] In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviewsby seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical at-tention from Darwin, with its ideas including higher criti-cism attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, BadenPowell argued that miracles broke God’s laws, so belief inthem was atheistic, and praised “Mr Darwin’s masterly vol-ume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolvingpowers of nature”.[135] Asa Gray discussed teleology withDarwin, who imported and distributed Gray’s pamphleton theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsis-tent with natural theology.[134][136] The most famous con-frontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution de-bate during a meeting of the British Association for theAdvancement of Science, where the Bishop of OxfordSamuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutationof species, argued against Darwin’s explanation and humandescent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Dar-win, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would

rather be descended from an ape than a man who mis-used his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science overreligion.[134][137]

Even Darwin’s close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley andLyell still expressed various reservations but gave strongsupport, as did many others, particularly younger natural-ists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, whileHuxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and sci-ence. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority ofthe clergy in education,[134] aiming to overturn the domi-nance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owenin favour of a new generation of professional scientists.Owen’s claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be aseparate biological order from apes was shown to be falseby Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kings-ley as the "Great Hippocampus Question", and discreditedOwen.[138]

Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range ofevolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell’s Geological Evidencesof the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though hiscaution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks laterHuxley’s Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature showed thatanatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on theRiver Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empiricalevidence of natural selection.[139] Lobbying brought Dar-win Britain’s highest scientific honour, the Royal Society'sCopley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864.[140] Thatday, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the in-fluential X Club devoted to “science, pure and free, untram-melled by religious dogmas”.[141] By the end of the decademost scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only aminority supported Darwin’s view that the chief mechanismwas natural selection.[142]

The Origin of Species was translated into many languages,becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful atten-tion from all walks of life, including the “working men” whoflocked to Huxley’s lectures.[143] Darwin’s theory also res-onated with various movements at the time[III] and became akey fixture of popular culture.[IV] Cartoonists parodied ani-mal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with an-imal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to pop-ularise Darwin’s theory in an unthreatening way. While illin 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reap-peared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helpedto identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism.[126]

10.1.8 Descent of Man, sexual selection, andbotany

See also: Darwin from Orchids to Variation, Darwinfrom Descent of Man to Emotions and Darwin fromInsectivorous Plants to Worms

10.1. BIOGRAPHY 225

By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years ofillness.

Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-twoyears of his life, Darwin’s work continued. Having pub-lished On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory,he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing ofhis “big book”. He covered human descent from earlier an-imals including evolution of society and of mental abilities,as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and di-versifying into innovative plant studies.Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel stud-ies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers toattract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fer-tilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first de-tailed demonstration of the power of natural selection toexplain complex ecological relationships, making testablepredictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbedin a room filled with inventive experiments to trace themovements of climbing plants.[144] Admiring visitors in-cluded Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismusincorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism.[145] Wal-lace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned toSpiritualism.[146]

The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domesticationof 1868 was the first part of Darwin’s planned “big book”,and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis at-

Letter from Charles Darwin to John Burdon-Sanderson

tempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despiteits size, and was translated into many languages. He wrotemost of a second part, on natural selection, but it remainedunpublished in his lifetime.[147]

Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, andHuxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes.[139]

With The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sexpublished in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numer-ous sources that humans are animals, showing continuityof physical and mental attributes, and presented sexual se-lection to explain impractical animal features such as thepeacock's plumage as well as human evolution of culture,differences between sexes, and physical and cultural racialcharacteristics, while emphasising that humans are all onespecies.[148] His research using images was expanded in his1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and An-imals, one of the first books to feature printed photographs,which discussed the evolution of human psychology andits continuity with the behaviour of animals. Both booksproved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the

226 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

Punch’s almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin’sdeath, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gen-tleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.

general assent with which his views had been received, re-marking that “everybody is talking about it without beingshocked.”[149] His conclusion was “that man with all his no-ble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most de-based, with benevolence which extends not only to othermen but to the humblest living creature, with his god-likeintellect which has penetrated into the movements and con-stitution of the solar system–with all these exalted powers–Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp ofhis lowly origin.”[150]

His evolution-related experiments and investigations led tobooks on Insectivorous Plants, The Effects of Cross and SelfFertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, different forms offlowers on plants of the same species, and The Power ofMovement in Plants. In his last book he returned to TheFormation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.

10.1.9 Death and funeral

See also: Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to WormsIn 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina

pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and dis-ease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physiciansdiagnosed “anginal attacks”, and “heart-failure”.[151]

He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last wordswere to his family, telling Emma “I am not the least afraidof death – Remember what a good wife you have been to

Tombs of John Herschel and Charles Darwin. Westminster Abbey.

me – Tell all my children to remember how good they havebeen to me”, then while she rested, he repeatedly told Hen-rietta and Francis “It’s almost worth while to be sick to benursed by you”.[152] He had expected to be buried in StMary’s churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Dar-win’s colleagues, after public and parliamentary petition-ing, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society)arranged for Darwin to be buried in Westminster Abbey,close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton. The funeral washeld on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousandsof people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophersand dignitaries.[19][153]

10.2 Legacy

Darwin had convinced most scientists that evolution asdescent with modification was correct, and he was regardedas a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. Thoughfew agreed with his view that “natural selection has beenthe main but not the exclusive means of modification”, hewas honoured in June 1909 by more than 400 officials andscientists from across the world who met in Cambridge tocommemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary ofOn the Origin of Species.[154] During this period, which hasbeen called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposedvarious alternative evolutionary mechanisms which even-tually proved untenable. The development of the modernevolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s, in-corporating natural selection with population genetics andMendelian genetics, brought broad scientific consensus thatnatural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.This synthesis set the frame of reference for modern de-bates and refinements of the theory.[9]

10.2. LEGACY 227

In 1881 Darwin was an eminent figure, still working on his con-tributions to evolutionary thought that had an enormous effect onmany fields of science. Portrait by John Collier.

10.2.1 Commemoration

Main article: Commemoration of Charles DarwinSee also: List of things named after Charles Darwin andList of taxa described by Charles Darwin

During Darwin’s lifetime, many geographical features weregiven his name. An expanse of water adjoining the BeagleChannel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy af-ter Darwin’s prompt action, along with two or three of themen, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shorewhen a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that wouldhave swept away their boats,[155] and the nearby Mount Dar-win in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin’s25th birthday.[156] When the Beagle was surveying Australiain 1839, Darwin’s friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natu-ral harbour which the ship’s captain Wickham named PortDarwin: a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911,and it became the capital city of Australia’s Northern Ter-ritory.[157]

More than 120 species and nine genera have been namedafter Darwin.[158] In one example, the group of tanagersrelated to those Darwin found in the Galápagos Islandsbecame popularly known as "Darwin’s finches" in 1947,

fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to hiswork.[159]

Darwin’s work has continued to be celebrated by numerouspublications and events. The Linnean Society of Londonhas commemorated Darwin’s achievements by the awardof the Darwin–Wallace Medal since 1908. Darwin Dayhas become an annual celebration, and in 2009 worldwideevents were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin’s birthand the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Ori-gin of Species.[160]

Darwin has been commemorated in the UK, with his por-trait printed on the reverse of £10 banknotes printed alongwith a hummingbird and HMS Beagle, issued by the Bankof England.[161]

A life size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the mainhall of the Natural History Museum in London.[162]

Unveiling of the Darwin Statue outside the former ShrewsburySchool building in 1897

A seated statue of Darwin, unveiled 1897, stands in frontof Shrewsbury Library, the building that used to houseShrewsbury School, which Darwin attended as a boy. An-other statue of Darwin as a young man is situated in thegrounds of Christ’s College, Cambridge.Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge Uni-versity, is named after the Darwin family.

228 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

10.3 Children

The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, andAnnie’s death at the age of ten had a devastating effecton her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncom-monly attentive to his children.[12] Whenever they fell ill,he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses frominbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with hiswife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood. He examined thistopic in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages ofcrossing amongst many organisms.[163] Despite his fears,most of the surviving children and many of their descen-dants went on to have distinguished careers (see Darwin-Wedgwood family).[164]

Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace be-came Fellows of the Royal Society,[165] distinguished asastronomer,[166] botanist and civil engineer, respectively.All three were knighted.[167] Another son, Leonard, wenton to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist andmentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist RonaldFisher.[168]

10.4 Views and opinions

10.4.1 Religious views

For more details on this topic, see Religious views ofCharles Darwin.Darwin’s family tradition was nonconformist Unitarianism,

while his father and grandfather were freethinkers, and hisbaptism and boarding school were Church of England.[21]

When going to Cambridge to become an Anglican clergy-man, he did not doubt the literal truth of the Bible.[26] Helearned John Herschel's science which, like William Pa-ley's natural theology, sought explanations in laws of na-ture rather than miracles and saw adaptation of species asevidence of design.[28][29] On board the Beagle, Darwin wasquite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an author-ity on morality.[170] He looked for “centres of creation” toexplain distribution,[51] and related the antlion found nearkangaroos to distinct “periods of Creation”.[53]

By his return, he was critical of the Bible as history, andwondered why all religions should not be equally valid.[170]

In the next few years, while intensively speculating ongeology and the transmutation of species, he gave muchthought to religion and openly discussed this with his wifeEmma, whose beliefs also came from intensive study andquestioning.[88] The theodicy of Paley and Thomas Malthusvindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolentcreator’s laws, which had an overall good effect. To Dar-win, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but

In 1851 Darwin was devastated when his daughter Annie died. Bythen his faith in Christianity had dwindled, and he had stoppedgoing to church.[169]

removed the need for design,[171] and he could not see thework of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering,such as the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as livefood for its eggs.[136] He still viewed organisms as perfectlyadapted, and On the Origin of Species reflects theologicalviews. Though he thought of religion as a tribal survivalstrategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of Godas an ultimate lawgiver. He was increasingly troubled bythe problem of evil.[172][173]

Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe,John Brodie Innes, and continued to play a leading part inthe parish work of the church,[174] but from around 1849would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attendedchurch.[169] He considered it “absurd to doubt that a manmight be an ardent theist and an evolutionist”[175][176] and,though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrotethat “I have never been an atheist in the sense of denyingthe existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an ag-nostic would be the most correct description of my state ofmind”.[88][175]

The "Lady Hope Story", published in 1915, claimed thatDarwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. Theclaims were repudiated by Darwin’s children and have beendismissed as false by historians.[177]

10.5. EVOLUTIONARY SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 229

10.4.2 Human society

Darwin’s views on social and political issues reflected histime and social position. He thought men’s eminenceover women was the outcome of sexual selection, a viewdisputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in The SexesThroughout Nature.[178] He valued European civilisationand saw colonisation as spreading its benefits, with thesad but inevitable effect of extermination of savage peo-ples who did not become civilised. Darwin’s theories pre-sented this as natural, and were cited to promote policiesthat went against his humanitarian principles.[179] Darwinwas strongly against slavery, against “ranking the so-calledraces of man as distinct species”, and against ill-treatmentof native people.[180][VI]

Darwin was intrigued by his half-cousin Francis Galton'sargument, introduced in 1865, that statistical analysis ofheredity showed that moral and mental human traits couldbe inherited, and principles of animal breeding could ap-ply to humans. In The Descent of Man, Darwin noted thataiding the weak to survive and have families could losethe benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that with-holding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy,“the noblest part of our nature”, and factors such as educa-tion could be more important. When Galton suggested thatpublishing research could encourage intermarriage withina “caste” of “those who are naturally gifted”, Darwin fore-saw practical difficulties, and thought it “the sole feasible,yet I fear utopian, plan of procedure in improving the hu-man race”, preferring to simply publicise the importance ofinheritance and leave decisions to individuals.[181] FrancisGalton named this field of study "eugenics" in 1883.[V]

10.5 Evolutionary social movements

Further information: Darwinism, Eugenics and SocialDarwinism

Darwin’s fame and popularity led to his name being asso-ciated with ideas and movements that, at times, had onlyan indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went di-rectly against his express comments.Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyondresources was ordained by God to get humans to work pro-ductively and show restraint in getting families, this wasused in the 1830s to justify workhouses and laissez-faireeconomics.[182] Evolution was by then seen as having socialimplications, and Herbert Spencer's 1851 book Social Stat-ics based ideas of human freedom and individual libertieson his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.[183]

Soon after the Origin was published in 1859, critics derided

Caricature from 1871 Vanity Fair

his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusianjustification for the English industrial capitalism of thetime. The term Darwinism was used for the evolutionaryideas of others, including Spencer’s "survival of the fittest"as free-market progress, and Ernst Haeckel's racist ideasof human development. Writers used natural selectionto argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies suchas laissez-faire dog-eat dog capitalism, racism, warfare,colonialism and imperialism. However, Darwin’s holisticview of nature included “dependence of one being on an-other"; thus pacifists, socialists, liberal social reformers andanarchists such as Peter Kropotkin stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species.[184] Darwin him-self insisted that social policy should not simply be guidedby concepts of struggle and selection in nature.[185]

After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on ideas

230 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

of biological inheritance, and for scientific justificationof their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism.In Britain, most shared Darwin’s cautious views on vol-untary improvement and sought to encourage those withgood traits in “positive eugenics”. During the "Eclipse ofDarwinism", a scientific foundation for eugenics was pro-vided by Mendelian genetics. Negative eugenics to re-move the “feebleminded” were popular in America, Canadaand Australia, and eugenics in the United States introducedcompulsory sterilization laws, followed by several othercountries. Subsequently, Nazi eugenics brought the fieldinto disrepute.[V]

The term "Social Darwinism" was used infrequently fromaround the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory termin the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attackthe laissez-faire conservatism of those like William GrahamSumner who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, ithas been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to whatthey think are the moral consequences of evolution.[186][182]

10.6 Works

For more details on this topic, see Charles Darwin bibliog-raphy.

Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication ofhis works on evolution, he would have had a considerablereputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle, as ageologist who had published extensively on South Americaand had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls,and as a biologist who had published the definitive work onbarnacles. While On the Origin of Species dominates per-ceptions of his work, The Descent of Man and The Expres-sion of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerableimpact, and his books on plants including The Power ofMovement in Plants were innovative studies of great impor-tance, as was his final work on The Formation of VegetableMould through the Action of Worms.[187][188]

10.7 See also

• Creation-evolution controversy

• "Darwin among the Machines"

• Darwin’s Frog

• European and American voyages of scientific explo-ration

• Harriet (tortoise)

• History of biology

• History of evolutionary thought

• List of coupled cousins

• List of multiple discoveries

• Multiple discovery

• Patrick Matthew

• Parson-naturalist

• Portraits of Charles Darwin

• Tinamou egg

• Universal Darwinism

10.8 Notes

I. ^ Darwin was eminent as a naturalist, geologist, biologist,and author; after working as a physician’s assistant and twoyears as a medical student was educated as a clergyman; andwas trained in taxidermy.[189]

II. ^ Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voy-age for biblical literalism, but at this time he had consider-able interest in Lyell’s ideas, and they met before the voy-age when Lyell asked for observations to be made in SouthAmerica. FitzRoy’s diary during the ascent of the RiverSanta Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plainswere raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a veryreligious lady, he recanted these ideas.(Browne 1995, pp.186, 414)III. ^ See, for example, WILLA volume 4, Charlotte PerkinsGilman and the Feminization of Education by Deborah M.De Simone: “Gilman shared many basic educational ideaswith the generation of thinkers who matured during the pe-riod of “intellectual chaos” caused by Darwin’s Origin ofthe Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can di-rect human and social evolution, many progressives came toview education as the panacea for advancing social progressand for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, orimmigration.”IV. ^ See, for example, the song “A lady fair of lineage high”from Gilbert and Sullivan's Princess Ida, which describesthe descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.V. ^ Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian in-heritance, while eugenics movements sought to manage so-ciety, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom,and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, lead-ing to geneticists seeing this as impractical pseudoscience.A shift from voluntary arrangements to “negative” eugenics

10.9. CITATIONS 231

included compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States,copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenicsbased on virulent racism and "racial hygiene".(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). “the creation of ge-netic identity”. SEHR 5 (Supplement: Cultural and Techno-logical Incubations of Fascism). Retrieved 11 November2008.Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). “The GeneticalTheory of Natural Selection”. Genetics 154 (April 2000).pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Re-trieved 11 November 2008.Wilkins, John. “Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holo-caust 3: eugenics”. Retrieved 11 November 2008.)VI. ^ Darwin did not share the then common view that otherraces are inferior, and said of his taxidermy tutor John Ed-monstone, a freed black slave, “I used often to sit with him,for he was a very pleasant and intelligent man”.[22]

Early in the Beagle voyage, he nearly lost his position onthe ship when he criticised FitzRoy’s defence and praise ofslavery. (Darwin 1958, p. 74) He wrote home about “howsteadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has beenrising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England ifshe is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it!I was told before leaving England that after living in slavecountries all my opinions would be altered; the only alter-ation I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate ofthe negro character.” (Darwin 1887, p. 246) RegardingFuegians, he “could not have believed how wide was thedifference between savage and civilized man: it is greaterthan between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch asin man there is a greater power of improvement”, but heknew and liked civilised Fuegians like Jemmy Button: “Itseems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his manygood qualities, that he should have been of the same race,and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the mis-erable, degraded savages whom we first met here."(Darwin1845, pp. 205, 207–208)In the Descent of Man, he mentioned the Fuegians and Ed-monstone when arguing against “ranking the so-called racesof man as distinct species”.[190]

He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for ex-ample wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women, andchildren, “Every one here is fully convinced that this is themost just war, because it is against barbarians. Who wouldbelieve in this age that such atrocities could be committedin a Christian civilized country?"(Darwin 1845, p. 102)

10.9 Citations[1] “Fellows of the Royal Society”. London: Royal Society.

Archived from the original on 2015-03-16.

[2] “Darwin” entry in Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins

Publishers, 1998.

[3] Desmond, Moore & Browne 2004

[4] Coyne, Jerry A. (2009). Why Evolution is True. Viking. pp.8–11. ISBN 978-0-670-02053-9.

[5] Larson 2004, pp. 79–111

[6] Coyne, Jerry A. (2009). Why Evolution is True. Oxford:Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-19-923084-6. InThe Origin, Darwin provided an alternative hypothesis forthe development, diversification, and design of life. Muchof that book presents evidence that not only supports evolu-tion, but at the same time refutes creationism. In Darwin’sday, the evidence for his theories was compelling, but notcompletely decisive.

[7] Glass, Bentley (1959). Forerunners of Darwin. Baltimore,MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. iv. ISBN 0-8018-0222-9. Darwin’s solution is a magnificent synthesis of evi-dence...a synthesis...compelling in honesty and comprehen-siveness

[8] van Wyhe 2008

[9] Bowler 2003, pp. 178–179, 338, 347

[10] The Complete Works of Darwin Online – Biography.darwin-online.org.uk. Retrieved 2006-12-15Dobzhansky 1973

[11] As Darwinian scholar Joseph Carroll of the University ofMissouri–St. Louis puts it in his introduction to a mod-ern reprint of Darwin’s work: "The Origin of Species hasspecial claims on our attention. It is one of the two orthree most significant works of all time—one of those worksthat fundamentally and permanently alter our vision of theworld...It is argued with a singularly rigorous consistency butit is also eloquent, imaginatively evocative, and rhetoricallycompelling.” Carroll, Joseph, ed. (2003). On the origin ofspecies by means of natural selection. Peterborough, Ontario:Broadview. p. 15. ISBN 1-55111-337-6.

[12] Leff 2000, About Charles Darwin

[13] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 210, 284–285

[14] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 263–274

[15] van Wyhe 2007, pp. 184, 187

[16] Beddall, B. G. (1968). “Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory ofNatural Selection” (PDF). Journal of the History of Biology1 (2): 261–323. doi:10.1007/BF00351923.

[17] Freeman 1977

[18] “Special feature: Darwin 200”. New Scientist. Retrieved 2April 2011.

[19] Leff 2000, Darwin’s Burialvan Wyhe 2008b, pp. 60–61

232 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

[20] John H. Wahlert (11 June 2001). “The Mount House,Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)". Darwin and Dar-winism. Baruch College. Retrieved 26 November 2008.

[21] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 12–15Darwin 1958, pp. 21–25

[22] Darwin 1958, pp. 47–51

[23] Browne 1995, pp. 72–88

[24] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 42–43

[25] Browne 1995, pp. 47–48, 89–91

[26] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 73–79Darwin 1958, pp. 57–67

[27] Browne 1995, p. 97

[28] von Sydow 2005, pp. 5–7

[29] Darwin 1958, pp. 67–68Browne 1995, pp. 128–129, 133–141

[30] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 105 – Henslow, J.S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831”. Retrieved 29 December2008.

[31] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 94–97

[32] Browne 1995, pp. 204–210

[33] Keynes 2000, pp. ix–xi

[34] van Wyhe 2008b, pp. 18–21

[35] Gordon Chancellor; Randal Keynes (October 2006).“Darwin’s field notes on the Galapagos: 'A little world withinitself'". Darwin Online. Retrieved 16 September 2009.

[36] Keynes 2001, pp. 21–22

[37] Browne 1995, pp. 183–190

[38] Keynes 2001, pp. 41–42

[39] Darwin 1958, pp. 73–74

[40] Browne 1995, pp. 223–235Darwin 1835, p. 7Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 210

[41] Keynes 2001, pp. 206–209

[42] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 189–192, 198

[43] Eldredge 2006

[44] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 131, 159Herbert 1991, pp. 174–179

[45] “Darwin Online: 'Hurrah Chiloe': an introduction to the PortDesire Notebook”. Retrieved 24 October 2008.

[46] Darwin 1845, pp. 205–208

[47] Browne 1995, pp. 244–250

[48] Keynes 2001, pp. 226–227

[49] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 160–168, 182Darwin 1887, p. 260

[50] Darwin 1958, p 98–99

[51] Keynes 2001, pp. 356–357

[52] Sulloway 1982, p. 19

[53] “Darwin Online: Coccatoos & Crows: An introduction tothe Sydney Notebook”. Retrieved 2 January 2009.

[54] Keynes 2001, pp. 398–399.

[55] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 301 – Darwin,C.R. to Darwin, C.S., 29 Apr 1836”.

[56] Browne 1995, p. 336

[57] van Wyhe 2007, p. 197

[58] Keynes 2000, pp. xix–xxEldredge 2006

[59] Darwin 1859, p. 1

[60] Darwin 1835, editorial introduction

[61] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 195–198

[62] Owen 1840, pp. 16, 73, 106Eldredge 2006

[63] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 201–205Browne 1995, pp. 349–350

[64] Browne 1995, pp. 345–347

[65] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 207–210Sulloway 1982, pp. 20–23

[66] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C.R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837”. Retrieved 19 December2008. proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,Darwin’s Journal (Darwin 2006, pp. 12 verso) backdatedfrom August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837

[67] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 201, 212–221

[68] Sulloway 1982, pp. 9, 20–23

[69] Browne 1995, p. 360“Darwin, C. R. (Read 14 March 1837) Notes on Rhea amer-icana and Rhea darwinii, Proceedings of the Zoological So-ciety of London". Retrieved 17 December 2008.

[70] Herbert 1980, pp. 7–10van Wyhe 2008b, p. 44Darwin 1837, pp. 1–13, 26, 36, 74Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 229–232

10.9. CITATIONS 233

[71] UK CPI inflation numbers based on data available from Gre-gory Clark (2015), "The Annual RPI and Average Earningsfor Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)" MeasuringWorth.

[72] Browne 1995, pp. 367–369

[73] Keynes 2001, p. xix

[74] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 233–234“Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 404 – Buckland,William to Geological Society of London, 9 Mar 1838”. Re-trieved 23 December 2008.

[75] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 233–236.

[76] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 241–244, 426

[77] Browne 1995, p. xii

[78] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 241–244

[79] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 252, 476, 531Darwin 1958, p. 115

[80] Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 254Browne 1995, pp. 377–378Darwin 1958, p. 84

[81] Darwin 1958, pp. 232–233

[82] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 256–259

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[84] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 264–265Browne 1995, pp. 385–388Darwin 1842, p. 7

[85] Darwin 1958, p. 120

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[87] “Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 71”. Retrieved 17March 2009.

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[89] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 272–279

[90] Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 279

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[92] van Wyhe 2007, pp. 186–192

[93] Darwin 1887, p. 32.

[94] Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 292

[95] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 292–293Darwin 1842, pp. xvi–xvii

[96] Darwin 1958, p. 114

[97] van Wyhe 2007, pp. 183–184

[98] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 729 – Darwin, C.R. to Hooker, J. D., (11 January 1844)". Retrieved 8 Febru-ary 2008.

[99] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 734 – Hooker, J.D. to Darwin, C. R., 29 January 1844”. Retrieved 8 Febru-ary 2008.

[100] Darwin 1887, pp. 114–116

[101] van Wyhe 2007, p. 188

[102] Browne 1995, pp. 461–465

[103] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 814 – Darwin, C.R. to Hooker, J. D., (7 Jan 1845)". Retrieved 24 November2008.

[104] van Wyhe 2007, pp. 190–191

[105] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 320–323, 339–348

[106] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1236 – Darwin,C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 28 Mar 1849”. Retrieved 24 Novem-ber 2008.

[107] Browne 1995, pp. 498–501

[108] Darwin 1958, pp. 117–118

[109] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 383–387

[110] Freeman 2007, pp. 107, 109

[111] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 419–420

[112] Darwin Online: Photograph of Charles Darwin by Maulland Polyblank for the Literary and Scientific Portrait Club(1855), John van Wyhe, December 2006

[113] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 412–441, 457–458, 462–463

[114] Ball, P. (2011). Shipping timetables debunk Darwin plagia-rism accusations: Evidence challenges claims that CharlesDarwin stole ideas from Alfred Russel Wallace. Nature.online

[115] J. van Wyhe and K. Rookmaaker. (2012). A new the-ory to explain the receipt of Wallace’s Ternate Essay byDarwin in 1858. Biological Journal of the Linnean Soci-ety10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x

[116] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 466–470

[117] Browne 2002, pp. 40–42, 48–49

[118] Darwin 1958, p. 122

[119] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 374–474

234 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

[120] Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 477

[121] Darwin 1859, p 459

[122] Darwin 1859, p 490

[123] Darwin 1859, p 5

[124] Darwin 1859, p 492

[125] Browne 2002, p. 59, Freeman 1977, pp. 79–80

[126] Browne 2002, pp. 373–379

[127] van Wyhe 2008b, p. 48

[128] Browne 2002, pp. 103–104, 379

[129] Darwin 1859, p. 488

[130] Browne 2002, p. 87Leifchild 1859

[131] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 477–491

[132] Browne 2002, pp. 110–112

[133] Bowler 2003, p. 186

[134] “Darwin and design: historical essay”. Darwin Correspon-dence Project. 2007. Archived from the original on 15 June2009. Retrieved 17 September 2008.

[135] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 487–488, 500

[136] Miles 2001

[137] Bowler 2003, p. 185

[138] Browne 2002, pp. 156–159

[139] Browne 2002, pp. 217–226

[140] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4652 – Falconer,Hugh to Darwin, C. R., 3 Nov (1864)". Retrieved 1 Decem-ber 2008.

[141] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4807 – Hooker,J. D. to Darwin, C. R., (7–8 Apr 1865)". Retrieved 1 De-cember 2008.

[142] Bowler 2003, p. 196

[143] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 507–508Browne 2002, pp. 128–129, 138

[144] van Wyhe 2008b, pp. 50–55

[145] Darwin Correspondence Project: Introduction to the Corre-spondence of Charles Darwin, Volume 14. Cambridge Uni-versity Press. Retrieved 25 June 2012

[146] Smith 1999.

[147] Freeman 1977, p. 122

[148] Darwin 1871, pp. 385–405Browne 2002, pp. 339–343

[149] Browne 2002, pp. 359–369Darwin 1887, p. 133

[150] Darwin 1871, p. 405

[151] Colp, Ralph. “Darwin’s Illness”. Retrieved 24 June 2012.

[152] Darwin, Emma (1882). "[Reminiscences of Charles Dar-win’s last years.] CUL-DAR210.9”. Retrieved 8 January2009.

[153] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 664–677

[154] Bowler 2003, pp. 222–225van Wyhe 2008Darwin 1872, p. 421

[155] FitzRoy 1839, pp. 216–8

[156] Leff 2000, Darwin’s Timeline

[157] “Territory origins”. Northern Territory Department of Plan-ning and Infrastructure, Australia. Archived from the origi-nal on 18 September 2006. Retrieved 15 December 2006.

[158] “Charles Darwin 200 years – Things you didn't know aboutCharles Darwin”. Retrieved 23 May 2009.

[159] Sulloway 1982, pp. 45–47

[160] Shapin, Steven (7 January 2010). “The Darwin Show”.London Review of Books. Retrieved 25 January 2010.

[161] “Bank of England – Current Banknotes – £10 – Design Fea-tures”. Bank of England. Retrieved 15 March 2011.

[162] “Darwin’s statue on the move”. Natural History Museum.23 May 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2012.

[163] Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 447.

[164] Leff 2000, Darwin’s Children

[165] “List of Fellows of the Royal Society / 1660–2006 / A-J”.Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2008. Retrieved16 September 2009.

[166] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., “Charles Dar-win”, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, Universityof St Andrews.

[167] Berra, Tim M. Darwin and His Children: His Other Legacy,(Oxford: 2013, Oxford UP), 101, 129, 168. George becamea knight commander of the Order of the Bath in 1905. Fran-cis was knighted in 1912. Horace became a knight comman-der of the KBE in 1918.

[168] Edwards, A. W. F. 2004. Darwin, Leonard (1850–1943).In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford Uni-versity Press.

[169] van Wyhe 2008b, p. 41

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[170] Darwin 1958, pp. 85–96

[171] von Sydow 2005, pp. 8–14

[172] von Sydow 2005, pp. 4–5, 12–14

[173] Moore 2006

[174] “Darwin Correspondence Project – Darwin and the church:historical essay”. Retrieved 4 January 2009.

[175] Letter 12041 – Darwin, C. R. to Fordyce, John, 7 May 1879

[176] Darwin’s Complex loss of Faith The Guardian 17 September2009

[177] Moore 2005Yates 2003

[178] Vandermassen, Griet (2004). “Sexual Selection:A Tale of Male Bias and Feminist Denial”. Eu-ropean Journal of Women’s Studies 11 (9): 11–13.doi:10.1177/1350506804039812. Retrieved 24 November2009.

[179] Barta, Tony (2 June 2005). “Mr Darwin’s shooters: on nat-ural selection and the naturalizing of genocide”. Patternsof Prejudice, Volume 39, Issue 2. Routledge. pp. 116–137. doi:10.1080/00313220500106170. Retrieved 20 May2009.

[180] Wilkins 2008, pp. 408–413

[181] Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 556–557, 572, 598Darwin 1871, pp. 167–173, 402–403“Correspondence between Francis Galton and Charles Dar-win”. Retrieved 8 November 2008.

[182] Wilkins 1997Moore 2006

[183] Sweet 2004

[184] Paul 2003, pp. 223–225

[185] Bannister 1989

[186] Paul 2003Kotzin 2004

[187] Balfour 1882van Wyhe 2008Anonymous 1882

[188] Brummitt, R. K.; C. E. Powell (1992). Authors of PlantNames. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 1-84246-085-4.

[189] Desmond, Moore & Browne 2004

[190] Darwin 1871, pp. 214, 232.

10.10 References• Anonymous (1882). “Obituary: Death Of Chas. Dar-

win”. The New York Times (21 April 1882). Retrieved30 October 2008.

• Balfour, J. H. (11 May 1882). "Obituary Notice ofCharles Robert Darwin". Transactions & Proceedingsof the Botanical Society of Edinburgh (14): 284–298.

• Bannister, Robert C. (1989). Social Darwinism: Sci-ence and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought.Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 0-87722-566-4.

• Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of anIdea (3rd ed.). University of California Press. ISBN0-520-23693-9.

• Browne, E. Janet (1995). Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voy-aging. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 1-84413-314-1.

• Browne, E. Janet (2002). Charles Darwin: vol. 2 ThePower of Place. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-7126-6837-3.

• Darwin, Charles (1835). Extracts from letters to Pro-fessor Henslow. Cambridge: [privately printed]. Re-trieved 1 November 2008.

• Darwin, Charles (1837). Notebook B: (Transmuta-tion of species). Darwin Online. CUL-DAR121. Re-trieved 20 December 2008.

• Darwin, Charles (1839). Narrative of the surveyingvoyages of His Majesty’s Ships Adventure and Beaglebetween the years 1826 and 1836, describing their ex-amination of the southern shores of South America,and the Beagle’s circumnavigation of the globe. Jour-nal and remarks. 1832–1836. III. London: HenryColburn. Retrieved 24 October 2008.

• Darwin, Charles (1842). “Pencil Sketch of 1842”. InDarwin, Francis. The foundations of The origin ofspecies: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844. Cam-bridge University Press (published 1909). ISBN 0-548-79998-9.

• Darwin, Charles (1845). Journal of researches into thenatural history and geology of the countries visited dur-ing the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, un-der the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. 2d edition.London: John Murray. Retrieved 24 October 2008.

• Darwin, Charles; Wallace, Alfred Russel (1858). "Onthe Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and onthe Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural

236 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

Means of Selection". Journal of the Proceedings of theLinnean Society of London. Zoology 3 3 (9): 46–50.doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x.

• Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Speciesby Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation ofFavoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st ed.). Lon-don: John Murray. ISBN 1-4353-9386-4. Retrieved24 October 2008.

• Darwin, Charles (1868). The variation of animals andplants under domestication. London: John Murray.ISBN 1-4191-8660-4. Retrieved 1 November 2008.

• Darwin, Charles (1871). The Descent of Man, andSelection in Relation to Sex (1st ed.). London: JohnMurray. ISBN 0-8014-2085-7. Retrieved 24 October2008.

• Darwin, Charles (1872). The Origin of Species byMeans of Natural Selection, or the Preservation ofFavoured Races in the Struggle for Life (6th ed.). Lon-don: John Murray. ISBN 1-4353-9386-4. Retrieved1 November 2009.

• Darwin, Charles (1887). Darwin, Francis, ed. Thelife and letters of Charles Darwin, including an auto-biographical chapter. London: John Murray. ISBN0-404-08417-6. Retrieved 4 November 2008.

• Darwin, Charles (1958). Barlow, Nora, ed. The Au-tobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With theoriginal omissions restored. Edited and with appendixand notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow. London:Collins. Retrieved 28 September 2013.

• Darwin, Charles (2006). “Journal”. In van Wyhe,John. Darwin’s personal 'Journal' (1809–1881). Dar-win Online. CUL-DAR158.1–76. Retrieved 20 De-cember 2008.

• Desmond, Adrian; Moore, James (1991). Darwin.London: Michael Joseph, Penguin Group. ISBN 0-7181-3430-3.

• Desmond, Adrian; Moore, James; Browne, Janet(2004). Oxford Dictionary of National Biogra-phy. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/7176.

• Dobzhansky, Theodosius (March 1973). “Nothing inBiology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolu-tion”. The American Biology Teacher 35 (3): 125–129. doi:10.2307/4444260.

• Eldredge, Niles (2006). “Confessions of a Darwinist”.The Virginia Quarterly Review (Spring 2006): 32–53.Retrieved 4 November 2008.

• FitzRoy, Robert (1839). Voyages of the Adventureand Beagle, Volume II. London: Henry Colburn. Re-trieved 4 November 2008.

• Freeman, R. B. (1977). The Works of Charles Dar-win: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist. Folke-stone: Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd. ISBN 0-208-01658-9. Retrieved 4 November 2008.

• Freeman, R. B. (2007). Charles Darwin: A compan-ion (2nd online ed.). The Complete Works of CharlesDarwin Online. pp. 107, 109. Retrieved 25 Decem-ber 2014.

• Herbert, Sandra (1980). “The red notebook ofCharles Darwin”. Bulletin of the British Museum (Nat-ural History). Historical Series (7 (24 April)): 1–164.Retrieved 11 January 2009.

• Herbert, Sandra (1991). “Charles Darwin asa prospective geological author”. British Jour-nal for the History of Science 24 (24): 159–192.doi:10.1017/S0007087400027060. Retrieved 24 Oc-tober 2008.

• Keynes, Richard (2000). Charles Darwin’s zoologynotes & specimen lists from H.M.S. Beagle. CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN 0-521-46569-9. Retrieved 22November 2008.

• Keynes, Richard (2001). Charles Darwin’s BeagleDiary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23503-0. Retrieved 24 October 2008.

• Kotzin, Daniel (2004). “Point-Counterpoint: SocialDarwinism”. Columbia American History Online.Retrieved 22 November 2008.

• Larson, Edward J. (2004). Evolution: The RemarkableHistory of a Scientific Theory. Modern Library. ISBN0-679-64288-9.

• Leff, David (2000). “AboutDarwin.com” (2000–2008ed.). Retrieved 30 December 2008.

• Leifchild (19 November 1859). “Review of 'Origin'".Athenaeum (1673). Retrieved 22 November 2008.

• Miles, Sara Joan (2001). “Charles Darwin and AsaGray Discuss Teleology and Design”. Perspectives onScience and Christian Faith 53: 196–201. Retrieved22 November 2008.

• Moore, James (2005). “Darwin – A 'Devil’s Chap-lain'?" (PDF). American Public Media. Retrieved 22November 2008.

10.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 237

• Moore, James (2006). “Evolution and Wonder – Un-derstanding Charles Darwin”. Speaking of Faith (Ra-dio Program). American Public Media. Retrieved 22November 2008.

• Owen, Richard (1840). Darwin, C. R., ed. Fos-sil Mammalia Part 1. The zoology of the voyage ofH.M.S. Beagle. London: Smith Elder and Co.

• Paul, Diane B. (2003). “Darwin, social Darwinismand eugenics”. In Hodge, Jonathan; Radick, Gregory.The Cambridge Companion to Darwin. CambridgeUniversity Press. pp. 214–239. ISBN 0-521-77730-5.

• Smith, Charles H. (1999). “Alfred Russel Wallace onSpiritualism, Man, and Evolution: An Analytical Es-say”. Retrieved 7 December 2008.

• Sulloway, Frank J. (1982). “Darwin and HisFinches: The Evolution of a Legend” (PDF). Jour-nal of the History of Biology 15 (1): 1–53.doi:10.1007/BF00132004. Retrieved 9 December2008.

• Sweet, William (2004). “Herbert Spencer”. InternetEncyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 16 December2008.

• Wilkins, John S. (1997). “Evolution and Philoso-phy: Does evolution make might right?". TalkOriginsArchive. Retrieved 22 November 2008.

• Wilkins, John S. (2008). “Darwin”. In Tucker,Aviezer. A Companion to the Philosophy of Historyand Historiography. Blackwell Companions to Phi-losophy. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 405–415.ISBN 1-4051-4908-6.

• van Wyhe, John (27 March 2007). “Mind the gap: DidDarwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?".Notes and Records of the Royal Society 61 (2): 177–205. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171. Retrieved 7 Febru-ary 2008.

• van Wyhe, John (2008). “Charles Darwin: gentlemannaturalist: A biographical sketch”. Darwin Online.Retrieved 17 November 2008.

• van Wyhe, John (2008b). Darwin: The Story of theMan and His Theories of Evolution. London: AndreDeutsch Ltd (published 1 September 2008). ISBN 0-233-00251-0.

• von Sydow, Momme (2005). “Darwin – A ChristianUndermining Christianity? On Self-Undermining Dy-namics of Ideas Between Belief and Science” (PDF).In Knight, David M.; Eddy, Matthew D. Science and

Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science,1700–1900. Burlington: Ashgate. pp. 141–156.ISBN 0-7546-3996-7. Retrieved 16 December 2008.

• Yates, Simon (2003). “The Lady Hope Story: AWidespread Falsehood”. TalkOrigins Archive. Re-trieved 15 December 2006.

10.11 External links

• The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online –Darwin Online; Darwin’s publications, private papersand bibliography, supplementary works including bi-ographies, obituaries and reviews

• Darwin Correspondence Project Full text and notes forcomplete correspondence to 1867, with summaries ofall the rest

• Darwin-Hooker letters, images and text jointlypublished at Cambridge Digital Library andDarwin Correspondence Project

• Works by Charles Darwin at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Charles Robert Darwin at InternetArchive

• Works by Charles Darwin at LibriVox (public domainaudiobooks)

• Darwin Manuscript Project

• Video and radio clips Canadian Broadcasting Corpo-ration

• Charles Darwin at DMOZ

• Archival material relating to Charles Darwin listed atthe UK National Archives

• A Pictorial Biography of Charles Darwin

• Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist

• Darwin’s Volcano – a short video discussing Darwinand Agassiz' coral reef formation debate

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Darwin, CharlesRobert". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cam-bridge University Press.

• The life and times of Charles Darwin, an audioslideshow, The Guardian, Thursday 12 February 2009,(3 min 20 sec).

238 CHAPTER 10. CHARLES DARWIN

• Darwin’s Brave New World – A 3 part drama-documentary exploring Charles Darwin and the signif-icant contributions of his colleagues Joseph Hooker,Thomas Huxley and Alfred Russel Wallace alsofeaturing interviews with Richard Dawkins, DavidSuzuki, Jared Diamond

• A naturalist’s voyage around the world Account of theBeagle voyage using animation, in English from Centrenational de la recherche scientifique

• Anonymous (1873). Cartoon portraits and biographi-cal sketches of men of the day. Illustrated by Waddy,Frederick. London: Tinsley Brothers. pp. 6–7. Re-trieved 28 December 2010.

• View books owned and annotated by Charles Darwinat the online Biodiversity Heritage Library.

• Digitised Darwin Manuscripts in Cambridge DigitalLibrary

Chapter 11

Lyra Belacqua

“Silvertongue” redirects here. For the character from theDivine Comedy or More Pricks Than Kicks, see Belacqua.

Lyra Belacqua /ˈlaɪrə bəˈlɑːkwə/, also known as Lyra Sil-vertongue, is the heroine of Philip Pullman's His Dark Ma-terials trilogy. Lyra is a young girl who inhabits a universeparallel to our own. Brought up in the cloistered world ofJordan College, Oxford, she finds herself embroiled in acosmic war between Lord Asriel on the one side, and thefirst angel to come into being, called The Authority, and hisRegent, called Metatron, on the other.

11.1 Background and life

Lyra Belacqua, aged twelve at the beginning of the trilogy,is the daughter of Lord Asriel and Marisa Coulter in a fic-tional Oxford, similar to our own. She was brought up atJordan College, where the scholars, professors and servantstreat her as an adopted daughter. She was raised believingthat her parents had died in an airship crash, and that LordAsriel was her uncle, and later learned the truth from JohnFaa, leader of the Gyptians. Lyra spends much of her timesocializing with other children of the city, sometimes har-moniously, frequently mock-violently, and often in order toavoid schoolwork. Her closest friend among the other chil-dren is a Jordan kitchen boy named Roger Parslow, who dis-appears early in Northern Lights. The search to find Roger,and other children, is Lyra’s motivation throughout muchof Northern Lights.Lyra is portrayed as dirty-blond-haired, with pale-blue eyes,thin, and short for her age. Lyra is unruly and tomboyish,and her complete disregard for her appearance and personalhygiene exasperates her adult carers. She receives a scantand haphazard education at the hands of Jordan scholars,being neither interested in study nor officially a student ofthe college. However, she is highly intelligent, and is partic-ularly talented at deceiving others; she is capable of mak-ing up complex yet plausible lies on the spur of the mo-

ment. Initially she uses this talent to avoid punishment byher guardians, and to entertain and deceive other children,but later in the series employs it to save her own life and thelives of others. She deceives Iofur Raknison, king of thepanserbjørne (“armored bears” in Scandinavian languages)of Svalbard, by suggesting that she can get him a dæmon.Tricking a panserbjørn was a feat that her friend Iorek Byr-nison had believed to be impossible for a human, and hersuccess prompts Iorek to informally christen her “Silver-tongue,” which she adopts as a surname thereafter.Lyra’s original surname, Belacqua, is the name of a charac-ter in Dante’s Divine Comedy, a soul in the ante-purgatory,representing those who wait until the last opportunity beforeturning to God.[1] The mood in the ante-purgatory is said tobe one of helplessness, nostalgia and yearning — Belacquaand the other souls in ante-purgatory are caught betweentwo worlds and lack clear understanding of themselves.[2]

Whether this has any connection to Lyra, is not known.

11.2 Pantalaimon

Lyra’s dæmon, Pantalaimon /ˌpæntəˈlaɪmən/, is her dear-est companion, whom she calls 'Pan'. In common withall dæmons of children, he can take any animal form hepleases; he first appears in the story as a dark brown moth.His name is that of a saint in the Orthodox churches, St.Panteleimon, and in Greek means “all-compassionate”. Hechanges into many forms throughout the series, rangingfrom a dragon to an eagle, but his favourite forms are asnow-white ermine, a moth, a wildcat, and a mouse. Heis portrayed as a cautious and level-headed counterpoint toLyra’s impulsive, inquisitive, and sometimes reckless char-acter.Lyra must separate from Pantalaimon when she enters theLand of the Dead in The Amber Spyglass, causing extremepain to both of them; Pantalaimon avoids Lyra for a whileafterwards. However, surviving this separation allows thetwo to move great distances from one another, an ability

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240 CHAPTER 11. LYRA BELACQUA

only witches and shamans generally possess in her world.At the end of the trilogy, as Lyra is entering adulthood,Pantalaimon finds his final form when Will Parry toucheshim, a beautiful pine marten, red-gold in colour.

11.3 Role

In the first novel of His Dark Materials, Northern Lights(known in some countries as The Golden Compass),Serafina Pekkala tells of the prophecy of a girl who is “des-tined to bring about the end of destiny". The witches’prophecy states that this girl will be able pick the “correct”cloud-pine branch out of several, as indeed Lyra does. Ittranspires that Lyra’s destiny is to be the second Eve andfall into the temptation of the serpent, represented by MaryMalone. Will Parry and the Dust in the abyss are corrected,and the universes start to work in harmony. However, in or-der to ensure the stability of the universes and protect peo-ple from the creation of Spectres, Will and Lyra must closeall of the inter-world windows with the help of angels andkeep them closed forever - and since their dæmons cannotlive outside of their own birth worlds, they must part for-ever. Despite this, however, they decide to sit on the samebench, next to each other, each year for an hour at noon onMidsummer’s Day, in the Botanic Gardens in their separateOxfords - so that they might feel themselves to be in eachother’s presence. She fulfills her destiny to “bring an end todeath” by leading the ghosts out of the world of the dead.In the most recent edition of The Amber Spyglass released inthe UK, the post-script 'Lantern Slides’ section shows Lyrastudying the alethiometer with Pantalaimon at age 18. Sheis excited to start picking up on a pattern in the readings, andPullman tells us that this discovery of a pattern is the “sec-ond thing she said to Will next day in the Botanic Garden”,implying that the next day was Midsummer’s Day, when sheand Will would be sitting on the same bench in their sepa-rate worlds.[3]

Letters written by Lyra included in the companion bookOnce Upon a Time in the North reveal that Lyra is research-ing her dissertation for a M. Phil in Economic History, in-dicating her to be continuing to study during her twenties.The title of her dissertation is 'Developments of patterns oftrade in the European Arctic region with particular refer-ence to independent balloon carriage (1950–1970)'. In thefirst letter, Lyra also mentions that she is continuing to studythe alethiometer. Once she finishes her studies, she will beable to read the alethiometer not with grace, as she used to,but with certainty and knowledge.

Dakota Blue Richards portrayed Lyra in 2007.

11.4 In other media

In the 1999 unabridged audio production, Lyra was per-formed by the voice-over actress Jo Wyatt (as JoannaWyatt).[4]

In a 2003 BBC radio adaptation, Lyra was voiced by childactress Lulu Popplewell.[5]

The National Theatre in London staged a two-part, six-hour-long adaptation of the novels. The production rantwice, in 2003 and 2004. Lyra was played by Anna MaxwellMartin in the first run and by Elaine Symons in the second.In The Golden Compass, the film adaptation of the firstbook, Lyra is portrayed by twelve-year-old Dakota BlueRichards. British singer/songwriter Kate Bush wrote andrecorded a song "Lyra" for the film which features choris-ters from Magdalen College School in Oxford.

11.5 See also

• List of His Dark Materials characters

• His Dark Materials

• Races and creatures in His Dark Materials

• Locations in His Dark Materials

11.6 References[1] “Dante’s Purgatorio - Ante-Purgatory”. dante-

worlds.laits.utexas.edu. Retrieved 2010-02-07.

[2] Strauss, Walter A. “Dante’s Belacqua and Beckett’sTramps”, Comparative Literature Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer1959), University of Oregon, pp. 250-261.

11.6. REFERENCES 241

[3] “His Dark Materials Lantern Slides”. www.hisdarkmaterials.org. Retrieved 11 September 2013.

[4] “Audiobooks”. www.bridgetothestars.net. Retrieved 12September 2013.

[5] “BBC radio 4”. www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 12 September2013.

Chapter 12

Chelsea Manning

Chelsea Elizabeth Manning[4] (born Bradley EdwardManning, December 17, 1987) is a United States Armysoldier who was convicted in July 2013 of violations ofthe Espionage Act and other offenses, after disclosingto WikiLeaks nearly three-quarters of a million classi-fied or unclassified but sensitive military and diplomaticdocuments.[5] Manning was sentenced in August 2013 to35 years’ imprisonment, with the possibility of parole inthe eighth year, and to be dishonorably discharged fromthe Army.[2] Manning is a trans woman who, in a state-ment the day after sentencing, said she had felt female sincechildhood, wanted to be known as Chelsea,[6] and desiredto begin hormone replacement therapy.[7] From early lifeand through much of her Army life, Manning was knownas Bradley; she was diagnosed with gender identity disorderwhile in the Army.[8]

Assigned in 2009 to an Army unit in Iraq as an intelligenceanalyst, Manning had access to classified databases. Inearly 2010, she leaked classified information to WikiLeaksand confided this to Adrian Lamo, an online acquaintance.Lamo informed Army Counterintelligence, and Manningwas arrested in May that same year. The material includedvideos of the July 12, 2007 Baghdad airstrike, and the 2009Granai airstrike in Afghanistan; 251,287 U.S. diplomaticcables;[9] and 482,832 Army reports that came to be knownas the Iraq War Logs[10] and Afghan War Diary.[11] Muchof the material was published by WikiLeaks or its mediapartners between April and November 2010.[12]

Manning was ultimately charged with 22 offenses, in-cluding aiding the enemy, which was the most seriouscharge and could have resulted in a death sentence.[13] Shewas held at the Marine Corps Brig, Quantico in Virginia,from July 2010 to April 2011 under Prevention of Injurystatus—which entailed de facto solitary confinement andother restrictions that caused domestic and internationalconcern—before being transferred to Fort Leavenworth,Kansas, where she could interact with other detainees.[14]

She pleaded guilty in February 2013 to 10 of the charges.[15]

The trial on the remaining charges began on June 3, 2013,and on July 30 she was convicted of 17 of the original

charges and amended versions of four others, but was ac-quitted of aiding the enemy.[1] She is serving a 35-year sen-tence at the maximum-security U.S. Disciplinary Barracksat Fort Leavenworth.[16]

Reaction to Manning’s disclosures, arrest, and sentence wasmixed. Denver Nicks, one of her biographers, writes thatthe leaked material, particularly the diplomatic cables, waswidely seen as a catalyst for the Arab Spring that began inDecember 2010, and that Manning was viewed as both a21st-century Tiananmen Square Tank Man and an embit-tered traitor.[17] Reporters Without Borders condemned thelength of the sentence, saying that it demonstrated how vul-nerable whistleblowers are.[18]

12.1 Background

12.1.1 Early life

Born Bradley Edward Manning in 1987 in Oklahoma City,Oklahoma,[19] she was the second child of Susan Fox, orig-inally from Wales, and Brian Manning, an American. Brianhad joined the United States Navy in 1974 at the age of 19,and served for five years as an intelligence analyst. Brianmet Susan in a local Woolworths while stationed in Walesat Cawdor Barracks. Manning’s older sister was born in1976. The couple returned to the United States in 1979,settling first to California. After their move near Crescent,they bought a two-story house with an above-ground swim-ming pool and 5 acres (2 hectares) of land, where they keptpigs and chickens.[20]

Manning’s sister Casey, 11 years her senior, told the court-martial that both their parents were alcoholics, and that theirmother had drunk continually while pregnant with Chelsea.Captain David Moulton, a Navy psychiatrist, told the courtthat Manning’s facial features showed signs of fetal alcoholsyndrome.[21] Casey became Manning’s principal caregiver,waking at night to make a bottle for the baby. The courtheard that Manning was fed only milk and baby food until

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12.1. BACKGROUND 243

the age of two. As an adult she reached 5 ft 2 in (1.57 m)and weighed around 105 pounds (48 kg).[22]

Manning’s father took a job as an information technology(IT) manager for a rental car agency, which required travel.The family lived several miles out of town and Manning’smother was unable to drive. She spent her days drinking,while Manning was left largely to fend for herself, playingwith Legos or on the computer. Brian would stock up onfood before his trips, and leave pre-signed checks that Caseymailed to pay the bills. A neighbor said that whenever Man-ning’s elementary school went on field trips, she would giveher own son extra food or money so he could make sureManning had something to eat. Friends and neighbors con-sidered the Mannings a troubled family.[23]

12.1.2 Parents’ divorce, move to Wales

Those who knew Manning said that even as a child, she al-ways had a mind of her own. She was an atheist who wasopenly opposed to religion, for example, remaining silentduring the part of the Pledge of Allegiance that refers toGod.[24] In a 2011 interview Manning’s father said, “Peopleneed to understand that he’s a young man that had a happylife growing up.” He also said that Manning excelled at thesaxophone, science, and computers, creating her first web-site at the age of ten. Manning taught herself how to usePowerPoint, won the grand prize three years in a row at thelocal science fair, and in sixth grade, took top prize at astatewide quiz bowl.[25]

High Street, Haverfordwest, Wales, where Manning went to sec-ondary school

A childhood friend of Manning’s, speaking about a conver-sation they had when Manning was 13, said “he told me hewas gay.” The friend also said that Manning’s home life wasnot good and that her father was very controlling. Aroundthis time, Manning’s parents divorced. She and her motherSusan moved out of the house to a rented apartment inCrescent, Oklahoma.[26] Susan’s instability continued and

in 1998 she attempted suicide; Manning’s sister drove theirmother to the hospital, with the 11-year-old Manning sit-ting in the back of the car trying to make sure their motherwas still breathing.[27]

Manning’s father remarried in 2000, the same year as hisdivorce. His new wife was also named Susan and had a sonfrom a previous relationship. Manning apparently reactedbadly when the son changed his surname to Manning too;she started taking running jumps at the walls, telling hermother: “I'm nobody now.”[28]

In November 2001, Manning and her mother left the UnitedStates and moved to Haverfordwest, Wales, where hermother had family. Manning attended the town’s TaskerMilward secondary school. A schoolfriend there told EdCaesar for The Sunday Times that Manning’s personalitywas “unique, extremely unique. Very quirky, very opinion-ated, very political, very clever, very articulate.”[29] Man-ning’s interest in computers continued, and in 2003, she anda friend set up a website, angeldyne.com, a message boardthat offered games and music downloads.[29]

Manning became the target of bullying at the school be-cause she was the only American and was viewed aseffeminate. Manning had identified to two friends in Ok-lahoma as gay, but was not open about it at school in Wales.The students would imitate her accent, and apparently aban-doned her once during a camping trip; her aunt told TheWashington Post that Manning awoke to an empty camp siteone morning, after everyone else had packed up their tentsand left without her.[30]

12.1.3 Return to the United States

Fearing that her mother was becoming too ill to cope, in2005 (at the age of 17) Manning returned to the UnitedStates.[31] She moved in with her father in Oklahoma City,where he was living with his second wife and her child.Manning got a job as a developer with a software company,Zoto, and was apparently happy for a time, but was let go af-ter four months. Her boss told The Washington Post that ona few occasions, Manning had “just locked up,” and wouldsimply sit and stare, and in the end communication becametoo difficult. The boss told the newspaper that “nobody’sbeen taking care of this kid for a really long time.”[32]

By then, Manning was living as an openly gay man. Herrelationship with her father was apparently good, but therewere problems between Manning and her stepmother. InMarch 2006, Manning reportedly threatened her step-mother with a knife during an argument about Manning’sfailure to get another job; the stepmother called the policeand Manning was asked to leave the house. Manning droveto Tulsa in a pickup truck her father had given her, at first

244 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

sleeping in it, then moving in with a friend from school. Thetwo got jobs at Incredible Pizza in April. Manning movedon to Chicago before running out of money and again hav-ing nowhere to stay. Her mother arranged for Brian’s sister,Debra, a lawyer in Potomac, Maryland, to take Manningin. Nicks writes that the 15 months Manning spent with heraunt were among the most stable of her life. Manning had aboyfriend, took several low-paid jobs, and spent a semesterstudying history and English at Montgomery College, butleft after failing an exam.[33]

12.2 Military service

12.2.1 Enlistment in the Army

Manning’s father spent weeks in the fall of 2007 asking herto consider joining the Army. Hoping to gain a college ed-ucation through the G.I. Bill, and perhaps to study for aPhD in physics, she enlisted in September that year.[34] Shetold her Army supervisor later that she had also hoped join-ing such a masculine environment would resolve her genderidentity disorder.[35]

Manning began basic training at Fort Leonard Wood, Mis-souri, on October 2, 2007. She wrote that she soon real-ized she was neither physically nor mentally prepared forit.[36] Six weeks after enlisting, she was sent to the dis-charge unit. She was allegedly being bullied, and in theopinion of another soldier, was having a breakdown. Thesoldier told The Guardian: “The kid was barely five foot ...He was a runt, so pick on him. He’s crazy, pick on him.He’s a faggot, pick on him. The guy took it from everyside. He couldn't please anyone.” Denver Nicks writes thatManning, who was used to being bullied, fought back—if the drill sergeants screamed at her, she would scream atthem—to the point where they started calling her “GeneralManning.”[37]

The decision to discharge her was revoked, and she startedbasic training again in January 2008. After graduating inApril, she moved to Fort Huachuca, Arizona in order to at-tend Advanced Individual Training (AIT) for Military Oc-cupational Specialty (MOS) 35F, intelligence analyst, re-ceiving a TS/SCI security clearance (Top Secret/SensitiveCompartmented Information). According to Nicks, this se-curity clearance, combined with the digitization of classi-fied information and the government’s policy of sharing itwidely, gave Manning access to an unprecedented amountof material. Nicks writes that Manning was reprimandedwhile at Fort Huachuca for posting three video messagesto friends on YouTube, in which she described the in-side of the "Sensitive Compartmented Information Facil-ity" (SCIF) where she worked.[38] Upon completion of her

initial MOS course, Manning received the Army ServiceRibbon and the National Defense Service Medal.[39]

12.2.2 Move to Fort Drum, deployment toIraq

Manning in September 2009

In August 2008, Manning was sent to Fort Drum inJefferson County, New York, where she joined the 2ndBrigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division, andtrained for deployment to Iraq.[40] In the fall of 2008 whilestationed there, she met Tyler Watkins, who was studyingneuroscience and psychology at Brandeis University, nearBoston. Watkins was her first serious relationship, and sheposted happily on Facebook about it, regularly traveling 300miles to Boston on visits.[41]

Watkins introduced her to a network of friends and the uni-versity’s hacker community. She also visited Boston Uni-versity’s "hackerspace" workshop, known as “Builds,” andmet its founder, David House, the MIT researcher who waslater allowed to visit her in jail. In November 2008, she gavean anonymous interview to a high-school reporter during arally in Syracuse in support of gay marriage, saying,

I was kicked out of my home and I once lostmy job. The world is not moving fast enough for

12.2. MILITARY SERVICE 245

us at home, work, or the battlefield. I've been liv-ing a double life. ... I can't make a statement. Ican't be caught in an act. I hope the public sup-port changes. I do hope to do that before ETS[Expiration of Term of Service].[42]

Nicks writes that Manning would travel back to Washing-ton, D.C., for visits. An ex-boyfriend helped her find herway around the city’s gay community, introducing her tolobbyists, activists and White House aides. Back at FortDrum, she continued to display emotional problems and,by August 2009, had been referred to an Army mental-health counselor.[43] A friend told Nicks that Manning couldbe emotionally fraught, describing an evening they hadwatched two movies together—The Last King of Scotlandand Dancer in the Dark—after which Manning cried forhours. By September 2009 her relationship with Watkinswas in trouble; they reconciled for a short time, but it waseffectively over.[44]

After four weeks at the Joint Readiness Training Center(JRTC) in Fort Polk, Louisiana, Manning was deployed toForward Operating Base Hammer, near Baghdad, arrivingin October 2009. From her workstation there, she had ac-cess to SIPRNet (the Secret Internet Protocol Router Net-work) and JWICS (the Joint Worldwide Intelligence Com-munications System). Two of her superiors had discussednot taking her to Iraq; it was felt she was a risk to herselfand possibly others, according to a statement later issuedby the Army—but again the shortage of intelligence ana-lysts held sway.[45] After 30 days of active duty in supportof War on Terror operations, Manning received the GlobalWar on Terrorism Service Medal.[39] In November 2009,she was promoted from Private First Class to Specialist.[46]

12.2.3 Contact with gender counselor

In November 2009 Manning wrote to a gender counselor inthe United States, said she felt female, and discussed havingsurgery. The counselor told Steve Fishman of New YorkMagazine in 2011 that it was clear Manning was in crisis,partly because of her gender concerns, but also because shewas opposed to the kind of war in which she found herselfinvolved.[47]

She was by all accounts unhappy and isolated. Becauseof the military’s "Don't ask, don't tell" policy (known asDADT and in effect until September 20, 2011), Manningwas unable to live as an openly gay man without risk ofbeing discharged. But she apparently made no secret ofher orientation: her friends said she kept a fairy wand onher desk. When she told her roommate she was attractedto men, he responded by suggesting they not speak to eachother.[48] Manning’s working conditions included 14- to 15-

hour night shifts in a tightly packed, dimly lit room.[49]

On December 20, 2009, during a counseling session withtwo colleagues to discuss her poor time-keeping, Manningwas told she would lose her one day off a week for persistentlateness. She responded by overturning a table, damaging acomputer that was sitting on it. A sergeant moved Manningaway from the weapons rack, and other soldiers pinned herarms behind her back and dragged her out of the room. Sev-eral witnesses to the incident believed her access to sensi-tive material ought to have been withdrawn at that point.[50]

The following month, January 2010, she began posting onFacebook that she felt hopeless and alone.[51]

12.2.4 Release of material to WikiLeaks

Manning said her first contact with WikiLeaks took place inJanuary 2010, when she began to interact with them on IRCand Jabber. She had first noticed them toward the end ofNovember 2009, when they posted 570,000 pager messagesfrom the September 11 attacks.[52]

Items of historical significance of two wars Iraq andAfghanistan Significant Activity, Sigacts, between 0001January 2004 and 2359 31 December 2009 extracts fromCSV documents from Department of Defense and CDNEdatabase.These items have already been sanitized of any source iden-tifying information.You might need to sit on this information for 90 to 180 daysto best send and distribute such a large amount of data to alarge audience and protect the source.This is one of the most significant documents of our timeremoving the fog of war and revealing the true nature of21st century asymmetric warfare.Have a good day.“”Manning, January 9, 2010[53]

On January 5, 2010, Manning downloaded the 400,000documents that became known as the Iraq War logs.[53]

On January 8 she downloaded 91,000 documents from theAfghanistan database, the Afghan War logs. She savedthe material on CD-RW, and smuggled it through secu-rity by labeling the CD-RW media "Lady Gaga".[54] Shethen copied it onto her personal computer.[55] The next dayshe wrote a message in a readme.txt file (see right), whichshe told the court was initially intended for The WashingtonPost.[56]

Manning copied the files from her laptop to an SD card

246 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

for her camera so that she could take it with her to theUnited States while on R&R leave.[55] Army investigatorslater found the SD card in Manning’s basement room in heraunt’s home in Potomac, Maryland.[57] On January 23 Man-ning flew to the United States via Germany for two weeks ofleave. It was during this visit that she first went out dressedas a woman, wearing a wig and makeup.[58] After her arrest,her former partner, Tyler Watkins, told Wired that Manninghad said during the visit that she had found some sensitiveinformation and was considering leaking it.[59]

Manning contacted The Washington Post and The New YorkTimes to ask if they were interested in the material; the Postreporter did not sound interested and the Times did not re-turn the call. Manning decided instead to pass it to Wik-iLeaks, and on February 3 sent them the Iraq and AfghanWar logs via Tor. She returned to Iraq on February 11,with no acknowledgement from WikiLeaks that they hadreceived the files.[60]

On or around February 18 she passed WikiLeaks a diplo-matic cable, dated January 13, 2010, from the U.S. Em-bassy in Reykjavík, Iceland.[61] They published it withinhours, which suggested to Manning that they had receivedthe other material too.[62] She found the Baghdad helicopterattack (“Collateral murder”) video in a Judge Advocate's di-rectory, and passed it to WikiLeaks on or around February21.[63] In late March she sent them a video of the May 2009Granai airstrike in Afghanistan; this was the video later re-moved and apparently destroyed by Daniel Domscheit-Bergwhen he left the organization.[64] Between March 28 andApril 9 she downloaded the 250,000 diplomatic cables, anduploaded them to a WikiLeaks dropbox on April 10.[65]

Manning told the court that, during her interaction withWikiLeaks on IRC and Jabber, she developed a friend-ship with someone there, believed to be Julian Assange (al-though neither knew the other’s name), which she said madeher feel she could be herself.[66] Army investigators found14 to 15 pages of encrypted chats, in unallocated space onher MacBook’s hard drive, between Manning and someonebelieved to be Assange.[57] She wrote in a statement that themore she had tried to fit in at work, the more alienated shebecame from everyone around her. The relationship withWikiLeaks had given her a brief respite from the isolationand anxiety.[66]

12.2.5 Email to supervisor, recommendeddischarge

On April 24, 2010, Manning sent an email to her super-visor, Master Sergeant Paul Adkins—with the subject line“My Problem”—saying she was suffering from gender iden-tity disorder. She attached a photograph of herself dressedas a woman and with the filename breanna.jpg.[67] She

wrote:

This is my problem. I've had signs of it for avery long time. It’s caused problems within myfamily. I thought a career in the military wouldget rid of it. It’s not something I seek out for at-tention, and I've been trying very, very hard to getrid of it by placing myself in situations where itwould be impossible. But, it’s not going away; it’shaunting me more and more as I get older. Now,the consequences of it are dire, at a time when it’scausing me great pain in itself ...[35]

Adkins discussed the situation with Manning’s therapists,but did not pass the email to anybody above him in his chainof command; he told Manning’s court-martial that he wasconcerned the photograph would be disseminated amongother staff.[68] Captain Steven Lim, Manning’s companycommander, said he first saw the email after Manning’s ar-rest, when information about hormone replacement therapywas found in Manning’s room on base; at that point Limlearned that Manning had been calling herself Breanna.[69]

Manning sent this photograph of herself in a wig and makeup toher supervisor in April 2010.[67]

Manning told Adrian Lamo that she had set up Twitter andYouTube accounts as Breanna to give her female identity adigital presence, writing to Lamo: “I wouldn't mind goingto prison for the rest of my life [for leaking information],or being executed so much, if it wasn't for the possibil-ity of having pictures of me... plastered all over the worldpress... as [a] boy... [...] the CPU is not made for thismotherboard...”[70] On April 30 she posted on Facebookthat she was utterly lost, and over the next few days wrotethat she was “not a piece of equipment,” and was “beyondfrustrated” and “livid” after being “lectured by ex-boyfrienddespite months of relationship ambiguity ...”[71]

On May 7, according to Army witnesses, Manning wasfound curled in a fetal position in a storage cupboard; shehad a knife at her feet and had cut the words “I want”into a vinyl chair. A few hours later she had an alterca-tion with a female intelligence analyst, Specialist Jihrleah

12.3. PUBLICATION OF LEAKED MATERIAL 247

Showman, during which she punched Showman in the face.The brigade psychiatrist recommended a discharge, refer-ring to an “occupational problem and adjustment disorder.”Manning’s supervisor removed the bolt from her weapon,making it unable to fire, and she was sent to work in thesupply office, although at this point her security clearanceremained in place. As punishment for the altercation withShowman, she was demoted from Specialist (E-4) to Pri-vate First Class (E-3) three days before her arrest on May27.[72]

Ellen Nakashima writes that, on May 9, Manning contactedJonathan Odell, a gay American novelist in Minneapolis, viaFacebook, leaving a message that she wanted to speak tohim in confidence; she said she had been involved in some“very high-profile events, albeit as a nameless individualthus far.”[28] On May 19, according to Army investigators,she emailed Eric Schmiedl, a mathematician she had met inBoston, and told him she had been the source of the Bagh-dad airstrike video. Two days later, she began the series ofchats with Adrian Lamo that led to her arrest.[73]

12.3 Publication of leaked material

12.3.1 WikiLeaks

Julian Assange and Daniel Domscheit-Berg at the Chaos Commu-nication Congress, Berlin, December 2009[74]

WikiLeaks was set up in late 2006 as a disclosure portal, ini-tially using the Wikipedia model, where volunteers wouldwrite up restricted or legally threatened material submittedby whistleblowers. It was Julian Assange—an AustralianInternet activist and journalist, and the de facto editor-in-chief of WikiLeaks—who had the idea of creating whatBen Laurie called an “open-source, democratic intelligenceagency.” The open-editing aspect was soon abandoned, butthe site remained open for anonymous submissions.[74]

According to Daniel Domscheit-Berg, a former WikiLeaks

spokesperson, part of the WikiLeaks security concept wasthat they did not know who their sources were. The NewYork Times wrote in December 2010 that the U.S. gov-ernment was trying to discover whether Assange had beena passive recipient of material from Manning, or had en-couraged or helped her to extract the files; if the latter,Assange could be charged with conspiracy. Manning toldLamo in May 2010 that she had developed a working re-lationship with Assange, communicating directly with himusing an encrypted Internet conferencing service, but knewlittle about him. WikiLeaks did not identify Manning astheir source.[75] Army investigators found pages of chats onManning’s computer between Manning and someone be-lieved to be Julian Assange.[57] Nicks writes that, despitethis, no decisive evidence was found of Assange offeringManning any direction.[76]

12.3.2 Reykjavik13

Further information: Information published by WikiLeaks

On February 18, 2010, WikiLeaks posted the first of thematerial from Manning, the diplomatic cable from theU.S. Embassy in Reykjavík, a document now known asReykjavik13.[61] On March 15 WikiLeaks posted a 32-pagereport written in 2008 by the U.S. Department of Defenseabout WikiLeaks itself, and on March 29 it posted U.S.State Department profiles of politicians in Iceland.[77]

12.3.3 Baghdad airstrike

Further information: July 12, 2007 Baghdad airstrikeWikiLeaks named the Baghdad airstrike video “Collateral

Manning said she gave WikiLeaks the July 12, 2007 Baghdadairstrike video in early 2010.[78][79][80]

248 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

Murder,” and Assange released it on April 5, 2010, during apress conference at the National Press Club in Washington,D.C.[81] The video showed two American helicopters fir-ing on a group of ten men in the Amin District of Bagh-dad. Two were Reuters employees there to photograph anAmerican Humvee under attack by the Mahdi Army. Pi-lots mistook their cameras for weapons. The helicoptersalso fired on a van, targeted earlier by one helicopter, thathad stopped to help wounded members of the first group.Two children in the van were wounded and their father waskilled. Pilots also engaged a building where retreating in-surgents were holed up. The Washington Post wrote thatit was this video, viewed by millions, that put WikiLeakson the map. According to Nicks, Manning emailed a supe-rior officer after the video aired and tried to persuade herthat it was the same version as the one stored on SIPRNet.Nicks writes that it seemed as though Manning wanted tobe caught.[81]

12.3.4 Afghan War logs, Iraq War logs

Further information: Afghan War documents leak and IraqWar documents leak

WikiLeaks and three media partners—The New YorkTimes, The Guardian, and Der Spiegel—began publishingthe 91,731 documents that became known as the AfghanWar logs on July 25, 2010. This was followed on October22, 2010, by 391,832 classified military reports coveringthe period January 2004 to December 2009; these becameknown as the Iraq War logs. Nicks writes that the publica-tion of the former was a watershed moment, the “beginningof the information age exploding upon itself.”[82]

12.3.5 Diplomatic cables, Guantanamo Bayfiles

Further information: United States diplomatic cables leakand Guantanamo Bay files leak

Manning was also responsible for the "Cablegate" leak of251,287 State Department cables, written by 271 Ameri-can embassies and consulates in 180 countries, dated De-cember 1966 to February 2010. The cables were passedby Assange to his three media partners, plus El País andothers, and published in stages from November 28, 2010,with the names of sources removed. WikiLeaks said it wasthe largest set of confidential documents ever to be releasedinto the public domain.[9][83] The rest of the cables werepublished unredacted by WikiLeaks on September 1, 2011,after David Leigh and Luke Harding of The Guardian in-

advertently published the passphrase for a file that was stillonline; Nicks writes that one Ethiopian journalist had toleave his country and the U.S. government said it had to re-locate several sources.[84] Manning was also the source ofthe Guantanamo Bay files leak, obtained by WikiLeaks in2010 and published by The New York Times on April 24,2011.[85]

12.3.6 Granai airstrike

Further information: Granai airstrike

Manning said she gave WikiLeaks a video, in late March2010, of the Granai airstrike in Afghanistan. The airstrikeoccurred on May 4, 2009, in the village of Granai,Afghanistan, killing 86 to 147 Afghan civilians. The videowas never published; Julian Assange said in March 2013that Daniel Domscheit-Berg had taken it with him when heleft WikiLeaks, and had apparently destroyed it.[64]

12.4 Manning and Adrian Lamo

12.4.1 First contact

Adrian Lamo (left) and Wired's Kevin Poulsen (right) in 2001.The person in the middle, Kevin Mitnick, had no involvement inthe Manning case.[86]

On May 20, 2010, Manning contacted Adrian Lamo, aformer "grey hat" hacker convicted in 2004 of having ac-cessed The New York Times computer network two yearsearlier without permission. Lamo had been profiled thatday by Kevin Poulsen in Wired magazine; the story saidLamo had been involuntarily hospitalized and diagnosedwith Asperger syndrome.[87] Poulsen, by then a reporter,was himself a former hacker who had used Lamo as a sourceseveral times since 2000.[86] Indeed it was Poulsen who, in2002, had told The New York Times that Lamo had gained

12.4. MANNING AND ADRIAN LAMO 249

unauthorized access to its network; Poulsen then wrote thestory up for SecurityFocus. Lamo would hack into a system,tell the organization, then offer to fix their security, oftenusing Poulsen as a go-between.[88]

Lamo said Manning sent him several encrypted emails onMay 20. He said he was unable to decrypt them but repliedanyway and invited the emailer to chat on AOL IM. Lamosaid he later turned the emails over to the FBI without hav-ing read them.[89]

12.4.2 Chats

In a series of chats between May 21 and 25, Manning—using the handle “bradass87”—told Lamo that she hadleaked classified material. She introduced herself as anArmy intelligence analyst, and within 17 minutes, withoutwaiting for a reply, alluded to the leaks.[70]

May 21, 2010:

(1:41:12 PM) bradass87: hi(1:44:04 PM) bradass87: how are you?(1:47:01 PM) bradass87: im an army intelligence analyst,deployed to eastern baghdad, pending discharge for “adjust-ment disorder” in lieu of “gender identity disorder”(1:56:24 PM) bradass87: im sure you're pretty busy ...(1:58:31 PM) bradass87: if you had unprecedented ac-cess to classified networks 14 hours a day 7 days a week for8+ months, what would you do?[70]

Lamo replied several hours later. He said: “I'm a journal-ist and a minister. You can pick either, and treat this asa confession or an interview (never to be published) & en-joy a modicum of legal protection.” They talked about re-stricted material in general, then Manning made her first ex-plicit reference to the leaks: “This is what I do for friends.”She linked to a section of the May 21, 2010, version ofWikipedia’s article on WikiLeaks, which described theWikiLeaks release in March that year of a Department ofDefense report on WikiLeaks itself. She added “the onebelow that is mine too"; the section below in the same ar-ticle referred to the leak of the Baghdad airstrike (“Collat-eral Murder”) video.[90] Manning said she felt isolated andfragile, and was reaching out to someone she hoped mightunderstand.[70]

May 22, 2010:

(11:49:02 AM) bradass87: im in the desert, with abunch of hyper-masculine trigger happy ignorant rednecksas neighbors... and the only safe place i seem to have is thissatellite internet connection

(11:49:51 AM) bradass87: and i already got myself intominor trouble, revealing my uncertainty over my genderidentity ... which is causing me to lose this job ... andputting me in an awkward limbo ...(11:52:23 AM) bradass87: at the very least, i managed tokeep my security clearance [so far] ...(11:58:33 AM) bradass87: and little does anyone know,but among this “visible” mess, theres the mess i created thatno-one knows about yet ...(12:15:11 PM) bradass87: hypothetical question: if youhad free reign [sic] over classified networks for long periodsof time ... say, 8–9 months ... and you saw incredible things,awful things ... things that belonged in the public domain,and not on some server stored in a dark room in WashingtonDC ... what would you do? ...(12:21:24 PM) bradass87: say ... a database of half a mil-lion events during the iraq war ... from 2004 to 2009 ... withreports, date time groups, lat-lon locations, casualty figures...? or 260,000 state department cables from embassies andconsulates all over the world, explaining how the first worldexploits the third, in detail, from an internal perspective? ...(12:26:09 PM) bradass87: lets just say *someone* i knowintimately well, has been penetrating US classified net-works, mining data like the ones described ... and beentransferring that data from the classified networks over the“air gap” onto a commercial network computer ... sortingthe data, compressing it, encrypting it, and uploading it toa crazy white haired aussie who can't seem to stay in onecountry very long ...(12:31:43 PM) bradass87: crazy white haired dude = Ju-lian Assange(12:33:05 PM) bradass87: in other words ... ive made ahuge mess :’([70]

Manning said she had started to help WikiLeaks aroundThanksgiving in November 2009—which fell on November26 that year—after WikiLeaks had released the 9/11 pagermessages; the messages were released on November 25.She told Lamo she had recognized that the messages camefrom an NSA database, and that seeing them had madeher feel comfortable about stepping forward. Lamo askedwhat kind of material Manning was dealing with; Manningreplied: “uhm ... crazy, almost criminal political backdeal-ings ... the non-PR-versions of world events and crises ...”Although she said she dealt with Assange directly, Manningalso said Assange had adopted a deliberate policy of know-ing very little about her, telling Manning: “lie to me.”[70]

May 22, 2010:

(1:11:54 PM) bradass87: and ... its important that it getsout ... i feel, for some bizarre reason

250 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

(1:12:02 PM) bradass87: it might actually change some-thing(1:13:10 PM) bradass87: i just ... dont wish to be a partof it ... at least not now ... im not ready ... i wouldn't mindgoing to prison for the rest of my life, or being executed somuch, if it wasn't for the possibility of having pictures ofme ... plastered all over the world press ... as [a] boy ...(1:14:11 PM) bradass87: i've totally lost my mind ... imake no sense ... the CPU is not made for this motherboard... [...](1:39:03 PM) bradass87: i cant believe what im confess-ing to you :’([70]

Lamo again assured her that she was speaking in confidence.Manning wrote: “but im not a source for you ... im talkingto you as someone who needs moral and emotional fuckingsupport,” and Lamo replied: “i told you, none of this is forprint.”[70]

Manning said the incident that had affected her the mostwas when 15 detainees had been arrested by the Iraqi Fed-eral Police for printing anti-Iraqi literature. She was askedby the Army to find out who the “bad guys” were, and dis-covered that the detainees had followed what Manning saidwas a corruption trail within the Iraqi cabinet. She reportedthis to her commanding officer, but said “he didn't want tohear any of it"; she said the officer told her to help the Iraqipolice find more detainees. Manning said it made her real-ize, “i was actively involved in something that i was com-pletely against ...”[70]

She explained that “i cant separate myself from others ...i feel connected to everybody ... like they were distantfamily,” and cited Carl Sagan, Richard Feynman and ElieWiesel. She said she hoped the material would lead to“hopefully worldwide discussion, debates, and reforms. ifnot ... than [sic] we're doomed as a species.” She said shehad downloaded the material onto music CD-RWs, erasedthe music and replaced it with a compressed split file. Partof the reason no one noticed, she said, was that staff wereworking 14 hours a day, seven days a week, and “peoplestopped caring after 3 weeks.”[70]

May 25, 2010:

(02:12:23 PM) bradass87: so ... it was a massive dataspillage ... facilitated by numerous factors ... both physi-cally, technically, and culturally(02:13:02 PM) bradass87: perfect example of how not todo INFOSEC(02:14:21 PM) bradass87: listened and lip-synced toLady Gaga’s Telephone while exfiltratrating possibly thelargest data spillage in american history [...]

(02:17:56 PM) bradass87: weak servers, weak logging,weak physical security, weak counter-intelligence, inatten-tive signal analysis ... a perfect storm [...](02:22:47 PM) bradass87: i mean what if i were someonemore malicious(02:23:25 PM) bradass87: i could've sold to russia orchina, and made bank?(02:23:36 PM) info@adrianlamo.com: why didn't you?(02:23:58 PM) bradass87: because it’s public data [...](02:24:46 PM) bradass87: it belongs in the public domain(02:25:15 PM) bradass87: Information should be free[70]

12.4.3 Lamo approaches authorities, chatlogs published

Shortly after the first chat with Manning, Lamo discussedthe information with Chet Uber of the volunteer groupProjectVIGILANT, which researches cybercrime, and withTimothy Webster, a friend who had worked in Armycounterintelligence.[91] Both advised Lamo to go to the au-thorities. His friend reported the conversation to UnitedStates Army Counterintelligence, and Lamo was contactedby counterintelligence agents shortly thereafter.[92] He toldthem he believed Manning was endangering lives.[93] Hewas largely ostracized by the hacker community afterwards.Nicks argues, on the other hand, that it was thanks to Lamothat the government had months to ameliorate any harmcaused by the release of the diplomatic cables.[94]

Lamo met with FBI and Army investigators on May 25 inCalifornia, and showed them the chat logs. On or aroundthat date he also passed the story to Kevin Poulsen of Wired,and on May 27 gave him the chat logs and Manning’s nameunder embargo. He met with the FBI again that day, atwhich point they told him Manning had been arrested inIraq the day before. Poulsen and Kim Zetter broke the newsof the arrest in Wired on June 6.[95] Wired published around25 percent of the chat logs on June 6 and 10, and the fulllogs in July 2011, after the material about Manning’s genderidentity disorder had appeared elsewhere.[96]

12.5 Legal proceedings

12.5.1 Arrest and charges

Further information: List of charges in United States v.Manning

Manning was arrested by the U.S. Army Criminal Inves-

12.5. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS 251

tigation Division (CID),[97] on May 27, 2010, and trans-ferred four days later to Camp Arifjan in Kuwait.[98] Shewas charged with several offenses in July, replaced by 22charges in March 2011, including violations of Articles 92and 134 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ),and of the Espionage Act. The most serious charge was“aiding the enemy,” a capital offense, although prosecu-tors said they would not seek the death penalty.[99] An-other charge, which Manning’s defense called a “made upoffense”[100] but of which she was found guilty, read thatManning “wantonly [caused] to be published on the internetintelligence belonging to the US government, having knowl-edge that intelligence published on the internet is accessibleto the enemy.”[101]

12.5.2 Detention

While in Kuwait, Manning was placed on suicide watch af-ter her behavior caused concern.[102] She was moved fromKuwait to the Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, onJuly 29, 2010, and classified as a maximum custody de-tainee with Prevention of Injury (POI) status. POI status isone stop short of suicide watch, entailing checks by guardsevery five minutes. Her lawyer, David Coombs, a formermilitary attorney, said Manning was not allowed to sleepbetween 5 am (7 am on weekends) and 8 pm, and was madeto stand or sit up if she tried to. She was required to remainvisible at all times, including at night, which entailed no ac-cess to sheets, no pillow except one built into her mattress,and a blanket designed not to be shredded.[103] Manningcomplained that she regarded it as pretrial punishment.[104]

Her cell was 6 × 12 ft (1.8 x 3.6 m) with no window, con-taining a bed, toilet and sink. The jail had 30 cells builtin a U shape, and although detainees could talk to one an-other, they were unable to see each other. Her lawyer saidthe guards behaved professionally, and had not tried to ha-rass or embarrass Manning. She was allowed to walk forup to one hour a day, meals were taken in the cell, and shewas shackled during visits. There was access to televisionwhen it was placed in the corridor, and she was allowed tokeep one magazine and one book.[103] Because she was inpretrial detention, she received full pay.[105]

On January 18, 2011, after Manning had an altercation withthe guards, the commander of Quantico classified her as asuicide risk.[106] Manning said the guards had begun issu-ing conflicting commands, such as “turn left, don't turn left,”and upbraiding her for responding to commands with “yes”instead of "aye.” Shortly afterwards, she was placed on sui-cide watch, had her clothing and eyeglasses removed, andwas required to remain in her cell 24 hours a day. The sui-cide watch was lifted on January 21 after a complaint fromher lawyer, and the brig commander who ordered it was

replaced.[107] On March 2 she was told that her request forremoval of POI status—which entailed among other thingssleeping wearing only boxer shorts—had been denied. Herlawyer said Manning joked to the guards that, if she wantedto harm herself, she could do so with her underwear or herflip-flops. The comment resulted in Manning being orderedto strip naked in her cell that night and sleep without cloth-ing. On the following morning only, Manning stood nakedfor inspection. Following her lawyer’s protest and mediaattention, Manning was issued a sleeping garment on or be-fore March 11.[108]

The detention conditions prompted national and interna-tional concern. Juan E. Mendez, United Nations Spe-cial Rapporteur on torture, told The Guardian that theU.S. government’s treatment of Manning was “cruel, in-human and degrading.”[109] In January 2011 Amnesty In-ternational asked the British government to intervene be-cause of Manning’s status as a British citizen by descent,although Manning’s lawyer said Manning did not regardherself as a British citizen.[110] The controversy claimeda casualty in March that year when State Departmentspokesman Philip J. Crowley criticized Manning’s treat-ment and resigned two days later.[111] In early April, 295academics (most of them American legal scholars) signeda letter arguing that the treatment was a violation of theU.S. Constitution.[112] On April 20 the Pentagon transferredManning to the Midwest Joint Regional Correctional Fa-cility, a new medium-security facility at Fort Leavenworth,Kansas, where she was placed in an 80-square-foot cell witha window and a normal mattress, able to mix with other pre-trial detainees and keep personal objects in her cell.[113]

12.5.3 Evidence presented at Article 32hearing

In April 2011, a panel of experts, having completed a med-ical and mental evaluation of Manning, ruled that she wasfit to stand trial.[114] An Article 32 hearing, presided overby Lieutenant Colonel Paul Almanza, was convened on De-cember 16, 2011, at Fort Meade, Maryland; the hearingresulted in Almanza’s recommending that Manning be re-ferred to a general court-martial. She was arraigned onFebruary 23, 2012, and declined to enter a plea.[115]

During the Article 32 hearing, the prosecution, led by Cap-tain Ashden Fein, presented 300,000 pages of documentsin evidence, including chat logs and classified material.[116]

The court heard from two Army investigators, SpecialAgent David Shaver, head of the digital forensics and re-search branch of the Army’s Computer Crime InvestigativeUnit (CCIU); and Mark Johnson, a digital forensics contrac-tor from ManTech International, who works for the CCIU.They testified that they had found 100,000 State Depart-

252 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

ment cables on a workplace computer Manning had usedbetween November 2009 and May 2010; 400,000 militaryreports from Iraq and 91,000 from Afghanistan on an SDcard found in her basement room in her aunt’s home in Po-tomac, Maryland; and 10,000 cables on her personal Mac-Book Pro and storage devices that they said had not beenpassed to WikiLeaks because a file was corrupted. Theyalso recovered 14 to 15 pages of encrypted chats, in unal-located space on Manning’s MacBook hard drive, betweenManning and someone believed to be Julian Assange. Twoof the chat handles, which used the Berlin Chaos ComputerClub's domain (ccc.de), were associated with the names Ju-lian Assange and Nathaniel Frank.[57]

Johnson said he found SSH logs on the MacBook thatshowed an SFTP connection, from an IP address that re-solved to Manning’s aunt’s home, to a Swedish IP ad-dress with links to WikiLeaks.[57] Also found was a textfile named “Readme”, attached to the logs and apparentlywritten by Manning to Assange, which called the Iraq andAfghan War logs “possibly one of the most significant doc-uments of our time, removing the fog of war and revealingthe true nature of 21st century asymmetric warfare.”[53] Theinvestigators testified they had also recovered an exchangefrom May 2010 between Manning and Eric Schmiedl, aBoston mathematician, in which Manning said she was thesource of the Baghdad helicopter attack (“Collateral Mur-der”) video. Johnson said there had been two attempts todelete material from the MacBook. The operating systemhad been re-installed in January 2010, and on or aroundJanuary 31, 2010, an attempt had been made to erase thehard drive by doing a "zero-fill,” which involves overwritingmaterial with zeroes. The material was recovered after theoverwrite attempts from unallocated space.[57]

Manning’s lawyers argued that the government had over-stated the harm the release of the documents had caused,and had overcharged Manning to force her to give evidenceagainst Assange. The defense also raised questions aboutwhether Manning’s confusion over her gender identity af-fected her behavior and decision making.[117]

12.5.4 Guilty plea, trial, sentence

Main article: United States v. Manning

The judge, Army Colonel Denise Lind, ruled in January2013 that any sentence would be reduced by 112 days be-cause of the treatment Manning received at Quantico.[118]

On February 28, Manning pleaded guilty to 10 of the 22charges.[15] Reading for over an hour from a 35-page state-ment, she said she had leaked the cables “to show the truecost of war.” Prosecutors pursued a court-martial on the re-maining charges.[119]

The trial began on June 3, 2013. Manning was convictedon July 30, on 17 of the 22 charges in their entirety, in-cluding five counts of espionage and theft, and an amendedversion of four other charges; she was acquitted of aidingthe enemy. The sentencing phase began the next day.[1]

Captain Michael Worsley, a military psychologist whohad treated Manning before her arrest, testified thatManning had been left isolated in the Army, trying todeal with gender-identity issues in a “hyper-masculineenvironment.”[120] Captain David Moulton, a psychiatristwho saw Manning after the arrest, said Manning had nar-cissistic traits, and showed signs of both fetal alcohol syn-drome and Asperger syndrome. He said that, in leakingthe material, Manning had been “acting out [a] grandioseideation.”[121]

A defense psychiatrist, testifying to Manning’s motives,suggested a different agenda:

Well, Pfc Manning was under the impres-sion that his leaked information was going toreally change how the world views the wars inAfghanistan and Iraq, and future wars, actually.This was an attempt to crowdsource an analy-sis of the war, and it was his opinion that if... through crowdsourcing, enough analysis wasdone on these documents, which he felt to be veryimportant, that it would lead to a greater good ...that society as a whole would come to the conclu-sion that the war wasn't worth it ... that really nowars are worth it.[122]

On August 14, Manning apologized to the court: “I amsorry that my actions hurt people. I'm sorry that they hurtthe United States. I am sorry for the unintended conse-quences of my actions. When I made these decisions I be-lieved I was going to help people, not hurt people. ... At thetime of my decisions I was dealing with a lot of issues.”[120]

Manning’s offenses carried a maximum sentence of 90years.[123] The government asked for 60 years as a deter-rent to others, while Manning’s lawyer asked for no morethan 25 years. She was sentenced on August 21 to 35 yearsin prison, reduction in rank to private (private E-1 or PVT),forfeiture of all pay and allowances, and a dishonorable dis-charge.[2] She was given credit for 1,293 days of pretrialconfinement, including 112 days for her treatment at Quan-tico, and will be eligible for parole after serving one-thirdof the sentence.[2] There may also be additional credit forgood behavior, which means she could be released aftereight years.[123] She is confined at the United States Disci-plinary Barracks (USDB) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.[16]

On April 14, 2014, Manning’s request for clemency was de-nied, as a result of which the case will go to the United StatesArmy Court of Criminal Appeals for further review.[124]

12.7. NON-MILITARY TRIBUTES 253

12.5.5 Request for presidential pardon

On September 3, 2013, Manning’s lawyer applied for apresidential pardon for his client. Coombs filed a Petitionfor Pardon/Commutation of Sentence to President Obamathrough the pardon attorney at the Department of Justiceand Secretary of the Army John M. McHugh.[125] In thepetition, which was filed with the legal name “Bradley Man-ning” and used male-gender pronouns, Coombs contendedthat Manning’s disclosures did not cause any “real damage,”and that the documents in question did not merit protec-tion as they were not sensitive. The request for a pardonincluded a supporting letter from Amnesty Internationalwhich said that Manning’s leaks had exposed violations ofhuman rights. Coombs’s letter touched on Manning’s roleas a whistleblower, asking that Manning be granted a fullpardon or that her sentence be reduced to time served.[126]

12.5.6 United States Army Court of Crimi-nal Appeals

In April 2015, Amnesty International posted online a letterfrom Manning in which she wrote, “I am now preparingfor my court-martial appeal before the first appeals court.The appeal team, with my attorneys Nancy Hollander andVince Ward, are hoping to file our brief before the court inthe next six months. We have already had success in gettingthe court to respect my gender identity by using femininepronouns in the court filings (she, her, etc.).”[127]

12.6 Reaction to disclosures

The publication of the leaked material, particularly thediplomatic cables, attracted in-depth coverage worldwide,with several governments blocking websites that containedembarrassing details. Alan Rusbridger, editor of TheGuardian, said: “I can't think of a time when there was evera story generated by a news organisation where the WhiteHouse, the Kremlin, Chávez, India, China, everyone in theworld was talking about these things. ... I've never knowna story that created such mayhem that wasn't an event likea war or a terrorist attack.”[128]

United States Navy Admiral Michael Mullen, thenChairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said the leaks hadplaced the lives of American soldiers and Afghan infor-mants in danger.[129] Journalist Glenn Greenwald arguedthat Manning was the most important whistleblower sinceDaniel Ellsberg leaked the Pentagon Papers in 1971.[130] Inan impromptu questioning session after a fundraiser, cap-tured on a cell phone video, President Barack Obama saidthat Manning “broke the law”, which was later criticized

Billboard erected in Washington, D.C., by the Private Manning Sup-port Network

as "unlawful command influence" on Manning’s upcomingtrial.[131]

Manning and WikiLeaks were credited as catalysts for theArab Spring that began in December 2010, when waves ofprotesters rose up against rulers across the Middle East andNorth Africa, after the leaked cables exposed governmentcorruption.[132] In Tunisia, where the uprisings began onDecember 17, 2010, one of the leaked cables—publishedaround 10 days earlier—showed that the President’s daugh-ter and her husband had their ice cream flown in from Saint-Tropez.[133]

A Washington Post editorial asked why an apparently un-stable Army private had been able to access and transfersensitive material in the first place.[134] According to a bi-ographer, Manning’s sexuality came into play by illustratingfor the far right that gay people were unfit for military ser-vice, while the American mainstream thought of Manningas a gay soldier driven mad by bullying.[135]

12.7 Non-military tributes

In 2011, Manning was awarded a “Whistleblowerpreis” bythe German Section of the International Association ofLawyers against Nuclear Arms and the Federation of Ger-man Scientists.[136] In 2012, she was awarded “People’sChoice Award” awarded by Global Exchange.[137] In 2013,she was awarded the Sean MacBride Peace Prize by theInternational Peace Bureau.[138] In 2014, she was awardedthe Sam Adams Award by Sam Adams Associates for In-tegrity in Intelligence.[139]

Icelandic and Swedish Pirate Party MPs nominated Man-ning and fellow whistleblower Edward Snowden for the2014 Nobel Peace Prize. In a statement to the Nomina-

254 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

tion Committee, the Pirate Party members said Manningand Snowden “have inspired change and encouraged publicdebate and policy changes that contributed to a more stableand peaceful world”.[140] In 2013, Roots Action launcheda petition nominating Manning for the prize that receivedmore than 100,000 supporting signatures.[141]

In April 2015 a bronze statute of Manning, EdwardSnowden, and Julian Assange was erected in Berlin’sAlexanderplatz. Germany’s Green Party sponsored thestatue created by Italian sculptor David Dormino.[142]

12.8 Gender transition

How Chelsea Manning sees herself. By Alicia Neal, in coopera-tion with Chelsea herself, commissioned by the Chelsea ManningSupport Network, 23 April 2014.[143]

12.8.1 2013

On August 22, 2013, the day after sentencing, Manning’sattorney issued a press release to the Today show announc-ing that his client was a female, and asked that she be re-ferred to by her new name of Chelsea and feminine pro-nouns. Manning’s statement included the following:

As I transition into this next phase of mylife, I want everyone to know the real me. I am

Chelsea Manning. I am a female. Given the waythat I feel, and have felt since childhood, I wantto begin hormone therapy as soon as possible. Ihope that you will support me in this transition.I also request that, starting today, you refer tome by my new name and use the feminine pro-noun (except in official mail to the confinementfacility). I look forward to receiving letters fromsupporters and having the opportunity to writeback.[144]

The news media split in its reaction to Manning’s request;some organizations used the new name and pronouns, andothers continued to use the former ones.[145][146] Advocacygroups such as GLAAD, the National Lesbian and GayJournalists Association, and the Human Rights Campaign(HRC) encouraged media outlets to refer to Manning byher self-identified name and pronoun.[147][148][149]

12.8.2 2014

In April 2014, the Kansas District Court considered a pe-tition from Manning for a legal name change. The peti-tion was quickly granted. An Army spokesman stated thatwhile the Army will update personnel records to acknowl-edge the name change, the military will continue to regardManning as a male.[4] Manning is seeking hormone therapyand the right to live as a woman while confined, consistentwith her gender dysphoria, which has been confirmed bytwo Army medical specialists. Such treatment is providedin civilian federal prisons when it is found to be medicallynecessary, but it is not available in military prisons. ThePentagon policy considers transgender individuals ineligi-ble to serve.[150][151]

In July, the Federal Bureau of Prisons rejected a request bythe Army to transfer Manning from the USDB to a civil-ian facility for treatment of her gender dysphoria. Instead,the Army will keep Manning in military custody and beginrudimentary gender treatment, which could include allow-ing her to wear female undergarments and possibly receivehormone treatments. No decision was announced regard-ing whether or not Manning will be transferred from theall-male USDB to a female facility.[152]

On August 12, 2014, the ACLU and Manning’s civilian at-torney David Coombs said Manning was not receiving treat-ment for her gender identity condition as previously ap-proved by Secretary of Defense Hagel. They notified theUSDB, Hagel and other Defense Department officials thata lawsuit would be filed if they did not confirm by Septem-ber 4 that treatment would be provided.[153] On August 22,Army spokeswoman Lt. Col. Alayne Conway told NBCNews, “The Department of Defense has approved a request

12.9. PRISON LIFE 255

by Army leadership to provide required medical treatmentfor an inmate diagnosed with gender dysphoria.” AlthoughConway would not discuss “the medical needs of an individ-ual,” she did say, “In general terms, the initial stages of treat-ment for individuals with gender dysphoria include psy-chotherapy and elements of the 'real life experience' ther-apy. Treatment for the condition is highly individualizedand generally is sequential and graduated.” The Army de-clined to say when treatment might begin.[154]

In September, Manning filed a lawsuit in federal districtcourt in Washington, D.C., against Secretary of DefenseHagel, claiming she'd “been denied access to medicallynecessary treatment” for gender disorder. She sued tobe allowed to grow her hair longer and use cosmetics,and to receive hormone treatments “to express her femalegender.”[155]

12.8.3 2015

On February 12, 2015, USA Today reported that the com-mandant of the USDB wrote in a February 5 memo, “Af-ter carefully considering the recommendation that (hor-mone treatment) is medically appropriate and necessary,and weighing all associated safety and security risks pre-sented, I approve adding (hormone treatment) to InmateManning’s treatment plan.” According to USA Today, Man-ning remained a soldier, and the decision to administer hor-mone therapy was a first for the Army.[156] Manning wasnot allowed to grow her hair longer. Her ACLU attor-ney said that the delay in approving her hormone treatment“came with a significant cost to Chelsea and her mentalhealth.”[157]

On March 5, in response to Manning’s request for an ordercompelling the military to use pronouns that conform to herchosen gender identity, the U.S. Army Court of CriminalAppeals ruled, “Reference to appellant in all future formalpapers filed before this court and all future orders and de-cisions issued by this court shall either be neutral, e.g., Pri-vate First Class Manning or appellant, or employ a femininepronoun.”[158]

On March 14, the digital library host Cryptome posted anunsigned public copy of a court document, filed March 10,wherein the parties to Manning’s September 2014 lawsuitagainst Secretary of Defense Hagel agreed to stay proceed-ings for seven months, after which time they would addresshow the litigation should proceed in light of Manning’s sta-tus at that time. The document revealed that the Army wasthen providing Manning with weekly psychotherapy, in-cluding psychotherapy specific to gender dysphoria; cross-sex hormone therapy; female undergarments; the ability towear prescribed cosmetics in her daily life at the USDB;and speech therapy.[159]

In April 2015, Amnesty International posted online a letterfrom Manning in which she disclosed,

I finally began my prescribed regime of hor-mones to continue my overdue gender transitionin February. It’s been such an amazing relieffor my body and brain to finally come into align-ment with each other. My stress and anxiety lev-els have tapered off quite considerably. Overall,things are beginning to move along nicely.[127]

12.9 Prison life

In March 2015, Bloomberg News reported that Manningcan be visited only by those she had named before her im-prisonment, and not by journalists. She cannot be pho-tographed or give interviews on camera. Manning is notallowed to browse the web, but consults print news and hasaccess to new gender theory texts.[160]

In April 2015, Amnesty International posted online a letterfrom Manning in which she described her daily life. “Mydays here are busy and very routine,” Manning wrote. “Iam taking college correspondence courses for a bachelor’sdegree. I also work out a lot to stay fit, and read newspapers,magazines and books to keep up-to-date on current eventsaround the world and learn new things.”[127]

Also that month, Cosmopolitan published the first interviewwith Manning in prison, conducted by mail. Cosmo re-ported that Manning is optimistic about recent progress butsays not being allowed to grow her hair long is “painful andawkward … I am torn up. I get through each day okay,but at night, when I'm alone in my room, I finally burn outand crash.” Manning said it was “very much a relief” to an-nounce that she is a woman, and did not fear the public re-sponse. “Honestly, I'm not terribly worried about what peo-ple out there might think of me. I just try to be myself.” Ac-cording to Cosmo, Manning has her own cell with “two tallvertical windows that face the sun,” and can see “trees andhills and blue sky and all the things beyond the buildingsand razor wire.” Manning denies being harassed by otherinmates, and claims some have become confidantes.[161]

12.9.1 Writing

In February 2015, Katharine Viner, editor-in-chief ofGuardian US, announced that Manning had joined TheGuardian as a contributing opinion writer on war, gender,and freedom of information.[162] Viner added that Man-ning would not be paid in this capacity.[163] In 2014, TheGuardian had published two op-eds by Manning: “How tomake Isis fall on its own sword” (September 16)[164] and

256 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

“I am a transgender woman and the government is denyingmy civil rights” (December 8).[165] Manning’s debut underthe new arrangement, “The CIA’s torturers and the leaderswho approved their actions must face the law,” appeared onMarch 9, 2015.[166]

In April 2015, Manning began communicating via Twitter,under the handle @xychelsea, by using a voice phone todictate to intermediaries, who then tweet on her behalf.[167]

12.10 See also

• Classified information in the United States

• Information security

• Information sensitivity

• McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950

• Reception of WikiLeaks

• Source (journalism)

Material associated with Manning

• 12 July 2007 Baghdad airstrike leaked video footage

• Afghan War documents leak

• Granai airstrike#Video of the airstrike

• Guantanamo Bay files leak

• Iraq War documents leak

• United States diplomatic cables leak

• Contents of the United States diplomatic cablesleak

• Reactions to the United States diplomatic cablesleak

12.11 References

12.11.1 Notes

Note: Sources that are used repeatedly or are central tothe article are presented in shortened form in this section,as are books; for full citations for those sources, see theReferences section below. Other sources are cited in fullin this section.

[1] Tate, Julie and Londoño, Ernesto. “Bradley Manning foundnot guilty of aiding the enemy, convicted on other charges”,The Washington Post, July 30, 2013.

• Londoño, Ernesto; Rolfe, Rebecca; and Tate, Julie.“Verdict in Bradley Manning case”, The WashingtonPost, July 30, 2013.

• Savage, Charlie. “Manning Acquitted of Aiding theEnemy”, The New York Times, July 30, 2013.

• Pilkington, Ed. “Bradley Manning verdict: cleared of'aiding the enemy' but guilty of other charges”, TheGuardian, July 31, 2013: “the soldier was found guiltyin their entirety of 17 out of the 22 counts against him,and of an amended version of four others.”

[2] Tate, Julie. “Judge sentences Bradley Manning to 35 years”,The Washington Post, August 21, 2013.

• For possible release after eight years, see Sledge, Matt.“Bradley Manning Sentenced To 35 Years In PrisonFor WikiLeaks Disclosures ", Huffington Post, August21, 2013.

[3] Lewis, Paul. “Bradley Manning given 35-year prison termfor passing files to WikiLeaks”, The Guardian, August 21,2013.

[4] Londoño, Ernesto. “Convicted leaker Bradley Manningchanges legal name to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning”. TheWashington Post. Retrieved April 27, 2014.

[5] Manning, Chelsea E (May 27, 2015). “The years since Iwas jailed for releasing the 'war diaries’ have been a roller-coaster”. The Guardian. Retrieved May 28, 2015.

[6] “21 Transgender People Who Influenced American Cul-ture”. Time Magazine.

[7] Manning, Chelsea E. “The Next Stage of My Life”, press re-lease, August 22, 2013: “As I transition into this next phaseof my life, I want everyone to know the real me. I am ChelseaManning. I am a female. Given the way that I feel, and havefelt since childhood, I want to begin hormone therapy as soonas possible. ... I also request that, starting today, you refer tome by my new name and use the feminine pronoun (exceptin official mail to the confinement facility). ... Thank you,Chelsea E. Manning”

• Stamp, Scott. “Bradley Manning: I want to live as awoman”, NBC Today, August 22, 2013.

• Blake, Aaron and Tate, Julie. “Bradley Manningcomes out as transgender: ‘I am a female’", The Wash-ington Post, August 22, 2013.

• Coombs, David. “Additional Clarification on PVTManning’s Request”, The Law Offices of David E.Coombs, August 26, 2013: "... PVT Manning, whohas experienced gender dysphoria and gone througha process of gender questioning and exploration foryears, announced that she would like to begin to beknown publicly by the name of Chelsea ElizabethManning ...”

12.11. REFERENCES 257

• Farrell, Henry; Finnemore, Martha (November–December 2013). “The End of Hypocrisy: Amer-ican Foreign Policy in the Age of Leaks”. ForeignAffairs. Retrieved October 26, 2013. (subscriptionrequired (help)). Chelsea Manning, an army privatethen known as Bradley Manning, turned over hun-dreds of thousands of classified cables to the anti-secrecy group WikiLeaks

[8] Clark, Meredith (22 August 2013). "‘I am Chelsea Man-ning’". Retrieved October 28, 2013. Dr. David Moulton,the forensic psychologist assigned to review Manning’s case,said that Manning was suffering from gender identity disor-der, a diagnosis supported by a military sanity board.

[9] “Secret US Embassy Cables”. WikiLeaks. November 28,2010. Retrieved May 28, 2015.

[10] “Iraq War logs”. WikiLeaks. October 22, 2010. RetrievedMay 28, 2015.

[11] “Afghan War diary”. WikiLeaks. July 25, 2010. RetrievedMay 28, 2015.

[12] Leigh and Harding 2011, pp. 194ff, 211.

• For the Afghan and Iraq War logs, see Nicks 2012, p.137.

• For Manning’s referring to the documents, see Poulsenand Zetter, June 6, 2010, Hansen, July 13, 2011, andManning, January 29, 2013.

[13] Nicks, September 23, 2010.

• For the initial charges, see “Soldier faces criminalcharges”, United States Division – Center, Media Re-lease, July 6, 2010.

• Also see “Charge sheet”, Cryptome; and “Chargesheet”, The Washington Post.

• For the additional charges, see Miklaszewski, Jim andKube, Courtney. “Manning faces new charges, possi-ble death penalty”, MSNBC, March 2, 2011.

[14] For the letter from the legal scholars, see Ackerman, Bruceand Benkler, Yochai. “Private Manning’s Humiliation”, TheNew York Review of Books. Retrieved April 5, 2011 (see alater correction here ).

• For the jail transfer, see “WikiLeaks Suspect Trans-ferred to Fort Leavenworth”, Associated Press, April20, 2011.

[15] “Judge accepts Manning’s guilty pleas in WikiLeaks case”,CBS News, February 28, 2013.

[16] Hanna, John. “Manning to Serve Sentence at Famous Leav-enworth”, Associated Press, August 21, 2013.

[17] For the comparisons, see Nicks 2012, p. 3, and for the ArabSpring, pp. 212–216.

[18] “Lengthy prison term for Bradley Manning”, ReportersWithout Borders, August 21, 2013.

[19]

[20] Fishman, July 3, 2011, pp. 2–3.

• For the swimming pool and the house, see Nicks,September 23, 2010.

• For the meeting in Woolworths, see McKelvey,Tara. “Bradley Manning’s disrupted family life”, BBCNews, August 22, 2013.

[21] Tate, Julie. “Manning apologizes, says he 'hurt the UnitedStates’", The Washington Post, August 14, 2013.

[22] For the diet, height and being small for her age, see Lewis,Paul. “Bradley Manning trial revealed a lonely soldier witha troubled past”, The Guardian, August 21, 2013.

• For height and weight, see Kirkland, Michael. “Underthe U.S. Supreme Court: Bradley Manning, Wik-iLeaks martyr?", United Press International, March13, 2011.

[23] For her mother not adjusting, Manning fending for herself,and the neighbor, see Thompson, August 8, 2010, p. 1.

• For the pre-signed checks and the neighbor again, seeNakashima, May 4, 2011.

• For the father stocking up on food, see “InterviewBrian Manning” and “Interview Jordan Davis”, PBSFrontline, March 2011.

• For the perception of friends and neighbors regardingthe Manning family Frontline, March 2011

[24] Nicks, September 23, 2010.

• For religion, see Thompson, August 8, 2010, p. 1.• For atheist, see Nicks 2012, p. 90.

[25] For the interview with the father, see Smith, March 2011,from 02:25 mins (transcript).

• For the quiz bowl, see Nakashima, May 4, 2011.• Also see Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 4.

[26] Nicks 2012, pp. 19–20.

• Smith, March 2011; “Interview Brian Manning” (tran-script); and “Interview Jordan Davis” (transcript),PBS Frontline, March 7, 2011.

• Also see Hansen, July 13, 2011, at "(11:36:34 AM)bradass87”.

[27] Lewis, Paul. “Bradley Manning trial revealed a lonely soldierwith a troubled past”, The Guardian, August 21, 2013.

[28] Nakashima, May 4, 2011.

[29] For the views of her schoolfriend (James Kirkpatrick), seeCaesar, December 19, 2010.

258 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

• For the website, see angeldyne.com, December 7,2003.

• For Manning referring to the website as hers,see Hansen, July 13, 2011, at "(11:40:25 AM)bradass87”.

[30] For being the only American in the school and being imi-tated, see Leigh and Harding 2011, p. 24.

• For not discussing being gay, see Nicks, 23 September2010.

• For being abandoned during a camping trip,Nakashima, May 4, 2011.

[31] On her way through London to renew her passport, Manningarrived at the King’s Cross underground station on the dayof the 7 July 2005 London bombings, and said she heard thesirens and the screaming. See Hansen, July 13, 2011, andNicks 2012, pp. 23–24.

[32] Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 3.

• For Zoto and Campbell, see Nakashima, May 4, 2011.

[33] Nicks 2012, pp. 24–25, 51–56.

• Also see:

*Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 3.*Nakashima, May 4, 2011.*For the jobs, see “Bradley Manning’s Face-book Page”, PBS Frontline, March 2011.

[34] Nicks 2012, p. 57.

• For the PhD in physics, see Nakashima, May 4, 2011.• Also see Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 4.

[35] Reeve, Elspeth. “A Portrait of the Mind of Bradley Man-ning”, The Atlantic Wire, August 14, 2013.

[36] Manning, January 29, 2013, p. 2.

[37] For concerns about her stability, see Nakashima, May 4,2011.

• For basic training and the video interview with the sol-dier, see Smith, Teresa et al. “The madness of BradleyManning?", The Guardian, May 27, 2011; soldier’sinterview begins 07:10 mins.

• For a transcript of the interview, see “BradleyManning: fellow soldier recalls 'scared, bulliedkid'", The Guardian, May 28, 2011.

• For the drill sergeants and “General Manning,” seeNicks 2012, p. 62.

[38] For restarting basic training in January 2008, see Nicks2012, p. 73.

• For the top-security clearance, see Nakashima, May4, 2011, and for the “TS/SCI security clearance,” seeNicks 2012, p. 116.

• For “unprecedented access to state secrets,” see Nicks2012, p. 117; also see Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 2.

• For the reprimand regarding YouTube, see Nicks,September 23, 2010; also see Nicks 2012, p. 75.

[39] “Bradley Manning”, The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved Au-gust 31, 2014.

[40] Nicks 2012, p. 82.

[41] Leigh and Harding 2011, pp. 27–28; Nicks 2012, p. 83.

[42] For her introduction to the hacker community, see Leigh andHarding 2011, pp. 27–28.

• For the anonymous interview, see Her, Phim. “Teenhears peoples’ stories at LGBTQ rally”, syracuse.com,November 17, 2008.

• That the interviewee was Manning, see Nicks,September 23, 2010, and Nick 2012, p. 82.

• For Manning’s reference to the interview on Face-book, see “Bradley Manning’s Facebook Page”, PBSFrontline, March 2011.

[43] For the introduction to lobbyists and others, see Nicks 2012,p. 85.

• For the emotional problems and referral to a coun-selor, see Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 1, and Nicks2012, p. 114.

[44] For the films, see Nicks 2012, p. 88.

• For the relationship with Watkins, see Nicks, Septem-ber 23, 2010, and Nicks 2012, p. 122.

[45] For her time in Fort Polk, and for “risk to himself and pos-sibly others,” see Nicks 2012, pp. 114–115; for ForwardOperating Base Hammer, see pp. 123–124.

• For “risk to himself,” also see Nakashima, May 4,2011, and “Accused WikiLeaker Bradley Manning’sDream of Becoming President”, Newsweek, April 12,2012 (excerpt from Nicks 2012).

[46] “Bradley Manning’s Facebook Page”, PBS Frontline, March2011.

[47] Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 5.

[48] For the fairy wand, see Thompson, August 8, 2010, p. 2.

• For the roommate, see Rushe, Dominic and Williams,Matt. “Bradley Manning pre-trial hearing – Monday19 December”, The Guardian, December 19, 2011.

[49] Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 4.

[50] Nicks 2012, pp. 133–134.

• Radia, Kirit and Martinez, Luis. “Bradley ManningDefense Reveals Alter Ego Named 'Breanna Man-ning'", ABC News, December 17, 2011.

12.11. REFERENCES 259

• Williams, Matt. “Bradley Manning hearing told of laxsecurity at military intelligence unit”, The Guardian,December 18, 2011.

• Lewis, Paul. “Bradley Manning flipped a table dur-ing counseling, defence tells hearing”, The Guardian,August 12, 2013.

[51] “Bradley Manning’s Facebook Page”, PBS Frontline, March2011, and Blake, Heidi; Bingham, John; and Rayner, Gor-don. “Bradley Manning, suspected source of WikiLeaksdocuments, raged on his Facebook page”, The Daily Tele-graph, July 30, 2010.

[52] Hansen, July 13, 2011.

• Manning, January 29, 2013, p. 11.

[53] Nicks 2012, pp. 137–138; also see Zetter, December 19,2011.

[54] Shanker, Tom (July 8, 2010). “Loophole May Have AidedTheft of Classified Data”. The New York Times. RetrievedNovember 15, 2014.

[55] Manning, January 29, 2013, p. 13.

[56] Manning, January 29, 2013, p. 16.

[57] For the army investigators’ testimony, see Zetter, December19, 2011.

• For more from the army investigators, including thereference to Eric Schmiedl, see Dishneau, David andJelinek, Pauline. “Witness: Manning said leak wouldlift 'fog of war'", Associated Press, December 19,2011.

• Also see “Investigators link WikiLeaks suspect to As-sange”, Agence France-Presse, December 20, 2011.

[58] Nicks 2012, pp. 131–135, 137–138.

• For her living as a woman, see Nicks 2012, p. 146.• For the details of her leave, see “Bradley Manning’s

Facebook Page”, PBS Frontline, March 2011.

[59] Poulsen and Zetter, June 6, 2010.

[60] Manning, January 29, 2013, pp. 15–16.

[61] Myers, Steven Lee. “Charges for Soldier Accused of Leak”,The New York Times, July 6, 2010.

• For Manning calling Reykjavik13 a “test document,”see Hansen, July 13, 2011 and Nicks, September 23,2010.

[62] Manning, January 29, 2013, p. 18.

[63] Hansen, July 13, 2011.

• Manning, January 29, 2013, pp. 18–22.

[64] Manning, January 29, 2013, p. 33.

• But note: WikiLeaks tweeted on January 8, 2010,that they had obtained “encrypted videos of US bombstrikes on civilians,” and linked to a story about theairstrike; see “Have encrypted videos ...”, Twitter,January 8, 2010 (archived from the original, May 8,2012). The tweet said: “Have encrypted videos ofUS bomb strikes on civilians http://bit.ly/wlafghan2we need super computer time http://ljsf.org/"

• Note: bit.ly is on Wikipedia’s spam blacklist,which is why the first link is not live. It leadsto Shachtman, Noah. “Afghan Airstrike VideoGoes Down the Memory Hole”, Wired, June 23,2009.

• For Domscheit-Berg destroying the video, see Dor-ling, Philip. “WikiLeaks has more US secrets, As-sange says”, The Age, March 5, 2013.

[65] Manning, January 29, 2013, p. 31.

[66] Manning, January 29, 2013, p. 23.

[67] Nicks 2012, pp. 162–163.

• Email from Manning to Lim, U.S. Army RecordsManagement and Declassification Agency, April 24,2010.

[68] Lewis, Paul. “Bradley Manning supervisor 'ignored photo ofsoldier dressed as woman'", The Guardian, August 13, 2013.

[69] Radia, Kirit and Martinez, Luis. “Bradley Manning DefenseReveals Alter Ego Named 'Breanna Manning'", ABC News,December 17, 2011.

[70] Hansen, July 13, 2011; also see Nicks 2012, pp. 171–184.

[71] Nicks 2012, p. 164, and “Bradley Manning’s FacebookPage”, PBS Frontline, March 2011.

[72] For the storage cupboard, the psychiatrist, and the recom-mended discharge, see Nakashima, May 4, 2011.

• For the same incident, see Nicks 2012, pp. 161–163.• For the altercation with the intelligence analyist, see

Sanchez, Raf. “Bradley Manning 'attacked female sol-dier and sent picture of himself as a woman'", TheDaily Telegraph, December 18, 2011.

• Also see O'Kane, Maggie et al. “Bradley Manning:the bullied outsider who knew US military’s innersecrets”, and “WikiLeaks accused Bradley Manning'should never have been sent to Iraq'", The Guardian,May 27, 2011.

[73] Dishneau, David and Jelinek, Pauline. “Witness: Manningsaid leak would lift 'fog of war'", Associated Press, Decem-ber 19, 2011.

• Also see Nicks 2012, p. 164.

[74] Leigh and Harding 2011, pp. 52–56.

[75] For WikiLeaks security, see Domscheit-Berg 2011, p. 165.

260 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

• For the U.S. government trying to determine whetherAssange encouraged Manning, see Savage, Charlie.“U.S. Tries to Build Case for Conspiracy by Wik-iLeaks”, The New York Times, December 15, 2010.

• For Manning’s chats with Lamo, see Hansen, July 13,2011.

[76] Nicks 2012, p. 155.

[77] For the publishing sequence, see Leigh and Harding 2011,p. 70.

• For the leak of the Defense Dept report on WikiLeaks,see Kravets, David. “Secret Document Calls Wik-ileaks ‘Threat’ to U.S. Army”, Wired, March 15, 2010.

• For the Defense Dept report itself, see Assange, Ju-lian. “U.S. intelligence planned to destroy Wik-iLeaks”, WikiLeaks release on March 15, 2010, ofHorvath, Michael D. “Wikileaks.org – An Online Ref-erence to Foreign Intelligence Services, Insurgents, orTerrorist Groups?", United States Army Counterintel-ligence Center, Department of Defense Counterintel-ligence Analysis Program, March 18, 2008.

[78] “Unedited version”. Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2014-06-02.

[79] “edited version”. Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2014-06-02.

[80] Also see Open Secrets: WikiLeaks, War and American Diplo-macy, The New York Times, 2011.

[81] Nicks 2012, pp. 157–161.

• For the video putting WikiLeaks on the map, seeNakashima, May 4, 2011.

[82] For Nicks’s analysis, see Nicks 2012, pp. 191–193; for thenumber of documents in the Afghan and Iraq War logs andCablegate, and for the publication dates, see pp. 204, 206.

• Note: there were 91,731 documents in all in theAfghan War logs; around 77,000 had been publishedas of May 2012.

[83] Leigh and Harding, 2011, p. 70 for the publishing sequence;pp. 194ff for the material WikiLeaks published.

• For Manning’s chat with Adrian Lamo, see Hansen,July 13, 2011.

[84] For the Ethiopian journalist and the relocation of sources,see Nicks 2012, p. 208.

• For the inadvertent publication of the passphrase, see:• Greenwald, Glenn. “Facts and myths in the

WikiLeaks/Guardian saga”, Salon, September 2,2011; archived from the original on March 7,2012.

• Stöcker, Christian. “A Dispatch Disaster in SixActs”, Der Spiegel, September 1, 2011; archivedfrom the original on March 7, 2012.

• Mackey, Robert et al. “All Leaked U.S. Ca-bles Were Made Available Online as WikiLeaksSplintered”, The New York Times, September 1,2011; archived from the original on March 7,2012.

[85] Leigh, David. “Guantánamo leaks lift lid on world’s mostcontroversial prison”, The Guardian, April 25, 2011; andNicks 2012, p. 153.

[86] For Poulsen’s relationship with Lamo, see Last, January 11,2011.

• For more on the relationship, see Greenwald, June 18,2010.

• For Wired.com’s response to Greenwald, see Hansen,Poulsen, December 28, 2010.

[87] For Poulsen’s article about Lamo, see Poulsen, May 20,2010.

• For Lamo’s conviction, see Shachtman, Noah,“Adrian Lamo Cuts Deal With Feds”, Wired, January9, 2004.

[88] Hulme, George V. “With Friends Like This”, Information-Week, July 8, 2002.

[89] Greenwald, June 18, 2010.

• Greenwald, Glenn. Email exchange between GlennGreenwald and Kevin Poulsen, June 14–17, 2010.

• Greenwald wrote: “Lamo told me that Manning firstemailed him on May 20 and, according to highlyedited chat logs released by Wired, had his first onlinechat with Manning on May 21; in other words, Man-ning first contacted Lamo the very day that Poulsen’sWired article on Lamo’s involuntary commitment ap-peared (the Wired article is time-stamped 5:46 p.m.on May 20).“Lamo, however, told me that Manning found him notfrom the Wired article—which Manning never men-tioned reading—but from searching the word 'Wik-iLeaks’ on Twitter, which led her to a tweet Lamohad written that included the word 'WikiLeaks.' Evenif Manning had really found Lamo through a Twittersearch for 'WikiLeaks,' Lamo could not explain whyManning focused on him, rather than the thousands ofother people who have also mentioned the word 'Wik-iLeaks’ on Twitter, including countless people whohave done so by expressing support for WikiLeaks.”

[90] Hansen, July 13, 2011.

• For the section and revision of the Wikipedia articleManning linked to, see “U.S. Intelligence report onWikileaks”, Wikipedia, May 21, 2010.

[91] Nicks 2012, p. 179.

[92] Dishneau, David. “Ex-agent says he alerted DoD in Wik-iLeaks case”, Associated Press, August 4, 2010.

12.11. REFERENCES 261

[93] Caesar, December 19, 2010.

• For more on Lamo approaching the authorities, seeZetter, Kim. “In WikiLeaks Case, Bradley ManningFaces the Hacker Who Turned Him In”, Wired, De-cember 2011.

[94] Nicks 2012, p. 232.

[95] For the first Wired story, see Poulsen and Zetter, June 6,2010.

• For the sequence of events, see Greenwald, June 18,2010.

[96] Hansen and Poulsen, December 28, 2010.

• For the full chat log, see Hansen, July 13, 2011.

[97] Poulsen and Zetter, June 6, 2010.

[98] Poulsen and Zetter, June 16, 2010.

[99] Nicks 2012, p. 247.

• “Charge sheet”, courtesy of Cryptome. Retrieved De-cember 26, 2010.

• For the number of documents involved, and thepenalty if convicted, see “WikiLeaks: Bradley Man-ning faces 22 new charges”, CBS News, March 2,2011.

• For date of arrest and transfer to Kuwait, see “AE 494Ruling Speedy_Trial.pdf”, U.S. Army Records Man-agement and Declassification Agency, Freedom of In-formation Act Electronic Reading Room. RetrievedJune 8, 2013.

[100] “see p5”. Documentcloud.org. Retrieved 2014-06-02.

[101] Alexa O'Brien (June 30, 2013). “US v Pfc. Manning | Crim-inal Elements and Definitions for Wanton Publication andState Dept, CIA, FBI, and Classified Witnesses”. alexao-brien.com. Retrieved September 30, 2013.

[102] Pilkington, Ed. “Bradley Manning: how keeping him-self sane was taken as proof of madness”, The Guardian,November 30, 2012.

[103] For a description of the jail, see Nakashima, Ellen. “In brig,WikiLeaks suspect Bradley Manning ordered to sleep with-out clothing”, The Washington Post, March 5, 2011.

• For Manning’s lawyer’s description, see “A TypicalDay for PFC Bradley Manning”, The Law Offices ofDavid E. Coombs, December 18, 2010; archived fromthe original on April 6, 2012.

• For Manning’s description, see Manning, March 10,2011, particularly pp. 10–11.

• For the books she requested, see Nicks, Denver.“Bradley Manning’s Life Behind Bars”, The DailyBeast, December 17, 2010. The list was: DecisionPoints by George W. Bush; Critique of Practical Rea-son and Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant;Propaganda by Edward Bernays; The Selfish Gene byRichard Dawkins; A People’s History of the UnitedStates by Howard Zinn; The Art of War by Sun Tzu;The Good Soldiers by David Finkel; and On War byGen. Carl von Clausewitz.

[104] Manning, March 10, 2011, p. 7.

[105] Marshall, Serena. “Court-Martial for Bradley Manning inWikileaks Case?", ABC News, December 22, 2011, p. 2.

[106] Court, Army (2011-01-21). “Manning’s lawyer DavidCoombs suicide watch timeline”. Armycourtmartialde-fense.info. Retrieved 2014-06-02.

[107] Nicks 2012, pp. 240–242.

• For Manning’s letter, see Manning, March 10, 2011,pp. 7–8.

• Also see Broom, Kyle. “Prevention of Injury (POI)",a short dramatization of the account given by Manningin her letter to the army; for more details, see ImDb.Retrieved April 8, 2012.

[108] Manning, March 10, 2011, p. 9ff.

• Nakashima, Ellen. “In brig, WikiLeaks suspectBradley Manning ordered to sleep without clothing”,The Washington Post, March 5, 2011.

• For a sleep garment having been supplied, seeNakashima, Ellen. “WikiLeaks suspect’s treatment'stupid,' U.S. official says”, The Washington Post,March 12, 2011.

• Also see “Editorial; The Abuse of Private Manning”,The New York Times, March 15, 2011.

[109] Pilkington, Ed. “Bradley Manning’s treatment was cruel andinhuman, UN torture chief rules”, The Guardian, March 12,2012.

[110] Pilkington, Ed; Chris McGreal & Steven Morris. “BradleyManning is UK citizen and needs protection, governmenttold”, The Guardian, February 1, 2011.

• For Manning’s view of her nationality, see Coombs,David E. “Clarification Regarding PFC Manning’sCitizenship”, Law Offices of David E. Coombs,February 2, 2011: “There has been some discussionregarding PFC Bradley Manning’s citizenship. PFCManning does not hold a British passport, nor does heconsider himself a British citizen. He is an American,and is proud to be serving in the United States Army.His current confinement conditions are troubling tomany both here in the United States and abroad. Thisconcern, however, is not a citizenship issue.”

262 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

[111] Nakashima, Ellen. “WikiLeaks suspect’s treatment 'stupid,'U.S. official says”, The Washington Post, March 12, 2011.

• Tapper, Jake and Radia, Kirit. “Comments on Pris-oner Treatment Cause State Department Spokesmanto Lose His Job”, ABC News, March 13, 2011.

[112] They argued that it was a violation of the Eighth Amend-ment’s prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment, and theFifth Amendment’s guarantee against punishment withouttrial. See Ackerman, Bruce and Benkler, Yochai. “PrivateManning’s Humiliation”, The New York Review of Books.Retrieved April 10, 2011.

[113] Pilkington, Ed. “Bradley Manning’s jail conditions improvedramatically after protest campaign”, The Guardian, May 4,2011.

• For the new jail, see “Joint Regional Correction Facil-ity”, www.defense.gov. Retrieved May 10, 2012.

[114] “Panel Says WikiLeaks Suspect Is Competent to StandTrial”, Associated Press, April 29, 2011.

[115] Rizzo, Jennifer “Bradley Manning charged”, CNN, February23, 2012.

[116] Rath, Arun. “What Happened At Bradley Manning’s Hear-ing This Week?", PBS Frontline, December 22, 2011.

[117] For the government overcharging Manning, see Zetter, Kim.“Army Piles on Evidence in Final Arguments in WikiLeaksHearing”, Wired, December 22, 2011.

• For the gender issues, see Radia, Kirit and Martinez,Luis. “Bradley Manning Defense Reveals Alter EgoNamed 'Breanna Manning'", ABC News, December17, 2011.

[118] Tate, Julie and Nakashima, Ellen. “Judge refuses to dismisscharges against WikiLeaks suspect Bradley Manning”, TheWashington Post, January 8, 2013.

[119] O'Brien, Alexa. “Bradley Manning’s full statement”, Salon,March 1, 2013.

[120] Kube, Courtney; DeLuca, Matthew; McClam, Erin. “I'msorry that I hurt the United States’: Bradley Manning apolo-gizes in court”, NBC News, August 14, 2013.

• Courson, Paul. “Bradley Manning apologizes, tellscourt he must pay price”, CNN, August 14, 2013.

[121] Hartmann, Margaret. “Ahead of His Sentencing, BradleyManning Says, ‘I’m Sorry I Hurt the United States’", NewYork Times magazine, August 15, 2013.

[122] O'Brien, Alex (18 August 2013). “The ethical consistencyof Bradley Manning’s apology”. The Guardian. Retrieved22 July 2014.

[123] Sledge, Matt. “Bradley Manning Sentenced To 35 Years InPrison For WikiLeaks Disclosures ", Huffington Post, August21, 2013.

[124] Cavaliere, Victoria “Army General upholds Manning’sprison sentence in WikiLeaks case”, Reuters, April 18,2014.

[125] Coombs, David (September 3, 2013). “Re: Par-don/Commutation Request For Private Bradley E. Manning”(PDF)

[126] “Bradley Manning seeks presidential pardon”, CBS News,September 4, 2013.

• “Manning seeks presidential pardon for leaking clas-sified information”, Associated Press, September 4,2013.

[127] Sunde, Kristin Hulaas. “Whistleblower Chelsea Manningthanks Amnesty activists for their support”, Amnesty Inter-national, April 8, 2015.

[128] Brooke 2011, p. 223.

[129] Jaffe, Greg and Partlow, Joshua. “Mullen says leak puttroops and Afghans in danger; WikiLeaks documents in-clude names of informants helping U.S.”, The WashingtonPost, July 30, 2010.

[130] Fishman, July 3, 2011, p. 8.

[131] “Video Of Obama On Bradley Manning: 'He Broke TheLaw'", Forbes, April 22, 2011.

• “Did Obama taint Manning’s right to fair trial?", NBCNews, April 26, 2011.

[132] Horne, Nigel. “Tunisia: WikiLeaks had a part in Ben Ali’sdownfall”, The Week, January 15, 2011.

• Malinowski, Tom. “Whispering at Autocrats”, For-eign Policy, January 25, 2011.

• Walker, Peter. “Amnesty International hails Wik-iLeaks and Guardian as Arab spring 'catalysts’", TheGuardian, May 13, 2011.

• “Introduction”, Annual Report 2011, Amnesty Inter-national.

• Rosenbach, Marcel and Schmitz, Gregor Peter. “USDetermined to Punish Bradley Manning”, Der Spiegel,December 15, 2011.

• Also see Rosenbach, Marcel and Schmitz, Gregor Pe-ter. “US Determined to Punish Bradley Manning”,Der Spiegel, December 15, 2011.

• For more on Manning and the protests, see “In theyear of the protester, Bradley Manning is the great dis-senter”, The Irish Times, December 24, 2011.

• Nicks 2012, pp. 212–216.

[133] For the ice cream from Saint-Tropez, see Brooke 2011, p.225.

• For the ice cream and the WikiLeaks connection, alsosee Horne, Nigel. “Tunisia: WikiLeaks had a part inBen Ali’s downfall”, The Week, January 15, 2011.

12.11. REFERENCES 263

• For the cable mentioning the ice cream, see “A Selec-tion From the Cache of Diplomatic Dispatches”, TheNew York Times.

• For the date of the ice cream cable’s publication, seeBlack, Ian. “WikiLeaks cables: Tunisia blocks site re-porting 'hatred' of first lady”, The Guardian, Decem-ber 7, 2010.

[134] “The right response to WikiLeaks”, The Washington Post,editorial, November 30, 2010.

[135] Nicks 2012, p. 196: “To the far right he [Manning] was clearevidence that gays were unfit for military service. And in theAmerican mainstream, the leaks were explained away as theactions of a disaffected homosexual who had come to hatethe army after being bullied into madness.”

[136] “Whistleblowerpreis | Whistleblower-Netzwerk”.Whistleblower-net.de. Retrieved 2014-06-02.

[137] “People to People Blog » And the 2012 People’s ChoiceWinner is...”. Globalexchange.org. 2012-04-02. Retrieved2014-06-02.

[138] “IPB Awards MacBride Peace Prize 2013 to US Whistle-blower Bradley Manning”. Geneva: International Peace Bu-reau. 13 July 2013.

[139] “Chelsea Manning awarded 2014 Sam Adams Prize for In-tegrity in Intelligence – RT News”. Rt.com. Retrieved 2014-06-02.

[140] “Pirate Party members nominate Snowden, Manning for No-bel Peace Prize”. RT. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 16 July2014.

[141] “Petition Passes 100K Signatures Backing Bradley ManningNobel Prize Nomination”. CBS. 12 August 2013. Retrieved17 July 2014.

[142] Mejia, Paula (May 3, 2015). “Statues of Snowden, As-sange and Manning Erected in Berlin’s Alexanderplatz”.Newsweek.

[143] Neal, Alicia (August 23, 2014). “How Chelsea Manningsees herself. By Alicia Neal, in cooperation with Chelseaherself, commissioned by the Chelsea Manning SupportNetwork, 23 April 2014.”. Chelsea Manning Support Net-work. Retrieved September 10, 2014.

[144] Bayetti Flores, Verónica (August 22, 2013). “Manning an-nounces she is transitioning”. Feministing. Retrieved August28, 2013.

[145] Carmon, Irin (August 27, 2013). “Who is still callingChelsea Manning ‘he?’". MSNBC. Retrieved August 29,2013.

[146] O'Connor, Maureen (August 22, 2013). “Why Is It So Hardto Call Chelsea Manning ‘She’?". New York (magazine). Re-trieved August 28, 2013.

[147] Heffernan, Dani (August 22, 2013). “Reporting On PrivateChelsea Manning With Consistent Respect For Gender Iden-tity”. GLAAD. Retrieved August 28, 2013.

[148] “NLGJA Encourages Journalists to be Fair and AccurateAbout Manning’s Plans to Live as a Woman”. National Les-bian and Gay Journalists Association. August 22, 2013. Re-trieved August 28, 2013.

[149] Krehely, Jeff (August 22, 2013). “Pvt. Chelsea E. ManningComes Out, Deserves Respectful Treatment by Media andOfficials”. HRC Blog. Human Rights Campaign. RetrievedSeptember 19, 2013. ...journalists and other officials shoulduse her chosen name of Chelsea and refer to her with fe-male pronouns. Using the name Bradley or male pronounsis nothing short of an insult. Media, having reported on herwishes, must respect them as is the standard followed by theAP Stylebook.

[150] Associated Press (March 21, 2014). “Chelsea Man-ning petitioning Kansas court for legal name change”.theguardian.com. Retrieved March 21, 2014.

[151] “Army Regulation 40-501, Standards of Medical Fitness,Chapters 2-27n and 3-35” (PDF). Retrieved April 2, 2014.

[152] Baldor, Lolita C. “APNewsBreak: Manning to begin GenderTreatment”, Associated Press, July 17, 2014.

[153] Associated Press (August 12, 2014). “Attorney: Manningnot receiving hormone therapy”. MilitaryTimes. RetrievedAugust 12, 2014.

[154] Tracy Connor (August 22, 2014). “Chelsea Manning SaysMilitary Still Denying Gender Treatment”. NBC News. Re-trieved August 24, 2014.

[155] Bill Mears (September 23, 2014). “Chelsea Manning suesto get transgender medical treatment”. CNN. RetrievedSeptember 23, 2014.

[156] Tom Vanden Brook (February 12, 2015). “Military ap-proves hormone therapy for Chelsea Manning”. USA Today.Retrieved February 12, 2015.

[157] Jethro Mullen (February 13, 2015). “Report: U.S. Army ap-proves hormone therapy for Chelsea Manning”. CNN. Re-trieved February 13, 2015.

[158] Miranda Leitsinger (March 5, 2015). “Army Must Refer toChelsea Manning As a Woman, Not Man: Court”. NBCNews. Retrieved March 5, 2015.

[159] “Joint Status Report And Motion To Stay Proceedings ForSeven Months” (PDF). Cryptome.org. March 10, 2015. Re-trieved March 14, 2015.

[160] Greenhouse, Emily. “What Chelsea Manning Has Won”,Bloomberg Politics, March 10, 2015.

[161] Pesta, Abigail. “Chelsea Manning Shares Her Transition toLiving as a Woman—Behind Bars”, Cosmopolitan, April 8,2015.

264 CHAPTER 12. CHELSEA MANNING

[162] “Katharine Viner on Twitter: “Delighted to announce:Chelsea Manning joins @GuardianUS as a contributingopinion writer, writing on war, gender, freedom of informa-tion"". Twitter.com. 2015-02-10. Retrieved 2015-02-13.

[163] “Katharine Viner on Twitter: “she’s not being paid"". Twit-ter.com. 2015-02-10. Retrieved 2015-03-09.

[164] Manning, Chelsea. “How to make Isis fall on its own sword”,The Guardian, September 16, 2014.

[165] Manning, Chelsea. “I am a transgender woman and the gov-ernment is denying my civil rights”, The Guardian, Decem-ber 8, 2014.

[166] Manning, Chelsea. “The CIA’s torturers and the leaders whoapproved their actions must face the law”, The Guardian,March 9, 2015.

[167] Lamothe, Dan. “Chelsea Manning, imprisoned for leakingsecrets, to tweet from Fort Leavenworth”, The WashingtonPost, April 3, 2015.

12.11.2 Citations

Most sources are cited in full in the Notes section. Booksand articles used multiple times are cited in short form inNotes and in long form below.

Books

• Brooke, Heather. The Revolution Will Be Digitised.William Heinemann, 2011.

• Domscheit-Berg, Daniel. Inside WikiLeaks. Double-day, 2011.

• Fowler, Andrew. The Most Dangerous Man in theWorld. Skyhorse Publishing, 2011.

• Leigh, David and Harding, Luke. WikiLeaks: InsideJulian Assange’s War on Secrecy. Guardian Books,2011.

• Nicks, Denver. Private: Bradley Manning, WikiLeaks,and the Biggest Exposure of Official Secrets in AmericanHistory. Chicago Review Press, 2012.

Key articles

• Caesar, Ed. “Bradley Manning: Wikileaker”, TheSunday Times, December 19, 2010; archived from theoriginal on April 7, 2012.

• Fishman, Steve. “Bradley Manning’s Army of One”,New York Magazine, July 3, 2011.

• Greenwald, Glenn. “The strange and consequentialcase of Bradley Manning, Adrian Lamo and Wik-iLeaks”, Salon, June 18, 2010.

• Last, Jonathan V. “The Left’s Canonization of St.Bradley Manning”, CBS News, January 11, 2011.

• Manning, Bradley. “Memorandum”, released byDavid Coombs, March 10, 2011; archived from theoriginal on April 6, 2012.

• Manning, Bradley. “PFC Manning’s statementredacted”, January 29, 2013.

• Nakashima, Ellen. “Bradley Manning is at the cen-ter of the WikiLeaks controversy. But who is he?",The Washington Post, May 4, 2011; archived from theoriginal on April 7, 2012.

• Nicks, Denver. “Private Manning and the Making ofWikileaks”, This Land, September 23, 2010.

• PBS Frontline. “Bradley Manning’s Facebook Page”,March 2011; archived from the original on April 7,2011.

• Smith, Martin. “The Private Life of Bradley Man-ning”, PBS Frontline, March 7, 2011 (interview tran-scripts: “Brian Manning” and “Jordan Davis”).

• Thompson, Ginger. “Early Struggles of SoldierCharged in Leak Case”, The New York Times, August8, 2010.

• Zetter, Kim. “Jolt in WikiLeaks Case: Feds FoundManning-Assange Chat Logs on Laptop”, Wired, De-cember 19, 2011.

Key articles on the Lamo-Manning chat log, in order ofpublication

• Poulsen, Kevin. “Ex-Hacker Adrian Lamo Institu-tionalized for Asperger’s”, Wired magazine, May 20,2010.

• Poulsen, Kevin and Zetter, Kim. “U.S. IntelligenceAnalyst Arrested in WikiLeaks Video Probe”, Wiredmagazine, June 6, 2010.

• Poulsen, Kevin and Zetter, Kim. 'I Can't Believe WhatI'm Confessing to You': The WikiLeaks Chats”, Wiredmagazine, June 10, 2010.

• Nakashima, Ellen. “Messages from alleged leakerBradley Manning portray him as despondent soldier”,The Washington Post, June 10, 2010.

• Greenwald, Glenn. Email exchange between GlennGreenwald and Kevin Poulsen, June 14–17, 2010.

12.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 265

• Poulsen, Kevin and Zetter, Kim. “Three Weeks AfterArrest, Still No Charges in WikiLeaks Probe”, Wiredmagazine, June 16, 2010.

• Jardin, Xeni. “WikiLeaks: a somewhat less redactedversion of the Lamo/Manning logs”, Boing Boing, June19, 2010.

• Greenwald, Glenn. “The worsening journalistic dis-grace at Wired”, Salon, December 27, 2010.

• Hansen, Evan and Poulsen, Kevin. “Putting theRecord Straight on the Lamo-Manning Chat Logs”,Wired magazine, December 28, 2010.

• Greenwald, Glenn. “Wired’s refusal to release or com-ment on the Manning chat logs”, Salon, December 29,2010.

• Firedoglake. “Manning/WikiLeaks timeline”, pub-lished as a complete version of the released excerpts.Retrieved March 14, 2011; archived from the originalon March 28, 2012.

• Hansen, Evan. “Manning-Lamo Chat Logs Re-vealed”, Wired magazine, July 13, 2011; archivedfrom the original on March 28, 2012.

12.11.3 Further reading

Articles

• Khatchadourian, Raffi. “No Secrets”, The New Yorker,June 7, 2010.

• The Guardian. “Afghanistan: The War Logs”. Re-trieved May 9, 2012.

• The Guardian. “Iraq: The War Logs”. Retrieved May9, 2012.

• The New York Times. “The War Logs. Retrieved May9, 2012.

• Wired. “Bradley Manning”. Retrieved May 8, 2012.

• Chelsea Manning (June 15, 2014). “The Fog Machineof War”. The New York Times. p. SR4. RetrievedJune 14, 2014.

Books

• Assange, Julian and O'Hagan, Andrew. Julian As-sange: The Unauthorised Autobiography. Canongate,2011.

• Madar, Chase. The Passion of Bradley Manning. ORBooks, 2012.

• Mitchell, Greg and Gosztola, Kevin. Truth and Con-sequences: The U.S. vs. Bradley Manning. SinclairBooks, 2012.

Audio/video

• Broom, Kyle. “Prevention of Injury (POI)", drama-tization of Manning’s account of detention; also seeImDb. Retrieved April 8, 2012.

• Democracy Now!. Bradley Manning video archive,2011–present.

• Gavin, Patrick. “Celeb video: I am Bradley Manning”,Politico, June 19, 2013.

• Gonzales, Juan and Goodman, Amy. “Glenn Green-wald on the Assange Extradition Ruling, the Jailing ofBradley Manning ...”, Democracy Now!, February 24,2011.

• Miller, Michelle. “Private”, CBS News, April 26,2012, interview with Denver Nicks, author of Private(2012), Manning’s biography.

• Nicks, Denver. “Private Manning Speaks”, This Land,September 22, 2010.

• Price, Tim. The Radicalisation of Bradley Manning(play). Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012.

• McGrath, John (director). “The Radicalisationof Bradley Manning”, National Theatre Wales,April 12–28, 2012.[1]

12.12 External links• Chelsea Manning at the Internet Movie Database

• “U.S. v Bradley Manning”, scribd.com. RetrievedApril 7, 2012.

[1] Rob Humphreys, (Director, the Open University in Wales),John McGrath (Honorary Doctorate recipient) (17 June2015). Cardiff degee ceremony, Friday 12 June 14:30(YouTube). ouLife on YouTube. 48:50 minutes in. Re-trieved 9 August 2015. McGrath discusses the play in hisHonorary Doctorate acceptance speech

Chapter 13

Pierre Trudeau

For other uses, see Pierre Elliott Trudeau (disambiguation).

Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau, PC CHCC QC FRSC (/truːˈdoʊ/; French pronunciation: [tʁydo]; Oc-tober 18, 1919 – September 28, 2000), usually known asPierre Trudeau or Pierre Elliott Trudeau, was the 15thPrime Minister of Canada from April 20, 1968, to June 4,1979, and again from March 3, 1980, to June 30, 1984.Trudeau began his political career as a lawyer, intellectual,and activist in Quebec politics. In the 1960s he entered fed-eral politics by joining the Liberal Party of Canada. He wasappointed as Lester Pearson's Parliamentary Secretary andlater became his Minister of Justice. Trudeau became a me-dia sensation, inspiring "Trudeaumania", and took chargeof the Liberals in 1968. From the late 1960s until the mid-1980s, his personality dominated the political scene to anextent never before seen in Canadian political life, arous-ing passionate and polarizing reactions throughout Canada.“Reason before passion” was his personal motto.[1] He re-tired from politics in 1984, and John Turner succeeded himas Prime Minister.Admirers praise the force of Trudeau’s intellect[2] and salutehis political acumen in preserving national unity against theQuebec sovereignty movement, suppressing a violent re-volt, fostering a pan-Canadian identity, and in achievingsweeping institutional reform, including the patriation ofthe Constitution and the establishment of the Charter ofRights and Freedoms.[3] Critics accuse him of arrogance,of economic mismanagement, and of unduly centralizingCanadian decision-making to the detriment of Quebec’sculture and the economy of the Prairies.[4] While publicopinion of him remains divided, scholars consistently rankhim as one of the greatest Canadian Prime Ministers.

13.1 Early life

The Trudeau family originate from Ste-Marguerite-de-Cogne, La Rochelle, France, and trace back to a Robert

Trudeau.[5] The first Trudeau to arrive in Canada wasEtienne Trudeau (1641–1712), a carpenter and homebuilder in 1659.[6]

Pierre Trudeau was born in Montreal to Charles-ÉmileTrudeau, a French-Canadian businessman and lawyer, andGrace Elliott, who was of French and Scottish descent. Hehad an older sister named Suzette and a younger brothernamed Charles Jr.; he remained close to both siblings forhis entire life. The family had become quite wealthy by thetime Trudeau was in his teens, as his father sold his pros-perous gas station business to Imperial Oil.[7] Trudeau at-tended the prestigious Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf (a privateFrench Jesuit school), where he supported Quebec nation-alism. Trudeau’s father died when Pierre was in his mid-teens. This death hit him and the family very hard emo-tionally. Pierre remained very close to his mother for therest of her life.[8]

According to long-time friend and colleague Marc Lalonde,the clerically influenced dictatorships of António deOliveira Salazar in Portugal (the Estado Novo), FranciscoFranco in Spain (the Spanish State), and Marshal PhilippePétain in Vichy France were seen as political role models bymany youngsters educated at elite Jesuit schools in Quebec.Lalonde asserts that Trudeau’s later intellectual develop-ment as an “intellectual rebel, anti-establishment fighter onbehalf of unions and promoter of religious freedom” camefrom his experiences after leaving Quebec to study in theUnited States, France and England, and to travel to dozensof countries. His international experiences allowed him tobreak from Jesuit influence and study French philosopherssuch as Jacques Maritain and Emmanuel Mounier as wellas John Locke and David Hume.[9]

13.2 Education and the SecondWorld War

Trudeau earned his law degree at the Université de Mon-tréal in 1943. During his studies he was conscripted into

266

13.3. EARLY CAREER 267

the Canadian Army as part of the National Resources Mo-bilization Act. When conscripted, he decided to join theCanadian Officers’ Training Corps, and he then served withthe other conscripts in Canada, since they were not assignedto overseas military service until after the Conscription Cri-sis of 1944 after the Invasion of Normandy that June. Be-fore this, all Canadians serving overseas were volunteers,and not conscripts.Trudeau said he was willing to fight during World War II,but he believed that to do so would be to turn his back on thepopulation of Quebec that he believed had been betrayed bythe government of William Lyon Mackenzie King. Trudeaureflected on his opposition to conscription and his doubtsabout the war in his Memoirs (1993): “So there was a war?Tough ... if you were a French Canadian in Montreal in theearly 1940s, you did not automatically believe that this wasa just war ... we tended to think of this war as a settling ofscores among the superpowers.”[8]

In an Outremont by-election in 1942 he campaigned for theanticonscription candidate Jean Drapeau (later the Mayorof Montreal), and he was thenceforth expelled from the Of-ficers’ Training Corps for lack of discipline. After the warTrudeau continued his studies, first taking a master’s de-gree in political economy at Harvard University's GraduateSchool of Public Administration. He then studied in Paris,France in 1947 at the Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris.Finally, he enrolled for a doctorate at the London School ofEconomics, but did not finish his dissertation.[10]

Trudeau was interested in Marxist ideas in the 1940s andhis Harvard dissertation was on the topic of Commu-nism and Christianity.[11] Thanks to the great intellectualmigration away from Europe’s fascism, Harvard had be-come a major intellectual centre in which he profoundlychanged.[12] Despite this, Trudeau found himself an out-sider – a French Catholic living for the first time out-side of Quebec in the predominantly Protestant AmericanHarvard University.[13] This isolation deepened finally intodespair,[14] and led to Trudeau’s decision to continue hisHarvard studies abroad.[15]

In 1947 Trudeau travelled to Paris to continue his disser-tation work. Over a five-week period he attended manylectures and became a follower of personalism after be-ing influenced most notably by Emmanuel Mounier.[16] Healso was influenced by Nicolas Berdyaev, particularly hisbook Slavery and Freedom.[17] Max and Monique Nemniargue that Berdyaev’s book influenced Trudeau’s rejectionof nationalism and separatism.[18] The Harvard disserta-tion remained unfinished when Trudeau entered a doctoralprogram to study under the renowned socialist economistHarold Laski in the London School of Economics.[19] Thiscemented Trudeau’s belief that Keynesian economics andsocial science were essential to the creation of the “good

life” in democratic society.[20]

13.3 Early career

From the late 1940s through the mid-1960s, Trudeau wasprimarily based in Montreal and was seen by many as anintellectual. In 1949 he was an active supporter of work-ers in the Asbestos Strike. In 1956 he edited an impor-tant book on the subject, La grève de l'amiante, which ar-gued that the strike was a seminal event in Quebec’s his-tory, marking the beginning of resistance to the conserva-tive, Francophone clerical establishment and Anglophonebusiness class that had long ruled the province.[21] Through-out the 1950s Trudeau was a leading figure in the opposi-tion to the repressive rule of Premier of Quebec MauriceDuplessis as the founder and editor of Cité Libre, a dissi-dent journal that helped provide the intellectual basis forthe Quiet Revolution.From 1949 to 1951 Trudeau worked briefly in Ottawa, inthe Privy Council Office of the Liberal Prime MinisterLouis St. Laurent as an economic policy advisor. He wrotein his memoirs that he found this period very useful lateron, when he entered politics, and that senior civil servantNorman Robertson tried unsuccessfully to persuade him tostay on.His progressive values and his close ties with Co-operativeCommonwealth Federation (CCF) intellectuals (includingF. R. Scott, Eugene Forsey, Michael Kelway Oliver andCharles Taylor) led to his support of and membership in thatfederal democratic socialist party throughout the 1950s.[22]

Despite these connections, when Trudeau entered federalpolitics in the 1960s he decided to join the Liberal Party ofCanada rather than the CCF’s successor, the New Demo-cratic Party (NDP). Trudeau felt the federal NDP couldnot achieve power, expressed doubts about the feasibilityof the centralizing policies of the party, and felt that theparty leadership tended toward a "deux nations" approachhe could not support. [23]

In his memoirs, published in 1993, Trudeau wrote thatduring the 1950s he wanted to teach at the Université deMontréal, but was blacklisted three times from doing soby Maurice Duplessis, the then Premier of Quebec. Hewas offered a position at Queen’s University teaching po-litical science by James Corry, who later became principalof Queen’s, but turned it down because he preferred to teachin Quebec.[24] During the 1950s he was blacklisted by theUnited States and prevented from entering that country be-cause of a visit to a conference in Moscow, and because hesubscribed to a number of left-wing publications. Trudeaulater appealed the ban and it was rescinded.

268 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

13.4 Law professor enters politics

Trudeau after being nominated to represent riding of Town ofMount Royal, June 6, 1965.

An associate professor of law at the Université de Mon-tréal from 1961 to 1965, Trudeau’s views evolved towardsa liberal position in favour of individual rights counter tothe state and made him an opponent of Quebec national-ism. He admired the labour unions, which were tied to theCCF party, and tried to infuse his Liberal party with someof their reforming zeal. By the late 1950s Trudeau beganto reject social democratic and labour parties, arguing thatthey should put their narrow goals aside and join forces withLiberals to fight for democracy first.[25] In economic the-ory he was influenced by professors Joseph Schumpeter andJohn Kenneth Galbraith while he was at Harvard. Trudeaucriticized the Liberal Party of Lester Pearson when it sup-ported arming Bomarc missiles in Canada with nuclear war-heads.[26] Nevertheless he was persuaded to join the partyin 1965, together with his friends Gérard Pelletier and JeanMarchand. These “three wise men” ran successfully for theLiberals in the 1965 election. Trudeau himself was electedin the safe Liberal riding of Mount Royal, in western Mon-treal. He would hold this seat until his retirement from pol-itics in 1984, winning each election with large majorities.Upon arrival in Ottawa, Trudeau was appointed as PrimeMinister Lester Pearson’s parliamentary secretary, andspent much of the next year travelling abroad, represent-ing Canada at international meetings and events, includingthe UN. In 1967 he was appointed to Pearson’s cabinet asMinister of Justice.[8]

Prime Ministers all: (l-r) Trudeau, future leaders John Turner andJean Chrétien, and Trudeau’s predecessor, Lester B. Pearson

13.5 Justice minister and leadershipcandidate

As Minister of Justice, Trudeau was responsible for in-troducing the landmark Criminal Law Amendment Act,an omnibus bill whose provisions included, among otherthings, the decriminalization of homosexual acts betweenconsenting adults, the legalization of contraception, abor-tion and lotteries, new gun ownership restrictions as well asthe authorization of breathalyzer tests on suspected drunkdrivers. Trudeau famously defended the segment of the billdecriminalizing homosexual acts by telling reporters that“there’s no place for the state in the bedrooms of the nation”,adding that “what’s done in private between adults doesn'tconcern the Criminal Code”.[27] Trudeau paraphrased theterm from Martin O'Malley’s editorial piece in the TheGlobe and Mail on December 12, 1967.[27][28] Trudeau alsoliberalized divorce laws, and clashed with Quebec PremierDaniel Johnson, Sr. during constitutional negotiations.

Trudeau at the Liberal convention after winning the leadership

At the end of Canada’s centennial year in 1967, Prime Min-ister Pearson announced his intention to step down, andTrudeau entered the race for the Liberal leadership. His

13.6. PRIME MINISTER, 1968–74 269

energetic campaign attracted massive media attention andmobilized many young people, who saw Trudeau as a sym-bol of generational change. Going into the leadership con-vention, Trudeau was the front-runner and a clear favouritewith the Canadian public. However, many Liberals stillhad reservations given that he joined the Liberal Party in1965 and that his views, particularly those on divorce, abor-tion, and homosexuality, were seen as radical and opposedby a substantial segment of the party. During the con-vention, prominent Cabinet Minister Judy LaMarsh wascaught on television profanely stating that Trudeau wasn'ta Liberal.[29]

Nevertheless, at the April 1968 Liberal leadership conven-tion, Trudeau was elected as the leader on the fourth bal-lot, with the support of 51% of the delegates. He defeatedseveral prominent and long-serving Liberals including PaulMartin Sr., Robert Winters and Paul Hellyer. As the newleader of the governing Liberals, Trudeau was sworn in asPrime Minister two weeks later on April 20.

13.6 Prime Minister, 1968–74

Trudeau soon called an election, for June 25. His electioncampaign benefited from an unprecedented wave of per-sonal popularity called "Trudeaumania", [30][31] which sawTrudeau mobbed by throngs of youths. Trudeau’s main na-tional opponents were PC leader Robert Stanfield and NDPleader Tommy Douglas, both popular figures who had beenPremiers, respectively, of Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan.As a candidate Trudeau espoused participatory democracyas a means of making Canada a "Just Society". He defendedvigorously the newly implemented universal health care andregional development programs, as well as the recent re-forms found in the Omnibus bill.On the eve of the election, during the annual Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day parade in Montreal, when rioting Quebecsovereignists threw rocks and bottles at the grandstandwhere Trudeau was seated, chanting “Trudeau au poteau!"(Trudeau - to the stake!). Rejecting the pleas of his aidesthat he take cover, Trudeau stayed in his seat, facing the ri-oters, without any sign of fear. The image of the defiantPrime Minister impressed the public, and he handily wonthe election the next day.[32][33]

13.6.1 Bilingualism and multiculturalism

Trudeau’s first major legislative push was implementing themajority of recommendations of Pearson’s Royal Commis-sion on Bilingualism and Biculturalism via the Official Lan-guages Act, which made French and English the co-equalofficial languages of the Federal government.[34] More con-

troversial than the declaration (which was backed by theNDP and, with some opposition in caucus, the PCs) was theimplementation of the Act’s principles: between 1966 and1976, the francophone proportion of the civil service andmilitary doubled, causing alarm in some sections of anglo-phone Canada that they were being disadvantaged.[35]

Trudeau’s Cabinet fulfilled Part IV of the Royal Commis-sion on Bilingualism and Biculturalism’s report by announc-ing a "Multiculturalism Policy” on October 8, 1971. Thisstatement recognized that while Canada was a country oftwo official languages, it recognized a plurality of cultures– “a multicultural policy within a bilingual framework”.[36]

This annoyed public opinion in Quebec, which believed thatit challenged Quebec’s claim of Canada as a country of twonations. [37]

The first major policy failure of Trudeau’s first term wasthe 1969 White Paper on Indians, which was promotedby new Department of Indian and Northern Affairs min-ister Jean Chrétien as part of Trudeau’s push for classicalliberal participatory democracy. The statement proposedthe general assimilation of First Nations into the Canadianbody politic through the elimination of the Indian Act andIndian status, the parceling of reserve land to private own-ers, and the elimination of the Department of Indian andNorthern Affairs.[38] The White Paper prompted the firstmajor national mobilization of Indian and Aboriginal ac-tivists against the Federal government’s proposal, leadingto Trudeau setting aside the legislation.

13.6.2 October Crisis

Trudeau’s first serious test came during the October Cri-sis of 1970, when a Marxist group, the Front de libérationdu Québec (FLQ) kidnapped British Trade Consul JamesCross at his residence on October 6. Five days later Que-bec Labour Minister Pierre Laporte was also kidnapped.Trudeau, with the acquiescence of Premier of QuebecRobert Bourassa, responded by invoking the War MeasuresAct which gave the government sweeping powers of ar-rest and detention without trial. Trudeau presented a deter-mined public stance during the crisis, answering the ques-tion of how far he would go to stop the violence by saying"Just watch me". Laporte was found murdered on Octo-ber 17 in the trunk of a car. Five of the FLQ terroristswere flown to Cuba in 1970 as part of a deal in exchangefor James Cross’ life, although they eventually returned toCanada years later, where they served time in prison.[39]

Although this response is still controversial and was op-posed at the time as excessive by parliamentarians likeTommy Douglas and David Lewis, it was met with only lim-ited objections from the public.[40]

270 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

Trudeau’s first government implemented many proceduralreforms to make Parliament and the Liberal caucus meet-ings run more efficiently, significantly expanded the sizeand role of the Prime Minister’s office,[41] and substantiallyexpanded the welfare state,[42][43] with the establishment ofnew programmes.[44][45]

13.6.3 Constitutional affairs

After consultations with the provincial premiers, Trudeauagreed to attend a conference called by British ColumbiaPremier W.A.C. Bennett to attempt to finally patriate theCanadian constitution. [46] Negotiations with the provincesby Minister of Justice John Turner created a draft agree-ment, known as the Victoria Charter, that entrenched acharter of rights, bilingualism, and a guarantee of a veto ofconstitutional amendments for Ontario and Quebec, as wellas regional vetoes for Western Canada and Atlantic Canada,within the new constitution.[46] The agreement was accept-able to the nine predominantly-English speaking provinces,while Quebec’s Premier Robert Bourassa requested twoweeks to consult with his cabinet.[46] After a strong back-lash of popular opinion against the agreement in Quebec,Bourassa stated Quebec would not accept it. [47]

13.6.4 World affairs

Trudeau was the first world leader to meet John Lennonand his wife Yoko Ono on their 'tour for world peace'.Lennon said, after talking with Trudeau for 50 minutes, thatTrudeau was “a beautiful person” and that “if all politicianswere like Pierre Trudeau, there would be world peace.”[48]

In foreign affairs, Trudeau kept Canada firmly in the NorthAtlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), but often pursued anindependent path in international relations. He establishedCanadian diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic ofChina, before the United States did, and went on an officialvisit to Beijing. He was known as a friend of Fidel Castro,the leader of Cuba.

13.6.5 1972 election

In the federal election of 1972, the Liberals won a minoritygovernment, with the New Democratic Party led by DavidLewis holding the balance of power.Requiring NDP support to continue, the government wouldmove to the political left, including the creation of Petro-Canada.

13.6.6 1974 election

In May 1974 the House of Commons passed a motion of noconfidence in the Trudeau government, defeating its bud-get bill after Trudeau intentionally antagonized Stanfieldand Lewis.[49] The election of 1974 focused mainly on thecurrent economic recession. Stanfield proposed the im-mediate introduction of wage and price controls to helpend the increasing inflation Canada was currently facing.Trudeau mocked the proposal, saying to a newspaper re-porter that it was the equivalent of a magician saying “Zap!You're Frozen,” and instead promoted a variety of smalltax cuts to curb inflation. [50] A campaign tour featuringTrudeau’s wife and infant sons was popular, and NDP sup-porters scared of wage controls moved toward the Liberals.[51]

The Liberals were re-elected with a majority governmentwith 141 of the 264 seats, prompting Stanfield’s retirement.However the Liberals won no seats in Alberta, where PeterLougheed was a vociferous opponent of Trudeau’s 1974budget.[52]

13.7 Prime Minister, 1974–79

While popular with the electorate, Trudeau’s promised mi-nor reforms had little effect on the growing rate of inflation,and he struggled with conflicting advice on the crisis. [53] InSeptember 1975 the popular Finance Minister John Turnerresigned over a perceived lack of support in countervailingmeasures.[54] In October 1975, in an embarrassing about-face, Trudeau and new Finance Minister Donald Macdon-ald introduced wage and price controls by passing the Anti-Inflation Act. The breadth of the legislation, which touchedon many powers traditionally considered the purview of theprovinces, prompted a Supreme Court reference that onlyupheld the legislation as an emergency requiring Federal in-tervention under the British North America Act. During theannual 1975 Christmas interview with CTV, Trudeau dis-cussed the economy, citing market failures and stating thatmore state intervention would be necessary. However, theacademic wording and hypothetical solutions posed duringthe complex discussion led much of the public to believehe had declared capitalism itself a failure, creating a lastingdistrust among increasingly neoliberal business leaders.[55]

Trudeau continued his attempts at increasing Canada’s in-ternational profile, including joining the G7 group of majoreconomic powers in 1976 at the behest of U.S. PresidentGerald Ford.[8] On July 14, 1976, after long and emotionaldebate, Bill C-84 was passed by the House of Commonsby a vote of 130 to 124, abolishing the death penalty com-pletely and instituting a life sentence without parole for 25years for first-degree murder.[56]

13.9. RETURN TO POWER, 1980–84 271

Trudeau faced increasing challenges in Quebec, startingwith bitter relations with Bourassa and his Liberal govern-ment in Quebec. After a rise in the polls after the rejec-tion of the Victoria Charter, the Quebec Liberals had takena more confrontational approach with the Federal govern-ment on the constitution, French language laws, and thelanguage of air traffic control in Quebec.[57] Trudeau re-sponded with increasing anger at what he saw as nationalistprovocations against the Federal government’s bilingualismand constitutional initiatives, at times expressing his per-sonal contempt for Bourassa.[57]

Partially in an attempt to shore up his support, Bourassacalled a surprise election in 1976 that resulted in RenéLévesque and the Parti Québécois (PQ) winning a majoritygovernment. The PQ had chiefly campaigned on a “goodgovernment” platform, but promised a referendum on in-dependence to be held within their first mandate. Trudeauand Lévesque had been personal rivals, with Trudeau’s in-tellectualism contrasting with Lévesque’s more working-class image. While Trudeau claimed to welcome the “clar-ity” provided by the PQ victory, the unexpected rise ofthe sovereignist movement became, in his view, his biggestchallenge.[58]

As the PQ began to take power, Trudeau faced the pro-longed failure of his marriage, which was covered in luriddetail on a day-by-day basis by the English language press.Trudeau’s reserve was seen as dignified by contemporariesand his poll numbers actually rose during the height ofcoverage,[59] but aides felt the personal tensions left him un-characteristically emotional and prone to outbursts. [60]

As the 1970s wore on, growing public exhaustion towardsTrudeau’s personality and the country’s constitutional de-bates caused his poll numbers to fall rapidly in the late1970s.[61] After a series of defeats in by-elections in 1978,Trudeau avoided calling the 31st Canadian general electionuntil the spring of 1979, only two months from the five-yearlimit provided under the British North America Act.[1]

13.8 Defeat and opposition, 1979–80

In the election of 1979, Trudeau and the Liberals faceddeclining poll numbers, an emaciated campaign structure,and the Joe Clark–led Progressive Conservatives focusingon “pocketbook” issues. Trudeau and his advisors, to con-trast with the mild-mannered Clark, based their campaignon Trudeau’s decisive personality and his grasp of the Con-stitution file, despite the general public’s apparent wari-ness of both. The traditional Liberal rally at Maple LeafGardens saw Trudeau stressing the importance of majorconstitutional reform to general ennui, and his campaign“photo-ops” were typically surrounded by picket lines and

protesters. Though polls portended disaster, Clark’s strug-gles justifying his party’s populist platform and a strongTrudeau performance in the election debate helped bringthe Liberals to the point of contention.[62]

Though winning the popular vote by four points, the Lib-eral vote was concentrated in Quebec and faltered in indus-trial Ontario, allowing the PCs to win the seat-count handilyand form a minority government. Trudeau soon announcedhis intention to resign as Liberal Party leader and favouredDonald Macdonald to be his successor.[63]

However, before a leadership convention could be held,with Trudeau’s blessing and Allan MacEachen's maneuver-ing in the house, the Liberals voted against Clark’s govern-ment on a Motion of Non-Confidence, which along withNDP votes and a Social Credit abstention led to the gov-ernment’s collapse and a new election. The Liberal cau-cus, along with friends and advisors persuaded Trudeauto stay on as leader and fight the election, with Trudeau’smain impetus being the upcoming referendum on Que-bec sovereignty.[64] Trudeau and the Liberals engaged ina new strategy for the February 1980 election: facetiouslycalled the “low bridge”, it involved dramatically underplay-ing Trudeau’s role and avoiding media appearances, to thepoint of refusing a televised debate. On election day On-tario returned to the Liberal fold, and Trudeau and the Lib-erals defeated Clark and won a majority government.[65]

13.9 Return to power, 1980–84

The Liberal victory in 1980 highlighted a sharp geograph-ical divide in the country: the party had won no seats westof Manitoba. Trudeau, in an attempt to represent West-ern interests, offered to form a coalition government withEd Broadbent’s NDP, which had won 22 seats in the west,but was rebuffed by Broadbent out of fear the party wouldhave no influence in a majority government.[66] Trudeauthen took the unusual step of appointing Liberal Senatorsfrom Western provinces to Cabinet.

13.9.1 Quebec referendum

The first challenge Trudeau faced upon re-election wasthe referendum on Quebec sovereignty, called by the PartiQuébécois government of René Lévesque, the date ofwhich (May 20, 1980) was announced when Parliament re-opened after the election. Trudeau immediately initiatedfederal involvement in the referendum, reversing the Clarkgovernment’s policy of leaving the issue to the Quebec Lib-erals and Claude Ryan. He appointed Jean Chrétien as thenominal spokesman for the federal government, helping topush the “Non” cause to working-class voters who tuned

272 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

Pierre Trudeau speaking at a fundraising meeting for the LiberalParty at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montréal in 1980

out the intellectual Ryan and Trudeau. Unlike Ryan andthe Liberals, he refused to acknowledge the legitimacy ofthe referendum question, and noted that the “association”required consent from the other provinces.[67]

As the campaign began to pick up steam, and the Que-bec Liberals struggled in the legislative debate, Trudeauand Lévesque became heavily involved, with Lévesquemocking Trudeau’s English middle name and aristocraticupbringing.[68] Trudeau dramatically intervened in the best-received speech of his career a week before the referendum,extolling the virtues of federalism, mocking the unclear na-ture of the referendum, and dramatically pointing out thathis name was neither French nor English, but a Canadianname.[69] Trudeau noted that English Canada would haveto listen to the various issues prompted by the referendum,and he promised a new constitutional agreement should itdecide to stay in Canada.[70] The “No” side (that is, Noto sovereignty) ended up receiving nearly 60% of the vote.Trudeau stated that night that he “had never been so proudto be a Quebecer and a Canadian.” [70]

13.9.2 Patriation of the constitution

Trudeau had attempted patriation of the constitution ear-lier in his tenure, most notably with the Victoria Charter,but ran into the combined force of provincial premiers onthe issues of an amending formula, a court-enforced Char-ter of Rights, and a further devolution of powers to theprovinces. After the victory in the Quebec referendum,Chrétien was immediately tasked with creating a constitu-tional settlement.[70]

After chairing a series of increasingly acrimonious confer-ences with first ministers on the issue, Trudeau announcedthe intention of the federal government to proceed with arequest to the British parliament to patriate the constitution,with additions to be approved by a referendum without in-put from provincial governments. Trudeau was backed bythe NDP, Ontario Premier Bill Davis, and New BrunswickPremier Richard Hatfield and was opposed by the remainingpremiers and PC leader Joe Clark. After numerous provin-cial governments challenged the legality of the decision us-ing their reference power, conflicting decisions prompteda Supreme Court decision that stated unilateral patriationwas legal, but was in contravention of a constitutional con-vention that the provinces be consulted and have generalagreement to the changes.After the court decision, which prompted some reserva-tions in the British parliament of accepting a unilateralrequest,[71] Trudeau agreed to meet with the premiers onemore time before proceeding. At the meeting, Trudeaureached an agreement with nine of the premiers on patriat-ing the constitution and implementing the Canadian Char-ter of Rights and Freedoms, with the caveat that provinciallegislatures would have the ability to use a notwithstandingclause to protect some laws from judicial oversight. Thenotable exception was Lévesque, whom Trudeau believedwould never have signed an agreement. The objection ofthe Quebec government to the new constitution became asource of continued acrimony between the federal and Que-bec governments, and would forever stain Trudeau’s repu-tation amongst nationalists in the province.The Canada Act, which included the Constitution Act,1982, and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, was pro-claimed by Queen Elizabeth II, as Queen of Canada, onApril 17, 1982.

13.9.3 Economics/NEP

A series of difficult budgets by long-time loyalist AllanMacEachen in the early 1980s did not improve Trudeau’seconomic reputation. However, after tough bargaining onboth sides, Trudeau did reach a revenue-sharing agree-ment on energy with Alberta Premier Peter Lougheed in

13.11. DEATH 273

1982.[8] Amongst the policies introduced by Trudeau’s lastterm in office included an expansion in government sup-port for Canada’s poorest citizens[72] and the introductionof the National Energy Program (NEP), which created afirestorm of protest in the Western provinces and increasedwhat many termed "Western alienation".Trudeau’s approval ratings slipped after the bounce from the1982 patriation, and by the beginning of 1984, opinion pollsshowed the Liberals were headed for defeat if Trudeau re-mained in office. On February 29, after what he describedas a “long walk in the snow”, Trudeau announced he wouldnot lead the Liberals into the next election. He formally re-tired on June 30, ending his 15-year tenure as Prime Min-ister. Trudeau was succeeded as Liberal leader and PrimeMinister by John Turner.

13.10 Retirement

Trudeau joined the Montreal law firm Heenan Blaikie ascounsel and settled in the historic Maison Cormier in Mon-treal following his retirement from politics. Though herarely gave speeches or spoke to the press, his interven-tions into public debate had a significant impact when theyoccurred. Trudeau wrote and spoke out against both theMeech Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord propos-als to amend the Canadian constitution, arguing that theywould weaken federalism and the Charter of Rights if im-plemented. His opposition to both Accords were consid-ered one of the major factors leading to the defeat of thetwo proposals.He also continued to speak against the Parti Québécois andthe sovereignty movement with less effect.Trudeau also remained active in international affairs, visit-ing foreign leaders and participating in international associ-ations such as the Club of Rome. He met with Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachev and other leaders in 1985, shortly after-wards Gorbachev met President Ronald Reagan to discusseasing world tensions.He published his memoirs in 1993; the book sold hundredsof thousands of copies in several editions, and became oneof the most successful Canadian books ever published.In the last years of his life, he was afflicted with Parkinson’sdisease and prostate cancer, and became less active, al-though he continued to work at his law practice until a fewmonths before his death at the age of 80. He was devastatedby the death of his youngest son, Michel Trudeau, who waskilled in an avalanche in November 1998.

13.11 Death

Main article: Death and state funeral of Pierre Trudeau

Pierre Elliott Trudeau died on September 28, 2000, and wasburied in the Trudeau family crypt, St-Rémi-de-NapiervilleCemetery, Saint-Rémi, Quebec.[73][74] His body was laidin state to allow Canadians to pay their last respects. Sev-eral world politicians, including Fidel Castro, attended thefuneral.[75] His son Justin delivered the eulogy during thestate funeral which led to widespread speculation in the me-dia that a career in politics was in his future.[75] Eventually,Justin did enter politics, was elected to the House of Com-mons in late 2008 and in April 2013 he became the leaderof the federal Liberal Party.[76]

13.12 Personal life

13.12.1 Religious beliefs

Trudeau was a Roman Catholic and attended churchthroughout his life. While mostly private about his beliefs,he made it clear that he was a believer, stating, in an inter-view with the United Church Observer in 1971: “I believein life after death, I believe in God and I'm a Christian.”Trudeau maintained, however, that he preferred to imposeconstraints on himself rather than have them imposed fromthe outside. In this sense, he believed he was more likea Protestant than a Catholic of the era in which he wasschooled.[77] Trudeau took retreats at Saint-Benoît-du-Lac,Quebec and regularly attended Hours and the Eucharist atMontreal’s Benedictine community.[78]

Michael W. Higgins, a former President of St. ThomasUniversity, has researched Trudeau’s spirituality and findsthat it incorporated elements of three Catholic traditions.The first of these was the Jesuits who provided his educa-tion up to the college level. Trudeau frequently displayedthe logic and love of argument consistent with that tradi-tion. A second great spiritual influence in Trudeau’s life wasDominican. According to Michel Gorges, Rector of theDominican University College, Trudeau “considered him-self a lay Dominican.” He studied philosophy under Do-minican Father Louis-Marie Régis and remained close tohim throughout his life, regarding Régis as “spiritual direc-tor and friend.” Another skein in Trudeau’s spirituality wasa contemplative aspect acquired from his association withthe Benedictine tradition. According to Higgins, Trudeauwas convinced of the centrality of meditation in a life fullylived. He took retreats at Saint-Benoît-du-Lac, Quebec andregularly attended Hours and the Eucharist at Montreal’sBenedictine community.[78]

274 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

Although never publicly theological in the way of MargaretThatcher or Tony Blair, nor evangelical, in the way ofJimmy Carter or George W. Bush, Trudeau’s spirituality,according to Michael W. Higgins, a former President of St.Thomas University, “suffused, anchored, and directed hisinner life. In no small part, it defined him.”[78]

13.12.2 Marriage and children

Described as a “swinging young bachelor” when he becameprime minister in 1968,[79] Trudeau dated Hollywood starBarbra Streisand in 1969[80] and 1970;[81][82] Trudeau andStreisand had a serious romantic relationship although (con-trary to one published report), there was no express mar-riage proposal.[83]

On March 4, 1971, while Prime Minister, he quietly mar-ried Margaret Sinclair at St. Stephen’s Catholic church inNorth Vancouver.[84] They were incompatible: Contraryto his publicized exploits, Trudeau was an intense intellec-tual with intense work habits and little time for family orfun, and she felt trapped and bored in the marriage, feel-ings that were exacerbated by her retroactively diagnosedbipolar depression.[85] After three children were born theyseparated in 1977 and were finally divorced in 1984.[86][87]

Their three children are Justin (1971–), Alexandre (Sacha,1973–), and Michel (1975–1998).When his divorce was finalized in 1984, Trudeau becamethe first Canadian Prime Minister to become a single parentas the result of divorce. In 1984, Trudeau was romanticallyinvolved with Margot Kidder (a Canadian actress famousfor her role as Lois Lane in Superman: The Movie and itssequel), in the last months of his prime-ministership[88] andafter leaving office.[89] In 1991, Trudeau became a fatheragain, with Deborah Coyne to his first and only daughter,named Sarah.[90]

13.12.3 Judo

Trudeau began practising the Japanese martial art Judosometime in the mid-1950s when he was in his mid-thirties,and by the end of the decade he was ranked ik-kyū (brownbelt). Later, when he travelled to Japan as Prime Minis-ter, he was promoted to sho-dan (first-degree black belt) bythe Kodokan, and then promoted to ni-dan (second-degreeblack belt) by Masao Takahashi in Ottawa before leavingoffice. Trudeau began the night of his famous 'walk in thesnow' before announcing his retirement in 1984 by going toJudo with his sons.[91]

13.13 Legacy

Trudeau remains well regarded by many Canadians.[92]

However, the passage of time has only slightly softened thestrong antipathy he inspired among his opponents.[93][94]

Trudeau’s charisma and confidence as Prime Minister, andhis championing of the Canadian identity are often citedas reasons for his popularity. His strong personality, con-tempt for his opponents and distaste for compromise onmany issues have made him, as historian Michael Bliss putsit, “one of the most admired and most disliked of all Cana-dian prime ministers.”[95] “He haunts us still,” biographersChristina McCall and Stephen Clarkson wrote in 1990.[96]

Trudeau’s electoral successes were matched in the 20th cen-tury only by those of Mackenzie King. In all, Trudeau isundoubtedly one of the most dominant and transformativefigures in Canadian political history.[97][98]

Trudeau’s most enduring legacy may lie in his contributionto Canadian nationalism, and of pride in Canada in and foritself rather than as a derivative of the British Common-wealth. His role in this effort, and his related battles withQuebec on behalf of Canadian unity, cemented his politicalposition when in office despite the controversies he faced—and remain the most remembered aspect of his tenure af-terwards.Some consider Trudeau’s economic policies to have beena weak point. Inflation and unemployment marred muchof his tenure as prime minister. When Trudeau took officein 1968 Canada had a debt of $18 billion (24% of GDP)which was largely left over from World War II, when heleft office in 1984, that debt stood at $200 billion (46% ofGDP), an increase of 83% in real terms.[99] However, thesetrends were present in most western countries at the time,including the United States.Though his popularity had fallen in English Canada at thetime of his retirement in 1984, public opinion later becamemore sympathetic to him, particularly in comparison to hissuccessor, Brian Mulroney.Pierre Trudeau is today seen in very high regard on theCanadian political scene. Many politicians still use the term“taking a walk in the snow”, the line Trudeau used to de-scribe his decision to leave office in 1984. Other popu-lar Trudeauisms frequently used are "just watch me", the"Trudeau Salute", and "Fuddle Duddle".

13.13.1 Constitutional legacy

One of Trudeau’s most enduring legacies is the 1982 pa-triation of the Canadian constitution, including a domesticamending formula and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.It is seen as advancing civil rights and liberties and has be-

13.13. LEGACY 275

come a cornerstone of Canadian values for most Canadi-ans. It also represented the final step in Trudeau’s liberalvision of a fully independent and nationalist Canada basedon fundamental human rights and the protection of individ-ual freedoms as well as those of linguistic and cultural mi-norities. Court challenges based on the Charter of Rightshave been used to advance the cause of women’s equality,re-establish French school boards in provinces such as Al-berta and Saskatchewan, and to mandate the adoption ofsame-sex marriage all across Canada. Section 35 of theConstitution Act, 1982, has clarified issues of aboriginaland equality rights, including establishing the previously de-nied aboriginal rights of Métis. Section 15, dealing withequality rights, has been used to remedy societal discrimi-nation against minority groups. The coupling of the directand indirect influences of the charter has meant that it hasgrown to influence every aspect of Canadian life and theoverride (notwithstanding clause) of the charter has beeninfrequently used.Canadian conservatives claim the constitution has resultedin too much judicial activism on the part of the courts inCanada. It is also heavily criticized by Quebec national-ists, who resent that the 1982 amendments to the consti-tution were never ratified by any Quebec government andthe constitution does not recognize a constitutional veto forQuebec.

13.13.2 Bilingualism

See also: Bilingualism in Canada

Bilingualism is one of Trudeau’s most lasting accomplish-ments, having been fully integrated into the Federal gov-ernment’s services, documents, and broadcasting (not, how-ever, in provincial governments, except for Ontario, NewBrunswick, and Manitoba). While official bilingualism hassettled some of the grievances Francophones had towardsthe federal government, many Francophones had hoped thatCanadians would be able to function in the official languageof their choice no matter where in the country they were.However, Trudeau’s ambitions in this arena have been over-stated: Trudeau once said that he regretted the use of theterm “bilingualism”, because it appeared to demand that allCanadians speak two languages. In fact, Trudeau’s visionwas to see Canada as a bilingual confederation in whichall cultures would have a place. In this way, his concep-tion broadened beyond simply the relationship of Quebecto Canada.

13.13.3 Multiculturalism

On October 8, 1971, Pierre Trudeau introduced the Multi-culturalism Policy in the House of Commons. It was the firstof its kind in the world, and was then emulated in severalprovinces, such as Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, andother countries most notably Australia, which has had a sim-ilar history and immigration pattern. Beyond the specificsof the policy itself, this action signalled an openness to theworld and coincided with a more open immigration policythat had been brought in by Trudeau’s predecessor Lester B.Pearson (with the help of legendary mandarin, Tom Kent).

13.13.4 Cultural legacy

Few outside the museum community recall the tremendousefforts Trudeau made, in the last years of his tenure, to seeto it that the National Gallery of Canada and the CanadianMuseum of Civilization finally had proper homes in the na-tional capital region. The Trudeau government also im-plemented programs which mandated Canadian content infilm, and broadcasting, and gave substantial subsidies to de-velop the Canadian media and cultural industries. Thoughthe policies remain controversial, Canadian media indus-tries have become stronger since Trudeau’s arrival.Furthermore, his cultural legacy can be found in Canada’sstrong ties to multiculturalism.

13.13.5 Legacy with respect to westernCanada

Trudeau’s posthumous reputation in the Western Provincesis notably less favourable than in the rest of English-speaking Canada, and he is sometimes regarded as the “fa-ther of Western alienation.” To many westerners, Trudeau’spolicies seemed to favour other parts of the country, es-pecially Ontario and Quebec, at their expense. Outstand-ing among such policies was the National Energy Program,which was seen as unfairly depriving western provinces ofthe full economic benefit from their oil and gas resources,in order to pay for nationwide social programs, and makeregional transfer payments to poorer parts of the country.Sentiments of this kind were especially strong in oil-richAlberta where unemployment rose from 4% to 10% fol-lowing passage of the NEP.[100] Estimates have placed Al-berta’s losses between $50 billion and $100 billion becauseof the NEP.[101][102]

More particularly, two incidents involving Trudeau are re-membered as having fostered Western alienation, and asemblematic of it. During a visit to Saskatoon, Saskatchewanon July 17, 1969, Trudeau met with a group of farmers who

276 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

were protesting the Canadian Wheat Board. The widelyremembered perception is that Trudeau dismissed theprotesters’ concerns with “Why should I sell your wheat?"– however, he had asked the question rhetorically and thenproceeded to answer it himself.[103] Years later, on a traintrip through Salmon Arm, British Columbia, he “gave thefinger" to a group of protesters through the carriage win-dow – less widely remembered is that the protesters wereshouting anti-French slogans at the train.[104]

13.13.6 Legacy with respect to Quebec

Trudeau’s legacy in Quebec is mixed. Many credit his ac-tions during the October Crisis as crucial in terminating theFront de libération du Québec (FLQ) as a force in Quebec,and ensuring that the campaign for Quebec separatism tooka democratic and peaceful route. However, his impositionof the War Measures Act—which received majority supportat the time—is remembered by some in Quebec and else-where as an attack on democracy. Trudeau is also creditedby many for the defeat of the 1980 Quebec referendum.At the federal level, Trudeau faced almost no strong polit-ical opposition in Quebec during his time as Prime Min-ister. For instance, his Liberal party captured 74 out of75 Quebec seats in the 1980 federal election. Provincially,though, Québécois twice elected the pro-sovereignty PartiQuébécois. Moreover, there were not at that time anypro-sovereignty federal parties such as the Bloc Québécois.Since the signing of the Constitutional Act of Canada in1982, the Liberal Party of Canada has never succeeded inwinning a majority of seats in Quebec. Trudeau is dislikedby many Québécois, particularly in the news media, the aca-demic and political establishments.[105] While his reputa-tion has grown in English Canada since his retirement in1984, it has not improved in Quebec.

13.13.7 Intellectual contributions

Trudeau made a number of contributions throughout hiscareer to the intellectual discourse of Canadian politics.Trudeau was a strong advocate for a federalist model of gov-ernment in Canada, developing and promoting his ideas inresponse and contrast to strengthening Quebec nationalistmovements, for instance the social and political atmospherecreated during Maurice Duplessis' time in power.[106] Fed-eralism in this context can be defined as “a particular wayof sharing political power among different peoples within astate...Those who believe in federalism hold that differentpeoples do not need states of their own in order to enjoyself-determination. Peoples...may agree to share a singlestate while retaining substantial degrees of self-governmentover matters essential to their identity as peoples”.[107] As

a social democrat, Trudeau sought to combine and harmo-nize his theories on social democracy with those of federal-ism so that both could find effective expression in Canada.He noted the ostensible conflict between socialism, withits usually strong centralist government model, and federal-ism, which expounded a division and cooperation of powerby both federal and provincial levels of government.[108] Inparticular, Trudeau stated the following about socialists:

rather than water down...their socialism,must constantly seek ways of adapting it to a bi-cultural society governed under a federal consti-tution. And since the future of Canadian feder-alism lies clearly in the direction of co-operation,the wise socialist will turn his thoughts in that di-rection, keeping in mind the importance of estab-lishing buffer zones of joint sovereignty and co-operative zones of joint administration betweenthe two levels of government[35]

Trudeau pointed out that in sociological terms, Canadais inherently a federalist society, forming unique regionalidentities and priorities, and therefore a federalist model ofspending and jurisdictional powers is most appropriate. Heargues, “in the age of the mass society, it is no small advan-tage to foster the creation of quasi-sovereign communitiesat the provincial level, where power is that much less remotefrom the people.”[109]

Unfortunately, Trudeau’s idealistic plans for a cooperativeCanadian federalist state were resisted and hindered as a re-sult of his narrowness on ideas of identity and socio-culturalpluralism: “While the idea of a 'nation' in the sociologicalsense is acknowledged by Trudeau, he considers the alle-giance which it generates—emotive and particularistic—tobe contrary to the idea of cohesion between humans, and assuch creating fertile ground for the internal fragmentationof states and a permanent state of conflict”.[110] This posi-tion garnered significant criticism for Trudeau, in particularfrom Quebec and First Nations peoples on the basis that histheories denied their rights to nationhood.[110] First Nationscommunities raised particular concerns with the proposed1969 White Paper, developed under Trudeau by Jean Chré-tien.

13.14 Supreme Court appointments

Trudeau chose the following jurists to be appointed as jus-tices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor Gen-eral:

• Bora Laskin (March 19, 1970 – March 17, 1984; asChief Justice, December 27, 1973)

13.15. HONOURS 277

• Joseph Honoré Gérald Fauteux (as Chief Justice,March 23, 1970 – December 23, 1973; appointed aPuisne Justice December 22, 1949)

• Brian Dickson (March 26, 1973 – June 30, 1990; asChief Justice, April 18, 1984)

• Jean Beetz (January 1, 1974 – November 10, 1988)

• Louis-Philippe de Grandpre (January 1, 1974 – Octo-ber 1, 1977)

• Willard Zebedee Estey (September 29, 1977 – April22, 1988)

• Yves Pratte (October 1, 1977 – June 30, 1979)

• William McIntyre (January 1, 1979 – February 15,1989)

• Antonio Lamer (March 28, 1980 – January 6, 2000)

• Bertha Wilson (March 4, 1982 – January 4, 1991)

• Gerald Le Dain (May 29, 1984 – November 30, 1988)

13.15 Honours

The following honours were bestowed upon him by theGovernor General, or by Queen Elizabeth II herself:

• Trudeau was made a member of the Queen’s PrivyCouncil for Canada on April 4, 1967, giving him thestyle "The Honourable" and post-nominal “PC” forlife.[111]

• He was styled "The Right Honourable" for life on hisappointment as Prime Minister on April 20, 1968.

• Trudeau was made a Companion of Honour in 1984.

• He was made a Companion of the Order of Canada(post-nominal “CC”) on June 24, 1985.[112]

• He was granted arms, crest, and supporters bythe Canadian Heraldic Authority on December 7,1994.[113]

Other honours include:

• The Canadian news agency Canadian Press namedTrudeau "Newsmaker of the Year" a record ten times,including every year from 1968 to 1975, and two moretimes in 1978 and 2000. In 1999, CP also namedTrudeau “Newsmaker of the 20th Century.” Trudeaudeclined to give CP an interview on that occasion, butsaid in a letter that he was “surprised and pleased.”

In informal and unscientific polls conducted by Cana-dian Internet sites, users also widely agreed with thehonour.

• In 1983–84, he was awarded the Albert Einstein PeacePrize, for negotiating the reduction of nuclear weaponsand Cold War tension in several countries.

• The Pierre Elliott Trudeau High School in Markham,Ontario is named in his honour.[114]

• Collège Pierre-Elliott-Trudeau in Winnipeg, Mani-toba is also named in his honour.

• Pierre Elliott Trudeau elementary school in Oshawa,Ontario.

• École élémentaire Pierre-Elliott-Trudeau in Toronto,Ontario.

• Pierre Elliot Trudeau French Immersion Public Schoolin St. Thomas, Ontario.

• In 2001, the Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation was es-tablished as a living memorial by his family, friends,and colleagues.

• The Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau InternationalAirport (YUL) in Montreal was named in his honour,effective January 1, 2004.[115]

• In 2004, viewers of the CBC series The Greatest Cana-dian voted Trudeau the third greatest Canadian.

• The government of British Columbia named a peak inthe Cariboo Mountains Mount Pierre Elliott Trudeau,on June 10, 2006.[116] The peak is located in thePremier Range, which has many peaks named forBritish Columbian premiers and Canadian prime min-isters.

• Trudeau was awarded a 2nd dan black belt in judo bythe Takahashi School of Martial Arts in Ottawa.[117]

• Trudeau was ranked No.5 of the first 20 Prime Min-isters of Canada (through Jean Chrétien in a surveyof Canadian historians. The survey was used in thebook Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada’s Leaders byJ.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer.

• In 2009 Trudeau was posthumously inducted into theQ Hall of Fame Canada, Canada’s Prestigious Na-tional LGBT Human Rights Hall of Fame, for his pi-oneering efforts in the advancement of human rightsand equality for all Canadians.[118]

278 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

13.15.1 Honorary degrees

This list is incomplete; you can help by expandingit.

• University of Alberta in Edmonton in 1968[119]

• Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario in 1968[120]

• Duke University in Durham, North Carolina in1974[121]

• University of Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario in (LL.D)1974[122][123]

• Keio University in Tokyo, Japan in 1976 (LL.D)[124]

• University of Notre Dame du Lac in Notre Dame, In-diana in 1982

• University of British Columbia, in Vancouver in1986[125]

• University of Macau in Macau, China in 1987(LL.D)[126]

• Université de Montréal in Montreal, Quebec in1987[127]

• University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario (LL.D) on31 March 1991.[128]

13.15.2 Order of Canada Citation

Trudeau was appointed a Companion of the Order ofCanada on June 24, 1985. His citation reads:[129]

Lawyer, professor, author and defender ofhuman rights this statesman served as PrimeMinister of Canada for fifteen years. Lendingsubstance to the phrase “the style is the man,” hehas imparted, both in his and on the world stage,his quintessentially personal philosophy of mod-ern politics.

13.16 Trudeau in film

Through hours of archival footage and interviews withTrudeau himself, the documentary Memoirs details thestory of a man who used intelligence and charisma to bringtogether a country that was very nearly torn apart.Trudeau’s life is depicted in two CBC Television mini-series. The first one, Trudeau[130] (with Colm Feore in the

title role), depicts his years as Prime Minister. Trudeau II:Maverick in the Making[131] (with Stéphane Demers as theyoung Pierre, and Tobie Pelletier as him in later years) por-trays his earlier life.The 1999 documentary film Just Watch Me: Trudeau andthe 70’s Generation explores the impact of Trudeau’s vi-sion of Canadian bilingualism through interviews with eightyoung Canadians.He was the co-subject along with René Lévesque inthe Donald Brittain-directed documentary mini-series TheChampions.

13.17 Writings by Trudeau• Memoirs. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1993.

ISBN 0-7710-8588-5

• Towards a just society: the Trudeau years, withThomas S. Axworthy, (eds.) Markham, Ont.: Viking,1990.

• The Canadian Way: Shaping Canada’s Foreign Policy1968–1984, with Ivan Head

• Two innocents in Red China. (Deux innocents en Chinerouge), with Jacques Hébert 1960.

• Against the Current: Selected Writings, 1939–1996.(À contre-courant: textes choisis, 1939–1996). GerardPelletier (ed)

• The Essential Trudeau. Ron Graham, (ed.) Toronto:McClelland & Stewart, c1998. ISBN 0-7710-8591-5

• The asbestos strike. (Grève de l'amiante), translated byJames Boake 1974

• Pierre Trudeau Speaks Out on Meech Lake. Donald J.Johnston, (ed). Toronto: General Paperbacks, 1990.ISBN 0-7736-7244-3

• Approaches to politics. Introd. by Ramsay Cook.Prefatory note by Jacques Hébert. Translated by I. M.Owen. from the French Cheminements de la politique.Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0-19-540176-X

• Underwater Man, with Joe MacInnis. New York:Dodd, Mead & Company, 1975. ISBN 0-396-07142-2

• Federalism and the French Canadians. Introd. by JohnT. Saywell. 1968

• Conversation with Canadians. Foreword by Ivan L.Head. Toronto, Buffalo: University of Toronto Press1972. ISBN 0-8020-1888-2

13.19. REFERENCES 279

• The best of Trudeau. Toronto: Modern Canadian Li-brary. 1972 ISBN 0-919364-08-X

• Lifting the shadow of war. C. David Crenna, editor.Edmonton: Hurtig, c1987. ISBN 0-88830-300-9

• Human rights, federalism and minorities. (Les droitsde l'homme, le fédéralisme et les minorités), with Al-lan Gotlieb and the Canadian Institute of InternationalAffairs

13.18 See also

• History of the Quebec sovereignty movement

• Judo in Canada

• List of Canadian federal general elections

• List of Prime Ministers of Canada

• List of years in Canada

• Politics of Canada

• Prime Minister nicknaming in Quebec

13.19 References

13.19.1 Notes[1] Kaufman (2000-09-29).

[2] Mallick (2000-09-30), p. P04.

[3] The Globe and Mail (2000-09-29), p. A20.

[4] Fortin (2000-10-09), p. A17.

[5] Généalogie du Québec (2012).

[6] “Généalogie Etienne Trudeau”. Nosorigines.qc.ca. 2007-01-14. Retrieved 2014-08-16.

[7] Downey (2000-09-30).

[8] Trudeau (1993), p. ?.

[9] Windsor (2006-04-08), p. A6.

[10] English (2006), p. ?.

[11] English (2006), pp. 145–146.

[12] English (2006), p. 124.

[13] English (2006), p. 134.

[14] English (2006), p. 137.

[15] English (2006), p. 141.

[16] English (2006), p. 147.

[17] Max Nemni and Monique Nemni, Trudeau Transformed:The Shaping of A Statesman 1944–1965, pp 70–72, http://books.google.ca/books?id=fd-nSGK8c1QC&pg=PA70&lpg=PA70&dq=Trudeau+and+Berdyaev&source=bl&ots=Qg8TGqEx3N&sig=COLj5auUyLHfO4iVOa4ev-S6_bQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yP8TUue8D5DeyQGIsYHQDw&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

[18] Max Nemni and Monique Nemni, Trudeau Transformed:The Shaping of A Statesman 1944–1965, pg 71, http://books.google.ca/books?id=fd-nSGK8c1QC&pg=PA70&lpg=PA70&dq=Trudeau+and+Berdyaev&source=bl&ots=Qg8TGqEx3N&sig=COLj5auUyLHfO4iVOa4ev-S6_bQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yP8TUue8D5DeyQGIsYHQDw&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

[19] English (2006), p. 166.

[20] English (2006), p. 296.

[21] English (2006), pp. 289,292.

[22] English (2006), p. 364.

[23] English (2006), pp. 364–365.

[24] Trudeau (1993), pp. 63–64.

[25] Christo Aivalis, “In the Name of Liberalism: PierreTrudeau, Organized Labour, and the Canadian SocialDemocratic Left, 1949–1959,” Canadian Historical Review(June 2013) 94#7 pp 263–288 DOI 10.3138/chr.1498

[26] English (2006), pp. 183–185.

[27] CBC News (1967-12-21).

[28] O'Malley (1967-12-12), p. 6.

[29] CBC News (1968-09-09). “The Style is the Man Himself”.Pierre Trudeau: 'Canada must be a just society'. Toronto:CBC Archives. Archived from the original on 2013-12-21.Retrieved 2013-12-21.

[30] Zink (1972), p. Backcover.

[31] Canada.com.

[32] CBC News (1968-06-24).

[33] Maclean’s Magazine (1998-04-06).

[34] “Official Languages Act – 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.)". Actcurrent to July 11th, 2010. Department of Justice. Retrieved2010-08-15.

[35] English (2009), p. 141.

[36] English (2009), p. 145.

[37] English (2009), p. 146.

280 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

[38] English (2009), p. 144.

[39] Munroe (2012).

[40] Janigan (1975-11-01), p. 3.

[41] Trudeau (1993), pp. 22–24.

[42] Lyon & Van Die, pp. 137–144.

[43] Laxer (1977), pp. 22–24.

[44] Moscovitch (2012).

[45] Towards A Just Society: The Trudeau Years edited byThomas S. Axworthy and Pierre Elliott Trudeau

[46] English (2009), p. 135.

[47] English (2009), p. 136.

[48] Canadian Press (1969-12-24).

[49] English (2009), p. 233.

[50] English (2009), p. 237.

[51] English (2009), p. 238.

[52] English (2009), p. 240.

[53] English (2009), p. 246.

[54] English (2009), p. 282.

[55] English (2009), p. 290-94.

[56] “Le grandes etapes de l'abolition”. Radio Canada.

[57] English (2009), p. 302-306.

[58] English (2009), p. 308.

[59] English (2009), p. 329.

[60] English (2009), p. 327-8.

[61] Gwyn (1980), p. 325.

[62] John English, Just Watch Me: The Life of Pierre ElliottTrudeau Volume Two: 1968–2000 (2009) ch 13

[63] Trudeau (1993), pp. 265.

[64] Trudeau (1993), pp. 265–66.

[65] Stephen Clarkson (2011). The Big Red Machine: How theLiberal Party Dominates Canadian Politics. UBC Press. pp.87–105.

[66] English (2009), p. 446-7.

[67] English (2009), p. 454.

[68] English (2009), p. 450.

[69] English (2009), p. 455.

[70] English (2009), p. 459.

[71] Heard, Andrew (1990). “Canadian Independence”. Van-couver: Simon Fraser University. Retrieved 2010-08-25.

[72] Clarkson, Stephen (1988). “The Dauphin and the Doomed:John Turner and the Liberal Party’s Debacle”. In Penniman,Howard Rae. Canada at the Polls, 1984: A Study of the Fed-eral General Elections. At the polls. Durham, NC: DukeUniversity Press. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-0-8223-0821-8.LCCN 87027252. Retrieved 2014-11-28.

[73] The Canadian Press (September 27, 2010). “Trudeaumaniafades at Pierre Trudeau’s tomb”. CBC News. Retrieved2014-03-02.

[74] “Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada – FormerPrime Ministers and Their Grave Sites – The Right Hon-ourable Pierre Elliott Trudeau”. Parks Canada. Govern-ment of Canada. December 20, 2010. Retrieved 2014-03-02.

[75] CBC News (2000-10-03).

[76] “Trudeau to face off against Harper in question period today– Politics – CBC News”. Cbc.ca. Retrieved 2014-08-16.

[77] Trudeau (1996), p. 302-303.

[78] Higgins, M. (2004), p. 26–30.

[79] “Liberal Right Wing Pushed Into Exile”. Vancouver Sun.1968-04-08. p. 1 (photo caption). Retrieved 2013-02-01. Swinging young bachelor, Canada’s new prime minister-designate Pierre Trudeau signs autographs for youngstersduring stroll on Ottawa street Sunday. He held press confer-ence and attended memorial service for Martin Luther King.

[80] “Prime Minister Trudeau won't tell about date with Barbra”.Windsor Star. AP. 1969-11-12.

[81] “Barbra Visits Commons, Members Play to Gallery”. Mil-waukee Sentinel. AP. 1970-01-30. Retrieved 2013-02-01.

[82] “Barbra—Act 2”. Ottawa Citizen. 1970-06-08. Retrieved2013-02-01.

[83] TVO, Video Interview of John English by Allan Gregg,timecode 10:45

[84] Christopher Guly (2000-10-01). “Archive: The man whokept Trudeau’s biggest secret”. Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved2013-02-01.

[85] English (2009), pp. 242–43 321, 389.

[86] Southam (2005), pp. 113, 234.

[87] McCall (1982), p. 387.

[88] Carl Mollins (1983-04-29). “Dating Superman’s girlTrudeau’s major impact”. Ottawa Citizen. Canadian Press.Retrieved 2013-02-01.

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[89] “Trudeau steals the spotlight at Montreal film premiere”. Ot-tawa Citizen. CP. 1984-08-03. Retrieved 2013-02-01.

[90] Popplewell, Brett (November 24, 2010). “Pierre Trudeau’sdaughter, Sarah, lives under the radar”. The Toronto Star(Toronto). Retrieved 2012-04-06.

[91] Nurse, Paul. “Pierre Trudeau and Judo?" (PDF). The GentleWay (Volume 6, Issue 4). Judo Ontario. Retrieved 2012-08-01.

[92] “Trudeau tops 'greatest Canadian' poll.” Toronto Star, Febru-ary 16, 2002

[93] “The Worst Canadian?", The Beaver 87 (4), Aug/Sep 2007.The article reports the results of a promotional, online sur-vey by write-in vote for “the worst Canadian”, which themagazine carried out in the preceding months, and in whichTrudeau polled highest.

[94] Brian Mulroney, who was Prime Minister at the time of theMeech Lake and Charlottetown accords, and one of the chiefforces behind them, sharply criticized Trudeau’s oppositionto them, in his 2007 autobiography, Memoir: 1939-1993.CTV News: Mulroney says Trudeau to blame for Meechfailure; September 5, 2007

[95] Bliss, M. “The Prime Ministers of Canada: Pierre ElliotTrudeau” Seventh Floor Media. Retrieved: 2007-04-07.

[96] Clarkson, S. and C. McCall (1990). Trudeau and Our Times,Volume 1: The Magnificent Obsession. McClelland & Stew-art. ISBN 978-0-7710-5414-3

[97] Whitaker, R. “Trudeau, Pierre Elliot” The Canadian Ency-clopedia Historica. Retrieved: 2007-04-07.

[98] Behiels, M. “Competing Constitutional Paradigms:Trudeauversus the Premiers, 1968–1982” Saskatchewan Institute ofPublic Policy. Regina, Saskatchewan. Retrieved: 2007-04-07.

[99] Centre for the Study of Living Standard—GDP figures

[100] Alberta’s economy. Thecanadianencyclopedia.com. Re-trieved 2011-07-07.

[101] Vicente, Mary Elizabeth (2005). “The National Energy Pro-gram”. Canada’s Digital Collections (Heritage CommunityFoundation). Retrieved 2008-04-26.

[102] Mansell, Robert; Schlenker, Ron; Anderson, John (2005).“Energy, Fiscal Balances and National Sharing” (PDF).Institute for Sustainable Energy, Environment and Econ-omy/University of Calgary. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-04-26.

[103] “Chrétien Accused of Lying”, Maclean’s, December 23,1996.

[104] Anthony Westell, Paradox: Trudeau as Prime Minister.

[105] Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Quebec and the Constitution. .mari-anopolis.edu. Retrieved 2011-07-07.

[106] Gagnon (2000).

[107] Ignatieff, quoted in Balthazar (1995), p. 6.

[108] English (2009), p. ?.

[109] English (2009), p. 133.

[110] Gagnon (2000), 16–17.

[111] Canada Privy Council Office—Members of the Queen’sPrivy Council for Canada, Version: February 6, 2006

[112] Governor General of Canada—Pierre Elliott Trudeau—Companion of the Order of Canada, October 30, 1985

[113] Royal Heraldry Society of Canada—Arms of Canada’sPrime Ministers

[114] Pierre Elliott Trudeau High School.Trudeau.hs.yrdsb.edu.on.ca. Retrieved 2011-07-07.

[115] “What’s in an eponym? Celebrity airports - could there be acommercial benefit in naming?". Centre for Aviation.

[116] CBC Article—Mt. Trudeau named; CBC Article—MountTrudeau to be officially named in June

[117] Takahashi, M. et all (2005). Mastering Judo. USA: HumanKinetics.

[118] Pierre Elliot Trudeau – Q Hall of Fame

[119] Leitch, Andrew (September 29, 2000). “Trudeau legacylives on, say profs”. University of Alberta ExpressNews. Re-trieved 2009-05-21.

[120] “Bob Rae, Ben Heppner and William Hutt among Queen’shonorary degree recipients”. Queen’s University. May 2,2006. Retrieved 2009-05-21.

[121] Duke University—Center for Canadian Studies

[122] Pallascio, Jacques (October 6, 2000). “Pierre Trudeau andU of O”. University of Ottawa Gazette. Retrieved 2009-05-21.

[123] http://www.uottawa.ca/president/people/trudeau-pierre-elliott#Array

[124] “Vol. 4. Conferment of Honorary Degree of Doctor”. KeioUniversity. Retrieved 2009-05-21.

[125] Nathan Nemetz and Pierre Trudeau (receiving honorarydegree), Lt. Gov. Robert Rogers, University of BritishColumbia., Jewish Museum & Archives of British Columbia

[126] “Honorary Degrees and Titles” (PDF). University of Macau.Retrieved 2009-05-21.

[127] “Nos pionnières et nos pionniers”. Université de Montréal.Retrieved 2013-02-07.

282 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

[128] http://www.governingcouncil.utoronto.ca/Assets/Governing+Council+Digital+Assets/Boards+and+Committees/Committee+for+Honorary+Degrees/degreerecipients1850tillnow.pdf

[129] Order of Canada. Archive.gg.ca (April 30, 2009). Retrieved2011-07-07.

[130] "Trudeau" (2002) mini-series IMDB Page

[131] “Trudeau II: Maverick in the Making” (2005) mini-seriesIMDB Page

13.19.2 Bibliography

Books

• Clarkson, Stephen; McCall, Christina (1997a).Trudeau and our times: The magnificent obsession.Vol. 1 (Revised ed.). Toronto: McClelland and Stew-art. ISBN 0-77105-415-7.

• Clarkson, Stephen; McCall, Christina (1997b).Trudeau and our times: The heroic delusion. Vol.2 (Revised ed.). Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.ISBN 0-77105-408-4.

• Cohen, Andrew; Granatstein, J. L., eds. (1998).Trudeau’s shadow : the life and legacy of Pierre ElliottTrudeau. Toronto: Random House Canada. ISBN 0-67930-954-3.

• English, John (2006). Citizen of the World: The Lifeof Pierre Elliott Trudeau Volume One: 1919–1968.Toronto: Knopf Canada. ISBN 978-0-676-97521-5.

• English, John (2009). Just Watch Me: The Lifeof Pierre Elliott Trudeau Volume Two: 1968–2000.Toronto: Knopf Canada. ISBN 978-0-676-97523-9.

• Gwyn, Richard (1980). The Northern Magus: PierreTrudeau and Canadians. Toronto: McClelland andStewart. ISBN 0771037325.

• Higgins, M. (2004). English, John; Gwynne, Richard;Lackenbauer, P. Whitney, eds. The Hidden Pierre El-liott Trudeau: The Faith Behind the Politics. Ottawa:Novalis. ISBN 978-2-895-07550-9.

• Laxer, James; Laxer, Robert (1977). The Liberalidea of Canada: Pierre Trudeau and the questionof Canada’s survival. Toronto: J. Lorimer. ISBN0888621248.

• Lyon, David; Van Die, Marguerite (2000). Rethinkingchurch, state, and modernity: Canada between Europeand America. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.ISBN 9780802044082.

• McCall, Cristina (1982). Grits: an intimate portraitof the Liberal Party. Toronto: MacMillan of Canada.ISBN 0-77159-573-5.

• Southam, Nancy, ed. (2005). Pierre: colleagues andfriends talk about the Trudeau they knew. Toronto:McCelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-8168-2.

• Trudeau, Pierre Elliot (1993). Memoirs. Toronto:McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-771-08588-5.

• Trudeau, Pierre Elliot (1996). Pelletier, Gérard, ed.Against the Current: Selected Writings 1939–1996.Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. ISBN 0-77106-979-0.

• Zink, Lubor (1972). Trudeaucracy. Toronto: TorontoSun Publishing. p. 152. lubor Zink is the one who firstcoined those two terms of our times – Trudeaumaniaand Trudeaucracy. When Canada, led by its media,was dazzled by the Trudeau “charisma” and style, Zinksaw behind the glitter and sought to define the man ...

News media

• “Forty years on, Trudeaumania still lives”.Canada.com. April 5, 2008. Trudeaumania, aterm coined by a journalist named Lubor J. Zinkduring the 1968 federal election campaign to describeCanada’s feverish zeal for the Liberal party leader

• Canadian Press. “John, Yoko think PM is “beauti-ful"". The Leader-Post (Regina, Saskatchewan). p. 1.Retrieved 2012-08-12.

• “Omnibus Bill: 'There’s no place for the state in thebedrooms of the nation'". CBC News (Toronto: CBCDigital Archives). 1967-12-21. Archived from theoriginal on 2012-08-12. Retrieved 2012-08-12.

• “PM Trudeau won't let 'em rain on his parade”. CBCNews (Toronto: CBC Digital Archives). 1968-06-24.Archived from the original on 2012-08-12. Retrieved2012-08-12.

• “2000: Justin Trudeau delivers eulogy for his fa-ther Pierre”. The National (Toronto: CBC DigitalArchives). 2000-10-03. Archived from the originalon 2012-08-12. Retrieved 2012-08-12.

• Downey, Donn (2000-09-30). “Ambulant life madehim one-of-a-kind”. The Globe and Mail (Toronto).Archived from the original on 2007-03-29. Retrieved2006-12-05.

13.20. FURTHER READING 283

• Editorial Staff (2000-09-29). “The elements thatmade Pierre Trudeau great”. The Globe and Mail(Toronto). p. A20.

• Edwards, Peter (2008-01-03). “Confessions of a mob-ster: 'My job was to kill Pierre Trudeau'". The TorontoStar (Toronto). p. A1. Archived from the original on2012-08-12. Retrieved 2012-08-12.

• Fortin, Pierre (2000-10-09). “Grounds for success”.The Globe and Mail. p. A17.

• Janigan, Mary (1975-11-01). “Some MPs say theyregret voting for War Measures”. The Toronto Star(Toronto). p. 3.

• Kaufman, Michael T. (2000-09-29). “Pierre TrudeauIs Dead at 80: Dashing Fighter for Canada”. The NewYork Times (New York). Archived from the originalon 2012-08-12. Retrieved 2012-08-12.

• Mallick, Heather (2000-09-30). “Trudeau made in-tellect interesting”. The Globe and Mail (Toronto). p.P04. Archived from the original on 2012-08-12. Re-trieved 2012-08-12.

• O'Malley, Martin (1967-12-12). “Unlocking thelocked step of law and morality”. The Globe and Mail(Toronto). p. 6.

• Reuters (2000-10-03). “Castro mourns for Trudeau,who stood up for him”. CNN (Atlanta). Archived fromthe original on 2012-08-12.

• Winsor, Hugh (2006-04-08). “Closest friends sur-prised by Trudeau revelations”. The Globe and Mail(Toronto). p. A6. Archived from the original (feerequired) on 2012-08-12. Retrieved 2006-12-05.

Other online sources

• Guest, Dennis (2012). “The History of Social Securityin Canada”. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Toronto:Historica Foundation. Archived from the original on2012-08-12. Retrieved 2012-08-12.

• “Anecdote: A prime minister in disguise”. Canada’sPrime Ministers, 1867–1994: Biographies and Anec-dotes. Library and Archives Canada. 1994. Archivedfrom the original on 2012-08-12.

• Maclean’s Magazine (1998-04-06). “Trudeau, 30Years Later”. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Toronto:Historica Foundation. Archived from the original on2012-08-12. Retrieved 2012-08-12.

• Moscovitch, Allan (2012). “Welfare State”. TheCanadian Encyclopedia. Toronto: Historica Founda-tion. Archived from the original on 2012-08-12. Re-trieved 2012-08-12.

• Munroe, Susan (2012). “October Crisis Time-line: Key Events in the October Crisis in Canada”.Canadaonline / About.com. New York: The New YorkTimes. Archived from the original on 2012-08-12.Retrieved 2012-08-12.

• “Généalogie Martial Trudeau”. Généalogie du Québecet de l'Acadie (in French). 2012. Archived from theoriginal on 2012-08-13. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

13.20 Further reading

• Aivalis, Christo. “In the Name of Liberalism: PierreTrudeau, Organized Labour, and the Canadian SocialDemocratic Left, 1949–1959.” Canadian HistoricalReview (2013) 94#2 pp: 263-288.

• Bliss, Michael (1994). Right honourable men : thedescent of Canadian politics from Macdonald to Mul-roney (1 ed.). Toronto: HarperCollins. ISBN0002550717.

• Bowering, George (1999). Egotists and autocrats : theprime ministers of Canada. Toronto: Viking. ISBN0-67088-081-7. Chapter on Trudeau.

• Butler, Rick, Carrier Jean-Guy, eds. (1979). TheTrudeau decade. Toronto: Doubleday Canada. ISBN0-38514-806-2. Essays by experts.

• Couture, Claude (1998). Paddling with the Current:Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Étienne Parent, liberalism andnationalism in Canada. Edmonton: University of Al-berta Press. ISBN 1-4175-9306-7

• Donaldson, Gordon (1997). The Prime Ministers ofCanada. Chapter on Trudeau

• Granatstein, J. L.; Bothwell, Robert (1990). Pirouette :Pierre Trudeau and Canadian foreign policy. Toronto:University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-80205-780-2.

• Granatstein, J. L., and Robert Bothwell. “PierreTrudeau on his foreign policy: A conversation in1988.” International Journal (2010) pp: 171-181. inJSTOR

• Hillmer, Norman and Granatstein, J.L. Prime Min-isters: Rating Canada’s Leaders, 1999. ISBN 0-00-200027-X; chapter on Trudeau

284 CHAPTER 13. PIERRE TRUDEAU

• Laforest, Guy (1995). Trudeau and the end of a Cana-dian dream. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s UniversityPress. ISBN 0-77351-300-0

• Lotz, Jim (1987). Prime ministers of Canada. Lon-don: Bison Books. ISBN 0861243773. Chapter onTrudeau.

• Munroe, H. D. “Style within the centre: PierreTrudeau, the War Measures Act, and the nature ofprime ministerial power.” Canadian Public Adminis-tration (2011) 54#4 pp: 531-549.

• Nemni, Max and Nemi, Monique (2006). YoungTrudeau: Son of Quebec, Father of Canada, 1919-1944. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.

• Nemni, Max and Nemi, Monique (2011).TrudeauTransformed: The Shaping of a Statesman 1944–1965. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.

• Bob Plamondon (2013). The Truth about Trudeau.Ottawa: Great River Media. ISBN 978-1-4566-1671-7.

• Ricci, Nino (2009). Extraordinary Canadians: PierreElliott Trudeau. Toronto: Penguin Canada. ISBN978-0-670-06660-5

• Sawatsky, John (1987). The Insiders: Government,Business, and the Lobbyists. Toronto: McClelland &Stewart. 0-77107-949-4.

• Simpson, Jeffrey (1984). Discipline of power: theConservative interlude and the Liberal restoration.Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. ISBN 0-920510-24-8.

• Stewart, Walter (1971). Shrug: Trudeau in power.Toronto: New Press. ISBN 0-88770-081-0. A cri-tique from the left.

Editorial cartoons & humour.

• Ferguson, Will (1999). Bastards & boneheads:Canada’s glorious leaders, past and present. Vancou-ver: Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 1550547372. Hu-morous stories.

• McIlroy, Thad, ed. (1984). A Rose is a rose: a trib-ute to Pierre Elliott Trudeau in cartoons and quotes.Toronto: Doubleday. ISBN 0385197888.

• Peterson, Roy (1984). Drawn & quartered: theTrudeau years. Toronto: Key Porter Books. ISBN0-91949-342-4.

Archival videos of Trudeau

• Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1967–1970). Trudeau’s Om-nibus Bill: Challenging Canadian Taboos (.wmv)(news clips). CBC Archives. Retrieved 2006-12-05.

• Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1957–2005). Pierre ElliottTrudeau: Philosopher and Prime Minister (.wmv)(news clips). CBC Archives. Retrieved 2006-12-05.

13.21 External links• Quotations related to Pierre Trudeau at Wikiquote

• Media related to Pierre Elliott Trudeau at WikimediaCommons

• canadahistory.com biography

•

• Pierre Trudeau – Parliament of Canada biography

• CBC Digital Archives—Pierre Elliott Trudeau:Philosopher and Prime Minister

Chapter 14

Florence Nightingale

Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC (/ˈflɒrəns ˈnaɪtɨŋɡeɪl/; 12May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was a celebrated Englishsocial reformer and statistician, and the founder of mod-ern nursing. She came to prominence while serving as amanager of nurses trained by her during the Crimean War,where she organised the tending to wounded soldiers.[1] Shegave nursing a highly favourable reputation and became anicon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of “TheLady with the Lamp” making rounds of wounded soldiersat night.[2]

Some recent commentators have asserted Nightingale’sachievements in the Crimean War were exaggerated bythe media at the time, to satisfy the public’s need for ahero. Nevertheless, critics agree on the decisive impor-tance of her follow-up achievements in professionalizingnursing roles for women. In 1860, Nightingale laid thefoundation of professional nursing with the establishmentof her nursing school at St Thomas’ Hospital in London. Itwas the first secular nursing school in the world, now partof King’s College London. The Nightingale Pledge takenby new nurses was named in her honour, and the annualInternational Nurses Day is celebrated around the world onher birthday. Her social reforms include improving health-care for all sections of British society, advocating betterhunger relief in India, helping to abolish prostitution lawsthat were over-harsh to women, and expanding the accept-able forms of female participation in the workforce.Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In herlifetime, much of her published work was concerned withspreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts werewritten in simple English so that they could easily be under-stood by those with poor literary skills. She also helped pop-ularise the graphical presentation of statistical data. Muchof her writing, including her extensive work on religion andmysticism, has only been published posthumously.

Embley Park, now a school, was one of the family homes ofWilliam Nightingale.

14.1 Early life

Florence Nightingale was born on 12 May 1820 into arich, upper-class, well-connected British family at the VillaColombaia,[3] in Florence, Italy, and was named after thecity of her birth. Florence’s older sister Frances Parthenopehad similarly been named after her place of birth, Parthe-nopolis, a Greek settlement now part of the city of Naples.When Florence was 1, the family moved back to Englandin 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the family’shomes at Embley and Lea Hurst.[4][5]

Her parents were William Edward Nightingale, bornWilliam Edward Shore (1794–1874) and Frances(“Fanny”) Nightingale née Smith (1789–1880). William’smother Mary née Evans was the niece of one Peter Nightin-gale, under the terms of whose will William inheritedhis estate at Lea Hurst in Derbyshire, and assumed thename and arms of Nightingale. Fanny’s father (Florence’smaternal grandfather) was the abolitionist and UnitarianWilliam Smith.[6] Nightingale’s father educated her.[5]

In 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe

285

286 CHAPTER 14. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

Young Florence Nightingale

where he was introduced to the English born Parisian host-ess Mary Clarke. Florence bonded with this woman. Sherecorded that “Clarkey” was a stimulating hostess who didnot care for her appearance but although her idea mightnot always agree with her guests but “she was incapable ofboring anyone.” Her behaviour was said to be exasperatingand eccentric and she had no respect for upper class Britishwomen who she regarded generally as inconsequential. Shesaid that if given the choice between being a woman or agalley slave then she would choose the freedom of the gal-ley’s. She generally rejected female company and spenther time with male intellectuals. However Clarkey madean exception in the case of the Nightingale family and Flo-rence in particular. She and Florence were to remain closefriends for 40 years despite their 27-year age difference.Mohl demonstrated that women could be equals to men andthis was an idea that Florence had not obtained from hermother.[7]

Nightingale underwent the first of several experiences thatshe believed were calls from God in February 1837 while atEmbley Park, prompting a strong desire to devote her lifeto the service of others. In her youth she was respectfulof her family’s opposition to her working as a nurse, onlyannouncing her decision to enter the field in 1844. Despitethe intense anger and distress of her mother and sister, sherebelled against the expected role for a woman of her status

to become a wife and mother. Nightingale worked hard toeducate herself in the art and science of nursing, in spite ofopposition from her family and the restrictive social codefor affluent young English women.[8]

As a young woman, Nightingale was attractive, slender andgraceful. While her demeanor was often severe, she couldbe very charming and her smile was radiant. Her most per-sistent suitor was the politician and poet Richard MoncktonMilnes, 1st Baron Houghton, but after a nine-year courtshipshe rejected him, convinced that marriage would interferewith her ability to follow her calling to nursing.[8]

In Rome in 1847, she met Sidney Herbert, a politician whohad been Secretary at War (1845–1846). Herbert was onhis honeymoon; he and Nightingale became lifelong closefriends. Herbert would be Secretary of War again duringthe Crimean War; he and his wife were instrumental in fa-cilitating Nightingale’s nursing work in the Crimea. Shebecame a key adviser to him in his political career, thoughshe was accused by some of having hastened Herbert’s deathfrom Bright’s Disease in 1861 because of the pressure herprogramme of reform placed on him.Nightingale also much later had strong relations withBenjamin Jowett, who may have wanted to marry her.Nightingale continued her travels (now with Charles andSelina Bracebridge) as far as Greece and Egypt. Her writ-ings on Egypt in particular are testimony to her learning,literary skill and philosophy of life. Sailing up the Nile asfar as Abu Simbel in January 1850, she wrote of the AbuSimbel temples, “Sublime in the highest style of intellec-tual beauty, intellect without effort, without suffering... nota feature is correct – but the whole effect is more expressiveof spiritual grandeur than anything I could have imagined.It makes the impression upon one that thousands of voicesdo, uniting in one unanimous simultaneous feeling of enthu-siasm or emotion, which is said to overcome the strongestman.”[9]

At Thebes, she wrote of being “called to God”, while a weeklater near Cairo she wrote in her diary (as distinct from herfar longer letters that her elder sister Parthenope was to printafter her return): “God called me in the morning and askedme would I do good for him alone without reputation.”[9]

Later in 1850, she visited the Lutheran religious commu-nity at Kaiserswerth-am-Rhein in Germany, where she ob-served Pastor Theodor Fliedner and the deaconesses work-ing for the sick and the deprived. She regarded the experi-ence as a turning point in her life, and issued her findingsanonymously in 1851; The Institution of Kaiserswerth on theRhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc. washer first published work;[10] she also received four monthsof medical training at the institute, which formed the basisfor her later care.

14.2. CRIMEAN WAR 287

Nightingale circa 1854

On 22 August 1853, Nightingale took the post of superin-tendent at the Institute for the Care of Sick Gentlewomenin Upper Harley Street, London, a position she held un-til October 1854.[11] Her father had given her an annualincome of £500 (roughly £40,000/US$65,000 in presentterms), which allowed her to live comfortably and to pur-sue her career.

14.2 Crimean War

Florence Nightingale’s most famous contribution came dur-ing the Crimean War, which became her central focus whenreports got back to Britain about the horrific conditions forthe wounded. On 21 October 1854, she and the staff of38 women volunteer nurses that she trained, including heraunt Mai Smith,[12] and fifteen Catholic nuns (mobilised byHenry Edward Manning)[13] were sent (under the authori-sation of Sidney Herbert) to the Ottoman Empire. Nightin-gale was assisted in Paris by her friend Mary Mohl.[14] Theywere deployed about 295 nautical miles (546 km; 339 mi)across the Black Sea from Balaklava in the Crimea, where

A print of the jewel awarded to Nightingale by Queen Victoria, forher services to the soldiers in the war

the main British camp was based.

Letter from Florence Nightingale to Mary Mohl, 1881

288 CHAPTER 14. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

Nightingale arrived early in November 1854 at SelimiyeBarracks in Scutari (modern-day Üsküdar in Istanbul). Herteam found that poor care for wounded soldiers was beingdelivered by overworked medical staff in the face of officialindifference. Medicines were in short supply, hygiene wasbeing neglected, and mass infections were common, manyof them fatal. There was no equipment to process food forthe patients.After Nightingale sent a plea to The Times for a governmentsolution to the poor condition of the facilities, the BritishGovernment commissioned Isambard Kingdom Brunel todesign a prefabricated hospital that could be built in Eng-land and shipped to the Dardanelles. The result was RenkioiHospital, a civilian facility that, under the management ofDr. Edmund Alexander Parkes, had a death rate less than1/10th that of Scutari.[15]

Stephen Paget in the Dictionary of National Biography as-serted that Nightingale reduced the death rate from 42% to2%, either by making improvements in hygiene herself, orby calling for the Sanitary Commission.[16] For example,Nightingale implemented handwashing and other hygienepractices in the war hospital in which she worked.[17]

Selimiye Barracks in Üsküdar

During her first winter at Scutari, 4,077 soldiers died there.Ten times more soldiers died from illnesses such as typhus,typhoid, cholera and dysentery than from battle wounds.With overcrowding, defective sewers and lack of ventila-tion, the Sanitary Commission had to be sent out by theBritish government to Scutari in March 1855, almost sixmonths after Florence Nightingale had arrived. The com-mission flushed out the sewers and improved ventilation.[18]

Death rates were sharply reduced, but she never claimedcredit for helping to reduce the death rate.[19] In 2001 and2008 the BBC released documentaries that were criticalof Nightingale’s performance in the Crimean War, as weresome follow-up articles published in The Guardian and theSunday Times. Nightingale scholar Lynn McDonald hasdismissed these criticisms as “often preposterous”, arguing

they are not supported by the primary sources.[5]

Nightingale still believed that the death rates were due topoor nutrition, lack of supplies, stale air and overworkingof the soldiers. After she returned to Britain and begancollecting evidence before the Royal Commission on theHealth of the Army, she came to believe that most of thesoldiers at the hospital were killed by poor living conditions.This experience influenced her later career, when she ad-vocated sanitary living conditions as of great importance.Consequently, she reduced peacetime deaths in the armyand turned her attention to the sanitary design of hospitalsand the introduction of sanitation in working-class homes(see Statistics and Sanitary Reform, below).

14.2.1 The Lady with the Lamp

The Lady with the Lamp popular lithograph reproduction of apainting by Henrietta Rae, 1891.

During the Crimean war, Florence Nightingale gained thenickname “The Lady with the Lamp” from a phrase in areport in The Times:

She is a “ministering angel” without any ex-aggeration in these hospitals, and as her slenderform glides quietly along each corridor, everypoor fellow’s face softens with gratitude at thesight of her. When all the medical officers have

14.3. LATER CAREER 289

retired for the night and silence and darkness havesettled down upon those miles of prostrate sick,she may be observed alone, with a little lamp inher hand, making her solitary rounds.[20]

The phrase was further popularised by Henry WadsworthLongfellow's 1857 poem "Santa Filomena":[21]

Lo! in that house of misery

A lady with a lamp I seePass through the glimmering gloom,

And flit from room to room.

14.3 Later career

In the Crimea on 29 November 1855, the Nightingale Fundwas established for the training of nurses during a publicmeeting to recognise Nightingale for her work in the war.There was an outpouring of generous donations. SidneyHerbert served as honorary secretary of the fund and theDuke of Cambridge was chairman. Nightingale was con-sidered a pioneer in the concept of medical tourism as well,based on her 1856 letters describing spas in the OttomanEmpire. She detailed the health conditions, physical de-scriptions, dietary information, and other vital details ofpatients whom she directed there. The treatment there wassignificantly less expensive than in Switzerland.Nightingale had £45,000 at her disposal from the Nightin-gale Fund to set up the Nightingale Training School at St.Thomas’ Hospital on 9 July 1860. The first trained Nightin-gale nurses began work on 16 May 1865 at the LiverpoolWorkhouse Infirmary. Now called the Florence Nightin-gale School of Nursing and Midwifery, the school is partof King’s College London. She also campaigned and raisedfunds for the Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital in Aylesburynear her sister’s home, Claydon House.Nightingale wrote Notes on Nursing (1859). The bookserved as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightin-gale School and other nursing schools, though it was writ-ten specifically for the education of those nursing at home.Nightingale wrote “Every day sanitary knowledge, or theknowledge of nursing, or in other words, of how to put theconstitution in such a state as that it will have no disease, orthat it can recover from disease, takes a higher place. It isrecognised as the knowledge which every one ought to have– distinct from medical knowledge, which only a professioncan have”.[22]

Notes on Nursing also sold well to the general reading publicand is considered a classic introduction to nursing. Nightin-gale spent the rest of her life promoting and organising the

Florence Nightingale, circa 1858

nursing profession. In the introduction to the 1974 edition,Joan Quixley of the Nightingale School of Nursing wrote:“The book was the first of its kind ever to be written. It ap-peared at a time when the simple rules of health were onlybeginning to be known, when its topics were of vital impor-tance not only for the well-being and recovery of patients,when hospitals were riddled with infection, when nurseswere still mainly regarded as ignorant, uneducated persons.The book has, inevitably, its place in the history of nursing,for it was written by the founder of modern nursing”.[23]

As Mark Bostridge has recently demonstrated, one ofNightingale’s signal achievements was the introduction oftrained nurses into the workhouse system in England andIreland from the 1860s onwards. This meant that sick pau-pers were no longer being cared for by other, able-bodiedpaupers, but by properly trained nursing staff.Though Nightingale is sometimes said to have denied thetheory of infection for her entire life, a recent biographydisagrees,[24] saying that she was simply opposed to a pre-cursor of germ theory known as "contagionism". This the-ory held that diseases could only be transmitted by touch.Before the experiments of the mid-1860s by Pasteur and

290 CHAPTER 14. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

Lister, hardly anyone took germ theory seriously; even af-terwards, many medical practitioners were unconvinced.Bostridge points out that in the early 1880s Nightingalewrote an article for a textbook in which she advocated strictprecautions designed, she said, to kill germs. Nightingale’swork served as an inspiration for nurses in the AmericanCivil War. The Union government approached her for ad-vice in organising field medicine. Although her ideas metofficial resistance, they inspired the volunteer body of theUnited States Sanitary Commission.In the 1870s, Nightingale mentored Linda Richards,“America’s first trained nurse”, and enabled her to returnto the USA with adequate training and knowledge to estab-lish high-quality nursing schools. Linda Richards went onto become a great nursing pioneer in the USA and Japan.By 1882, several Nightingale nurses had become matronsat several leading hospitals, including, in London (St Mary’sHospital, Westminster Hospital, St Marylebone WorkhouseInfirmary and the Hospital for Incurables at Putney) andthroughout Britain (Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley; Ed-inburgh Royal Infirmary; Cumberland Infirmary and Liv-erpool Royal Infirmary), as well as at Sydney Hospital inNew South Wales, Australia.In 1883, Nightingale was awarded the Royal Red Cross byQueen Victoria. In 1904, she was appointed a Lady ofGrace of the Order of St John (LGStJ). In 1907, she be-came the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit.In the following year she was given the Honorary Freedomof the City of London. Her birthday is now celebrated asInternational CFS Awareness Day.[25]

From 1857 onwards, Nightingale was intermittently bedrid-den and suffered from depression. A recent biography citesbrucellosis and associated spondylitis as the cause.[26] Mostauthorities today accept that Nightingale suffered from aparticularly extreme form of brucellosis, the effects ofwhich only began to lift in the early 1880s. Despite hersymptoms, she remained phenomenally productive in socialreform. During her bedridden years, she also did pioneeringwork in the field of hospital planning, and her work prop-agated quickly across Britain and the world. Nightingale’soutput slowed down considerably in her last decade. Shewrote very little during that period due to blindness and de-clining mental abilities, though she still retained an interestin current affairs.[5]

14.4 Relationships

Although much of Nightingale’s work improved the lot ofwomen everywhere, Nightingale was of the opinion thatwomen craved sympathy and were not as capable as men.[27]

She criticised early women’s rights activists for decrying an

alleged lack of careers for women at the same time that lu-crative medical positions, under the supervision of Nightin-gale and others, went perpetually unfilled.[28] She preferredthe friendship of powerful men, insisting they had donemore than women to help her attain her goals, writing: “Ihave never found one woman who has altered her life byone iota for me or my opinions.”[29][30] She often referredto herself in the masculine, as for example “a man of action”and “a man of business”.[31]

However, she did have several important and long-lastingfriendships with women. Later in life, she kept up a pro-longed correspondence with Irish nun Sister Mary ClareMoore, with whom she had worked in Crimea.[32] Her mostbeloved confidante was Mary Clarke, an Englishwoman shemet in 1837 and kept in touch with throughout her life.[33]

Some scholars of Nightingale’s life believe that she re-mained chaste for her entire life, perhaps because she felt areligious calling to her career.[34]

14.5 Death

The grave of Florence Nightingale in the churchyard of St Mar-garet’s Church, East Wellow.

On 13 August 1910, at the age of 90, she died peace-fully in her sleep in her room at 10 South Street,

14.6. CONTRIBUTIONS 291

Mayfair, London.[35][36] The offer of burial in WestminsterAbbey was declined by her relatives and she is buriedin the graveyard at St Margaret Church in East Wellow,Hampshire.[37][38] She left a large body of work, includingseveral hundred notes that were previously unpublished.[39]

A memorial monument to Nightingale was created in Car-rara marble by Francis William Sargant in 1913 and placedin the cloister of the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence.[40]

14.6 Contributions

14.6.1 Statistics and sanitary reform

Florence Nightingale exhibited a gift for mathematics froman early age and excelled in the subject under the tutorshipof her father.[41] Later, Nightingale became a pioneer inthe visual presentation of information and statistical graph-ics.[42] She used methods such as the pie chart, which hadfirst been developed by William Playfair in 1801. Whiletaken for granted now, it was at the time a relatively novelmethod of presenting data.[43]

Indeed, Nightingale is described as “a true pioneer in thegraphical representation of statistics”, and is credited withdeveloping a form of the pie chart now known as the polararea diagram,[44] or occasionally the Nightingale rose di-agram, equivalent to a modern circular histogram, to illus-trate seasonal sources of patient mortality in the militaryfield hospital she managed. Nightingale called a compi-lation of such diagrams a “coxcomb”, but later that termwould frequently be used for the individual diagrams.[45]

She made extensive use of coxcombs to present reports onthe nature and magnitude of the conditions of medical carein the Crimean War to Members of Parliament and civilservants who would have been unlikely to read or under-stand traditional statistical reports. In 1859, Nightingalewas elected the first female member of the Royal Statisti-cal Society. She later became an honorary member of theAmerican Statistical Association.Her attention turned to the health of the British army in In-dia and she demonstrated that bad drainage, contaminatedwater, overcrowding and poor ventilation were causing thehigh death rate. She concluded that the health of the armyand the people of India had to go hand in hand and so cam-paigned to improve the sanitary conditions of the countryas a whole.Nightingale made a comprehensive statistical study ofsanitation in Indian rural life and was the leading figure inthe introduction of improved medical care and public healthservice in India. In 1858 and 1859, she successfully lobbiedfor the establishment of a Royal Commission into the Indiansituation. Two years later, she provided a report to the com-

"Diagram of the causes of mortality in the army in the East" byFlorence Nightingale.

mission, which completed its own study in 1863. “After 10years of sanitary reform, in 1873, Nightingale reported thatmortality among the soldiers in India had declined from 69to 18 per 1,000”.[44]

The Royal Sanitary Commission of 1868–9 presentedNightingale with an opportunity to press for compulsorysanitation in private houses. She lobbied the minister re-sponsible, James Stansfeld, to strengthen the proposed Pub-lic Health Bill to require owners of existing properties topay for connection to mains drainage.[46] The strengthenedlegislation was enacted in the Public Health Acts of 1874and 1875. At the same time she combined with the retiredsanitary reformer Edwin Chadwick to persuade Stansfeldto devolve powers to enforce the law to Local Authorities,eliminating central control by medical technocrats.[47] HerCrimean War statistics had convinced her that non-medicalapproaches were more effective given the state of knowl-edge at the time. Historians now believe that both drainageand devolved enforcement played a crucial role in increas-ing average national life expectancy by 20 years between1871 and the mid-1930s during which time medical sciencemade no impact on the most fatal epidemic diseases.[19][48]

14.6.2 Literature and the women’s move-ment

While better known for her contributions in the nursing andmathematical fields, Nightingale is also an important linkin the study of English feminism. During 1850 and 1852,she was struggling with her self-definition and the expecta-tions of an upper-class marriage from her family. As shesorted out her thoughts, she wrote Suggestions for Thoughtto Searchers after Religious Truth. This was an 829-page,three-volume work, which Nightingale had printed pri-vately in 1860, but which until recently was never publishedin its entirety.[50] An effort to correct this was made witha 2008 publication by Wilfrid Laurier University, as vol-

292 CHAPTER 14. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

ume 11[51] of a 16 volume project, the Collected Works ofFlorence Nightingale.[52] The best known of these essays,called “Cassandra”, was previously published by Ray Stra-chey in 1928. Strachey included it in The Cause, a his-tory of the women’s movement. Apparently, the writingserved its original purpose of sorting out thoughts; Nightin-gale left soon after to train at the Institute for deaconessesat Kaiserswerth.“Cassandra” protests the over-feminisation of women intonear helplessness, such as Nightingale saw in her mother’sand older sister’s lethargic lifestyle, despite their education.She rejected their life of thoughtless comfort for the worldof social service. The work also reflects her fear of her ideasbeing ineffective, as were Cassandra's. Cassandra was aprincess of Troy who served as a priestess in the templeof Apollo during the Trojan War. The god gave her thegift of prophecy; when she refused his advances, he cursedher so that her prophetic warnings would go unheeded.Elaine Showalter called Nightingale’s writing “a major textof English feminism, a link between Wollstonecraft andWoolf.”[53]

14.6.3 Theology

Despite being named as a Unitarian in several older sources,Nightingale’s own rare references to conventional Unitari-anism are mildly negative. She remained in the Church ofEngland throughout her life, albeit with unorthodox views.Influenced from an early age by the Wesleyan tradition,Nightingale felt that genuine religion should manifest in ac-tive care and love for others.[54][55] She wrote a work of the-ology: Suggestions for Thought, her own theodicy, whichdevelops her heterodox ideas. Nightingale questioned thegoodness of a God who would condemn souls to hell, andwas a believer in universal reconciliation – the conceptthat even those who die without being saved will eventu-ally make it to Heaven.[56] She would sometimes comfortthose in her care with this view. For example, a dying youngprostitute being tended by Nightingale was concerned shewas going to hell and said to her 'Pray God, that you maynever be in the despair I am in at this time'. The nursereplied “Oh, my girl, are you not now more merciful thanthe God you think you are going to? Yet the real God isfar more merciful than any human creature ever was or canever imagine.”[4][30][57][58]

Despite her intense personal devotion to Christ, Nightin-gale believed for much of her life that the pagan and east-ern religions had also contained genuine revelation. Shewas a strong opponent of discrimination both against Chris-tians of different denominations, and against those of non-Christian religions. Nightingale believed religion helpedprovide people with the fortitude for arduous good work,

and would ensure the nurses in her care attended religiousservices. However she was often critical of organised re-ligion. She disliked the role the 19th century Church ofEngland would sometimes play in worsening the oppres-sion of the poor. Nightingale argued that secular hospi-tals usually provided better care than their religious coun-terparts. While she held that the ideal health professionalshould be inspired by a religious as well as professional mo-tive, she said that in practice many religiously motivatedhealth workers were concerned chiefly in securing their ownsalvation, and that this motivation was inferior to the pro-fessional desire to deliver the best possible care.[4][30]

14.7 Legacy

14.7.1 Nursing

Blue plaque for Nightingale in South Street, Mayfair

Nightingale’s lasting contribution has been her role infounding the modern nursing profession. She set an exam-ple of compassion, commitment to patient care and dili-gent and thoughtful hospital administration. The first of-ficial nurses’ training programme, her Nightingale Schoolfor Nurses, opened in 1860. In addition to the continuedoperation of the Florence Nightingale School of Nursingand Midwifery at King’s College London, the NightingaleBuilding in the School of Nursing and Midwifery at theUniversity of Southampton is also named after her.In 1912, the International Committee of the Red Crossinstituted the Florence Nightingale Medal, awarded everytwo years to nurses or nursing aides for outstanding service.Since 1965, International Nurses Day has been celebratedon her birthday each year. The President of India honoursnursing professionals with the “National Florence Nightin-gale Award” every year on International Nurses Day. Theaward, established in 1973, is given in recognition of mer-

14.7. LEGACY 293

itorious services of nursing professionals characterised bydevotion, sincerity, dedication and compassion.The Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign,[59] estab-lished by nursing leaders throughout the world through theNightingale Initiative for Global Health (NIGH), aims tobuild a global grassroots movement to achieve two UnitedNations Resolutions for adoption by the UN General As-sembly of 2008. They will declare: The International Yearof the Nurse–2010 (the centennial of Nightingale’s death);The UN Decade for a Healthy World–2011 to 2020 (thebicentennial of Nightingale’s birth). NIGH also works torekindle awareness about the important issues highlightedby Florence Nightingale, such as preventive medicine andholistic health. So far, the Florence Nightingale Declarationhas been signed by over 18,500 signatories from 86 coun-tries.During the Vietnam War, Nightingale inspired many USArmy nurses, sparking a renewal of interest in her life andwork. Her admirers include Country Joe of Country Joeand the Fish, who has assembled an extensive website inher honour.[60]

The Agostino Gemelli Medical School[61] in Rome, the firstuniversity-based hospital in Italy and one of its most re-spected medical centres, honoured Nightingale’s contribu-tion to the nursing profession by giving the name “BedsideFlorence” to a wireless computer system it developed to as-sist nursing.[62]

14.7.2 Hospitals

Four hospitals in Istanbul are named after Nightingale:Florence Nightingale Hospital in Şişli (the biggest pri-vate hospital in Turkey), Metropolitan Florence Nightin-gale Hospital in Gayrettepe, European Florence NightingaleHospital in Mecidiyeköy, and Kızıltoprak Florence Nightin-gale Hospital in Kadiköy, all belonging to the Turkish Car-diology Foundation.[63]

An appeal is being considered for the former DerbyshireRoyal Infirmary hospital in Derby, England to be namedafter Nightingale. The suggested new name will be eitherNightingale Community Hospital or Florence NightingaleCommunity Hospital. The area in which the hospital liesin Derby has recently been referred to as the “NightingaleQuarter”.[64]

14.7.3 Museums and monuments

A statue of Florence Nightingale stands in Waterloo Place,Westminster, London, just off The Mall.There are three statues of Nightingale in Derby – one

Statue of Florence Nightingale in Waterloo Place, London

outside the London Road Community Hospital formerlyknown as the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary (DRI), one inSt Peter’s Street, and one above the Nightingale-MacmillanContinuing Care Unit opposite the Derbyshire Royal Infir-mary. A public house named after her stands close to theDRI.[65] The Nightingale-Macmillan continuing care unitis now at the Royal Derby Hospital, formerly known as TheCity Hospital, Derby.A stained glass window was commissioned for inclusion inthe Derbyshire Royal Infirmary chapel in the late 1950s.When the chapel was demolished the window was removedand installed in the replacement chapel. At the closure ofthe DRI the window was again removed and stored. In Oc-tober 2010, £6,000 was raised to reposition the window inSt Peter’s Church, Derby. The work features nine panels,of the original ten, depicting scenes of hospital life, Derbytownscapes and Nightingale herself. Some of the work wasdamaged and the tenth panel was dismantled for the glassto be used in repair of the remaining panels. All the figures,who are said to be modelled on prominent Derby town fig-ures of the early sixties, surround and praise a central paneof the triumphant Christ. A nurse who posed for the topright panel in 1959 attended the rededication service in Oc-tober 2010.[66]

The Florence Nightingale Museum at St Thomas’ Hospital

294 CHAPTER 14. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

Painting of Florence Nightingale by Augustus Egg, c. 1840s

in London reopened in May 2010 in time for the centenaryof Nightingale’s death. Another museum devoted to her isat her sister’s family home, Claydon House, now a propertyof the National Trust.Upon the centenary of Nightingale’s death in 2010, and tocommemorate her connection with Malvern, the MalvernMuseum held a Florence Nightingale exhibit[67] with aschool poster competition to promote some events.[68]

In Istanbul, the northernmost tower of the Selimiye Bar-racks building is now the Florence Nightingale Museum.[69]

and in several of its rooms, relics and reproductions relatedto Florence Nightingale and her nurses are on exhibition.[70]

When Nightingale moved on to the Crimea itself in May1855, she often travelled on horseback to make hospital in-spections. She later transferred to a mule cart and was re-ported to have escaped serious injury when the cart was top-pled in an accident. Following this episode, she used a solidRussian-built carriage, with a waterproof hood and curtains.The carriage was returned to England by Alexis Soyer afterthe war and subsequently given to the Nightingale trainingschool. The carriage was damaged when the hospital was

Florence Nightingale Statue, London Road, Derby

bombed by Nazi Germany during the Second World War.It was later restored and transferred to the Army MedicalServices Museum in Mytchett, Surrey, near Aldershot.A bronze plaque, attached to the plinth of the CrimeanMemorial in the Haydarpaşa Cemetery, Istanbul and un-veiled on Empire Day, 1954, to celebrate the 100th an-niversary of her nursing service in that region, bears the in-scription: “To Florence Nightingale, whose work near thisCemetery a century ago relieved much human suffering andlaid the foundations for the nursing profession.”[71]

14.7.4 Audio

Florence Nightingale’s voice was saved for posterity in aphonograph recording from 1890 preserved in the BritishLibrary Sound Archive. The recording, made in aid of theLight Brigade Relief Fund, says:

When I am no longer even a memory, just aname, I hope my voice may perpetuate the greatwork of my life. God bless my dear old com-rades of Balaclava and bring them safe to shore.Florence Nightingale.[72]

14.7. LEGACY 295

Florence Nightingale stained glass window, originally at the Der-byshire Royal Infirmary Chapel and now removed to St Peter’sChurch, Derby and rededicated 9 October 2010

The recording is available online.[73]

14.7.5 Theatre

The first theatrical representation of Nightingale wasReginald Berkeley's The Lady with the Lamp, premiering inLondon in 1929 with Edith Evans in the title role. It did notportray her as an entirely sympathetic character and drawsmuch characterisation from Lytton Strachey's biography ofher in Eminent Victorians.[74] It was adapted as a film of thesame name in 1951.In 2009, a stage musical play representation of Nightingaleentitled The Voyage of the Lass was produced by the As-

sociation of Nursing Service Administrators of the Philip-pines. The play tells the story of Nightingale’s early life andher struggles during the Crimean War, showcasing Philip-pine local registered nurses from various hospitals of thecountry.

14.7.6 Film

In 1912, a biographical silent film titled The Victoria Cross,starring Julia Swayne Gordon as Nightingale, was released,followed in 1915 by another silent film, Florence Nightin-gale, featuring Elisabeth Risdon. In 1936, Kay Francisplayed Nightingale in the film titled The White Angel. In1951, The Lady With the Lamp starred Anna Neagle.

14.7.7 Television

Portrayals of Nightingale on television, in documentary asin fiction, vary – the BBC’s 2008 Florence Nightingale em-phasised her independence and feeling of religious calling,but in Channel 4’s 2006 Mary Seacole: The Real Angel ofthe Crimea and Simon Schama’s A History of Britain, she isportrayed as narrow-minded and opposed to Seacole’s ef-forts. In 1985, a TV biopic Florence Nightingale, starringJaclyn Smith, was produced.[75]

14.7.8 Banknotes

Florence Nightingale’s image appeared on the reverse of Se-ries D £10 banknotes issued by the Bank of England from1975 until 1994. As well as a standing portrait, she was de-picted on the notes in a field hospital in the Crimea, holdingher lamp.[76]

14.7.9 Photographs

Nightingale had a principled objection to having pho-tographs taken or her portrait painted. An extremely rarephotograph of her, taken at Embley on a visit to her fam-ily home in May 1858, was discovered in 2006 and isnow at the Florence Nightingale Museum in London. Ablack-and-white photograph taken in about 1907 by LizzieCaswall Smith at Nightingale’s London home in SouthStreet, Park Lane, was auctioned on 19 November 2008 byDreweatts auction house in Newbury, Berkshire, England,for £5,500.[77]

296 CHAPTER 14. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

14.7.10 Biographies

The first biography of Nightingale was published in Eng-land in 1855. In 1911, Edward Cook was authorised byNightingale’s executors to write the official life, publishedin two volumes in 1913. Lytton Strachey based much ofhis chapter on Nightingale in Eminent Victorians on Cook,and Cecil Woodham-Smith also relied heavily on Cook’sLife in her 1950 biography, though she did have access tonew family material preserved at Claydon. In 2008, MarkBostridge published a major new life of Nightingale, almostexclusively based on unpublished material from the Ver-ney Collections at Claydon and from archival documentsfrom about 200 archives around the world, some of whichhad been published by Lynn McDonald in her projectedsixteen-volume edition of the Collected Works of FlorenceNightingale (2001 to date).

14.7.11 Other

KLM KLM MD-11 (registration PH-KCD) named after her

In 2002, Nightingale was ranked #52 in the BBC's list ofthe 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.[78]

Several churches in the Anglican Communion commemo-rate Nightingale with a feast day on their liturgical calen-dars. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America com-memorates her as a renewer of society with Clara Maass on13 August.Washington National Cathedral celebrates her accomplish-ments with a double-lancet stained glass window featur-ing six scenes from her life, designed by artist Joseph G.Reynolds.Beginning in 1968, the US Air Force operated a fleet of 20C-9A “Nightingale” aeromedical evacuation aircraft, basedon the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 platform.[79] The last ofthese planes was retired from service in 2005.[80]

A KLM McDonnell-Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCD) was also named in her honour.[81]

• A tinted lithograph by William Simpson illustratingconditions of the sick and injured in Balaklava

• Nightingale’s moccasins that she wore in the CrimeanWar

• A ward of the hospital at Scutari where Nightingaleworked, from an 1856 lithograph by William Simpson

• “Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari”, a por-trait by Jerry Barrett

• Florence Nightingale exhibit at Malvern Museum2010

• Florence Nightingale an angel of mercy. Scutari hospi-tal 1855.

14.8 Works• Nightingale, Florence (1979). Cassandra. First pub-

lished 1852: 1979 reprint by The Feminist Press.ISBN 0-912670-55-X. Retrieved 6 July 2010.

• “Notes on Nursing: What Nursing Is, What Nursingis Not”. Philadelphia, London, Montreal: J.B. Lippin-cott Co. 1946 reprint (First published London, 1859:Harrison & Sons). Retrieved 6 July 2010.

• Nightingale, Florence; McDonald, Lynn (2001).“Florence Nightingale’s Spiritual Journey: BiblicalAnnotations, Sermons and Journal Notes”. CollectedWorks of Florence Nighingale (Editor Lynn McDon-ald) 2. Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier UniversityPress. ISBN 0-88920-366-0. Retrieved 6 July 2010.

• “Florence Nightingale’s Theology: Essays, Letters andJournal Notes”. Collected Works of Florence Nighin-gale (Editor Lynn McDonald) 3. Ontario, Canada:Wilfrid Laurier University Press. 2002. ISBN 0-88920-371-7. Retrieved 6 July 2010.

• Nightingale, Florence; Vallée, Gérard (2003).“Mysticism and Eastern Religions”. Collected Worksof Florence Nighingale (Editor Gerard Vallee) 4.Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.ISBN 0-88920-413-6. Retrieved 6 July 2010.

• Nightingale, Florence; McDonald, Lynn (2008)."Suggestions for Thought". Collected Works of Flo-rence Nighingale (Editor Lynn McDonald) 11. On-tario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN978-0-88920-465-2. Retrieved 6 July 2010. Privatelyprinted by Nightingale in 1860.

• “Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes”. Lon-don: Harrison. 1861. Retrieved 6 July 2010.

14.10. REFERENCES 297

• The Family, a critical essay in Fraser’s Magazine(1870)

• “Introductory Notes on Lying-In Institutions”. Nature(London: Longmans, Green & Co) 5 (106): 22. 1871.Bibcode:1871Natur...5...22. doi:10.1038/005022a0.Retrieved 6 July 2010.

• Una and the Lion. Cambridge: Riverside Press. 1871.Retrieved 6 July 2010. Note: First few pages missing.Title page is present.

• Una and Her Paupers, Memorials of Agnes ElizabethJones, by her sister. with an introduction by FlorenceNightingale. New York: George Routledge and Sons,1872. Retrieved 6 July 2010.. See also 2005 publica-tion by Diggory Press, ISBN 978-1-905363-22-3

• Letters from Egypt: A Journey on the Nile 1849–1850(1987) ISBN 1-55584-204-6

• Nightingale, Florence (1867). Workhouse nursing.London: Macmillan and Co.

14.9 See also• Cicely Saunders

• Betsi Cadwaladr

• Dasha from Sevastopol

• Crimean War Memorial

• Florence Nightingale effect

• History of feminism

• Licensed practical nurse

• List of suffragists and suffragettes

• Mary Seacole

• Nightingale’s environmental theory

• Nursing process

• Women’s suffrage in the United Kingdom

British nursing matrons from the 19th century

• Sidney Browne

• Edith Cavell

• Joanna Cruickshank

• Ethel Gordon Fenwick

• Caroline Keer

• Eva Luckes

• Maud McCarthy

• Sarah Oram

• Rosabelle Osborne

• Edith MacGregor Rome

• Catherine Roy

• Alicia Lloyd Still

• Sarah Swift

• Sarah Elizabeth Wardroper

• Constance Watney

14.10 References[1] Strachey, Lytton (1918). Eminent Victorians. London:

Chatto and Windus.

[2] Kristine Swenson (2005). Medical Women and VictorianFiction. University of Missouri Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8262-6431-2.

[3] Joy Shiller (1 December 2007). “The true Florence: Ex-ploring the Italian birthplace of Florence Nightingale”. Re-trieved 16 March 2015.

[4] Florence Nightingale and Gerard Vallee (Editor) (2003)."passim, see esp Introduction”. Florence Nightingale on Mys-ticism and Eastern Religions. Wilfrid Laurier UniversityPress. ISBN 0889204136.

[5] Florence Nightingale and Lynn McDonald (Editor) (2010).“An introduction to Vol 14”. Florence Nightingale: TheCrimean War. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN0889204691.

[6] “Pedigree of Shore of Sheffield, Meersbrook, Norton andTapton”. Rotherham Web. Retrieved 17 May 2012.

[7] Cromwell, Judith Lissauer (2013). Florence Nightingale,feminist. Jefferson, NC [u.a.]: McFarland et Company. p.28. ISBN 0786470925.

[8] Small, Hugh (1998). Florence Nightingale: Avenging Angel.New York: St. Martin’s Press. pp. 1–19.

[9] Edward Chaney (2006). “Egypt in England and America:The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Revolu-tion”. In M. Ascari; A. Corrado. Sites of Exchange: Euro-pean Crossroads and Faultlines. Amsterdam and New York:Rodopi. pp. 39–74.

[10] Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

298 CHAPTER 14. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

[11] History of Harley Street at Harley Street Guide (commercialwebsite)

[12] Gill, Christopher J.; Gill, Gillian C. (June 2005). “Nightin-gale in Scutari: Her Legacy Reexamined”. Clinical Infec-tious Diseases 40 (12): 1799–1805. doi:10.1086/430380.ISSN 1058-4838. PMID 15909269.

[13] Mary Jo Weaver (1985). New Catholic Women: a Contempo-rary Challenge to Traditional Religious Authority. San Fran-cisco: Harper and Row. p. 31. citing Olga Hartley (1935).Women and the Catholic Church. London: Buns, Oates &Washbourne. pp. 222–223.

[14] Patrick Waddington, “Mohl, Mary Elizabeth (1793–1883)",Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford UniversityPress, 2004; online edn, January 2007 accessed 7 February2015

[15] “Report on Medical Care”. British National Archives (WO33/1 ff.119, 124, 146–7). 23 February 1855.

[16] Lee, Sidney, ed. (1912). "Nightingale, Florence".Dictionary of National Biography, 1912 supplement 3. Lon-don: Smith, Elder & Co.

[17] “The Global Public-Private Partnership for Handwashing”.globalhandwashing.org. Retrieved 2015-04-18.

[18] Nightingale, Florence (August 1999). Florence Nightingale:Measuring Hospital Care Outcomes. ISBN 0-86688-559-5.Retrieved 13 March 2010.

[19] Florence Nightingale, Avenging Angel by Hugh Small (Con-stable 1998)

[20] Cited in Cook, E. T. The Life of Florence Nightingale.(1913) Vol 1, p 237.

[21] Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (November 1857). “SantaFilomena”. The Atlantic Monthly. pp. 22–23. Retrieved13 March 2010.

[22] Nightingale, Florence (1974) [First published 1859]. “Pref-ace”. In ... Notes on Nursing: What it is and what it is not.Glasgow and London: Blackie & Son Ltd. ISBN 0-216-89974-5.

[23] Nightingale, Florence (1974) [First published 1859]. “In-troduction by Joan Quixley”. In ... Notes on Nursing:What it is and what it is not. Blackie & Son Ltd. ISBN9780216899742.

[24] Florence Nightingale, the Woman and her Legend, by MarkBostridge (Viking, 2008)

[25] May 12th International Awareness Day

[26] Bostridge (2008)

[27] In an 1861 letter published in The Life of Florence Nightin-gale vol. 2 of 2 by Edward Tyas Cook, pp. 14–17 at ProjectGutenberg, Nightingale wrote "Women have no sympathy.[...] Women crave for being loved, not for loving. Theyscream out at you for sympathy all day long, they are inca-pable of giving any in return, for they cannot remember youraffairs long enough to do so. ... They cannot state a fact ac-curately to another, nor can that other attend to it accuratelyenough for it to become information.”.

[28] In the same 1861 letter available at Project Gutenberg shewrote, “It makes me mad, the Women’s Rights talk about 'thewant of a field' for them – when I would gladly give £500 ayear for a Woman secretary. And two English Lady super-intendents have told me the same thing. And we can't getone...”

[29] The same 1861 letter published in The Life of FlorenceNightingale vol. 2 of 2 by Edward Tyas Cook, pp. 14–17at Project Gutenberg

[30] Florence Nightingale and Lynn McDonald (Editor) (2005).Florence Nightingale on Women, Medicine, Midwifery andProstitution. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 7, 48–49,414. ISBN 0889204667.

[31] Stark, Myra. “Florence Nightingale’s Cassandra”. The Fem-inist Press, 1979, p.17.

[32] “Institute of Our Lady of Mercy, Great Britain”. Ourlady-ofmercy.org.uk. 8 December 2009. Retrieved 13 March2010.

[33] Cannadine, David. “Ever Yours, Florence Nightingale: Se-lected Letters.” The New Republic. 203.7 (13 August1990): 38–42.

[34] Dossey, Barbara Montgomery. Florence Nightingale: Mys-tic, Visionary, Reformer. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams& Wilkins, 1999.

[35] Plaque #6 on Open Plaques.

[36] “Miss Nightingale Dies, Aged Ninety”. The New YorkTimes. 15 August 1910. Retrieved 21 July 2007. FlorenceNightingale, the famous nurse of the Crimean war and theonly woman who ever received the Order of Merit, died yes-terday afternoon at her London home. Although she hadbeen an invalid for a long time, rarely leaving her room,where she passed the time in a half-recumbent position andwas under the constant care of a physician, her death wassomewhat unexpected. A week ago she was quite sick, butthen improved and on Friday was cheerful. During that nightalarming symptoms developed and she gradually sank until2 o'clock Saturday afternoon, when the end came.

[37] http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/joe_grave.jpg

[38] “Florence Nightingale: The Grave at East Wellow”. Coun-tryjoe.com. Retrieved 13 March 2010.

14.10. REFERENCES 299

[39] Kelly, Heather (1998). Florence Nightingale’s autobiograph-ical notes: A critical edition of BL Add. 45844 (England)(M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University

[40] Vojnovic, Paola (2013). 'Florence Nightingale: The Lady ofthe Lamp' in Santa Croce in Pink: Untold Stories of Womenand their Monuments. Adriano Antonioletti Boratto. p. 27.

[41] There were rumors that she was tutored by an eminent math-ematician who was a friend of the family. Mark Bostridgesays, “There appears to be no documentary evidence to con-nect Florence with J. J. Sylvester.” Mark Bostridge (2008).Florence Nightingale: The Making of an Icon. p. 1172.

[42] Lewi, Paul J. (2006). Speaking of Graphics.

[43] Cohen, I. Bernard (March 1984). “Florence Nightin-gale”. Scientific American 250 (3): 128–137.doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0384-128. PMID 6367033.(alternative pagination depending on country of sale: 98–107. Bibliography on p.114) online article – see documentslink at left

[44] Cohen, I. Bernard (1984), p.107.

[45] “Publication explaining Nightingale’s use of 'coxcomb'".

[46] McDonald, Lynn. Florence Nightingale on Public HealthCare. p. 550.

[47] Lambert, Royston (1963). Sir John Simon, 1816–1904.McGibbon & Kee. pp. 521–3.

[48] Szreter, Simon. “The Importance of Social Intervention inBritain’s Mortality Decline c. 1850–1914”. Soc. Hist. Med.1 (1988): 1037.

[49] Cohen, I. Bernard (1984), p.98

[50] Nightingale, Florence (1994). Michael D. Calabria & JanetA. Macrae, ed. Suggestions for Thought: Selections andCommentaries. ISBN 0-8122-1501-X. Retrieved 6 July2010.

[51] McDonald, Lynn, ed. (2008). Florence Nightingale’s Sug-gestions for Thought. Collected Works of Florence Nighin-gale. Volume 11. Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier Uni-versity Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-465-2. Retrieved 6 July2010. Privately printed by Nightingale in 1860.

[52] “Collected Works of Florence Nightingale”. Wilfrid LaurierUniversity Press. Retrieved 6 July 2010.

[53] Gilbert, Sandra M. and Susan Gubar. “Florence Nightin-gale.” The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: TheTraditions in English. New York: W.W. Norton, 1996. 836–837.

[54] Her parents took their daughters to both Church of Englandand Methodist churches.

[55] Lynn McDonald Florence Nightingale: extending nursingp11 Nightingale’s rare references to Unitarianism are mildlynegative, and while her religious views were heterodox, sheremained in the Church of England throughout her life. Herbiblical annotations, private journal notes and translations ofthe mystics give quite a different impression of her beliefs,and these do have a bearing on her work with nurses, and notonly at Edinburgh, but neither [Cecil Woodham-]Smith norhis [sic — C.W.-S. was a woman] followers consulted theirsources.”

[56] While this has changed by the 21st century, universal recon-ciliation was very far from being mainstream in the Churchof England at the time.

[57] Lynn McDonald Florence Nightingale’s theology: essays, let-ters and journal notes 2002 p18 “Certainly the worst manwould hardly torture his enemy, if he could, forever. UnlessGod has a scheme that every man is to be saved forever, it ishard to say in what He is not worse than man. For all goodmen would save others if they could”

[58] [influence on Clara Barton] Russell E. Miller The largerhope: the first century of the Universalist Church in 1979Clara Barton – “Although not formally a Universalist bychurch membership, she had come of a Universalist fam-ily, was sympathetic to the tenets of the denomination, andhas always been claimed by it.124 Known as “the FlorenceNightingale of our war”

[59] “Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign”. Nightin-galedeclaration.net. Retrieved 13 March 2010.

[60] “Country Joe McDonald’s Tribute to Florence Nightingale”.Countryjoe.com. Retrieved 13 March 2010.

[61] “Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore – The Rome Cam-pus”. .unicatt.it. Retrieved 13 March 2010.

[62] “Cacace, Filippo et. al. “The impact of innovation in medi-cal and nursing training: a Hospital Information System forStudents accessible through mobile devices"" (PDF). Re-trieved 17 May 2012.

[63] “Group Florence Nightingale”. Groupflorence.com. Re-trieved 17 May 2012.

[64] “Hospital name campaign will honour Florence”. Derby Ex-press. 18 August 2011.

[65] “Florence Nightingale”. Derby Guide. Retrieved 13 March2010.

[66] “BBC News - Nurses attend tribute to Florence Nightingalein Derby”. BBC News.

[67] “Malvern Museum’s Nightingale Exhibit March – October2010”. Retrieved 16 July 2010.

[68] “Chase pupil wins poster competition”. Malvern Gazette(Newsquest Media Group). 21 June 2010. Retrieved 12 July2010.

300 CHAPTER 14. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

[69] “The Florence Nightingale Museum (Istanbul)". Telegraph.15 September 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2010.

[70] “Florence Nightingale”. Florence-nightingale-avenging-angel.co.uk. Retrieved 13 March 2010.

[71] “Commonwealth War Graves Commission Haidar PashaCemetery” (PDF). Retrieved 13 March 2010.

[72] “Florence Nightingale”. British Library. Retrieved 14 Jan-uary 2011.""In aid of the Light Brigade Relief Fund” – catalogue en-try”. British Library. Retrieved 14 January 2011.

[73] “Florence Nightingale voice”. archive.org. Retrieved 14January 2011.

[74] Mark Bostridge, Florence Nightingale – The Woman and HerLegend

[75] “Florence Nightingale (1985)". Retrieved 25 May 2014.

[76] “Withdrawn banknotes reference guide”. Bank of England.Retrieved 17 October 2008.

[77] “Rare Nightingale photo sold off”. BBC News. 19 Novem-ber 2008. Retrieved 19 November 2008.

[78] “100 great Britons – A complete list”. Daily Mail. 21 August2002. Retrieved 16 August 2012.

[79] Air Mobility Command Museum: “C-9 Nightingale”.

[80] “Historic C-9 heads to Andrews for retirement”. archive.is.

[81] “Photos: McDonnell Douglas MD-11 Aircraft Pictures”.Airliners.net. 14 August 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2012.

14.10.1 Sources

• Baly, Monica E. and H. C. G. Matthew, “Nightin-gale, Florence (1820–1910)"; Oxford Dictionary ofNational Biography, Oxford University Press (2004);online edn, May 2005 accessed 28 October 2006

• Bostridge, Mark (2008). Florence Nightingale: TheWoman and Her Legend. London: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-87411-8.

• Gill, G. The extraordinary upbringing and curious lifeof Miss Florence Nightingale Random House, NewYork (2005)

• Kelly, Heather (1998). Florence Nightingale’s autobi-ographical notes: A critical edition of BL Add. 45844(M.A. thesis). Wilfrid Laurier University.

• Lytton Strachey; Eminent Victorians, London (1918)

• McDonald, Lynn ed., Collected Works of FlorenceNightingale. Wilfrid Laurier University Press

• Pugh, Martin; The march of the women: A revisionistanalysis of the campaign for women’s suffrage 1866–1914, Oxford (2000), at 55.

• Sokoloff, Nancy Boyd.; Three Victorian women whochanged their world, Macmillan, London (1982)

• Webb, Val; The Making of a Radical Theologician,Chalice Press (2002)

• Woodham Smith, Cecil; Florence Nightingale, Pen-guin (1951), rev. 1955

14.11 Further reading

• Baly, Monica and E. H. C. G. Matthew. “Nightin-gale, Florence (1820–1910)", Oxford Dictionary ofNational Biography Oxford University Press, 2004;online edn, January 2011 accessed 22 February 2013

• Bostridge, Mark (2008). Florence Nightingale. TheWoman and Her Legend. Viking (2008); Penguin(2009). US title Florence Nightingale. The Making ofan Icon. Farrar Straus (2008).

• Chaney, Edward (2006). “Egypt in England andAmerica: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Roy-alty and Revolution”, in: Sites of Exchange: EuropeanCrossroads and Faultlines, eds. M. Ascari and A. Cor-rado. Rodopi, Amsterdam and New York, 39–74.

• Davey, Cyril J. (1958). Lady with a Lamp. Lutter-worth Press. ISBN 978-0-7188-2641-3.

• Gill, Gillian (2004). Nightingales: The ExtraordinaryUpbringing and Curious Life of Miss Florence Nightin-gale. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-45187-3

• Magnello, M. Eileen. “Victorian statistical graphicsand the iconography of Florence Nightingale’s polararea graph,” BSHM Bulletin: Journal of the British So-ciety for the History of Mathematics (2012) 27#1 pp13–37

• Nelson, Sioban and Anne Marie Rafferty, eds. Noteson Nightingale: The Influence and Legacy of a NursingIcon (Cornell University Press; 2010) 184 pages. Es-says on Nightingale’s work in the Crimea and Britain’scolonies, her links to the evolving science of statistics,and debates over her legacy and historical reputationand persona.

• Rees, Joan. Women on the Nile: Writings of Har-riet Martineau, Florence Nightingale, and Amelia Ed-wards. Rubicon Press: 1995, 2008

14.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 301

• Rehmeyer, Julia (26 November 2008). “FlorenceNightingale: The Passionate Statistician”. ScienceNews. Retrieved 4 December 2008.

• Richards, Linda (2006). America’s First TrainedNurse: My Life as a Nurse in America, Great Britainand Japan 1872–1911. Diggory Press. ISBN 978-1-84685-068-4.

• Strachey, Lytton (1918). Eminent Victorians. GardenCity, N.Y.: Garden City Pub. Co., Inc. ISBN 0-8486-4604-5. – available online at http://www.bartleby.com/189/201.html

14.12 External links• Works by Florence Nightingale at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Florence Nightingale at InternetArchive

• UCLA Elmer Belt Florence Nightingale Collec-tion, hosted at Internet Archive

• Works by Florence Nightingale at LibriVox (publicdomain audiobooks)

• 1890 audio recording of Florence Nightingale speak-ing

• Victorians.co.uk: Florence Nightingale

• Eminent Victorians: Florence Nightingale by LyttonStrachey

• 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article

• “New photo of 'Lady of the Lamp'". BBC News. 6August 2006. Retrieved 7 August 2008.

• Correspondence between Nightingale and BenjaminJowett

• University of Guelph: Collected Works of FlorenceNightingale project

• Archival material relating to Florence Nightingalelisted at the UK National Archives

• Florence Nightingale Foundation

• Florence Nightingale Correspondence from the His-toric Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives,Kansas Historical Society

• Florence Nightingale Letters Collection – A collectionof letters written by and to Florence Nightingale fromthe UBC Library Digital Collections

• Florence Nightingale Letters Collection – correspon-dence in the University of Illinois at Chicago digitalcollections

• Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign forGlobal Health established by the Nightingale Initia-tive for Global Health (NIGH)

• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., “FlorenceNightingale”, MacTutor History of Mathematicsarchive, University of St Andrews.

• Florence Nightingale Window at St Peter’s, Derby

• Papers of Florence Nightingale, 1820–1910

• Southern Star article

Chapter 15

Monty Python

“Pythonesque” redirects here. For the play by Roy Smiles,see Pythonesque (play).

Monty Python (sometimes known as The Pythons)[2][3]

were a British surreal comedy group who created the sketchcomedy show Monty Python’s Flying Circus, that first airedon the BBC on 5 October 1969. Forty-five episodes weremade over four series. The Python phenomenon developedfrom the television series into something larger in scope andimpact, spawning touring stage shows, films, numerous al-bums, several books, and a stage musical. The group’s in-fluence on comedy has been compared to The Beatles' in-fluence on music.[4][5][6]

Broadcast by the BBC between 1969 and 1974, Flying Cir-cus was conceived, written and performed by its mem-bers Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, EricIdle, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin. Loosely struc-tured as a sketch show, but with an innovative stream-of-consciousness approach (aided by Gilliam’s animation), itpushed the boundaries of what was acceptable in style andcontent.[7][8] A self-contained comedy team responsible forboth writing and performing their work, the Pythons hadcreative control which allowed them to experiment withform and content, discarding rules of television comedy.Their influence on British comedy has been apparent foryears, while in North America it has coloured the work ofcult performers from the early editions of Saturday NightLive through to more recent absurdist trends in televisioncomedy. "Pythonesque" has entered the English lexicon asa result.In a 2005 UK poll to find The Comedian’s Comedian, threeof the six Pythons members were voted by fellow come-dians and comedy insiders to be among the top 50 great-est comedians ever: Cleese at #2, Idle at #21, and Palin at#30.[9]

15.1 Before Flying Circus

Jones and Palin met at Oxford University, where they per-formed together with the Oxford Revue. Chapman andCleese met at Cambridge University. Idle was also at Cam-bridge, but started a year after Chapman and Cleese. Cleesemet Gilliam in New York City while on tour with theCambridge University Footlights revue Cambridge Circus(originally entitled A Clump of Plinths). Chapman, Cleeseand Idle were members of the Footlights, which at that timealso included the future Goodies (Tim Brooke-Taylor, BillOddie, and Graeme Garden), and Jonathan Lynn (co-writerof Yes Minister and Yes, Prime Minister). During Idle’spresidency of the Club, feminist writer Germaine Greerand broadcaster Clive James were members. Recordingsof Footlights revues (called “Smokers”) at Pembroke Col-lege include sketches and performances by Cleese and Idle,which, along with tapes of Idle’s performances in some ofthe drama society’s theatrical productions, are kept in thearchives of the Pembroke Players.All six Python members appeared in or wrote the followingshows before Flying Circus:

• I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again (radio) (1964–1973)[Cleese: cast member & writer] – [Idle and Chapman:writers]

• The Frost Report (1966–1967) [Cleese: cast memberand writer] – [Idle: writer of Frost’s monologues] –[Chapman, Palin and Jones: writers]

• At Last the 1948 Show (1967) [Chapman and Cleese:writers and cast members] – [Idle: writer]

• Twice a Fortnight (1967) [Palin and Jones: cast mem-bers and writers]

• Do Not Adjust Your Set (1967–1969) [Idle, Jones, andPalin: cast members & writers] – [Gilliam: animation]— Bonzo Dog Band: musical interludes]

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15.2. MONTY PYTHON’S FLYING CIRCUS 303

• We Have Ways of Making You Laugh (1968) [Idle: castmember & writer] – [Gilliam: animation]

• How To Irritate People (1968) [Cleese and Chapman:cast members & writers] – [Palin: cast member]

• The Complete and Utter History of Britain (1969)[Palin and Jones: cast members & writers]

• Doctor in the House (1969) [Cleese & Chapman: writ-ers]

The Frost Report is credited as first uniting the BritishPythons and providing an environment in which they coulddevelop their particular styles.Several other important British comedy writers or futureperformers who were featured included Marty Feldman,Jonathan Lynn, David Jason, and David Frost, as well asmembers of other future comedy teams such as RonnieCorbett and Ronnie Barker (the Two Ronnies), and TimBrooke-Taylor, Graeme Garden and Bill Oddie (the Good-ies).Following the success of Do Not Adjust Your Set, a tea-timechildren’s programme, ITV offered Gilliam, Idle, Jones,and Palin their own late-night adult comedy series together.At the same time, Chapman and Cleese were offered a showby the BBC, which had been impressed by their work onThe Frost Report and At Last The 1948 Show. Cleese wasreluctant to do a two-man show for various reasons, includ-ing Chapman’s supposedly difficult and erratic personality.Cleese had fond memories of working with Palin on HowTo Irritate People and invited him to join the team. With nostudio available at ITV until summer 1970 for the late nightshow, Palin agreed to join Cleese and Chapman, and sug-gested the involvement of his writing partner Jones and col-league Idle—who in turn wanted Gilliam to provide anima-tions for the projected series. Much has been made of thefact that the Monty Python troupe is the result of Cleese’sdesire to work with Palin and the chance circumstances thatbrought the other four members into the fold.[10]

By contrast, according to John Cleese’s autobiography,[11]

the origins of Monty Python lay in the admiration that writ-ing partners Cleese and Chapman had for the new type ofcomedy being done on Do Not Adjust Your Set; as a result,a meeting was initiated by Cleese between himself, Chap-man, Idle, Jones and Palin, at which it was agreed to pooltheir writing and performing efforts and jointly seek pro-duction sponsorship.

15.2 Monty Python’s Flying Circus

Main article: Monty Python’s Flying Circus

15.2.1 Development of the series

The Pythons had a definite idea about what they wanted todo with the series. They were admirers of the work of PeterCook, Alan Bennett, Jonathan Miller and Dudley Mooreon Beyond the Fringe, and had worked on Frost, which wassimilar in style.[12] They enjoyed Cook and Moore’s sketchshow Not Only... But Also. One problem the Pythons per-ceived with these programmes was that though the body ofthe sketch would be strong, the writers would often strug-gle to then find a punchline funny enough to end on, andthis would detract from the overall sketch quality. Theydecided that they would simply not bother to “cap” theirsketches in the traditional manner, and early episodes of theFlying Circus series make great play of this abandonmentof the punchline (one scene has Cleese turn to Idle, as thesketch descends into chaos, and remark that “This is the sil-liest sketch I've ever been in”—they all resolve not to carryon and simply walk off the set).[13] However, as they be-gan assembling material for the show, the Pythons watchedone of their collective heroes, Spike Milligan, recordinghis groundbreaking series Q5 (1969). Not only was theprogramme more irreverent and anarchic than any previ-ous television comedy, Milligan would often “give up” onsketches halfway through and wander off set (often mutter-ing “Did I write this?"). It was clear that their new serieswould now seem less original, and Jones in particular be-came determined the Pythons should innovate.After much debate, Jones remembered an animationGilliam had created for Do Not Adjust Your Set called “Be-ware of the Elephants”, which had intrigued him with itsstream-of-consciousness style. Jones felt it would be a goodconcept to apply to the series: allowing sketches to blendinto one another. Palin had been equally fascinated by an-other of Gilliam’s efforts, entitled “Christmas Cards”, andagreed that it represented “a way of doing things differ-ently”. Since Cleese, Chapman and Idle were less con-cerned with the overall flow of the programme, it was Jones,Palin and Gilliam who became largely responsible for thepresentation style of the Flying Circus series, in which dis-parate sketches are linked to give each episode the ap-pearance of a single stream-of-consciousness (often usinga Gilliam animation to move from the closing image of onesketch to the opening scene of another).Writing started at 9 am and finished at 5 pm. Typically,Cleese and Chapman worked as one pair isolated from theothers, as did Jones and Palin, while Idle wrote alone. Aftera few days, they would join together with Gilliam, critiquetheir scripts, and exchange ideas. Their approach to writingwas democratic. If the majority found an idea humorous,it was included in the show. The casting of roles for thesketches was a similarly unselfish process, since each mem-ber viewed himself primarily as a “writer”, rather than an

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actor eager for screen time. When the themes for sketcheswere chosen, Gilliam had a free hand in bridging them withanimations, using a camera, scissors, and airbrush.While the show was a collaborative process, different fac-tions within Python were responsible for elements of theteam’s humour. In general, the work of the Oxford-educated members (Jones and Palin) was more visual, andmore fanciful conceptually (e.g., the arrival of the SpanishInquisition in a suburban front room), while the Cambridgegraduates’ sketches tended to be more verbal and more ag-gressive (for example, Cleese and Chapman’s many “con-frontation” sketches, where one character intimidates orhurls abuse, or Idle’s characters with bizarre verbal quirks,such as The Man Who Speaks In Anagrams). Cleese con-firmed that “most of the sketches with heavy abuse wereGraham’s and mine, anything that started with a slow panacross countryside and impressive music was Mike andTerry’s, and anything that got utterly involved with wordsand disappeared up any personal orifice was Eric’s”.[14]

Gilliam’s animations, meanwhile, ranged from the whimsi-cal to the savage (the cartoon format allowing him to createsome astonishingly violent scenes without fear of censor-ship).Several names for the show were considered before MontyPython’s Flying Circus was settled upon. Some were OwlStretching Time; The Toad Elevating Moment; A Horse, aSpoon and a Bucket; Vaseline Review; and Bun, Wackett,Buzzard, Stubble and Boot. Flying Circus stuck when theBBC explained it had printed that name in its schedules andwas not prepared to amend it. Many variations on the namein front of this title then came and went (popular legendholds that the BBC considered Monty Python’s Flying Circusto be a ridiculous name, at which point the group threatenedto change their name every week until the BBC relented).Gwen Dibley’s Flying Circus was named after a woman Palinhad read about in the newspaper, thinking it would be amus-ing if she were to discover she had her own TV show. BaronVon Took’s Flying Circus was considered as an affection-ate tribute to Barry Took, the man who had brought themtogether. Arthur Megapode’s Flying Circus was suggested,then discarded. The name Baron Von Took’s Flying Circushad the form of Baron Manfred von Richthofen's Flying Cir-cus of WWI fame, and the new group was forming in a timewhen the Royal Guardsmen's 1966 song Snoopy vs. the RedBaron had peaked. The term 'flying circus’ was also anothername for the popular entertainment of the 1920s known asbarnstorming, where multiple performers collaborated withtheir stunts to perform a combined set of acts.There are differing, somewhat confusing accounts of theorigins of the Python name although the members agreethat its only “significance” was that they thought it soundedfunny. In the 1998 documentary Live At Aspen during theUS Comedy Arts Festival, where the troupe was awarded

the AFI Star Award by the American Film Institute, thegroup implied that “Monty” was selected (Eric Idle's idea)as a gently-mocking tribute to Field Marshal Lord Mont-gomery, a legendary British general of World War II;requiring a “slippery-sounding” surname, they settled on“Python”. On other occasions Idle has claimed that thename “Monty” was that of a popular and rotund fellow whodrank in his local pub; people would often walk in and askthe barman, “Has Monty been in yet?", forcing the nameto become stuck in his mind. The name Monty Python waslater described by the BBC as being “envisaged by the teamas the perfect name for a sleazy entertainment agent”.[15]

15.2.2 Style of the show

Flying Circus popularised innovative formal techniques,such as the cold open, in which an episode began withoutthe traditional opening titles or announcements.[16] An ex-ample of this is the “It’s” man: Palin, outfitted in RobinsonCrusoe garb, making a tortuous journey across various ter-rains, before finally approaching the camera to state, “It’s...”, only to be then cut off by the title sequence and thememusic.On several occasions the cold open lasted until mid show,after which the regular opening titles ran. Occasionallythe Pythons tricked viewers by rolling the closing creditshalfway through the show, usually continuing the joke byfading to the familiar globe logo used for BBC continuity,over which Cleese would parody the clipped tones of a BBCannouncer. On one occasion the credits ran directly afterthe opening titles.Because of their dislike of finishing with punchlines, theyexperimented with ending the sketches by cutting abruptlyto another scene or animation, walking offstage, addressingthe camera (breaking the fourth wall), or introducing a to-tally unrelated event or character. A classic example of thisapproach was the use of Chapman’s “anti-silliness” charac-ter of “the Colonel”, who walked into several sketches andordered them to be stopped because things were becoming“far too silly”.Another favourite way of ending sketches was to drop a car-toonish “16-ton weight” prop on one of the characters whenthe sketch seemed to be losing momentum, or a knight infull armour (played by Terry Gilliam) would wander on-setand hit characters over the head with a rubber chicken,[17]

before cutting to the next scene. Yet another way of chang-ing scenes was when John Cleese, usually outfitted in a din-ner suit, would come in as a radio commentator and, in arather pompous manner, make the formal and determinedannouncement, “And now for something completely differ-ent.” (The phrase became the title of the first Monty Pythonfilm.)

15.2. MONTY PYTHON’S FLYING CIRCUS 305

Cupid’s foot, as used by Monty Python’s Flying Circus

The Python theme music is The Liberty Bell, a march byJohn Philip Sousa, which was chosen, among other reasons,because the recording was in the public domain.[16]

The use of Gilliam’s surreal, collage stop motion animationswas another innovative intertextual element of the Pythonstyle. Many of the images Gilliam used were lifted fromfamous works of art, and from Victorian illustrations andengravings. The giant foot which crushes the show’s title atthe end of the opening credits is in fact the foot of Cupid, cutfrom a reproduction of the Renaissance masterpiece Venus,Cupid, Folly and Time by Bronzino. This foot, and Gilliam’sstyle in general, are visual trademarks of the programme.The Pythons used the British tradition of cross-dressingcomedy by donning frocks and makeup and playing femaleroles themselves while speaking in falsetto. Jones special-ized in playing the working class housewife, Palin and Idlein being generally more posh. The other members playedfemale roles more sparsely. Generally speaking, femaleroles were played by women only when the scene specif-ically required that the character be sexually attractive (al-though sometimes they used Idle for this). The troupelater turned to Carol Cleveland, who co-starred in numerousepisodes after 1970. In some episodes and later in MontyPython’s Life of Brian they took the idea one step furtherby playing women who impersonated men (in the stoningscene).Many sketches are well-known and widely quoted. "DeadParrot sketch,” "The Lumberjack Song,” "Spam" (which ledto the coining of the term email spam),[18] "Nudge Nudge,”"The Spanish Inquisition,” "Upper Class Twit of the Year,”"Cheese Shop,” and "The Ministry of Silly Walks" are justa few examples.

15.2.3 Introduction to North America

The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) addedMonty Python’s Flying Circus to its national September 1970fall lineup.[19] They aired the 13 episodes of Series 1, whichhad first run on the BBC the previous fall (October 1969to January 1970), as well as the first 6 episodes of Series2 only a few weeks after they first appeared on the BBC(September to November 1970).[19] The CBC droppedthe show when it returned to regular programming afterthe Christmas 1970 break, choosing to not place the re-maining 7 episodes of series 2 on the January 1971 CBCschedule.[19] Within a week the CBC received hundreds ofcalls complaining of the cancellation, and more than 100people staged a demonstration at the CBC’s Montreal stu-dios. The show eventually returned, becoming a fixture onthe network during the first half of the 1970s.[19]

Time-Life Films had the right to distribute all BBC-TVprograms in the United States; however, they decided thatBritish comedy simply would not work in America, andtherefore that it would not be worth the investment to con-vert the Python episodes from the European PAL standardto the American NTSC standard.Sketches from Monty Python’s Flying Circus were intro-duced to American audiences in August 1972, with the re-lease of the Python movie And Now for Something Com-pletely Different, featuring sketches from series 1 and 2 ofthe television show. This 1972 release met limited box of-fice success. Sketches like “Bicycle Repairman” and “TheDull Life of a Stockbroker” aired in the summer of 1972 on“Comedyworld”, a summer replacement series for NBC’sThe Dean Martin Show.In the summer of 1974 Ron Devillier, the program direc-tor for non-profit PBS television station KERA in Dallas,Texas, started airing episodes of Monty Python’s Flying Cir-cus. Ratings shot through the roof, providing an encourag-ing sign to the other 100 PBS stations that had signed up tobegin airing the show in October 1974—exactly 5 years af-ter their BBC debut. There was also cross-promotion fromFM radio stations across the country, whose airing of tracksfrom the Python LPs had already introduced American au-diences to this bizarre brand of comedy. The popularity onPBS resulted in the 1974 re-release of the 1972 ... Com-pletely Different movie, with much greater box office suc-cess.The ability to show Monty Python’s Flying Circus underthe American NTSC standard had been made possible bythe commercial actions of American television producerGreg Garrison. Garrison produced the NBC series TheDean Martin Comedy World, which ran during the sum-mer of 1974. The concept was to show clips from comedyshows produced in other countries, including tape of the

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Python sketches “Bicycle Repairman” and “The Dull Lifeof a Stockbroker”. Payment for use of these two sketcheswas enough to allow Time-Life Films to convert the entirePython library to NTSC standard, allowing for the sale tothe PBS network stations who then brought the entire showto US audiences.In 1975 the American Broadcasting Company (ABC)broadcast two ninety-minute Monty Python specials, eachwith three shows, but cut out a total of 24 minutes fromeach in part to make time for commercials, in part to avoidupsetting their audience. As the judge observed in Gilliamv. American Broadcasting Companies, Inc., where MontyPython sued for damages caused by broadcast of the muti-lated version, “According to the network, appellants shouldhave anticipated that most of the excised material containedscatological references inappropriate for American televi-sion and that these scenes would be replaced with commer-cials, which presumably are more palatable to the Americanpublic.” Monty Python won the case.[20]

With the popularity of Python throughout the rest of the1970s and through most of the 1980s, PBS stations lookedat other British comedies, leading to UK shows such as AreYou Being Served? gaining a US audience, and leading,over time, to many PBS stations having a “British ComedyNight” which airs many popular UK comedies.[21]

15.2.4 Cleese departs; the circus closes

Having considered the possibility at the end of the secondseries, Cleese left the Flying Circus at the end of the third.He later explained that he felt he no longer had anythingfresh to offer the show, and claimed that only two Cleese-and-Chapman-penned sketches in the third series (“DennisMoore” and the “Cheese Shop”) were truly original, and thatthe others were bits and pieces from previous work cobbledtogether in slightly different contexts.[10] He was also find-ing Chapman, who was at that point in the full throes ofalcoholism, difficult to work with. According to an inter-view with Idle, “It was on an Air Canada flight on the wayto Toronto, when John (Cleese) turned to all of us and said'I want out.' Why? I don't know. He gets bored more eas-ily than the rest of us. He’s a difficult man, not easy tobe friendly with. He’s so funny because he never wantedto be liked. That gives him a certain fascinating, arrogantfreedom.”[22]

The rest of the group carried on for one more “half” seriesbefore calling a halt to the programme in 1974. The nameMonty Python’s Flying Circus appears in the opening anima-tion for series four, but in the end credits the show is listedas simply “Monty Python”. Although Cleese left the show,he was credited as a writer for three of the six episodes,largely concentrated in the “Michael Ellis” episode, which

had begun life as one of the many drafts of the “Holy Grail”motion picture. When a new direction for “Grail” was de-cided upon, the subplot of Arthur and his knights wander-ing around a strange department store in modern times waslifted out and recycled as the aforementioned TV episode.While the first three series contained 13 episodes each, thefourth ended after just six. Extremely keen to keep thenow massively popular show going, the BBC had offeredthe troupe a full 13 episodes, but the truncated troupe (nowunder the unspoken 'leadership' of Terry Jones) had cometo a common agreement while writing the fourth season thatthere was only enough material, and more importantly onlyenough enthusiasm, to shoot the six that were made.

15.3 Life after the Flying Circus

15.3.1 Filmography

And Now for Something Completely Different (1971)

Main article: And Now for Something Completely Differ-ent

The Pythons’ first feature film was directed by Ian Mac-Naughton, reprising his role from the television series. Itwas composed of sketches from the first two seasons of theFlying Circus, reshot on a low budget (and often slightlyedited) for cinema release. Material selected for the filmincludes: "Dead Parrot", "The Lumberjack Song", "UpperClass Twit of the Year", “Hell’s Grannies”, “Self-DefenceClass”, "How Not To Be Seen" and "Nudge Nudge". Fi-nanced by Playboy's UK executive Victor Lownes, it wasintended as a way of breaking Monty Python into America,and although it was ultimately unsuccessful in this, the filmdid good business in the UK, this being in the era beforehome video would make the original material much moreaccessible. The group did not consider the film a success.

Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975)

Main article: Monty Python and the Holy Grail

In 1974, between production on the third and fourth sea-sons, the group decided to embark on their first “proper”feature film, containing entirely new material. MontyPython and the Holy Grail was based on Arthurian legendand was directed by Jones and Gilliam. Again, the latteralso contributed linking animations (and put together theopening credits). Along with the rest of the Pythons, Jonesand Gilliam performed several roles in the film, but it was

15.3. LIFE AFTER THE FLYING CIRCUS 307

Chapman who took the lead as King Arthur. Cleese re-turned to the group for the film, feeling that the group wereonce again breaking new ground. Holy Grail was filmed onlocation, in picturesque rural areas of Scotland, with a bud-get of only £229,000; the money was raised in part with in-vestments from rock groups such as Pink Floyd, Jethro Tulland Led Zeppelin—and UK music industry entrepreneurTony Stratton-Smith (founder and owner of the CharismaRecords label, for which the Pythons recorded their com-edy albums).The backers of the film wanted to cut the famous BlackKnight scene (in which the Black Knight loses his limbs ina duel) but it was eventually kept in the movie.[23]

Monty Python’s Life of Brian (1979)

Main article: Monty Python’s Life of Brian

Following the success of Holy Grail, reporters asked for thetitle of the next Python film, despite the fact that the teamhad not even begun to consider a third one. Eventually, Idleflippantly replied “Jesus Christ – Lust for Glory”, which be-came the group’s stock answer once they realised that it shutreporters up. However, they soon began to seriously con-sider a film lampooning the New Testament era in the sameway Holy Grail had lampooned Arthurian legend. Despitethem all sharing a distrust of organised religion, they agreednot to mock Jesus or his teachings directly. They also men-tioned that they could not think of anything legitimate tomake fun of about him. Instead, they decided to write asatire on credulity and hypocrisy among the followers ofsomeone who had been mistaken for the “Messiah,” but whohad no desire to be followed as such. Chapman was cast inthe lead role of Brian.The focus therefore shifted to a separate individual born atthe same time, in a neighbouring stable. When Jesus ap-pears in the film (first, as a baby in the stable, and then lateron the Mount, speaking the Beatitudes), he is played straight(by actor Kenneth Colley) and portrayed with respect. Thecomedy begins when members of the crowd mishear hisstatements of peace, love and tolerance. (“I think he said,'Blessed are the cheesemakers.'")Directing duties were handled solely by Jones, having am-icably agreed with Gilliam that Jones’ approach to film-making was better suited for Python’s general performingstyle. Holy Grail’s production had often been stilted by theirdifferences behind the camera. Gilliam again contributedtwo animated sequences (one being the opening credits) andtook charge of set design. The film was shot on location inTunisia, the finances being provided this time by formerBeatle George Harrison, who together with Denis O'Brienformed the production company Hand-Made Films for the

movie. Harrison had a cameo role as the 'owner of theMount.'Despite its subject matter attracting controversy, particu-larly upon its initial release, it has (together with its prede-cessor) been ranked among the greatest comedy films. AChannel 4 poll in 2005 ranked Holy Grail in sixth place,with Life of Brian at the top.[24]

Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl (1982)

Main article: Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl

Filmed at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles duringpreparations for The Meaning of Life, this was a concertfilm (directed by Terry Hughes) in which the Pythons per-formed sketches from the television series in front of an au-dience. The released film also incorporated footage fromthe German television specials (the inclusion of which givesIan MacNaughton his first on-screen credit for Python sincethe end of Flying Circus) and live performances of severalsongs from the troupe’s then-current Monty Python’s Con-tractual Obligation Album.

Monty Python’s The Meaning of Life (1983)

Main article: Monty Python’s The Meaning of Life

Python’s final film returned to something structurally closerto the style of Flying Circus. A series of sketches loosely fol-lows the ages of man from birth to death. Directed again byJones solo, The Meaning of Life is embellished with someof Python’s most bizarre and disturbing moments, as wellas various elaborate musical numbers. The film is by fartheir darkest work, containing a great deal of black hu-mour, garnished by some spectacular violence (includingan operation to remove a liver from a living patient withoutanaesthetic and the morbidly obese Mr. Creosote explodingover several restaurant patrons). At the time of its release,the Pythons confessed their aim was to offend “absolutelyeveryone.”Besides the opening credits and the fish sequence, Gilliam,by now an established live action director, no longer wantedto produce any linking cartoons, offering instead to directone sketch—The Crimson Permanent Assurance. Under hishelm, though, the segment grew so ambitious and tangen-tial that it was cut from the movie and used as a supportingfeature in its own right. (Television screenings also use itas a prologue.) Crucially, this was the last project that allsix Pythons would collaborate on, except for the 1989 com-pilation Parrot Sketch Not Included, where they are all seensitting in a closet for four seconds. This was the last time

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Chapman appeared on screen with the Pythons.

15.3.2 Secret Policeman’s Ball benefit shows

Members of Python contributed their services to charita-ble endeavours and causes—sometimes as an ensemble, atother times as individuals. The cause that has been the mostfrequent and consistent beneficiary has been the humanrights work of Amnesty International. Between 1976 and1981, the troupe or its members appeared in four majorfund-raisers for Amnesty—known collectively as the SecretPoliceman’s Ball shows—which were turned into multiplefilms, TV shows, videos, record albums and books. Thesebenefit shows and their many spin-offs raised consider-able sums of money for Amnesty, raised public and mediaawareness of the human rights cause and influenced manyother members of the entertainment community (especiallyrock musicians) to become involved in political and socialissues.[25] Among the many musicians who have publicly at-tributed their activism—and the organisation of their ownbenefit events—to the inspiration of the work in this fieldof Monty Python are U2, Bob Geldof, Pete Townshend andSting.[25] The shows are credited by Amnesty with helpingthe organisation develop public awareness in the US whereone of the spin-off films was a major success.Cleese and Jones had an involvement (as performer, writeror director) in all four Amnesty benefit shows, Palin inthree, Chapman in two and Gilliam in one. Idle did notparticipate in the Amnesty shows. Notwithstanding Idle’slack of participation, the other five members (together with“Associate Pythons” Carol Cleveland and Neil Innes) all ap-peared together in the first Secret Policeman’s Ball benefit—the 1976 A Poke In The Eye (With A Sharp Stick)—wherethey performed several Python sketches. In this first showthey were collectively billed as Monty Python. (Peter Cookdeputised for the errant Idle in a courtroom sketch.) In thenext three shows, the participating Python members per-formed many Python sketches, but were billed under theirindividual names rather than under the collective Pythonbanner. After a six-year break, Amnesty resumed produc-ing Secret Policeman’s Ball benefit shows in 1987 (some-times with, and sometimes without variants of the iconictitle) and by 2006 had presented a total of twelve suchshows. The shows since 1987 have featured newer gener-ations of British comedic performers, including many whohave attributed their participation in the show to their de-sire to emulate the Python’s pioneering work for Amnesty.(Cleese and Palin made a brief cameo appearance in the1989 Amnesty show; apart from that the Pythons have notappeared in shows after the first four.)

15.3.3 Going solo

Each member has pursued various film, television and stageprojects since the break-up of the group, but often contin-ued to work with one another. Many of these collaborationswere very successful, most notably A Fish Called Wanda(1988), written by Cleese, in which he starred along withPalin. The pair also appeared in Time Bandits (1981), afilm directed by Gilliam, who wrote it together with Palin.Gilliam directed Jabberwocky (1977), and also directed andco-wrote Brazil (1985), which featured Palin, and The Ad-ventures of Baron Munchausen (1988), which featured Idle.Yellowbeard (1983) was co-written by Chapman and fea-tured Chapman, Idle, and Cleese as well as many other En-glish comedians including Peter Cook, Spike Milligan andMarty Feldman.Palin and Jones wrote the comedic TV series Ripping Yarns(1976–79), starring Palin. Jones also appeared in the pilotepisode and Cleese appeared in a non-speaking part in theepisode “Golden Gordon”. Jones’ film Erik the Viking alsohas Cleese playing a small part.In 1996, Terry Jones wrote and directed an adaption ofKenneth Grahame's novel The Wind in the Willows. It fea-tured four members of Monty Python: Jones as Mr. Toad,Idle as Ratty, Cleese as Mr. Toad’s lawyer, and Palin as theSun. Gilliam was considered for the voice of the river.In terms of numbers of productions, Cleese has the mostprolific solo career, having appeared in 59 films, 22 TVshows or series (including Cheers, 3rd Rock from the Sun,Q’s assistant in the James Bond movies, and Will & Grace),23 direct-to-video productions, six video games, and a num-ber of commercials.[26] His BBC sitcom Fawlty Towers(written by and starring Cleese together with his then-wifeConnie Booth) is considered the greatest solo work by aPython since the sketch show finished. It is the only comedyseries to rank higher than the Flying Circus on the BFI TV100's list, topping the whole poll.Idle enjoyed critical success with Rutland Weekend Tele-vision in the mid-1970s, out of which came the Beatlesparody The Rutles (responsible for the cult mockumentaryAll You Need Is Cash), and as an actor in Nuns on theRun (1990) with Robbie Coltrane. In 1976 Idle directedmusic videos for George Harrison songs "This Song" and"Crackerbox Palace", the latter of which also featuredcameo appearances from Neil Innes and John Cleese. Idlehas had success with Python songs: "Always Look on theBright Side of Life" went to no. 3 in the UK singles chart in1991. The song had been revived by Simon Mayo on BBCRadio 1, and was consequently released as a single that year.The theatrical phenomenon of the Python musical Spamalothas made Idle the most financially successful of the troupepost-Python. Written by Idle, it has proved an enormous hit

15.3. LIFE AFTER THE FLYING CIRCUS 309

on Broadway, London’s West End and also Las Vegas.[27]

This was followed by Not the Messiah (He’s a Very NaughtyBoy), which repurposes The Life of Brian as an oratorio.For the work’s 2007 premiere at the Luminato festival inToronto (which commissioned the work), Idle himself sangthe “baritone-ish” part.

15.3.4 Post-Python reunions

Since The Meaning of Life, their last project as a team, thePythons have often been the subject of reunion rumours.[27]

The final reunion of all six members occurred during theParrot Sketch Not Included – 20 Years of Monty Pythonspecial. The death of Chapman in 1989 (on the eve oftheir 20th anniversary) put an end to the speculation of anyfurther reunions. There have been several occasions since1989 when the surviving five members have gathered to-gether for appearances—albeit not formal reunions.In 1996, Jones, Idle, Cleese and Palin were featured in afilm adaptation of The Wind in the Willows, which was laterrenamed Mr. Toad’s Wild Ride.In 1998 during the US Comedy Arts Festival, where thetroupe was awarded the AFI Star Award by the AmericanFilm Institute, the five remaining members along with whatwas purported to be Chapman’s ashes, were reunited onstage for the first time in 18 years.[28] The occasion was inthe form of an interview called Monty Python Live at Aspen,(hosted by Robert Klein, with an appearance by Eddie Iz-zard) in which the team looked back at some of their workand performed a few new sketches.On 9 October 1999, to commemorate 30 years since thefirst Flying Circus television broadcast, BBC2 devoted anevening to Python programmes, including a documentarycharting the history of the team, interspersed with newsketches by the Monty Python team filmed especially forthe event. The program appears, with a few omissions, onthe DVD The Life of Python. Idle’s involvement in the spe-cial is limited, yet the final sketch marks the only time since1989 that all surviving members of the troupe appear in onesketch, albeit not in the same room.The surviving Pythons had agreed in principle to performa live tour of America in 1999. Several shows were to belinked with Q&A meetings in various cities. Although allhad said yes, Palin later changed his mind, much to the an-noyance of Idle, who had begun work organising the tour.This led to Idle refusing to take part in the new material shotfor the BBC anniversary evening.In 2002, four of the surviving members, bar Cleese, per-formed "The Lumberjack Song" and "Sit on My Face" forGeorge Harrison’s memorial concert. The reunion also in-cluded regular supporting contributors Neil Innes and Carol

Cleveland, with a special appearance from Tom Hanks.In an interview to publicise the DVD release of The Mean-ing of Life, Cleese said a further reunion was unlikely. “It isabsolutely impossible to get even a majority of us togetherin a room, and I'm not joking,” Cleese said. He said thatthe problem was one of busyness rather than one of badfeelings.[29] A sketch appears on the same DVD spoofingthe impossibility of a full reunion, bringing the members“together” in a deliberately unconvincing fashion with mod-ern bluescreen/greenscreen techniques.Idle has responded to queries about a Python reunion byadapting a line used by George Harrison in response toqueries about a possible Beatles reunion. When askedin November 1989 about such a possibility, Harrison re-sponded: “As far as I'm concerned, there won't be a Beatlesreunion as long as John Lennon remains dead.”[30] Idle’sversion of this was that he expected to see a proper Pythonreunion, “just as soon as Graham Chapman comes backfrom the dead”, but added, “we're talking to his agent aboutterms.”[31]

2003’s The Pythons Autobiography By the Pythons, com-piled from interviews with the surviving members, revealsthat a series of disputes in 1998, over a possible sequel toHoly Grail that had been conceived by Idle, may have re-sulted in the group’s permanent split. Cleese’s feeling wasthat The Meaning of Life had been personally difficult andultimately mediocre, and did not wish to be involved inanother Python project for a variety of reasons (not leastamongst them was the absence of Chapman, whose straight-man-like central roles in the Grail and Brian films had beenconsidered to be an essential anchoring performance). Ap-parently Idle was angry with Cleese for refusing to do thefilm, which most of the remaining Pythons thought reason-ably promising (the basic plot would have taken on a self-referential tone, featuring them in their main 'knight' guisesfrom Holy Grail, mulling over the possibilities of reform-ing their posse). The book also reveals that a secondaryoption around this point was the possibility of revitalis-ing the Python brand with a new stage tour, perhaps withthe promise of new material. This idea had also met withCleese’s refusal, this time with the backing of other mem-bers.March 2005 saw a full, if non-performing, reunion of thesurviving cast members at the premiere of Idle’s musicalSpamalot, based on Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Itopened in Chicago and has since played in New York onBroadway, London and numerous other major cities acrossthe world. In 2004, it was nominated for 14 Tony Awardsand won three: Best Musical, Best Direction of a Musicalfor Mike Nichols and Best Performance by a Featured Ac-tress in a Musical for Sara Ramirez, who played the Ladyof the Lake, a character specially added for the musical.

310 CHAPTER 15. MONTY PYTHON

Cleese played the voice of God, played in the film by Chap-man.Owing in part to the success of Spamalot, PBS announcedon 13 July 2005 that it would begin to re-air the entire run ofMonty Python’s Flying Circus and new one-hour specials fo-cusing on each member of the group, called Monty Python’sPersonal Best.[32] Each episode was written and producedby the individual being honoured, with the five remainingPythons collaborating on Chapman’s programme, the onlyone of the editions to take on a serious tone with its newmaterial.Eric Idle and John Cleese appeared on stage at the endof We Are Most Amused. Idle sang "Always Look on theBright Side of Life" with the rest of the performers, includ-ing Cleese, for the climax. Idle added a couplet dedicatedto the Prince of Wales:

“If Spamalot is hotAnd you like it, or per'aps not.A bunch of knights in search of Holy Grails.When you're 60 years of ageAnd your mum won't leave the stage,It’s good to know that you're still Prince ofWales”

In 2009, to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of thefirst episode of Monty Python’s Flying Circus, a six-part doc-umentary entitled Monty Python: Almost the Truth (LawyersCut) was released, featuring interviews with the survivingmembers of the team as well as archive interviews with Gra-ham Chapman and numerous excerpts from the televisionseries and films.Also in commemoration of the 40th anniversary, Idle,Palin, Jones and Gilliam appeared in a production of Not theMessiah (He’s a Very Naughty Boy) at the Royal Albert Hall.The European premiere was held on 23 October 2009.[33]

An official 40th anniversary Monty Python reunion eventtook place in New York City on 15 October 2009 where theteam received a Special Award from the British Academyof Film and Television Arts.[34]

In June 2011, it was announced that A Liar’s Autobiogra-phy, an animated 3D movie based on the memoir of thelate Python member, Graham Chapman, was in the making.The book A Liar’s Autobiography was published in 1980and details Chapman’s journey through medical school, al-coholism, acknowledgement of his gay identity and the tollsof surreal comedy. Asked what was true in a deliberatelyfanciful account by Chapman of his life, Terry Jones joked:“Nothing ... it’s all a downright, absolute, blackguardly lie.”The film uses Chapman’s own voice – from a reading of hisautobiography shortly before he died of cancer – and en-

tertainment channel Epix announced that the film will bereleased in early 2012 in both 2D and 3D formats. Pro-duced and directed by London-based Bill Jones, Ben Tim-lett and Jeff Simpson, the new film has 15 animation com-panies working on chapters that will range from three to 12minutes in length, each in a different style.John Cleese recorded dialogue which was matched withChapman’s voice. Michael Palin voiced Chapman’s fatherand Terry Jones voiced his mother. Terry Gilliam voicedGraham’s psychiatrist. They all play various other roles.Among the original Python group, only Eric Idle was notinvolved.[35]

On 26 January 2012, Terry Jones announced that the fivesurviving Pythons would reunite in a sci-fi comedy filmcalled Absolutely Anything.[36] The film would combine CGIand live action. It would be directed by Jones based on ascript by Jones and Gavin Scott. The plot revolves around ateacher who discovers aliens (voiced by the Pythons) havegiven him magical powers to do “absolutely anything”.[37]

Eric Idle responded via Twitter that he would not, in fact, beparticipating,[38] although he was later added to the cast.[39]

15.3.5 Monty Python Live (Mostly): OneDown, Five to Go

Main article: Monty Python Live (Mostly)

In 2013 the Pythons lost a legal case to Mark Forstater, thefilm producer of Monty Python and the Holy Grail, over roy-alties for the derivative work Spamalot. They owed a com-bined £800,000 in legal fees and back royalties to Forstater.They proposed a reunion show to pay their legal bill.[40]

On 19 November 2013, a new reunion was reported, fol-lowing months of “secret talks”.[41] The original plan wasfor a live, one-off stage show at the O2 Arena in London on1 July 2014, with “some of Monty Python’s greatest hits,with modern, topical, Pythonesque twists” according to apress release.[42][43][44] The tickets for this show went onsale in November 2013 and sold out in just 43 seconds.[45]

Nine additional shows were added, all of them at the O2,the last on 20 July. They have said that their reunion wasinspired by South Park creators Trey Parker and Matt Stonewho are massive Monty Python fans.[46]

Michael Palin stated that the final reunion show on 20 Julywould be the last time that the troupe would perform to-gether. The event was first shown live from the UK na-tionwide and was titled Monty Python Live (Mostly) andwas later re-shown at select theatres in recorded form inAugust.[47][48]

15.4. PYTHON MEMBERS 311

15.4 Python members

Graham Chapman was originally a medical student, join-ing the Footlights at Cambridge. He completed his med-ical training and was legally entitled to practice as a doc-tor. Chapman is best remembered for the lead roles in HolyGrail, as King Arthur, and Life of Brian, as Brian Cohen.He died of spinal and throat cancer on 4 October 1989. AtChapman’s memorial service, Cleese delivered an irrever-ent eulogy that included all the euphemisms for being deadfrom the Dead Parrot sketch, which they had written. Chap-man’s comedic fictional memoir, A Liar’s Autobiography,was adapted into an animated 3D movie in 2012.John Cleese is the oldest Python. He met his future Pythonwriting partner, Graham Chapman, in Cambridge. Outsideof Python he is best known for setting up the Video Artsgroup and the short-lived sitcom Fawlty Towers (co-writtenwith Connie Booth who Cleese met during work on Pythonand briefly married). Cleese has also co-authored sev-eral books on psychology and wrote the screenplay for theaward-winning A Fish Called Wanda, in which he starredwith Michael Palin.Terry Gilliam, an American by birth, is the only memberof the troupe of non-British origin.[49] He started off as ananimator and strip cartoonist for Harvey Kurtzman's Help!magazine, one issue of which featured Cleese. Moving fromthe US to England, he animated features for Do Not AdjustYour Set and was then asked by its makers to join them ontheir next project: Monty Python’s Flying Circus. He co-directed Monty Python and the Holy Grail and directed shortsegments of other Python films (for instance "The CrimsonPermanent Assurance", the short film that appears beforeThe Meaning of Life).When Monty Python was first formed, two writing partner-ships were already in place: Cleese and Chapman, Jonesand Palin. That left two in their own corners: Gilliam, op-erating solo due to the nature of his work, and Eric Idle.Regular themes in Idle’s contributions were elaborate word-play and musical numbers. After Flying Circus, he hostedSaturday Night Live four times in the first five seasons. Idle’sinitially successful solo career faltered in the 1990s with thefailures of his 1993 film Splitting Heirs (written, producedby and starring him) and 1998’s An Alan Smithee Film: BurnHollywood Burn (in which he starred), which was awardedfive Razzies, including 'Worst Picture of the Year'. He re-vived his career by returning to the source of his worldwidefame, adapting Monty Python material for other media. Healso wrote the Broadway musical Spamalot, based on theHoly Grail movie. He also wrote Not the Messiah (He’s aVery Naughty Boy), an oratorio derived from the Life ofBrian.Terry Jones has been described by other members of the

team as the “heart” of the operation. Jones had a leadrole in maintaining the group’s unity and creative indepen-dence. Python biographer George Perry has commentedthat should you “speak to him on subjects as diverse as fossilfuels, or Rupert Bear, or mercenaries in the Middle Ages orModern China ... in a moment you will find yourself hope-lessly out of your depth, floored by his knowledge.” Manyothers agree that Jones is characterised by his irrepressible,good-natured enthusiasm. However, Jones’ passion oftenled to prolonged arguments with other group members—in particular Cleese—with Jones often unwilling to backdown. Since his major contributions were largely behindthe scenes (direction, writing), and he often deferred to theother members of the group as an actor, Jones’ importanceto Python was often underrated. However, he does have thelegacy of delivering possibly the most famous line in all ofPython, as Brian’s mother Mandy in Life of Brian, “He’snot the Messiah, he’s a very naughty boy!", a line voted thefunniest in film history on two occasions.[50][51]

Michael Palin attended Oxford, where he met his Pythonwriting partner Jones. The two also wrote the series Rip-ping Yarns together. Palin and Jones originally wrote face-to-face, but soon found it was more productive to write apartand then come together to review what the other had writ-ten. Therefore, Jones and Palin’s sketches tended to bemore focused than that of the others, taking one bizarresituation, sticking to it, and building on it. After FlyingCircus, he hosted Saturday Night Live four times in thefirst ten seasons. His comedy output began to decrease inamount following the increasing success of his travel doc-umentaries for the BBC. Palin released a book of diariesfrom the Python years entitled Michael Palin Diaries 1969–1979, published in 2007.

15.4.1 Associate Pythons

Several people have been accorded unofficial “AssociatePython” status over the years. Occasionally such peoplehave been referred to as the 7th Python, in a style reminis-cent of George Martin (or other associates of The Beatles)being dubbed “the Fifth Beatle.” The two collaborators withthe most meaningful and plentiful contributions have beenNeil Innes and Carol Cleveland. Both were present and pre-sented as Associate Pythons at the official Monty Python25th anniversary celebrations held in Los Angeles in July1994.Neil Innes is the only non-Python besides Douglas Adams tobe credited with writing material for Flying Circus. He ap-peared in sketches and the Python films, as well as perform-ing some of his songs in Monty Python Live at the HollywoodBowl. He was also a regular stand-in for absent team mem-bers on the rare occasions when they re-created sketches.

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Carol Cleveland as the stereotypical blonde bombshell in the"Marriage Guidance Counsellor" sketch.

For example, he took the place of Cleese at the Concert forGeorge. Gilliam once noted that if anyone qualified for thetitle of the “Seventh Python”, it would certainly be Innes.He was one of the creative talents in the off-beat BonzoDog Band. He would later portray Ron Nasty of the Rutlesand write all of the Rutles’ compositions for All You Need IsCash (1978). By 2005, a falling out had occurred betweenIdle and Innes over additional Rutles projects, the results be-ing Innes’ critically acclaimed Rutles “reunion” album TheRutles: Archaeology and Idle’s straight-to-DVD The Rut-les 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch, each undertaken without theother’s participation. According to an interview with Idlein the Chicago Tribune in May 2005, his attitude is that heand Innes go back “too far. And no further.” Innes has re-mained silent on the dispute.Carol Cleveland was the most important female performerin the Monty Python ensemble, commonly referred to as“the female Python.” Originally hired by producer/directorJohn Howard Davies for just the first five episodes of theFlying Circus, she went on to appear in approximately two-thirds of the episodes as well as in all of the Python films,and in most of their stage shows as well. Her common por-trayal as the stereotypical “blonde bimbo” eventually earnedher the sobriquet “Carol Cleavage” from the other Pythons,but she felt that the variety of her roles should not be de-scribed in such a pejorative way.

15.4.2 Other contributors

Cleese’s first wife Connie Booth appeared as various char-acters in all four series of Flying Circus. Her most signifi-cant role was the “best girl” of the eponymous Lumberjackin "The Lumberjack Song", though this role was sometimesplayed by Carol Cleveland. Booth appeared in a total of 6sketches and also played one-off characters in Python fea-ture films And Now for Something Completely Different andMonty Python and the Holy Grail.Douglas Adams was “discovered” by Chapman when a ver-sion of Footlights Revue (a 1974 BBC2 television show fea-turing some of Adams’ early work) was performed live inLondon’s West End. In Cleese’s absence from the finalTV series, the two formed a brief writing partnership, withAdams earning a writing credit in one episode for a sketchcalled "Patient Abuse". In the sketch, a man who had beenstabbed by a nurse arrives at his doctor’s office bleedingprofusely from the stomach, when the doctor makes himfill out numerous senseless forms before he can administertreatment. He also had two cameo appearances in this sea-son. Firstly, in the episode The Light Entertainment War,Adams shows up in a surgeon’s mask (as Dr. Emile Kon-ing, according to the on-screen captions), pulling on gloves,while Palin narrates a sketch that introduces one person af-ter another, and never actually gets started. Secondly, atthe beginning of Mr. Neutron, Adams is dressed in a “pep-perpot” outfit and loads a missile onto a cart being drivenby Terry Jones, who is calling out for scrap metal (“Anyold iron ...”). Adams and Chapman also subsequently at-tempted a few non-Python projects, including Out of theTrees. He also contributed to a sketch on the soundtrackalbum for Monty Python and the Holy Grail.Other than Carol Cleveland, the only other non-Python tomake a significant amount of appearances in the Flying Cir-cus was Ian Davidson. He appeared in the first two seriesof the show, and played over 10 roles. While Davidson isprimarily known as a scriptwriter, it is not known if he hadany contribution toward the writing of the sketches, as he isonly credited as a performer. In total Davidson is creditedas appearing in 8 episodes of the show, which is more thanany other male actor who was not a Python. Despite this,Davidson did not appear in any Python related media sub-sequent to series 2, though footage of him was shown on thedocumentary Python Night – 30 Years of Monty Python.Stand-up comedian Eddie Izzard, a devoted fan of thegroup, has occasionally stood in for absent members. Whenthe BBC held a “Python Night” in 1999 to celebrate 30 yearsof the first broadcast of Flying Circus, the Pythons recordedsome new material with Izzard standing in for Idle, who haddeclined to partake in person (he taped a solo contributionfrom the US). Izzard hosted a history of the group entitledThe Life of Python (1999) that was part of the Python Night

15.5. CULTURAL INFLUENCE 313

and appeared with them at a festival/tribute in Aspen, Col-orado, in 1998 (released on DVD as Live at Aspen). Izzardhas said that Monty Python was a significant influence onhis style of comedy.[52]

Series director of Flying Cirus, Ian MacNaughton is alsoregularly associated with the group and made a few onscreen appearances in the show and in the film And Nowfor Something Completely Different. Apart from Neil Innes,others to contribute musically included Fred Tomlinson andthe Fred Tomlinson Singers. They made appearances insongs such as the “Lumberjack Song” as a backup choir.As well as this various other contributors and performersfor the Pythons included; John Howard Davies, John Hugh-man, Lyn Ashley, Bob Raymond, John Young, Rita Davies,Stanley Mason, Maureen Flanagan and David Ballantyne.

15.4.3 Timeline

Monty Python in Movies

• 1971 - And Now for Something Completely Different

• 1975 - Holy Grail

• 1979 - Life of Brian

• 1983 - The Meaning of Life

• 1996 - The Wind in the Willows

• 2012 - A Liar’s Autobiography: The Untrue Story ofMonty Python’s Graham

• 2015 - Absolutely Anything

Monty Python in Live

• 1970 - Oh Hampstead (Benefit show at St PancrasTown Hall, London, UK)

• 1971 - Lanchester Arts Festival '71 (Coventry, UK)

• 1972 - Then Great Western Express Festival (Four dayevent at Tupholme Hall, Lincolnshire, UK)

• 1973 - 1st UK Tours (UK)

• 1973 - 1st Farewell Tours (Canada)

• 1974 - Live Drury Lane(London, UK)

• 1976 - Monty Python Live! (NY, USA)

• 1980 - Monty Python Live At The Hollywood Bowl(LA, USA)

• 2014 - Monty Python Live (Mostly) : One Down, FiveTo Go (London, UK)

Monty Python Reunions

• 1989 - Parrot Sketch Not Included – 20 Years ofMonty Python

• 1998 - Live At Aspen (UK)

• 2002 - Concert For George (Royal Albert Hall, UK)

• 2009 - Not the Messiah (He’s a Very Naughty Boy)(Royal Albert Hall, UK)

• 2014 - Monty Python Live (Mostly) : One Down, FiveTo Go (London, UK)

15.5 Cultural influence

By the time of the twenty-fifth anniversary of Monty Pythonin 1994, the point was already being made that “the fivesurviving members had with the passing years begun to oc-cupy an institutional position in the edifice of British so-cial culture that they had once had so much fun trying todemolish”.[53] A similar point is made in a 2006 book onthe relationship between Monty and philosophy: “It is re-markable, after all, not only that the utterly bizarre MontyPython’s Flying Circus was sponsored by the BBC in thefirst place, but that Monty Python itself grew into an insti-tution of enormous cultural influence.”[54] Matt Groening,creator and co-developer of the animated sitcom The Simp-sons, names Monty Python as an influence and pays tributethrough a couch gag used in seasons five and six.[55]

Monty Python has been named as being influential to thecomedy stylings of a great many people including SethMeyers,[56] Trey Parker,[57] Matt Stone,[58] Sacha BaronCohen,[59] Vic and Bob,[60] David Cross,[61] and Seth Mac-Farlane.[62]

15.5.1 Space

The asteroid 13681 Monty Python is named after thegroup/show.In 2010, the commercial space company SpaceX launched awheel of cheese into low earth orbit and returned it safely tothe earth. Elon Musk, CEO and CTO of SpaceX, claimedthis was done as a tribute to Monty Python.[63]

15.5.2 World records

On St George’s Day, 23 April 2007, the cast and creatorsof Spamalot gathered in Trafalgar Square under the tutelageof the two Terrys (Jones and Gilliam) to set a new record

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for the world’s largest coconut orchestra. They led 5,567people “clip-clopping” in time to the Python classic “AlwaysLook On The Bright Side of Life” for the Guinness WorldRecords attempt.[64]

15.5.3 “Pythonesque”

Amongst the more visible cultural influences of MontyPython is the inclusion of terms either directly from, orderived from, Monty Python, into the lexicon of the En-glish language. The most obvious of these is the term'pythonesque', which has become a byword in surreal hu-mour, and is included in standard dictionaries.[65] TerryJones commented on his disappointment at the existence ofsuch a term, claiming the initial aim of Monty Python wasto create something new and impossible to categorize andthat “the fact that Pythonesque is now a word in the OxfordEnglish Dictionary shows the extent to which we failed”.[66]

The term has been applied to animations similar to thoseconstructed by Gilliam (e.g. the cut-out style of South Park,whose creators have often acknowledged a debt to Python,including contributing material to the aforementioned 30thanniversary theme night).[67]

Good Eats creator Alton Brown cited Python as one of theinfluences that shaped how he created the series, as wellas how he authors the script for each episode.[68] Recentepisodes even include Gilliam-style animations to illustratekey points.

15.5.4 Things named after Monty Python

Beyond a dictionary definition, Python terms have enteredthe lexicon in other ways.

• The Python programming language by Guido vanRossum is named after the troupe, and Monty Pythonreferences are often found in sample code created forthat language. The programming language develop-ment environment is named IDLE. Additionally, a2001 April Fool’s Day joke by van Rossum and LarryWall involving the merger of Python with Perl wasdubbed “Parrot” after the Dead Parrot sketch. Thename “Parrot” was later used for a project to developa virtual machine for running bytecode for interpretedlanguages such as Perl and Python. Its package indexis also known as the “Cheese Shop”[69] after the sketchof the same name. There is also a python refactoringtool called bicyclerepair named after Bicycle RepairMan sketch.[70]

• In 1985, a fossil of a previously unknown species of gi-gantic prehistoric snake from the Miocene was discov-

ered in Riversleigh, Queensland, Australia. The Aus-tralian palaeontologist who discovered the fossil snakewas a Monty Python fan, and he gave the snake thetaxonomic name of Montypythonoides riversleighen-sis in honour of the Monty Python team.[71] (Translit-erated from Greek Μοντυπυθωνοειδής back to En-glish, Montypythonoides means “like Monty Python”.)

• In 2006, Ben & Jerry’s, known for their “celebrityflavours”, introduced to the lineup “VermontyPython”, a coffee liqueur ice cream with a chocolatecookie crumb swirl and fudge cows. The name“Minty Python” had been suggested before in 1996 ina contest to select the quintessential British ice creamflavor.[72][73]

• In 1999, Black Sheep Brewery released an ale named“Monty Python’s Holy Grail Ale.”[74]

• The band Toad the Wet Sprocket drew its name fromthe Eric Idle monologue “Rock Notes” on MontyPython’s Contractual Obligation Album from 1980.

• The band Boxhamsters, which is the German transla-tion of Brook-Hamster, the winner of the Upper ClassTwit of the Year.[75]

• A philosophy lecture series entitled Themes in Con-temporary Analytic Philosophy as Reflected in the Workof Monty Python.[76][77]

• The term "spam" in reference to bulk, unsolicitedemail is derived from the programme’s 1970 “Spam”sketch.[78]

• In the book The Reptile Room by "Lemony Snicket",the character Uncle Monty was named after MontyPython, in a joke referring to his obsession withsnakes.

• Seven asteroids are named after Monty Python:9617 Grahamchapman, 9618 Johncleese, 9619 Terry-gilliam, 9620 Ericidle, 9621 Michaelpalin, 9622 Ter-ryjones, and 13681 Monty Python.

• The endangered Bemaraha woolly lemur (Avahi clee-sei) is named after John Cleese.

• Dead Parrot Society is the title of a comedy CDreleased in 1993 featuring sketches from MontyPython’s Flying Circus as well as Graham Chapman,Peter Cook, John Cleese, Dudley Moore, and ThePortsmouth Sinfonia. The title is also a play on the1989 film Dead Poets Society.

15.6. MEDIA 315

15.6 Media

Main article: Monty Python mediagraphy

15.6.1 Television

• Monty Python’s Flying Circus (1969–74)

The show that started the Python phenomenon.See also List of Monty Python’s Flying Circusepisodes

• Monty Python’s Fliegender Zirkus (1972)

Two 45-minute specials made by WDR for WestGerman television. The first was recorded inGerman, while the second was in English withGerman dubbing.

• Monty Python’s Personal Best (2006)

Six one-hour specials, each episode presentingthe best of one member’s work.

15.6.2 Films

There were five Monty Python productions released as the-atrical films:

• And Now for Something Completely Different (1971)

A collection of sketches from the first and sec-ond TV series of Monty Python’s Flying Circusre-enacted and shot for film.

• Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975)

King Arthur and his knights embark on a low-budget search for the Holy Grail, encounteringhumorous obstacles along the way. Some of theseturned into standalone sketches.

• Monty Python’s Life of Brian (1979)

Brian is born on the first Christmas, in the stablenext to Jesus’. He spends his life being mistakenfor a messiah.

• Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl (1982)

A videotape recording directed by Terry Hughesof a live performance of sketches. Originally in-tended for a TV/video special. Transferred to35mm and given a limited theatrical release inthe US.

• Monty Python’s The Meaning of Life (1983)

An examination of the meaning of life in a seriesof sketches from conception to death and beyond.

15.6.3 Albums

• Monty Python’s Flying Circus (1970)

• Another Monty Python Record (1971)

• Monty Python’s Previous Record (1972)

• The Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief(1973)

• Monty Python Live at Drury Lane (1974)

• The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Filmof Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975)

• Monty Python Live at City Center (1977)

• The Monty Python Instant Record Collection (1977)

• Monty Python’s Life of Brian (1979)

• Monty Python Examines The Life Of Brian (promo)(1979)

• Monty Python’s Contractual Obligation Album (1980)

• The Monty Python Instant Record Collection (US ver-sion) (1981)

• Monty Python’s The Meaning of Life (1983)

• Monty Python’s The Meaning Of Life: Audio Press Kit(promo) (1983)

• The Final Rip Off (1987)

• Monty Python Sings (1989)

• The Ultimate Monty Python Rip Off (1994)

• Monty Python Sings Again (2014)

• The Hastily Cobbled Together for a Fast Buck Album(unreleased)

316 CHAPTER 15. MONTY PYTHON

15.6.4 Theatre

• Monty Python’s Flying Circus – Between 1974 and1980 (Live at the Hollywood Bowl was released in1982, but was performed in 1980) the Pythons madethree sketch-based stage shows, comprising mainlymaterial from the original television series.

• Monty Python’s Spamalot – Written by Idle directed byMike Nichols, with music and lyrics by John Du Prezand Idle, and starring Hank Azaria, Tim Curry, andDavid Hyde Pierce, Spamalot is a musical adaptationof the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail. It ran inChicago from 21 December 2004 to 23 January 2005,and began performances on Broadway on 17 March2005. It won three Tonys.

• Not the Messiah (He’s a Very Naughty Boy) – TheToronto Symphony Orchestra commissioned Idle andJohn Du Prez to write the music and lyrics of anoratorio based on Monty Python’s Life of Brian. Enti-tled Not the Messiah, it had its world premiere as partof Luminato, a “festival of arts and creativity” takingplace 1–10 June 2007 in Toronto. Not the Messiah wasconducted by Peter Oundjian, Music Director of theToronto Symphony Orchestra, who is Idle’s cousin. Itwas performed by a narrator, the Toronto SymphonyOrchestra, with guest soloists and choir. Accordingto Idle, “It will be funnier than Handel, though not asgood”.

• Monty Python Live (Mostly): One Down, Five to Go- (1-5, 15-16, 18–20 July 2014) The Pythons havestated this is the last live reunion of the remainingmembers of Monty Python. Held at London’s O2arena, tickets for the first night’s show sold out in 43seconds. The set list included a mix of live perfor-mances of their most popular skits, clips from theirshows, and elaborate dance numbers. Each night fea-tured a different celebrity “victim” of the Blackmailsketch.

15.6.5 Books

• Monty Python’s Big Red Book (1971) ISBN 0-413-29520-6.

• The Brand New Monty Python Bok (1973) ISBN 0-7493-1170-3.

• Monty Python and The Holy Grail (Book) (1977) ISBN0-413-38520-5.

• The Life of Brian/MONTYPYTHONSCRAPBOOK(1979, plus script-only reprint) ISBN 0-413-46550-0.

• The Complete Works of Shakespeare and MontyPython. Volume One - Monty Python (1981) ISBN 978-0-413-49450-4.

• Monty Python: The Case Against (by Robert Hewison)(1981)

• Monty Python’s The Meaning Of Life (1983)

• Monty Python’s Flying Circus – Just The Words Volume1 (1989) ISBN 0-413-62540-0.

• Monty Python’s Flying Circus – Just The Words Volume2 (1989) ISBN 0-413-62550-8.

• The Fairly Incomplete & Rather Badly IllustratedMonty Python Song Book (1994) ISBN 0-413-69000-8

• Monty Python’s Fliegender Zirkus (edited by Alfred Bi-olek) (1998)

• Monty Python Speaks! (edited by David Morgan)(1999)

• A Pocketful Of Python Volume 1 (edited by TerryJones) (1999)

• A Pocketful Of Python Volume 2 (edited by JohnCleese) (1999)

• A Pocketful Of Python Volume 3 (edited by TerryGilliam) (2000)

• A Pocketful Of Python Volume 4 (edited by MichaelPalin) (2000)

• A Pocketful Of Python Volume 5 (edited by Eric Idle)(2002)

• The Pythons’ Autobiography By The Pythons (editedby Bob McCabe) (2003, plus various reformatted edi-tions)

• Monty Python Live! (2009)

• Monty Python At Work (by Michael Palin, compilationof republished diary entries) (2014)

• “So, Anyway ...” (by John Cleese, Autobiography toage 30) (2014)

15.6.6 Games

• Monty Python’s Flying Circus (1990) a computer gamereleased by Virgin Games for 8-bit systems such as theCommodore 64, Amstrad CPC and the Sinclair ZXSpectrum,[79] and for the 16-bit Amiga[80]

• Monty Python’s Complete Waste of Time (1994) re-leased by 7th Level for PC / Mac / DOS

15.8. REFERENCES 317

• Monty Python & the Quest for the Holy Grail (1996),official game released by 7th Level

• Monty Python’s The Meaning of Life (1997), also re-leased by 7th Level.

• Python-opoly (2007), a Monty Python-themed prop-erty game released by Toy Vault Inc.[81]

• Monty Python Fluxx (2008), a card game released byLooney Labs[82]

• Blazing Dragons

• Monty Python’s Cow Tossing (2011), a smartphonegame.

• The Ministry of Silly Walks (2014), a smartphonegame[83]

15.7 See also• Beyond the Fringe

• List of Monty Python’s Flying Circus episodes

• List of recurring characters in Monty Python’s FlyingCircus

• Monty Python’s Complete Waste of Time

• Python (Monty) Pictures

• Spamalot

• The Goodies

• The Goon Show

15.8 References[1] Gilliam was born American and obtained British citizenship

in 1968. In protest at George W. Bush, he renounced hisAmerican citizenship in January 2006 and is now only aBritish citizen. Kopflos am Potsdamer Platz (in German),DE: Tagesspiegel, 10 February 2006, retrieved 15 Septem-ber 2007

[2] Wilmut (1980), p. 250.

[3] The Pythons by 'The Pythons’, ISBN 0-7528-5293-0.

[4] Todd Leopold (11 December 2003). “How Monty Pythonchanged the world”. CNN. Retrieved 30 March 2007.Python has been called “the Beatles of comedy,”

[5] Mark Lewisohn. “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”. BBC.Retrieved 31 March 2007. In essence, the Monty Pythonteam are the comedy equivalent of the Beatles.

[6] David Free. “The Beatles of Comedy”. The Atlantic. Re-trieved 23 January 2012

[7] 'Holy' Monty Python History Lesson. EntertainmentTonight. Retrieved 24 April 2012

[8] 'Monty Python' Reunion Planned for New Movie. ChristianPost. Retrieved 24 April 2012

[9] “Cook voted 'comedians’ comedian'". BBC News. 2 January2005. Retrieved 21 September 2008.

[10] The Pythons Autobiography By The Pythons—GrahamChapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, TerryJones, Michael Palin, John Chapman, David Sherlock, BobMcCabe—Thomas Dunne Books; Orion, 2003

[11] “So, Anyway ...”, by John Cleese; Crown Archetype, Lon-don, 2014

[12] “The Roots of Monty Python”. BFI Screenonline. Retrieved23 January 2013

[13] “The Silliest Interview We've Ever Had / The Silliest SketchWe've Ever Done”. MontyPython.net. Retrieved 23 January2013

[14] Wilmut (1980), p.211

[15] “BBC – Comedy – Monty Python”.

[16] Museum of Broadcast Communications. “Monty Python’sFlying Circus”.

[17] Monty Python’s Flying Circus Just The Words Volume 1, p33.Methuen, 1990

[18] “How Spam Meat Has Survived Spam E-Mail”.

[19] Jamie Bradburn, with reference to Toronto Star article of1971-02-02 (20 September 2011). “Vintage Toronto Ads:Jack of Hearts’ Flying Circus”. St. Joseph Media. Retrieved21 March 2012.

[20] Lumbard (30 June 1976). “Terry GILLIAM et al.,Plaintiffs-Appellants-Appellees, v. AMERICAN BROAD-CASTING COMPANIES, INC., Defendant-Appellee-Appellant.”. United States Court of Appeals, SecondCircuit.

[21] David Stewart; David C. Stewart (May 1999). The PBS com-panion: a history of public television. TV Books. p. 216.ISBN 978-1-57500-050-3. Retrieved 29 September 2010.

[22] Richard Ouzounian, "Python still has legs", Toronto Star, 16July 2006

[23] Interview with John Cleese on Q-The Podcast with host JohnGhomeshi, on 16 July 2009

[24] “50 Greatest Comedy Films”. channel4.com. Retrieved 21September 2008.

318 CHAPTER 15. MONTY PYTHON

[25] Secret Policeman’s Ball recruits New York’s finest toAmnesty celebration. The Guardian. Retrieved 24 April2012

[26] IMDB; as of January 2005; includes pre-release items.

[27] Alan Parker; Mick O'Shea (1 April 2006). And NowFor Something Completely Digital: The Complete IllustratedGuide to Monty Python CDs and DVDs. The DisinformationCompany. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-932857-31-3. Retrieved 29September 2010.

[28] Alleen Pace Nilsen; Don Lee Fred Nilsen (2000).Encyclopedia of 20th-century American humor. Oryx Press.p. 86. ISBN 978-1-57356-218-8. Retrieved 29 September2010.

[29] Monty Python reunion 'unlikely', BBC News, 9 September2003

[30] “No 3-Beatle Reunion, George Harrison Says”. ny-times.com. Retrieved 2013-03-06.

[31] Graham Chapman; John Cleese; Terry Gilliam; Eric Idle(15 November 2005). The Pythons Autobiography by thePythons. Macmillan. p. 328. ISBN 978-0-312-31145-2.Retrieved 29 September 2010.

[32] Exclusive new Monty Python specials slated to premiere in2006, PBS, 13 July 2005

[33] mollyblack wrote: (11 July 2009). “retrieved 6 July 2009”.The Independent (UK). Retrieved 19 August 2009.

[34] “Pythons receive BAFTA Special Award”. Bafta.org. 18October 2009. Retrieved 18 October 2009.

[35] “Monty Python back for 3D animated film”. The Daily Tele-graph (London). 28 June 2011.

[36] Dave McNary (January 26, 2012). “Pic reunites MontyPython members”. Variety.

[37] “Monty Python members to star in new film “AbsolutelyAnything"". CBS News. February 6, 2013.

[38] “Eric Idle”. Twitter. February 7, 2013.

[39] Films, GFM. “Eric Idle”. GFM Films. Retrieved 2014-02-20.

[40] “John Cleese: Monty Python reunion is happening becauseof my £800,000 legal bill”. Daily Mirror. May 23, 2014.Retrieved 2014-12-28. Last July, the Pythons lost a royal-ties case to Mark Forstater, who produced 1975 film MontyPython And The Holy Grail. ...

[41] “Me do a silly walk? Not with this artificial hip says Cleese,aged 74: QUENTIN LETTS sees the wrinkly Pythons an-nounce their last hurrah”. Daily Mail. 21 November 2013.Retrieved 25 November 2013.

[42] “Monty Python to reunite for live one-off show in London”.BBC News. November 21, 2013.

[43] “Monty Python reunite for one-off show: 'We can still befunny'". Daily Telegraph. 21 November 2013. Retrieved 25November 2013.

[44] “Is Monty Python’s reunion a bit of a joke?". Guardian. 21November 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2013.

[45] Wilkinson, Peter (November 25, 2013). “Monty Python re-union show sells out in 43 seconds”. CNN.

[46] Lamden (November 21, 2013). “EXCLUSIVE: South Parkcreators Trey Parker and Matt Stone ‘brought Monty Pythonback together’". Archant.

[47] “Monty Python to disband after 10 London reunion shows”,BBC News, 4 April 2014

[48] “And now, the Holy Grail for Python fans - the reunion stageshow: Thousands - some dressed as their favourite acts - de-scend on O2 for opening night”. Daily Mail. 1 July 2014.Retrieved 2 July 2014.

[49] David Morgan (6 October 2006). “Terry Gilliam SoundsOff, Director Of 'Brazil' Says Current Events Parallel HisCult Movie”. CBSNews. Retrieved 21 September 2008.

[50] Philip French, Mark Kermode, Jason Solomons, AkinOjumu, and Killian Fox (22 July 2007). “The last laugh:your favourite 50”. The Observer (UK). Retrieved 21September 2008.

[51] Sarah Womack (19 February 2002). “Life of Brian winsthe vote for film’s best laughter line”. London: Telegraph.Retrieved 21 September 2008.

[52] Living the dream: Eddie Izzard - Independent.ie

[53] Perry, George (1999). The Life of Python. London: PavilionBooks. p. 6. ISBN 1-85793-441-5. Retrieved 24 August2010.

[54] Hardcastle, G.L., & Reisch, G.A. (2006). ""What’s All ThisThen?" The Introduction”. In Gary L. Hardcastle & GeorgeA Reisch. Monty Python and Philosophy: Nudge Nudge,Think Think!. Vol. 19 in Popular Culture and Philosophyseries. Chicago: Open Court. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8126-9593-9. Retrieved 24 August 2010. Also ISBN 0-8126-9593-3

[55] Brian L. Ott (2008). “The Small Screen: How TelevisionEquips Us to Live in the Information Age”. p. 103.

[56] Gaydos, Steve (2011-11-13). Live from New York: A Dis-cussion with the Saturday Night Live Writers. Interview withSteve Gaydos.

[57] “Trey Parker and Matt Stone on Monty Python”. Time-out.com. Retrieved 10 November 2014

[58] WebCite query result

[59] “Sacha Baron Cohen: The comic who is always in your face”.The Observer. Retrieved 10 November 2014

15.9. FURTHER READING 319

[60] “Monty Python 'reuniting': 10 reasons it HAS to comeback”. Monty Python would itself go on to influence an en-tire generation of future comedians, from Eddie Izzard toVic and Bob.

[61] “Profile in Comedy: David Cross - Comedy Writing”.

[62] Pollak, Kevin; MacFarlane, Seth (August 30, 2009). KevinPollak Chat Show. Interview with Kevin Pollak.

[63] “SpaceX’s 'secret' payload? A wheel of cheese”. Los AngelesTimes. Retrieved 23 April 2013.

[64] BBC-Spamalot cast sets coconut record.

[65] “Monty Pythonesque.” Webster’s New Millennium Dictio-nary of English, Preview Edition (v 0.9.7). Lexico Publish-ing Group, LLC. 23 November 2007. Pythonesque

[66] Monty Python: Live at Aspen, 1998

[67] “Monty Python meets South Park”. BBC News. 4 October1999. Retrieved 21 September 2008.

[68] Marc Berman (27 September 2009). “Mr. TV: Food forThought”. Mediaweek. Retrieved 27 October 2009.

[69] “Python For Beginners”. Python.org. Retrieved 2013-03-03.

[70] “Bicycle Repair Man, a Refactoring Tool for Python”.Sourceforge.net. Retrieved 12 January 2013.

[71] Monty Python – a Brief History, BBC, 29 January 2002

[72] “STAN FREBERG HERE – British Ice Cream Flavors:".Retrieved 1 October 2010. Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream hasjust finished a contest to select the quintessential Britishice cream flavor. ... They wanted a kind of “pun” flavoralong the lines of their successful American flavor, “CherryGarcia"--hmm, my favorite. Anyhow, the winner was “CoolBrittania.” ... But some of the 7500 losers might have beenbetter. How about this, for British flavors: “Minty Python"?“Jack the Ripple"? Or how about “The Rolling Scones"?

[73] “American Scoops Up Prize For Name Of Brit Ben & Jerry’s– Orlando Sentinel”. Wall Street Journal. 4 July 1996. Re-trieved 1 October 2010. If Britain were an ice cream, whatflavor would it be? Jack the Ripple? Charles and DianaSplit? Those names were floated in a contest run by Ben &Jerry’s Homemade Inc. to create the quintessential Britishice cream flavor, along the lines of its world-famous Amer-ican flavor, Cherry Garcia.

[74] “Monty Python’s Holy Grail”. Blacksheepbrewery.com. Re-trieved 2 January 2012.

[75] “Boxhamsters”. www.boxhamsters.net. Retrieved 19 Au-gust 2009.

[76] Eric Barnes. “Gary L. Hardcastle: Themes in Contempo-rary Analytic Philosophy as Reflected in the Work of MontyPython”. Mtholyoke.edu. Retrieved 5 May 2015. (archivedon Archive.org)

[77] Gary L. Hardcastle & George A Reisch, ed. (2006).Monty Python and Philosophy: Nudge Nudge, Think Think!.Chicago: Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9593-9. AlsoISBN 0-8126-9593-3

[78] “RFC 2635 – DON\x27T SPEW A Set of Guidelines forMass Unsolicited Mailings and Postings (spam*):". Re-trieved 29 September 2010.

[79] “Monty Python’s Flying Circus on World of Spectrum”.Worldofspectrum.org. Retrieved 19 August 2009.

[80] “Monty Python’s Flying Circus - Lemon Amiga”. lemon-amiga.com. Retrieved 3 January 2015.

[81] “Toy Vault web site for Python-opoly, retrieved November20, 2008”. Toyvault.com. Retrieved 19 August 2009.

[82] “Web site for Monty Python Fluxx”. Fluxxgames.com. Re-trieved 19 August 2009.

[83] “The Silly Walk Official Website”. The Silly Walk OfficialWebsite. Boondoggle Studios. Retrieved 25 June 2014.

15.9 Further reading• Graham Chapman; Jim Yoakum (1997). Graham

Crackers: Fuzzy Memories, Silly Bits, and Outright Lies.Career Press. ISBN 978-1-56414-334-1. Retrieved 1October 2010.

• Jim Yoakum (2011). Monty Python Vs The World.CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1470008208.

• Marcia Landy (2005). Monty Python’s flying circus.Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-3103-3. Retrieved 1 October 2010.

• Darl Larsen (2003). Monty Python, Shakespeare, andEnglish Renaissance drama. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-1504-5. Retrieved 1 October 2010.

• David Morgan (1999). Monty Python speaks!. FourthEstate. ISBN 978-1-84115-168-7. Retrieved 1 Octo-ber 2010.

• Alan Parker; Mick O'Shea (2006). And Now ForSomething Completely Digital: The Complete IllustratedGuide to Monty Python CDs and DVDs. The Disin-formation Company. ISBN 978-1-932857-31-3. Re-trieved 1 October 2010.

• George Perry (2007). The Life of Python. Pavil-ion. ISBN 978-1-86205-762-3. Retrieved 1 October2010.

• Roger Wilmut (1980). From fringe to flying cir-cus: celebrating a unique generation of comedy, 1960–1980. Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-46950-2. Re-trieved 1 October 2010.

320 CHAPTER 15. MONTY PYTHON

• The Secret Policeman’s Balls, 3-DVD set (2009)

• “The Secret Policeman’s Balls DVD Release”.Music For Human Rights. 27 January 2009. Re-trieved 19 August 2009.

• Monty Python: 40 Years of Insanity

• “Monty Python: 40 Years of Insanity”.Life.com. 5 October 2009. Retrieved 6October 2009.

• The Life of Python – 20 Greatest Monty PythonSketches (40th Anniversary)

• “The Life of Python – 20 Greatest Monty PythonSketches”. Gnews.com. 5 October 2009. Re-trieved 6 October 2009.

15.10 External links• Official website

• Monty Python at DMOZ

• Monty Python – Official YouTube page

• 40 Years of Monty Python – photo essay by TIMEmagazine

• 2014 interview on return to live shows

Chapter 16

Sherlock Holmes

For other uses, see Sherlock Holmes (disambiguation).

Sherlock Holmes (/ˈʃɜrlɒk ˈhoʊmz/) is a fictional charactercreated by Scottish author and physician Sir Arthur ConanDoyle. A London-based “consulting detective” whose abil-ities border on the fantastic, Holmes is known for his astutelogical reasoning, his ability to adopt almost any disguise,and his use of forensic science to solve difficult cases.The character first appeared in print in 1887, and was fea-tured in four novels and 56 short stories by Conan Doyle,as well as later works by other authors. The first novel, AStudy in Scarlet, appeared in Beeton’s Christmas Annual in1887 and the second, The Sign of the Four, in Lippincott’sMonthly Magazine in 1890. The character’s popularity grewwith the first series of short stories in The Strand Magazine,beginning with "A Scandal in Bohemia" in 1891; additionalshort-story series and two novels (published in serial form)appeared from then to 1927. The events in the stories takeplace from about 1880 to 1914.All but four stories are narrated by Holmes’s friend andbiographer, Dr. John H. Watson. Two are narrated byHolmes himself ("The Adventure of the Blanched Soldier"and "The Adventure of the Lion’s Mane"), and two oth-ers are written in the third person ("The Adventure of theMazarin Stone" and "His Last Bow"). In two stories ("TheAdventure of the Musgrave Ritual" and "The Adventure ofthe Gloria Scott"), Holmes tells Watson the story from mem-ory, with Watson narrating the frame story. The first andfourth novels, A Study in Scarlet and The Valley of Fear,include long passages of omniscient narrative of events un-known to either Holmes or Watson.

16.1 Inspiration for the character

Doyle said that Holmes was inspired by Joseph Bell, a sur-geon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh for whom he hadworked as a clerk. Like Holmes, Bell was noted for draw-ing broad conclusions from minute observations.[1] How-

ever, he later wrote to Conan Doyle: “You are yourselfSherlock Holmes and well you know it”.[2] Sir Henry Lit-tlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the Universityof Edinburgh Medical School, is also cited as an inspirationfor Holmes. Littlejohn, who was also Police Surgeon andMedical Officer of Health in Edinburgh, provided Doylewith a link between medical investigation and the detectionof crime.[3]

Another inspiration is thought to be Francis “Tanky” Smith,a policeman and master of disguise who went on to becomeLeicester’s first private detective.[4]

16.2 Fictional character biography

16.2.1 Early life

Details about Sherlock Holmes’s life, except for the adven-tures in the books, are scarce in Conan Doyle’s original sto-ries. Nevertheless, mentions of his early life and extendedfamily paint a loose biographical picture of the detective.An estimate of Holmes’s age in "His Last Bow" places hisyear of birth at 1854; the story, set in August 1914, de-scribes him as 60 years of age. Leslie S. Klinger, author ofThe New Annotated Sherlock Holmes, posits the detective’sbirthdate as 6 January.[5]

Holmes says that he first developed his methods of deduc-tion as an undergraduate; his earliest cases, which he pur-sued as an amateur, came from fellow university students.[6]

A meeting with a classmate’s father led him to adopt detec-tion as a profession,[7] and he spent six years after universityas a consultant before financial difficulties led him to acceptJohn H. Watson as a fellow lodger (when the narrative of thestories begins).Beginning in 1881 Holmes has lodgings at 221B BakerStreet, London. According to an early story[8] 221B is anapartment at the upper end of the street, up 17 steps. UntilWatson’s arrival Holmes worked alone, only occasionallyemploying agents from the city’s underclass; these agents

321

322 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Holmes’s first appearance in 1887

included a host of informants, and a group of street chil-dren he called “the Baker Street Irregulars". The Irregularsappear in three stories: A Study in Scarlet, The Sign of theFour and "The Adventure of the Crooked Man".His parents are not mentioned in the stories, althoughHolmes mentions that his ancestors were “country squires".In "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter", he claims thathis great-uncle was French artist Horace Vernet. Holmes’sbrother Mycroft, seven years his senior, is a governmentofficial who appears in “The Adventure of the Greek Inter-preter”, "The Final Problem" and "The Adventure of theBruce-Partington Plans" and is mentioned in "The Adven-ture of the Empty House". Mycroft has a unique civil ser-vice position as a kind of human database for all aspects ofgovernment policy. He lacks Sherlock’s interest in physicalinvestigation, however, preferring to spend his time at theDiogenes Club.

16.2.2 Life with Watson

Holmes works as a detective for 23 years, with physicianJohn Watson assisting him for 17.[9] They were roommates

Holmes and Watson in a Sidney Paget illustration for "Silver Blaze"

before Watson’s 1887 marriage and again after his wife'sdeath. Their residence is maintained by their landlady, Mrs.Hudson. Most of the stories are frame narratives, writtenfrom Watson’s point of view as summaries of the detective’smost interesting cases. Holmes frequently calls Watson’swriting sensational and populist, suggesting that it fails toaccurately and objectively report the “science” of his craft:

Detection is, or ought to be, an exact scienceand should be treated in the same cold andunemotional manner. You have attempted totinge it ["A Study in Scarlet"] with romanticism,which produces much the same effect as if youworked a love-story .... Some facts should besuppressed, or, at least, a just sense of proportionshould be observed in treating them. The onlypoint in the case which deserved mention wasthe curious analytical reasoning from effectsto causes, by which I succeeded in unravellingit.[10]

—Sherlock Holmes on John Watson’s “pam-phlet”, The Sign of the Four

Nevertheless, Holmes’s friendship with Watson is his mostsignificant relationship. When Watson is injured by a bul-let, although the wound turns out to be “quite superficial”,Watson is moved by Holmes’s reaction:

It was worth a wound; it was worth manywounds; to know the depth of loyalty and lovewhich lay behind that cold mask. The clear, hardeyes were dimmed for a moment, and the firm

16.3. PERSONALITY AND HABITS 323

lips were shaking. For the one and only time Icaught a glimpse of a great heart as well as of agreat brain. All my years of humble but single-minded service culminated in that moment ofrevelation.[11]

16.2.3 <span id=""Great Hiatus"">TheGreat Hiatus

Holmes and Moriarty struggle at the Reichenbach Falls; drawingby Sidney Paget

Conan Doyle wrote the first set of stories over the courseof a decade. Wishing to devote more time to his historicalnovels, he killed off Holmes in “The Final Problem” (whichappeared in print in 1893, and is set in 1891). After re-sisting public pressure for eight years, the author wrote TheHound of the Baskervilles (which appeared in 1901, with animplicit setting before Holmes’s death; some theorise thatit occurs after “The Return”, with Watson planting cluesto an earlier date).[12][13] In 1903 Conan Doyle wrote “TheAdventure of the Empty House”, set in 1894; Holmes reap-pears, explaining to a stunned Watson that he had faked hisdeath in “The Final Problem” to fool his enemies. “The Ad-venture of the Empty House” marks the beginning of the

second set of stories, which Conan Doyle wrote until 1927.Holmes aficionados refer to the period from 1891 to1894—between his disappearance and presumed death in“The Final Problem” and his reappearance in “The Adven-ture of the Empty House”—as the Great Hiatus:[14] the ear-liest known use of this expression is in the article “Sher-lock Holmes and the Great Hiatus” by Edgar W. Smith,published in the July 1946 issue of Baker Street Journal.The 1908 short story "The Adventure of Wisteria Lodge"is however described as taking place in 1892 due to an erroron Conan Doyle’s part.

16.2.4 Retirement

In “His Last Bow”, Holmes has retired to a small farm onthe Sussex Downs. The move is not dated precisely, butcan be presumed to predate 1904 (since it is referred toretrospectively in “The Second Stain”, first published thatyear). He has taken up beekeeping as his primary occupa-tion, producing a Practical Handbook of Bee Culture, withsome Observations upon the Segregation of the Queen. Thestory features Holmes and Watson coming out of retirementto aid the war effort. Only one other adventure, "The Ad-venture of the Lion’s Mane" (narrated by Holmes), takesplace during the detective’s retirement. The details of hisdeath are unknown.

16.3 Personality and habits

Watson describes Holmes as "bohemian" in his habitsand lifestyle. Described by Watson in The Hound of theBaskervilles as having a “cat-like” love of personal cleanli-ness, Holmes is an eccentric with no regard for contempo-rary standards of tidiness or good order. In "The Adventureof the Musgrave Ritual", Watson says:

Although in his methods of thought he wasthe neatest and most methodical of mankind ...[he] keeps his cigars in the coal-scuttle, his to-bacco in the toe end of a Persian slipper, and hisunanswered correspondence transfixed by a jack-knife into the very centre of his wooden mantel-piece ... He had a horror of destroying documents.... Thus month after month his papers accumu-lated, until every corner of the room was stackedwith bundles of manuscript which were on no ac-count to be burned, and which could not be putaway save by their owner.[6]

In many of the stories, Holmes dives into an apparent messto find an item most relevant to a mystery. The detec-tive starves himself at times of intense intellectual activity,

324 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Sidney Paget illustration from “The Adventure of the Golden Pince-Nez”

such as during "The Adventure of the Norwood Builder"—wherein, according to Watson:

[Holmes] had no breakfast for himself, forit was one of his peculiarities that in his moreintense moments he would permit himself nofood, and I have known him to presume uponhis iron strength until he has fainted from pureinanition.[15]

Although his chronicler does not consider Holmes’s habit-ual use of a pipe (or his less frequent use of cigarettes andcigars) a vice per se, Watson—a physician—occasionallycriticises the detective for creating a “poisonous atmo-sphere” of tobacco smoke.[16] Holmes acknowledges Wat-son’s disapproval in "The Adventure of the Devil’s Foot": “Ithink, Watson, that I shall resume that course of tobacco-poisoning which you have so often and so justly con-demned”.His companion condones the detective’s willingness tobend the truth (or break the law) on behalf of a client—lying to the police, concealing evidence or breaking into

Sidney Paget, whose illustrations in The Strand Magazine iconicisedHolmes and Watson

houses—when he feels it morally justifiable,[17] but con-demns Holmes’s manipulation of innocent people in "TheAdventure of Charles Augustus Milverton".The detective acts on behalf of the British government inmatters of national security in a number of stories,[18] andperforms counter-intelligence work in "His Last Bow" (seton the eve of World War I). As shooting practice during aperiod of boredom, Holmes decorates the wall of his BakerStreet lodgings with VR (Victoria Regina) in “bullet-pocks”from his revolver.[6]

Holmes derives pleasure from baffling police inspectorswith his deductions, and has supreme confidence - border-ing on arrogance - in his intellectual abilities. The detectivedoes not actively seek fame, however, and is usually contentto let the police take public credit for his work.[19] Policeoutside London ask Holmes for assistance if he is nearby,even during a vacation.[20] Watson’s stories and newspaperarticles reveal Holmes’s role in the cases, and he becomeswell known as a detective; many clients ask for his helpinstead of (or in addition to) that of the police.[21] Theseinclude government officials and royalty. A Prime Minis-ter[22] and the King of Bohemia[23] visit 221B Baker Streetto request Holmes’s assistance; the government of Franceawards him its Legion of Honour for solving a case;[24]

16.3. PERSONALITY AND HABITS 325

Holmes declines a knighthood “for services which may per-haps some day be described";[11] the King of Scandinaviais a client;[25] and he aids the Vatican at least twice.[26]

Holmes is pleased when his skills are recognised, and re-sponds to flattery.[20] Although the detective is usually dis-passionate and cold, during an investigation he is animatedand excitable. He has a flair for showmanship, preparingelaborate traps to capture and expose a culprit (often to im-press Watson or one of the Scotland Yard inspectors).[27]

Except for that of Watson, Holmes avoids casual company;when Watson proposes visiting a friend’s home for rest,Holmes only agrees after learning that “the establishmentwas a bachelor one, and that he would be allowed the fullestfreedom”.[20] In “The Adventure of the Gloria Scott" he tellsthe doctor that during two years at college he made onlyone friend, Victor Trevor: “I was never a very sociable fel-low, Watson, always rather fond of moping in my roomsand working out my own little methods of thought, so thatI never mixed much with the men of my year; ... my lineof study was quite distinct from that of the other fellows,so that we had no points of contact at all”. The detective issimilarly described by Stamford in A Study in Scarlet.Holmes relaxes with music in "The Red-Headed League",taking the evening off from a case to listen to Pablo deSarasate play violin. His enjoyment of vocal music, par-ticularly Wagner’s, is evident in "The Adventure of the RedCircle".

16.3.1 Drug use

Holmes occasionally uses addictive drugs, especially in theabsence of stimulating cases. He uses cocaine, which heinjects in a seven-percent solution with a syringe kept ina Morocco leather case. Although Holmes also dabbles inmorphine, he expresses strong disapproval when he visits anopium den; both drugs were legal in late-19th-century Eng-land. Watson and Holmes use tobacco, smoking cigarettes,cigars and pipes (a socially acceptable habit at the time), andthe detective is an expert at identifying tobacco-ash residue.As a physician Watson strongly disapproves of his friend’scocaine habit, describing it as the detective’s “only vice”,and concerned about its effect on Holmes’s mental healthand intellect.[28][29] In "The Adventure of the MissingThree-Quarter" Watson says that although he has “weaned”Holmes from drugs, he remains an addict whose habit is“not dead, but merely sleeping”.

16.3.2 Finances

Although Holmes initially needed Watson to share the rentfor their comfortable residence at 221B Baker Street, Wat-

1891 Sidney Paget Strand portrait of Holmes for "The Man withthe Twisted Lip"

son says in "The Adventure of the Dying Detective" (setwhen Holmes was living alone): “I have no doubt that thehouse might have been purchased at the price which Holmespaid for his rooms.” In "The Problem of Thor Bridge" thedetective says, “My professional charges are upon a fixedscale. I do not vary them, save when I remit [omit] themaltogether”. In this context a client is offering to doublehis fee, and it is implied that wealthy clients habitually payHolmes more than his standard fee. In “The Final Prob-lem”, he says that his services to the government of Franceand the royal house of Scandinavia had left him with enoughmoney to retire comfortably. In "The Adventure of BlackPeter" Watson notes that Holmes would refuse to help thewealthy and powerful if their cases did not interest him, in-stead devoting weeks at a time to the cases of his humblestclients. The detective tells Watson, in "A Case of Iden-tity", about a gold snuff box received from the King of Bo-hemia after “A Scandal in Bohemia” and about a valuablering given to him by the Dutch royal family; in “The Adven-ture of the Bruce-Partington Plans”, he receives an emeraldtie pin from Queen Victoria. Other mementos of Holmes’scases are a gold sovereign from Irene Adler (“A Scandalin Bohemia”) and a letter of thanks signed by the Frenchpresident—along with his country’s Legion of Honour—for tracking down the assassin Huret ("The Adventure ofthe Golden Pince-Nez"). In "The Adventure of the PriorySchool" Holmes rubs his hands with glee when the Duke ofHoldernesse mentions his ₤6,000 fee, the amount of whichsurprises even Watson. During his career, Holmes worksfor the most powerful monarchs and governments of Europe

326 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

(including his own), wealthy aristocrats and industrialists,and impoverished pawnbrokers and governesses.The detective is known to charge clients for his expensesand claim any reward offered for a problem’s solution; in"The Adventure of the Speckled Band" he says that HelenStoner may pay any expenses he incurs, and asks the bankin “The Red-Headed League” to reimburse him for moneyspent solving the case. Holmes has his wealthy banker clientin "The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet" pay the costs ofrecovering the stolen gems, and claims the reward postedfor their recovery.

16.3.3 Attitudes towards women

1904 Sidney Paget illustration of “The Adventure of Charles Au-gustus Milverton”

Although Holmes initially seems interested in some femaleclients (Violet Hunter in "The Adventure of the CopperBeeches", Violet Smith in "The Solitary Cyclist" and He-len Stoner in "The Speckled Band"), Watson says in “TheAdventure of the Copper Beeches” that the detective in-evitably “manifested no further interest in the client whenonce she had ceased to be the centre of one of his prob-lems”. As Doyle wrote to Joseph Bell, “Holmes is as inhu-man as a Babbage's calculating machine and just about aslikely to fall in love”.[30] Holmes says in The Valley of Fear,

“I am not a whole-souled admirer of womankind”,[31] andin "The Adventure of the Second Stain" finds “the motivesof women ... so inscrutable .... How can you build on suchquicksand? Their most trivial actions may mean volumes ...their most extraordinary conduct may depend upon a hair-pin or a curling tongs”.[32]

Holmes is adept at effortlessly putting his clients at ease,and Watson says that although the detective has an “aver-sion to women”, he has “a peculiarly ingratiating way with[them]". In “The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milver-ton,” the detective becomes engaged in order to obtain in-formation about a case. In The Sign of the Four he says,“I would not tell them too much. Women are never to beentirely trusted—not the best of them”. Watson calls him“an automaton, a calculating machine”, and the detectivereplies: “It is of the first importance not to allow your judge-ment to be biased by personal qualities. A client is to mea mere unit—a factor in a problem. The emotional qual-ities are antagonistic to clear reasoning. I assure you thatthe most winning woman I ever knew was hanged for poi-soning three little children for their insurance-money”.[33]

However, Watson notes in “The Adventure of the DyingDetective” that Mrs. Hudson is fond of Holmes in her ownway (despite his eccentricities as a lodger) because of his“remarkable gentleness and courtesy in his dealings withwomen. He disliked and distrusted the sex, but he was al-ways a chivalrous opponent”.[34]

Irene Adler

Main article: A Scandal In Bohemia

Irene Adler is a retired American opera singer and actresswho appears in "A Scandal in Bohemia". Although this isher only appearance, she is one of the most notable femalecharacters in the stories: she is the only woman who has everchallenged Holmes intellectually, and the only person whohas ever bested him in a battle of wits. The beginning ofthe story describes the high regard in which Holmes holdsAdler:

To Sherlock Holmes she is always the woman.I have seldom heard him mention her under anyother name. In his eyes she eclipses and predom-inates the whole of her sex. It was not that hefelt any emotion akin to love for Irene Adler ...yet there was but one woman to him, and thatwoman was the late Irene Adler, of dubious andquestionable memory.

Five years before the story’s events, Adler had a brief liai-son with Crown Prince of Bohemia Wilhelm von Ormstein

16.4. METHODS OF DETECTION 327

while she was prima donna of the Imperial Opera of War-saw. Recently engaged to the daughter of the King of Scan-dinavia and fearful that, if his fiancée’s family learned ofthis impropriety, their marriage would be called off, Orm-stein hires Holmes to regain a photograph of Adler and him-self. Adler slips away, leaving only a photograph of herself(alone) and a note to Holmes that she will not blackmailOrmstein.Her memory is kept alive by the photograph of Adler thatHolmes received for his part in the case.

16.4 Methods of detection

16.4.1 Holmesian deduction

Poster for the 1900 play Sherlock Holmes by Conan Doyle and ac-tor William Gillette, which included the line “Elementary, my dearWatson” (a phrase absent from the stories)

Holmes’s primary intellectual detection method isabductive reasoning.[35][36] “From a drop of water”, hewrites, “a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlanticor a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or theother”.[37] Holmesian deduction consists primarily ofobservation-based inferences, such as his study of cigarashes.[35][38][39] The detective’s guiding principle, as he says

in chapter six (“Sherlock Holmes Gives a Demonstration”)of The Sign of the Four and elsewhere in the stories, is:“When you have eliminated the impossible, whateverremains, however improbable, must be the truth”.[40] In“A Scandal in Bohemia”, Holmes deduces that Watsonhad gotten wet lately and had “a most clumsy and carelessservant girl”. When Watson asks how Holmes knows this,the detective answers:

It is simplicity itself .... My eyes tell me thaton the inside of your left shoe, just where the fire-light strikes it, the leather is scored by six almostparallel cuts. Obviously they have been caused bysomeone who has very carelessly scraped roundthe edges of the sole in order to remove crustedmud from it. Hence, you see, my double deduc-tion that you had been out in vile weather, andthat you had a particularly malignant boot-slittingspecimen of the London slavey.

Deductive reasoning allows Holmes to learn a stranger’s oc-cupation, such as the retired Marine sergeant in A Studyin Scarlet; the ship’s-carpenter-turned-pawnbroker in “TheRed-Headed League”, and the billiard-marker and retiredartillery non-commissioned officer in “The Adventure ofthe Greek Interpreter”. By studying inanimate objects,he makes deductions about their owners (Watson’s pocketwatch in The Sign of the Four and a hat,[41] pipe[42] andwalking stick[43] in other stories).However, Conan Doyle does not paint Holmes as infal-lible (a central theme of "The Adventure of the YellowFace").[42] At the end of the story, a chastened Holmes tellshis chronicler: “If it should ever strike you that I am gettinga little over-confident in my powers, or giving less pains toa case than it deserves, kindly whisper 'Norbury' in my ear,and I shall be infinitely obliged to you”.

16.4.2 Disguises

Holmes displays a strong aptitude for acting and disguise. Inseveral stories (“The Adventure of Charles Augustus Mil-verton”, "The Man with the Twisted Lip", “The Adven-ture of the Empty House” and “A Scandal in Bohemia”), togather evidence undercover he uses disguises so convincingthat Watson fails to recognise him. In others (“The Adven-ture of the Dying Detective” and, again, “A Scandal in Bo-hemia”), Holmes feigns injury or illness to incriminate theguilty. In the latter story Watson says, “The stage lost a fineactor ... when [Holmes] became a specialist in crime”.[44]

328 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

British Army (Adams) Mark III, which differed from the Mark II inits ejector-rod design

Webley Bulldog

1868 Webley RIC

16.4.3 Combat

Pistols

Holmes and Watson carry pistols with them—in Watson’scase, his old service weapon (probably a Mark III Adamsrevolver, issued to British troops during the 1870s).[45] Inthe stories, the pistols are used (or displayed) on a num-

ber of occasions: in The Sign of the Four Holmes and Wat-son fire at the Andaman islander, and they later shoot atthe eponymous hound in The Hound of the Baskervilles.In “The Adventure of the Copper Beeches” Watson killsthe mastiff, and in “The Adventure of the Empty House”he pistol-whips Colonel Sebastian Moran. In “The Adven-ture of the Three Garridebs” Holmes pistol-whips “Killer”Evans after Evans shoots Watson. In "The Musgrave Rit-ual" Holmes is described as decorating the wall of his flatwith a patriotic VR (Victoria Regina) of bullet holes. In“The Final Problem” Holmes has a pistol during his in-terview with Professor Moriarty, and he aims one at SirGeorge Burnwell in “The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet”.In "The Adventure of the Solitary Cyclist", “The Adven-ture of Black Peter” and "The Adventure of the DancingMen" Holmes or Watson use a pistol to capture the crimi-nals, and the detective uses Watson’s revolver to reconstructa crime in “The Problem of Thor Bridge”. A Webley Bull-dog (carried by Holmes),[45] Webley RIC[45] and Webley-Government (“WG”) army revolver[45] have been associ-ated with Holmes and Watson.

Cane and sword

As a gentleman, Holmes often carries a stick or cane. Heis described by Watson as an expert at singlestick, and useshis cane twice as a weapon.[46] In A Study in Scarlet Watsondescribes Holmes as an expert swordsman, and in “The Ad-venture of the Gloria Scott" the detective practises fencing.

Riding crop

In several stories Holmes carries a riding crop, threaten-ing to thrash a swindler with it in “A Case of Identity”.With a “hunting crop”, Holmes knocks a pistol from JohnClay’s hand in “The Red-Headed League” and drives off theadder in “The Adventure of the Speckled Band”. In "TheSix Napoleons" he uses his crop (described as his favouriteweapon) to break open one of the plaster busts.

Boxing

Holmes is an adept bare-knuckle fighter; in The Sign of theFour he introduces himself to McMurdo, a prize fighter, as“the amateur who fought three rounds with you at Alison’srooms on the night of your benefit four years back.” Mc-Murdo remembers: “Ah, you're one that has wasted yourgifts, you have! You might have aimed high, if you hadjoined the fancy.” “The Adventure of the Gloria Scott" men-tions that Holmes trained as a boxer, and in “The YellowFace” Watson says: “He was undoubtedly one of the finestboxers of his weight that I have ever seen”.

16.4. METHODS OF DETECTION 329

The detective occasionally engages in hand-to-hand com-bat with his adversaries (in “The Adventure of the SolitaryCyclist” and "The Adventure of the Naval Treaty"), and isalways victorious.

Martial arts

In “The Adventure of the Empty House”, Holmes tells Wat-son that he used martial arts to fling Moriarty to his deathin the Reichenbach Falls: “I have some knowledge ... ofbaritsu, or the Japanese system of wrestling, which has morethan once been very useful to me”. “Baritsu” is ConanDoyle’s version of bartitsu, which combined jujitsu withboxing and cane fencing.[47]

Physical strength

The detective is described (or demonstrated) as possessingabove-average physical strength. In “The Adventure of theSpeckled Band”, Dr. Roylott demonstrates his strength bybending a fire poker in half. Watson describes Holmes aslaughing, "'I am not quite so bulky, but if he had remainedI might have shown him that my grip was not much morefeeble than his own.' As he spoke he picked up the steelpoker and, with a sudden effort, straightened it out again.”In “The Yellow Face” Holmes’s chronicler says, “Few menwere capable of greater muscular effort.”

16.4.4 Knowledge and skills

In the first novel, A Study in Scarlet, Holmes’ backgroundis presented. In early 1881 he is a chemistry student witha number of eccentric interests, almost all of which makehim adept at solving crimes. He appears for the first timecrowing with delight at his new method for detecting blood-stains. “The Adventure of the Gloria Scott", an early story,provides more background on Holmes’s decision to becomea detective when a college friend’s father compliments hisdeductive skills. Holmes adheres strictly to scientific meth-ods, focusing on logic, observation and deduction.In A Study in Scarlet Holmes claims to be unaware that theearth revolves around the sun, since such information is ir-relevant to his work; after hearing that fact from Watson,he says he will immediately try to forget it. The detectivebelieves that the mind has a finite capacity for informationstorage, and learning useless things reduces one’s ability tolearn useful things. Watson assesses Holmes’ abilities:

1. Knowledge of Literature – nil.2. Knowledge of Philosophy – nil.3. Knowledge of Astronomy – nil.

4. Knowledge of Politics – Feeble.5. Knowledge of Botany – Variable. Well up

in belladonna, opium and poisons generally.Knows nothing of practical gardening.

6. Knowledge of Geology – Practical, but lim-ited. Tells at a glance different soils fromeach other. After walks, has shown mesplashes upon his trousers, and told me bytheir colour and consistence in what part ofLondon he had received them.

7. Knowledge of Chemistry – Profound.8. Knowledge of Anatomy – Accurate, but un-

systematic.9. Knowledge of Sensational Literature – Im-

mense. He appears to know every detail ofevery horror perpetrated in the century.

10. Plays the violin well.11. Is an expert singlestick player, boxer and

swordsman.12. Has a good practical knowledge of British

law.Arthur Conan Doyle, A Study in Scarlet

At the end of A Study in Scarlet Holmes demonstrates aknowledge of Latin. Later stories also contradict Watson’searly assessment. Despite Holmes’s supposed ignorance ofpolitics, in “A Scandal in Bohemia” he immediately recog-nises the true identity of “Count von Kramm”. His speechis peppered with references to the Bible, Shakespeare andJohann Wolfgang von Goethe, and the detective quotes aletter from Gustave Flaubert to George Sand in the originalFrench. At the end of “A Case of Identity”, Holmes quotesHafez. In The Hound of the Baskervilles, the detectiverecognises works by Martin Knoller and Joshua Reynolds:“Excuse the admiration of a connoisseur .... Watson won'tallow that I know anything of art, but that is mere jealousy,since our views upon the subject differ”.In “The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans” Wat-son says that in November 1895 “Holmes lost himself ina monograph which he had undertaken upon the Poly-phonic Motets of Lassus", considered “the last word” on thesubject.[48] The later stories abandon the notion that Holmesdid not want to know anything not immediately relevantto his profession. In the second chapter of The Valley ofFear he says, “All knowledge comes useful to the detec-tive”, and near the end of “The Adventure of the Lion’sMane” the detective calls himself “an omnivorous readerwith a strangely retentive memory for trifles”. Holmes isa cryptanalyst, telling Watson in “The Adventure of theDancing Men": “I am fairly familiar with all forms of secretwriting, and am myself the author of a trifling monograph

330 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

upon the subject, in which I analyse one hundred and sixtyseparate ciphers”.[49]

The detective’s analysis of physical evidence includes ex-amining latent prints (such as footprints, hoof prints andbicycle tracks) to identify actions at a crime scene (“A Studyin Scarlet”, "The Adventure of Silver Blaze", “The Adven-ture of the Priory School”, The Hound of the Baskervilles,"The Boscombe Valley Mystery"); using tobacco ashes andcigarette butts to identify criminals ("The Adventure of theResident Patient", The Hound of the Baskervilles); compar-ing typewritten letters to expose a fraud (“A Case of Iden-tity”); using gunpowder residue to expose two murderers("The Adventure of the Reigate Squire"); comparing bul-lets from two crime scenes (“The Adventure of the EmptyHouse”); analyzing small pieces of human remains to ex-pose two murders ("The Adventure of the Cardboard Box")and an early use of fingerprints ("The Norwood Builder").Holmes demonstrates a knowledge of psychology in “AScandal in Bohemia”, luring Irene Adler into betrayingwhere she hid a photograph based on the premise that anunmarried woman will save her most valued possessionfrom a fire. Another example is in "The Adventure of theBlue Carbuncle", where Holmes obtains information from asalesman with a wager: “When you see a man with whiskersof that cut and the 'Pink 'un' protruding out of his pocket,you can always draw him by a bet .... I daresay that if Ihad put 100 pounds down in front of him, that man wouldnot have given me such complete information as was drawnfrom him by the idea that he was doing me on a wager”.

16.5 Influence

16.5.1 Forensic science

The Sherlock Holmes stories helped marry forensic science,particularly Holmes’ acute observation of small clues, andliterature. He uses trace evidence (such as shoe and tire im-pressions), fingerprints, ballistics and handwriting analysisto evaluate his theories and those of the police. Some ofthe detective’s investigative techniques, such as fingerprintand handwriting analysis, were in their infancy when thestories were written; Holmes frequently laments the con-tamination of a crime scene, and crime-scene integrity hasbecome standard investigative procedure.Because of the small scale of much of his evidence (to-bacco ash, hair or fingerprints), the detective often uses amagnifying glass at the scene and an optical microscopeat his Baker Street lodgings. He uses analytical chemistryfor blood residue analysis and toxicology to detect poisons;Holmes’s home chemistry laboratory is mentioned in “TheAdventure of the Naval Treaty”. Ballistics feature in “The

Sidney Paget illustration of Holmes for “The Adventure of the AbbeyGrange”

Adventure of the Empty House” when spent bullets are re-covered and matched with a suspected murder weapon.Holmes observes the dress and attitude of his clients andsuspects, noting style and state of wear of their clothes, skinmarks (such as tattoos), contamination (clay on boots), theirstate of mind and physical condition in order to deduce theirorigins and recent history.He also applies this method to walking sticks (The Hound ofthe Baskervilles) and hats (“The Adventure of the Blue Car-buncle”), with details such as medallions, wear and contam-ination yielding information about their owners. In 2002the Royal Society of Chemistry bestowed an honorary fel-lowship on Holmes[50] for his use of forensic science andanalytical chemistry in popular literature, making him (asof 2010) the only fictional character thus honoured.

16.5.2 The detective story

Although Holmes is not the original fictional detective (hewas influenced by Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin andÉmile Gaboriau's Monsieur Lecoq), his name has become

16.6. LEGACY 331

19th-century Seibert microscope

synonymous with the role. The investigating detective (suchas Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot and Dorothy L. Sayers'Lord Peter Wimsey) became a popular character for a num-ber of authors, and forensic methods began to take a backseat to the psyche of the criminal.

16.5.3 Scientific literature

John Radford (1999)[51] speculated on Holmes’s intelli-gence. Using Conan Doyle’s stories as data, he applied threemethods to estimate the detective’s intelligence quotient andconcluded that his IQ was about 190. Snyder (2004)[52] ex-amined Holmes’s methods in the context of mid- to late-19th-century criminology, and Kempster (2006)[53] com-pared neurologists’ skills with those demonstrated by thedetective. Didierjean and Gobet (2008)[54] reviewed theliterature on the psychology of expertise, using Holmes asa model.

16.6 Legacy

16.6.1 “Elementary, my dear Watson”

Sherlock Holmes Museum, London

Study

Drawing room

The phrase “Elementary, my dear Watson” is never utteredby Holmes in the sixty stories written by Conan Doyle.He often observes that his conclusions are “elementary”,however, and occasionally calls Watson “my dear Watson”.One of the nearest approximations of the phrase appears in“The Adventure of the Crooked Man”, when Holmes ex-plains a deduction: "'Excellent!' I cried. 'Elementary,' saidhe.”[55][56]

The phrase “Elementary, my dear fellow, quite elemen-tary” (not spoken by Holmes) appears in P. G. Wodehouse'snovel, Psmith in the City (1909–1910),[56] and his 1915novel Psmith, Journalist.[57] The exact phrase “Elementary,my dear Watson” is used by protagonist Tom Beresfordin Agatha Christie’s 1922 novel The Secret Adversary. Italso appears at the end of the 1929 film The Return ofSherlock Holmes, the first Holmes sound film.[55] WilliamGillette (who played Holmes on the stage and on radio) hadpreviously said, “Oh, this is elementary, my dear fellow”.The phrase may have become familiar because of its usein Edith Meiser’s scripts for The New Adventures of Sher-lock Holmes radio series, which was broadcast from 1939 to1947.[58] Holmes utters the exact phrase in the 1953 shortstory “The Adventure of the Red Widow” by Conan Doyle’sson, Adrian.[59]

332 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

16.6.2 <span id=""The GreatGame"">The Great Game

Main article: Sherlockian gameConan Doyle’s 56 short stories and four novels are known as

Russ Stutler’s view of 221B Baker Street

the "canon" by Holmes aficionados. Early canonical schol-ars included Ronald Knox in Britain[60] (credited with in-venting “the Game”)[61] and Christopher Morley in NewYork,[62] who founded the Baker Street Irregulars—the firstsociety devoted to the Holmes canon—in 1934.[63]

The Sherlockian game (also known as the Holmesian game,the Great Game, or simply the Game) attempts to re-solve anomalies and clarify details about Holmes and Wat-son from the Conan Doyle canon. The Game, whichtreats Holmes and Watson as real people (and Conan Doyleas Watson’s literary agent), combines aspects of the sto-ries with contemporary history to construct biographies ofthe two and publishes scholarly analyses from the Holmesuniverse.[61]

One detail analyzed in the Game is Holmes’s birthdate, withMorley contending that the detective was born on 6 January1854.[64][65] Laurie R. King also speculated about Holmes’sbirthdate, based on A Study in Scarlet and “The Adventureof the Gloria Scott"; details in "Gloria Scott" indicate thatHolmes finished his second (and final) year of university in1880 or 1885. Watson’s account of his wounding in theSecond Afghan War and return to England in A Study inScarlet place his moving in with Holmes in early 1881 or1882. According to King, this suggests that Holmes leftuniversity in 1880; if he began university at age 17, his birthyear would probably be 1861.[66]

Another topic of analysis is the university Holmes attended.Dorothy L. Sayers suggested that, given details in two of theAdventures, the detective must have studied at Cambridgerather than Oxford: “of all the Cambridge colleges, SidneySussex (College) perhaps offered the greatest number ofadvantages to a man in Holmes’s position and, in default

of more exact information, we may tentatively place himthere”.[67]

Holmes’s emotional and mental health have long been sub-jects of analysis in the Game. At their first meeting, in AStudy in Scarlet, the detective warns Watson that he gets“in the dumps at times” and doesn't open his “mouth fordays on end”. Leslie S. Klinger (editor of The New An-notated Sherlock Holmes) has suggested that Holmes ex-hibits signs of bipolar disorder, with intense enthusiasmfollowed by indolent self-absorption. Other modern read-ers have speculated that Holmes may have Asperger’s syn-drome, based on his intense attention to details, lack of in-terest in interpersonal relationships, and tendency to speakin monologues.[68] The detective’s isolation and distrust ofwomen is said to suggest a desire to escape, with WilliamBaring-Gould (author of Sherlock Holmes of Baker Street: ALife of the World’s First Consulting Detective) and others—including Nicholas Meyer, author of the Seven Percent So-lution—implying a family trauma, the murder of Holmes’smother, as the cause.

16.6.3 Societies

In 1934, the Sherlock Holmes Society (in London) and theBaker Street Irregulars (in New York) were founded. Bothare still active, although the Sherlock Holmes Society wasdissolved in 1937 and revived in 1951. The London societyis one of many worldwide who arrange visits to the scenesof Holmes adventures, such as the Reichenbach Falls in theSwiss Alps.The two societies founded in 1934 were followed by manymore Holmesian circles, first in the U.S. (where they areknown as “scion societies”—offshoots—of the Baker StreetIrregulars) and then in England and Denmark. Thereare at least 250 Sherlockian societies worldwide, includ-ing Australia, India and Japan (whose society has 80,000members).[69]

16.6.4 Museums

For the 1951 Festival of Britain, Holmes’s living room wasreconstructed as part of a Sherlock Holmes exhibition, witha collection of original material. After the festival, itemswere transferred to the Sherlock Holmes (a London pub)and the Conan Doyle collection housed in Lucens, Switzer-land by the author’s son, Adrian.[69] Both exhibitions, eachwith a Baker Street sitting-room reconstruction, are open tothe public.In 1990, the Sherlock Holmes Museum opened on BakerStreet in London, followed the next year by a museum inMeiringen (near the Reichenbach Falls) dedicated to the

16.7. ADAPTATIONS AND DERIVED WORKS 333

Statue of Holmes in an Inverness cape and a deerstalker cap onPicardy Place in Edinburgh (Conan Doyle’s birthplace)

detective.[69] A private Conan Doyle collection is a perma-nent exhibit at the Portsmouth City Museum, where the au-thor lived and worked as a physician.[70]

16.6.5 Other honours

The London Metropolitan Railway named one of its 20electric locomotives deployed in the 1920s for SherlockHolmes. He was the only fictional character so honored,along with eminent Britons such as Lord Byron, BenjaminDisraeli and Florence Nightingale.[71]

A number of London streets are associated with Holmes.York Mews South, off Crawford Street, was renamed Sher-lock Mews, and Watson’s Mews is near Crawford Place.[72]

16.7 Adaptations and derived works

Holmes’s popularity has spawned additional stories andadaptations in other media. The copyright for ConanDoyle’s works expired in the United Kingdom at the end

of 1980, were revived in 1996, expired again at the endof 2000, and are in the public domain there.[73] All workspublished in the United States before 1923 are in the publicdomain; this includes all the Sherlock Holmes stories, ex-cept for some short stories in The Case-Book of SherlockHolmes. Conan Doyle’s heirs registered the copyright toThe Case-Book in 1981 in accordance with the CopyrightAct of 1976.[73][74][75]

On 14 February 2013, Leslie S. Klinger filed a declaratoryjudgement suit against the Conan Doyle estate in the North-ern District of Illinois asking the court to acknowledge thatthe characters of Holmes and Watson were public domainin the U.S.[76] The court ruled in Klinger’s favor on 23 De-cember, and the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals affirmedits decision on 16 June 2014.[77] The case was appealed tothe U.S. Supreme Court, which declined to hear the case,letting the appeals court’s ruling stand. This final step re-sulted in the characters from the Holmes stories, along withall but ten of the Holmes stories, being in the public domainin the U.S.[78]

16.7.1 Stage, screen and radio adaptations

Main article: Adaptations of Sherlock HolmesFurther information: List of actors who have played Sher-lock HolmesGuinness World Records has listed Holmes as the “most

portrayed movie character”,[79] with more than 70 actorsplaying the part in over 200 films. His first screen appear-ance was in the 1900 Mutoscope film, Sherlock HolmesBaffled.[80] The detective has appeared in many foreign-language versions, including a Russian miniseries broadcastin November 2013.[81]

William Gillette’s 1899 play Sherlock Holmes, or TheStrange Case of Miss Faulkner was a synthesis of four ConanDoyle stories: “A Scandal in Bohemia”, “The Final Prob-lem”, “The Adventure of the Copper Beeches” and A Studyin Scarlet. By 1916, Harry Arthur Saintsbury had playedHolmes on stage more than a thousand times.[82] The playformed the basis for Gillette’s 1916 film, Sherlock Holmes,in which Gillette introduced Holmes’s curved pipe.From 1921 to 1923, Stoll Pictures produced a series ofsilent black-and-white films based on the Holmes stories.Forty-five short films and two feature-length films wereproduced,[83] with Eille Norwood as Holmes and HubertWillis as Watson (with the exception of the final film, TheSign of Four, where Willis was replaced by Arthur Cullin).John Barrymore played Holmes in the 1922 film SherlockHolmes, with Roland Young as Watson.The first Holmes sound film was 1929’s sound-on-disc TheReturn of Sherlock Holmes, written by Basil Dean and

334 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Filming Sherlock Holmes and the Case of the Silk Stocking inmachine-made smog

filmed in New York City,[84] with Clive Brook as Holmes;a silent version of the film was also produced to accom-modate theaters which did not yet have sound.[84] BasilRathbone played Holmes and Nigel Bruce played Watsonin fourteen U.S. films (two for 20th Century Fox and adozen for Universal Pictures) from 1939 to 1946, and inThe New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes on the Mutual ra-dio network from 1939 to 1946 (before the role of Holmespassed to Tom Conway). The Universal films were distinc-tive for their contemporary setting. In 1939, 20th CenturyFox’s Hound of the Baskervilles contained an unusually di-rect reference to Holmes’s drug use in the last line of thefilm: “Watson, the needle.”Ronald Howard starred in 39 episodes of the 1954 SherlockHolmes American TV series, with Howard Marion Craw-ford as Watson. These plots deviated from Conan Doyle’s,changing characters and other details. In 1959 Peter Cush-ing starred in Hammer Film Productions' The Hound ofthe Baskervilles, Holmes’s first screen appearance in colour;Cushing returned to the role several times in film and ontelevision.Fritz Weaver appeared as Holmes in the musical BakerStreet, which ran on Broadway from 16 February to 14November 1965. Peter Sallis, Inga Swenson and Martin

Basil Rathbone as Holmes

Gabel played Watson, Irene Adler and Moriarty, respec-tively. Virginia Vestoff, Tommy Tune and ChristopherWalken were also part of the original cast.[85] Director BillyWilder's 1970 The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes, withRobert Stephens and Colin Blakely, was heavily edited af-ter its release, and parts of it are now lost.[86] Roger Mooreplayed the detective in the 1976 film Sherlock Holmes inNew York, with Patrick Macnee as Watson.In the 1987 TV movie The Return of Sherlock Holmes, apilot for an unproduced series, Margaret Colin played Wat-son’s great-granddaughter Jane, a Boston private investi-gator who stumbles upon Holmes’s (Michael Pennington)frozen body and restores him to life. 1994 Baker Street:Sherlock Holmes Returns has a similar plot; Amy Winslow(Debrah Farentino) discovers Holmes (Anthony Higgins)frozen in the cellar of a San Francisco house owned by adescendant of Mrs. Hudson.Jeremy Brett is considered the definitive Holmes by criticJulian Wolfreys.[87] Brett played the detective in four se-ries of Sherlock Holmes, created by John Hawkesworth forBritain’s Granada Television from 1984 to 1994, and ap-peared as Holmes on stage. Watson was played by DavidBurke and Edward Hardwicke in the series.Nicol Williamson played Holmes in The Seven-Per-Cent So-lution, with Robert Duvall as Watson and Alan Arkin as

16.7. ADAPTATIONS AND DERIVED WORKS 335

Jeremy Brett as Holmes in the Granada series

Sigmund Freud. The 1976 adaptation, written by NicholasMeyer and based on his 1974 novel of the same name, wasdirected by Herbert Ross.Bob Clark directed Christopher Plummer and James Ma-son in the 1979 film Murder by Decree, in which Holmeshunts Jack the Ripper. From 1979 to 1986 Soviet televi-sion broadcast a series of five made-for-TV films in elevenparts, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson,with Vasily Livanov as Holmes and Vitaly Solomin as Wat-son. In 2006, Queen Elizabeth awarded Livanov an MBE(Order of the British Empire) for his work.Christopher Lee starred as Holmes in three screen adap-tations: Sherlock Holmes and the Deadly Necklace (1962),Incident at Victoria Falls (1991) and Sherlock Holmes andthe Leading Lady (1992), with Morgan Fairchild as IreneAdler. The only actors to play Holmes and Watson in adap-tations of every Doyle story are Clive Merrison and MichaelWilliams; they played Holmes and Watson, respectively, ina BBC Radio 4 series from 1989 to 1998.[88]

16.7.2 Related and derivative works

Main article: Sherlock Holmes pastiches

In addition to the Holmes canon, Conan Doyle’s 1898 "The

Lost Special" features an unnamed “amateur reasoner” in-tended to be identified as Holmes by his readers. Theauthor’s explanation of a baffling disappearance, arguedin Holmesian style, pokes fun at his own creation. Sim-ilar Conan Doyle short stories are the early “The FieldBazaar”, “The Man with the Watches” and 1924’s "HowWatson Learned the Trick", a parody of the Watson–Holmes breakfast-table scenes. The author wrote othermaterial, especially plays, featuring Holmes. Much of itappears in Sherlock Holmes: The Published Apocrypha,edited by Jack Tracy; The Final Adventures of SherlockHolmes, edited by Peter Haining, and The Uncollected Sher-lock Holmes, compiled by Richard Lancelyn Green.

Reissued theatrical poster for The Mystery of the Leaping Fish

Beginning in 1907 Holmes was featured in a series of Ger-man books by Theo van Blankensee, with Watson replacedby Harry Taxon (a 19-year-old member of the Baker StreetIrregulars) and a Mrs. Bonnet in place of Mrs. Hudson.[89]

From the tenth book, the series’s German name changed toAus den Geheimakten des Welt-Detektivs and the French edi-tion changed from Les Dossiers Secrets de Sherlock Holmesto Les Dossiers du Roi des Detectives.[90] Douglas Fairbanksplayed cocaine-addicted detective Coke Ennyday in TheMystery of the Leaping Fish, a 1916 comedy co-written by

336 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Tod Browning.Holmes’s name, details of the character’s life and his abil-ities as a fighter and logician have been used by other au-thors, with the detective a cocaine addict whose fantasiescast an innocent Professor Moriarty as a villain in TheSeven-Per-Cent Solution, or re-animated after his death tofight future crime in Sherlock Holmes in the 22nd Century.Some authors have supplied stories for canonical referencesto unpublished cases (such as the "giant rat of Sumatra, astory for which the world is not yet prepared” from "TheAdventure of the Sussex Vampire"), including The Exploitsof Sherlock Holmes by Adrian Conan Doyle with John Dick-son Carr and The Lost Adventures of Sherlock Holmes byKen Greenwald (based on episodes of The New Adventuresof Sherlock Holmes written by Dennis Green and AnthonyBoucher). Others have used characters from the stories:Mycroft Holmes in Enter the Lion by Michael P. Hodel andSean M. Wright (1979) and Dr. James Mortimer (from TheHound of the Baskervilles) in novels by Gerard Williams.Laurie R. King recreated Holmes in her Mary Russell series(beginning with The Beekeeper’s Apprentice), set during theFirst World War and the 1920s. Her Holmes, semi-retiredin Sussex, is stumbled upon by a teenaged American girl.Recognising a kindred spirit, he trains her as his appren-tice and subsequently marries her. As of 2012, the seriesincluded twelve novels and a novella tied into a book fromKing’s Kate Martinelli series (The Art of Detection).Carole Nelson Douglas's Irene Adler series is based on “thewoman” from “A Scandal in Bohemia”, with the first book(1990’s Good Night, Mr. Holmes) retelling the story fromAdler’s point of view. The series is narrated by her compan-ion, Penelope Huxleigh, in a role similar to Watson’s. TheFinal Solution, a 2004 novella by Michael Chabon, concernsa long-retired detective interested in beekeeping.In 2011 Anthony Horowitz (author of the Alex Rider nov-els, The Power of Five and Foyle’s War) published a Sher-lock Holmes novel, The House of Silk, with the approvalof the Conan Doyle estate. Presented as a continuationof Conan Doyle’s work, The House of Silk is narratedby Watson.[91] In early 2014 a sequel (Moriarty) was an-nounced, with Holmes appearing only at the end of thenovel.[92]

In They Might Be Giants, a 1971 romantic comedy basedon the 1961 play (both written by James Goldman), JustinPlayfair (George C. Scott) is convinced he is Holmes.Young Sherlock Holmes (1985) speculates about Holmesand Watson’s lives as college students.[93] In the 1988 com-edy Without a Clue, Holmes (Michael Caine) is a charactercreated by Watson (Ben Kingsley). James D'Arcy playedHolmes in his twenties in Sherlock: Case of Evil, a 2002made-for-television film.

The 2009 Sherlock Holmes,[94] which earned RobertDowney Jr. a Golden Globe Award for his portrayal ofHolmes and which co-starred Jude Law as Watson, focuseson Holmes’s antisocial personality.[95] Downey and Law re-turned for a 2011 sequel, Sherlock Holmes: A Game ofShadows. As of October, 2014, an outline for a third filmhas been made, but a script has yet to be written.[96]

In the 2010 direct-to-DVD film Sherlock Holmes a youngerHolmes (Ben Syder) and Watson (Gareth David-Lloyd) bat-tle a criminal mastermind, Spring-Heeled Jack.The 1984–1985 Japanese anime series Sherlock Houndadapted the Holmes stories for children, with its charac-ters anthropomorphic dogs. The series was co-directedby Hayao Miyazaki.[97] Holmes was featured in the 2008episode “Trials of the Demon” of Batman: The Brave andthe Bold.[98][99]

Benedict Cumberbatch as Holmes in Sherlock

Benedict Cumberbatch plays a modern version of the de-tective (with Martin Freeman as Watson) in the BBC OneTV series Sherlock, which premiered on 25 July 2010. Inthe series, created by Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat, thestories’ original Victorian setting is now present-day Lon-don. Cumberbatch’s Holmes uses modern technology (tex-ting and blogging) to solve crimes,[100] and nicotine patchesto aid his cognitive process.[101] This version of the charac-ter calls himself a “high-functioning sociopath",.[102]

16.9. SEE ALSO 337

On 27 September 2012, Elementary premiered on CBS. Setin contemporary New York, the series features Jonny LeeMiller as Sherlock Holmes and Lucy Liu as Dr. Joan Wat-son.Holmes has also appeared in video games, including theAdventures of Sherlock Holmes series of seven titles. Thedetective is based on Jeremy Brett’s portrayal, with the se-ries’s plot independent of the Conan Doyle stories.In 2014, NHK produced Sherlock Holmes( ), a puppetry version written by KōkiMitani, a fan of the Canon of Sherlock Holmes who re-gards the stories adventure rather than mystery.[103] It is setin Beeton School, a fictional boarding school where bothSherlock Holmes and John H. Watson are fifteen-year-oldschoolboys who live in the room 221B of Baker House.

16.8 Works

Main article: Canon of Sherlock Holmes

16.8.1 Novels

• A Study in Scarlet (published 1887 in Beeton’s Christ-mas Annual)

• The Sign of the Four (published 1890 in Lippincott’sMonthly Magazine)

• The Hound of the Baskervilles (serialised 1901–1902in The Strand)

• The Valley of Fear (serialised 1914–1915 in TheStrand)

16.8.2 Short story collections

The short stories, originally published in magazines, werelater collected in five anthologies:

• The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (stories published1891–1892 in The Strand)

• The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (stories published1892–1893 in The Strand as further episodes of theAdventures)

• The Return of Sherlock Holmes (stories published1903–1904 in The Strand)

• His Last Bow: Some Later Reminiscences of SherlockHolmes (stories published 1908–1917)

• The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes (stories published1921–1927)

16.9 See also

• Popular culture references to Sherlock Holmes

• HOLMES 2 (police computer system)

• Inductive reasoning

• List of Holmesian studies

• Giovanni Morelli

16.10 References[1] Lycett, Andrew (2007). The Man Who Created Sherlock

Holmes: The Life and Times of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. FreePress. pp. 53–54, 190. ISBN 978-0-7432-7523-1.

[2] Barring-Gould, William S. The Annotated Sherlock Holmes.Clarkson N. Potter, Inc. p. 8. ISBN 0-517-50291-7.

[3] Doyle, A. Conan (1961). The Boys’ Sherlock Holmes, New& Enlarged Edition. Harper & Row. p. 88.

[4] “Top Hat Terrace (Leicester)". Retrieved 4 January 2015.

[5] Klinger, Leslie (2005). The New Annotated SherlockHolmes. New York: W.W. Norton. p. xlii. ISBN 0-393-05916-2.

[6] Doyle, Arthur Conan (1893). The Original illustrated'Strand' Sherlock Holmes (1989 ed.). Ware, England:Wordsworth. pp. 354–355. ISBN 978-1-85326-896-0.

[7] "The Adventure of the Gloria Scott"

[8] Conan Doyle, Arthur (1892), “A Scandal in Bohemia”, TheAdventures of Sherlock Holmes, ISBN 978-0-7607-1577-2

• 1661 at Project Gutenberg.

[9] "The Adventure of the Veiled Lodger"

[10] The Sign of the Four; Chapter 1 The Science of Deduction;p. 90; Copyright Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle; Editionpublished in 1992 – Barnes & Noble, Inc.".

[11] "The Adventure of the Three Garridebs"

[12] Dakin, D. Martin (1972). A Sherlock Holmes Commentary.David & Charles, Newton Abbot. ISBN 0-7153-5493-0.

[13] McQueen, Ian (1974). Sherlock Holmes Detected. David &Charles, Newton Abbot. ISBN 0-7153-6453-7.

338 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

[14] Riggs, Ransom (2009). The Sherlock Holmes Handbook.The methods and mysteries of the world’s greatest detective.Philadelphia: Quirk Books. pp. 115–118. ISBN 978-1-59474-429-7.

[15] Conan Doyle, Arthur (1903). “The Adventure of the Nor-wood Builder”, Strand Magazine.

[16] The Hound of the Baskervilles

[17] "The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton" and "TheAdventure of the Illustrious Client"

[18] "The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans" and "TheAdventure of the Naval Treaty".

[19] In The Adventure of the Naval Treaty, Holmes remarks that,of his last fifty-three cases, the police have had all the creditin forty-nine.

[20] “The Adventure of the Reigate Squire”

[21] “The Adventure of the Reigate Squire” and “The Adventureof the Illustrious Client” are two examples.

[22] “The Adventure of the Second Stain”

[23] “A Scandal in Bohemia”

[24] “The Adventure of the Golden Pince-Nez”

[25] "The Adventure of the Noble Bachelor"

[26] The Hound of the Baskervilles and “The Adventure of BlackPeter”

[27] See, for example, Inspector Lestrade at the end of "The Ad-venture of the Norwood Builder".

[28] Dalby, J. T. (1991). “Sherlock Holmes’s Cocaine Habit”.Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 8: 73–74.

[29] “The Sign of Four”

[30] Liebow, Ely (1982). Dr. Joe Bell: Model for SherlockHolmes. Popular Press. p. 173. ISBN 9780879721985.Retrieved 17 October 2014.

[31] “Sherlock Holmes Quotes”. The Chronicles of Sir ArthurConan Doyle. Retrieved 17 October 2014.

[32] “Quotes”. The Chronicles of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Re-trieved 17 October 2014.

[33] Conan Doyle, Arthur (1986). The Complete SherlockHolmes, Volume 2. Bantam Books. p. 480. Retrieved 17October 2014.

[34] “Sherlock Holmes Adventures”. Discovering Arthur ConanDoyle. Archived from the original on 17 December 2013.Retrieved 17 October 2014.

[35] Alexander Bird (27 June 2006). “Abductive Knowledge andHolmesian Inference”. In Tamar Szabo Gendler and JohnHawthorne. Oxford studies in epistemology. p. 11. ISBN978-0-19-928590-7.

[36] Sebeok & Umiker-Sebeok 1984, pp. 19–28, esp. p. 22

[37] A Study in Scarlet

[38] Matthew Bunson (19 October 1994). Encyclopedia Sher-lockiana. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-671-79826-0.

[39] Jonathan Smith (1994). Fact and feeling: Baconian scienceand the nineteenth-Century literary imagination. p. 214.ISBN 978-0-299-14354-1.

[40] “Sherlock Holmes Quotes”. Retrieved 19 October 2014.

[41] "The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle".

[42] "The Adventure of the Yellow Face"

[43] The Hound of the Baskervilles

[44] Arthur Conan Doyle (1891). A Scandal in Bohemia.

[45] “The Guns of Sherlock Holmes”. Retrieved 27 April 2012.

[46] See "The Red-Headed League" and "The Adventure of theIllustrious Client".

[47] “The Mystery of Baritsu”. The Bartitsu Society. Retrieved19 October 2014.

[48] Klinger, Leslie (1999). “Lost in Lassus: The missing mono-graph”. Retrieved 20 October 2008.

[49] Rennison, Nicholas (2007). Sherlock Holmes: The Unau-thorized Biography. New York: Grove Press. p. 70. ISBN9781555848736. Retrieved 21 October 2014.

[50] “NI chemist honours Sherlock Holmes”. BBC News. 16October 2002. Retrieved 19 June 2011.

[51] Radford, John (1999). The Intelligence of Sherlock Holmesand Other Three-pipe Problems. Sigma Forlag. ISBN 82-7916-004-3.

[52] Snyder LJ (2004). “Sherlock Holmes: Scien-tific detective”. Endeavour 28 (3): 104–108.doi:10.1016/j.endeavour.2004.07.007. PMID 15350761.

[53] Kempster PA (2006). “Looking for clues”. Jour-nal of Clinical Neuroscience 13 (2): 178–180.doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2005.03.021. PMID 16459091.

[54] Didierjean, A & Gobet, F (2008). “Sherlock Holmes – Anexpert’s view of expertise”. British Journal of Psychology 99(Pt 1): 109–125. doi:10.1348/000712607X224469. PMID17621416.

[55] Mikkelson, Barbara and David (2 July 2006). “SherlockHolms 'Elementary, My Dear Watson'". Snopes.com. Re-trieved 12 January 2014.

[56] Shapiro, Fred (30 October 2006). The Yale Book of Quo-tations. Yale University Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0300107982.

16.10. REFERENCES 339

[57] Smallwood, Karl (27 August 2013). “Sherlock HolmesNever Said “Elementary, My Dear Watson"". todayifound-out.com. Retrieved 12 January 2014.

[58] Sher, Aubrey (15 August 2013). Those Great Old-Time Ra-dio Years. Xlibris. p. 29.

[59] Adrian Conan Doyle (2 October 1953). “The Adventure ofthe Red Widow”. Collier’s Weekly. Retrieved 12 October2013.

[60] Liukkonen, Petri. “Ronald Arbuthnott Knox”. Books andWriters (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Li-brary. Archived from the original on 10 February 2015.

[61] Montague, Sarah. “A Study in Sherlock.” WNYC: New York, New York Public Radio. 13 January2011. http://www.wnyc.org/articles/features/2011/jan/13/study-sherlock/# . Accessed 16 June 2013.

[62] “Christopher Morley”. Retrieved 13 February 2010.

[63] “Sherlockian.Net: Societies”. Retrieved 13 February 2011.

[64] “The world of Holmes and Watson”. Sherlockian.Net. Re-trieved 2012-08-28.

[65] “Baker Street Irregulars Weekend”. Bsiweekend.com.2011-11-05. Retrieved 2012-08-28.

[66] “LRK on: Sherlock Holmes : Laurie R. King: MysteryWriter”. Laurie R. King. Retrieved 10 January 2011.

[67] Dorothy L. Sayers, “Holmes’s College Career”, for the BakerStreet Studies, edited by H. W. Bell, 1934. In the forewordto Unpopular Opinions, in which her essay appeared, Sayerssays that the “game of applying the methods of the HigherCriticism to the Sherlock Holmes canon ... has become ahobby among a select set of jesters here and in America”.

[68] Lisa Sanders (4 December 2009). “Hidden Clues”. The NewYork Times. Retrieved 7 March 2011.

[69] “Two Sherlock Holmes museums in Switzerland? Elemen-tary!". Swissinfo. Retrieved 26 October 2014.

[70] “Welcome to Portsmouth City Museum”. Portsmouth Muse-ums and Records. Retrieved 26 October 2014.

[71] Reed, Brian (1934). Railway Engines of the World. OxfordUniversity Press. p. 133.

[72] Mews News. Lurot Brand. Published Summer 2009. Re-trieved 24 September 2013.

[73] Itzkoff, Dave (19 January 2010). “For the Heirs to Holmes,a Tangled Web”. The New York Times.

[74] “Techdirt article”. Techdirt article. Retrieved 10 January2011.

[75] “Elementary My Dear Watson...It’s Called the Public Do-main...Or is It?". Techdirt.com. 24 December 2009. Re-trieved 10 January 2011.

[76] “Holmes belongs to the world”. Free Sherlock!. 2013-02-14. Retrieved 2013-04-15.

[77] Stempel, Jonathan (16 June 2014). “Sherlock Holmes be-longs to the public, U.S. court rules”. Reuters. Retrieved 16June 2014.

[78] “Sherlock Holmes belongs to us all: Supreme Court declinesto hear case”. LA Times. 3 November 2014. Retrieved 3November 2014.

[79] Sherlock Holmes: pipe dreams, Daily Telegraph 15 Decem-ber 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[80] Tuska, Jon (1978). The Detective in Hollywood. New York:Doubleday. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-385-12093-7.

[81] Podolyan, Olga (13 November 2013). “In the new 'SherlockHolmes’ everything is new” (in Russian). Retrieved 29 Oc-tober 2014.

[82] Robert W. Pohle, Douglas C. Hart, Sherlock Holmes on thescreen: the motion picture adventures of the world’s most pop-ular detective (A. S. Barnes, 1977), pp. 54, 56, 57

[83] Alan Barnes (2002). Sherlock Holmes on Screen. Reynolds& Hearn Ltd. p. 13. ISBN 1-903111-04-8.

[84] Matthew E. Bunson (1997). Encyclopedia Sherlockiana.Simon & Schuster. p. 213. ISBN 0-02-861679-0.

[85] Internet Broadway Data Base – Baker Street. Retrieved 31May 2010.

[86] Coe, Jonathan (30 April 2005). “Detective work”. TheGuardian (U.S. ed.). Retrieved 29 October 2014.

[87] Wolfreys, Julian (1996). Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.Ware, England: Wordworth Editions. p. ix. ISBN 1-85326-033-9. Holmes was reinvented definitively by JeremyBrett...It is Brett’s Holmes...which comes closest to ConanDoyle’s original intentions.

[88] “MerrisonHolmes.com”. Retrieved 19 May 2013.

[89] “The Immortal Sherlock Holmes”. The Scotsman (Edin-burgh). 2 November 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2014.

[90] Nordberg, Nils: Døden i kiosken. Knut Gribb og andre heft-edetektiver.

[91] Sanson, Ian. 27 Oct 2011. "The House of Silk by AnthonyHorowitz--Review" The Guardian.

[92] Flood, Alison (10 April 2014). “Sherlock Holmes re-turns in new Anthony Horowitz book, Moriarty”. Guardian(Guardian News and Media Limited). Retrieved 9 August2014.

[93] “Young Sherlock Holmes”. Levinson.com. Archived fromthe original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 2 November2014.

[94] “Sherlock Holmes Mystery Solved”. Blog.newsarama.com.7 May 2009. Retrieved 10 January 2011.

340 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

[95] “HFPA – Nominations and Winners”. Goldenglobes.org.Retrieved 10 January 2011.

[96] http://collider.com/susan-downey-the-judge-sherlock-holmes-3-interview/

[97] Clements, Jonathan; McCarthy, Helen (2006). The AnimeEncyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917(2nd edition (Revised & Expanded Edition) ed.). StoneBridge Press. pp. 580–581. ISBN 978-1-933330-10-5.

[98] Porter, Lynnette (30 July 2012). Sherlock Holmes for the21st Century: Essays on New Adaptations. McFarland. ISBN978-0786468409.

[99] “Trials of the Demon Episode”. starplus.com. Retrieved 10Jan 2014.

[100] Thorpe, Vanessa (18 July 2010). “The Guardian. SherlockHolmes is back... sending texts and using nicotine patches".London.

[101] “The Herald Scotland. Times have changed but crimes arethe same for new Sherlock Holmes".

[102] Sherlock, Series 1, Episode 1, "A Study in Pink"

[103] Shinjiro Okazaki and Kenichi Fujita (ed.)," Shārokku Hōmuzu Bo-ken Fan Bukku”, Tokyo: Shogakukan, 2014, pp. 6-7, p. 9,and pp. 21-25.(Guidebook to the show)

16.11 Further reading

• Accardo, Pasquale J. (1987). Diagnosis and Detec-tion: Medical Iconography of Sherlock Holmes. Madi-son, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN0-517-50291-7.

• Baring-Gould, William (1967). The Annotated Sher-lock Holmes. New York: Clarkson N. Potter. ISBN0-517-50291-7.

• Baring-Gould, William (1962). Sherlock Holmes ofBaker Street: The Life of the World’s First Consult-ing Detective. New York: Clarkson N. Potter. OCLC63103488.

• Blakeney, T. S. (1994). Sherlock Holmes: Fact or Fic-tion?. London: Prentice Hall & IBD. ISBN 1-883402-10-7.

• Bradley, Alan (2004). Ms Holmes of Baker Street: TheTruth About Sherlock. Alberta: University of AlbertaPress. ISBN 0-88864-415-9.

• Campbell, Mark (2007). Sherlock Holmes. London:Pocket Essentials. ISBN 978-0-470-12823-7.

• Dakin, David (1972). A Sherlock Holmes Commen-tary. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-5493-0.

• Duncan, Alistair (2008). Eliminate the Impossible: AnExamination of the World of Sherlock Holmes on Pageand Screen. London: MX Publishing. ISBN 978-1-904312-31-4.

• Duncan, Alistair (2009). Close to Holmes: A Look atthe Connections Between Historical London, SherlockHolmes and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. London: MXPublishing. ISBN 978-1-904312-50-5.

• Duncan, Alistair (2010). The Norwood Author:Arthur Conan Doyle and the Norwood Years (1891–1894). London: MX Publishing. ISBN 978-1-904312-69-7.

• Fenoli Marc, Qui a tué Sherlock Holmes ? [Whoshot Sherlock Holmes ?], Review L'Alpe 45, Glénat-Musée Dauphinois, Grenoble-France, 2009. ISBN978-2-7234-6902-9

• Green, Richard Lancelyn (1987). The SherlockHolmes Letters. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.ISBN 0-87745-161-3.

• Hall, Trevor (1969). Sherlock Holmes: Ten LiteraryStudies. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-0469-4.

• Hall, Trevor (1977). Sherlock Holmes and his creator.New York: St Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-71719-9.

• Hammer, David (1995). The Before-Breakfast Pipe ofMr. Sherlock Holmes. London: Wessex Pr. ISBN 0-938501-21-6.

• Harrison, Michael (1973). The World of SherlockHolmes. London: Frederick Muller Ltd.

• Jones, Kelvin (1987). Sherlock Holmes and the KentRailways. Sittingborne, Kent: Meresborough Books.ISBN 0-948193-25-5.

• Keating, H. R. F. (2006). Sherlock Holmes: The Manand His World. Edison, NJ: Castle. ISBN 0-7858-2112-0.

• Kestner, Joseph (1997). Sherlock’s Men: Masculinity,Conan Doyle and Cultural History. Farnham: Ash-gate. ISBN 1-85928-394-2.

• King, Joseph A. (1996). Sherlock Holmes: From Vic-torian Sleuth to Modern Hero. Lanham, US: ScarecrowPress. ISBN 0-8108-3180-5.

• Klinger, Leslie (2005). The New Annotated SherlockHolmes. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05916-2.

16.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 341

• Klinger, Leslie (1998). The Sherlock Holmes Refer-ence Library. Indianapolis: Gasogene Books. ISBN0-938501-26-7.

• Lester, Paul (1992). Sherlock Holmes in the Mid-lands. Studley, Warwickshire: Brewin Books. ISBN0-947731-85-7.

• Lieboe, Eli. Doctor Joe Bell: Model for SherlockHolmes. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green Uni-versity Popular Press, 1982; Madison, Wisconsin:University of Wisconsin Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-87972-198-5

• Mitchelson, Austin (1994). The Baker Street Irregular:Unauthorised Biography of Sherlock Holmes. Rom-ford: Ian Henry Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-8021-4325-3.

• Payne, David S. (1992). Myth and Modern Man inSherlock Holmes: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the Usesof Nostalgia. Bloomington, Ind: Gaslight’s Publica-tions. ISBN 0-934468-29-X.

• Redmond, Christopher (1987). In Bed with Sher-lock Holmes: Sexual Elements in Conan Doyle’s Stories.London: Players Press. ISBN 0-8021-4325-3.

• Redmond, Donald (1983). Sherlock Holmes: A Studyin Sources. Quebec: McGill-Queen’s University Press.ISBN 0-7735-0391-9.

• Rennison, Nick (2007). Sherlock Holmes. The Unau-thorized Biography. London: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-4325-9.

• Richards, Anthony John (1998). Holmes, Chemistryand the Royal Institution: A Survey of the ScientificWorks of Sherlock Holmes and His Relationship withthe Royal Institution of Great Britain. London: Irregu-lars Special Press. ISBN 0-7607-7156-1.

• Riley, Dick (2005). The Bedside Companion to Sher-lock Holmes. New York: Barnes & Noble Books.ISBN 0-7607-7156-1.

• Riley, Peter (2005). The Highways and Byways ofSherlock Holmes. London: P.&D. Riley. ISBN 978-1-874712-78-7.

• Roy, Pinaki (Department of English, Malda College)(2008). The Manichean Investigators: A Postcolonialand Cultural Rereading of the Sherlock Holmes and By-omkesh Bakshi Stories. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons.ISBN 978-81-7625-849-4.

• Sebeok, Thomas; Umiker-Sebeok, Jean (1984). "'YouKnow My Method': A Juxtaposition of Charles S.

Peirce and Sherlock Holmes”. In Eco, Umberto;Sebeok, Thomas. The Sign of Three: Dupin, Holmes,Peirce. Bloomington, IN: History Workshop, Indi-ana University Press. pp. 11–54. ISBN 978-0-253-35235-4. OCLC 9412985. Previously published aschapter 2, pp. 17–52 of Sebeok, Thomas (1981).The Play of Musement. Bloomington, IN: IndianaUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-253-39994-6. LCCN80008846. OCLC 7275523.

• Shaw, John B. (1995). Encyclopedia of SherlockHolmes: A Complete Guide to the World of the GreatDetective. London: Pavilion Books. ISBN 1-85793-502-0.

• Smith, Daniel (2009). The Sherlock Holmes Compan-ion: An Elementary Guide. London: Aurum Press.ISBN 978-1-84513-458-7.

• Starrett, Vincent (1993). The Private Life of SherlockHolmes. London: Prentice Hall & IBD. ISBN 978-1-883402-05-1.

• Tracy, Jack (1988). The Sherlock Holmes Encyclope-dia: Universal Dictionary of Sherlock Holmes. Lon-don: Crescent Books. ISBN 0-517-65444-X.

• Tracy, Jack (1996). Subcutaneously, My Dear Watson:Sherlock Holmes and the Cocaine Habit. Bloomington,Ind.: Gaslight Publications. ISBN 0-934468-25-7.

• Wagner, E. J. (2007). La Scienza di Sherlock Holmes.Torino: Bollati Boringheri. ISBN 978-0-470-12823-7.

• Weller, Philip (1993). The Life and Times of SherlockHolmes. Simsbury: Bracken Books. ISBN 1-85891-106-0.

• Wexler, Bruce (2008). The Mysterious World of Sher-lock Holmes. London: Running Press. ISBN 978-0-7624-3252-3.

16.12 External links

• “For the Heirs to Holmes, a Tangled Web” - New YorkTimes article

• “The Burden of Holmes”- Wall Street Journal article

• The Sherlock Holmes Society of London (founded1951)

• Discovering Sherlock Holmes at Stanford University

• Chess and Sherlock Holmes essay by Edward Winter,

342 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

• Sir Arthur Conan Doyle audio books by Lit2Go fromthe University of South Florida.

• Sherlock Holmes plaques on openplaques.org

• The Sherlock Holmes Collections at the University ofMinnesota (special collections and rare books)

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 343

16.13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

16.13.1 Text• Robin Hood Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hood?oldid=676817305 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Zundark, Tarquin, Sjc,

Ed Poor, Andre Engels, JeLuF, Rmhermen, Deb, Ortolan88, Ghakko, William Avery, Zoe, Mintguy, Isis~enwiki, KF, Ewen, Leandrod,Kchishol1970, Nommonomanac, D, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, JakeVortex, Liftarn, Bobby D. 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Kalvin3460, Redhotone, GentlemanGhost, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Marek69, West Brom 4ever, John254,Verica Atrebatum, NorwegianBlue, Amity150, James086, X201, Alientraveller, JustAGal, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, GideonF, Michael A.White, Big Bird, Northumbrian, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Majorly, John.sw, Piggyfreak6, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Mitcheroo, AnemonePro-jectors, QuiteUnusual, NeilEvans, Gary cumberland, Shirt58, Kun25, Luipaard, Brendandh, Amilsum, Xorius, Kungfuninja, Modernist, NorthShoreman, Johnny Sumner, Jimeree, Myanw, Glitterspray, JAnDbot, Davewho2, Porlob, MER-C, The dominus, Giler, Seddon, Jhwitt, An-donic, Kirrages, GoodDamon, Acroterion, Wildhartlivie, Lighthope, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jacce, Ronstew, AtticusX, JNW, Mclay1, TheOriginal Threepwood, Deadmeat08, Khalidkhoso, Miles Fallconet, Zenomax, TinaSparkle, Avicennasis, Bleh999, Chemical Engineer, Battery-Included, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, $yD!, DerHexer, JdeJ, Patstuart, Excesses, Gjd001, S3000, Zahakiel, Ekki01, MartinBot, CliffC, Einhov,Agricolae, Ugajin, Tvoz, Geoffr111, Keith D, Emeraude, Jonathan Hall, MadJackMIW, Mschel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Johnpacklambert,Cathar maiden, Fconaway, Francis Tyers, Wiki Raja, Tgeairn, Tadpole9, TheRenegade, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1, Codeye,Weissmann~enwiki, Trusilver, Ali, Numbo3, Ayecee, Uncle Dick, EmleyMoor, Jerry, Spiney, R3dg3cko, Norwood6891, Icseaturtles, Kata-laveno, Victuallers, MergeCar, Jayden54, Strawinthewind, NewEnglandYankee, JenJen13, SJP, Nwmorris, Insanedesio, Shoessss, BigHairRef,KellyLeighC, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Bkpip, Pastordavid, Paulobrian, David Lauder, Dacurryman, Pdcook, Ja 62, Krogu, Straw Cat, An-drewJFulker, Leightonmowbray, SoCalSuperEagle, Rggwiki, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Lights, Darthwilber, Aninhumer, 28bytes,Thedjatclubrock, Derekbd, Meaningful Username, Jeff G., Indubitably, AlnoktaBOT, Harkey Lodger, MenasimBot, Aesopos, Barneca, PhilipTrueman, PNG crusade bot, JuneGloom07, TXiKiBoT, Celtus, Rishi agrawal, Zamphuor, Bluejena, GroveGuy, Horse penis, A4bot, Jdcrutch,

344 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Xtravar, Ann Stouter, Soundofmusicals, Someguy1221, Olly150, Lradrama, Corvus cornix, Claidheamohmor, Leafyplant, Broadbot, Cafoot-ballfan777, DL12345, Fatboywithdonut, Nd1ca, K.Mattanthas, Mzmadmike, Buddhipriya, LeaveSleaves, Amog, Seb az86556, Duckman89,Hyperflux, Jeremy Bolwell, Vanished user sf9j0923jrpotj3rf, Mr. Absurd, Aceofspades10035, Ratagosk, Agent of the Reds, Spilky, Kururhia,Chrisjwowen, One man and his dog, Hey jude, don't let me down, Sensei-CRS, Anna512, Stbomo, Zenbob, Aiapoetry, Debbiemcgee, JimmiHugh, PGWG, PericlesofAthens, Nickferrett, Slayerofangels, Armosatik, Biscuittin, SieBot, Ttony21, Spartan, Work permit, Scarian, Caltas,Ldyoutlw, RJaguar3, Docta247, Lachrie, Happysailor, Tiptoety, Wizard909, Grimey109, Sirrobinhood, Margerykempe, Grape123, Narmowen,Oxymoron83, AngelOfSadness, Goustien, Diyforlife, Naty1111, TBliss, Hobartimus, Macy, Ian welch, IdreamofJeanie, Jeremytrewindixon,Svick, Arthana, Thelmadatter, Lynch-giddings, SalvoCalcio, Pinkadelica, Lord Opeth, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Into The Fray, Elassint, Clue-Bot, CalcioSalvo, IPAddressConflict, NickCT, CSProfBill, Hutcher, Wedineinheck, Susiehelme, Fyyer, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be,EoGuy, Srikanthdileep, Delicate tears, ImperfectlyInformed, Wwheaton, Ndenison, 42BluePixels, R000t, Drmies, Ranger Steve, TheOldJaco-bite, Boing! said Zebedee, Mezigue, CounterVandalismBot, Blanchardb, Neverquick, Wikinick123, Deathlock666, Webmayin, Manishearth,Cleggfan, Jersey emt, Vauxhall1964, DragonBot, Frangormley, SteveRamone, Kitsunegami, Excirial, Quercus basaseachicensis, Alexbot, Rob-bie098, Eric1212~enwiki, Abrech, Fishiehelper2, Lartoven, Yorkshirian, NuclearWarfare, Cenarium, Phantomarrow, JamieS93, Dj manton,Mikaey, Audaciter, Ottawa4ever, Thingg, Acabashi, BVBede, Versus22, Darkcat1, Heyzeuss, Canihaveacookie, SoxBot III, Editor2020, User-name3105, Mszajewski, Roziewozie5, Gosteli, Oskar71, Bearsona, Helixweb, BarretB, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Danyboi95, Robinhood777,Serpentnight, Avmarle, Tylor 12, Username100100, Mabb1088, Nepenthes, Avoided, WikHead, SkinnerSix, Badgernet, Alexius08, Floribr1,HarlandQPitt, Vianello, ZooFari, MystBot, Good Olfactory, ElMeBot, Mldowns, Hunter Kahn, Kbdankbot, Fireinacrowdedtheatre, Klundarr,Addbot, CubBC, Lmbd uk, Willking1979, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet, Fantango123, M0nd0buddy, Jojhutton, Mabdul, Landon1980,Hda3ku, Otisjimmy1, DougsTech, Bone cuss, Globalsolidarity, Ronhjones, GD 6041, CanadianLinuxUser, Blue Square Thing, BabelStone,Richmond96, Cst17, Muffinsrokk!, Mentisock, Download, LaaknorBot, Fernlea, LOGIN.PLZ, Chzz, Debresser, Voltash, Exor674, AtheWeath-erman, 5 albert square, Davidclark56, Bodyslamthatboy, Take the red pill., Tide rolls, Lightbot, Gail, David0811, Ruled, The Mummy, Legobot,Yobot, VengeancePrime, Andreasmperu, Purplegirl11021994, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Amirobot, MatGB, Yngvadottir, Victoriaearle, Archon-Magnus, Brougham96, Philoelpistina, AnakngAraw, Gunnar Hendrich, IW.HG, Magog the Ogre, Synchronism, Iplaypingpong, AnomieBOT,Davidbrookesland, Gobears87, 1exec1, Qizix, Rockypedia, Jim1138, Galoubet, JackieBot, Annie0299, Aditya, HotHistoryBuff69, Kingpin13,Flewis, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Rtyq2, 90 Auto, Rjdenbow, Citation bot, HENRY V OF ENGLAND, Bob Burkhardt, GB fan, Arthur-Bot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Joe726, Xqbot, BISCUITKID, Sketchmoose, Grifterlake, Androcoles, 4twenty42o, Foxcow, Rangersarecool, Avlaria,Bleachguy, TheGunn, Turkeygobbler, Tyrol5, Mlpearc, GrouchoBot, Riotrocket8676, Ed8r, Shirik, RibotBOT, JoeLoeb, Der Falke, Bpselvam,Creation7689, E0steven, AJCham, SD5, Dougofborg, Haldraper, Green Cardamom, Kohoutek1138, R65Wingfield, FrescoBot, Jenmegheg,Pob1984, Zachary.serry, Wikipe-tan, Scoobycentric, Gråbergs Gråa Sång, KuroiShiroi, Ronsapbag, D'ohBot, Sebastiangarth, HJ Mitchell, Final-ius, Supergeekfreak, Citation bot 1, Arm elf, Trevorbartels, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Grammarspellchecker, HRoestBot, Adlerbot, Default-sortBot, Tóraí, 10metreh, J3Mrs, 69for2, Blackprince111111, Hamtechperson, Moonraker, Ironman59, RedBot, Labrynthia9856, Editor8888,Cutiepieakk, Giga917, Meaghan, Twistlethrop, MedicineMan555, Forp, Ifritnile, December21st2012Freak, Jauhienij, CovenantWord, VEO15,Lotje, Benoco, Green G., Vrenator, Capt. 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• Prometheus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus?oldid=677077218 Contributors: Kpjas, MichaelTinkler, Derek Ross, BryanDerksen, Andre Engels, JeLuF, Azhyd, Tucci528, Edward, Pit~enwiki, Lexor, Gdarin, Menchi, Kalki, Paul A, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier,Ericross, Glenn, Andres, Jeandré du Toit, Ghewgill, Disdero, EALacey, Jitse Niesen, WhisperToMe, Tpbradbury, Lbsterling, Jeffrey Smith,Furrykef, SEWilco, Thue, Quoth-22, Traroth, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, PuzzletChung, Phil Boswell, RedWolf, Geogre, Bkell, Hadal,UtherSRG, Jpbrenna, Xyzzyva, Mat-C, Wiglaf, Tom harrison, Martijn faassen, Rumpelstiltskin~enwiki, Supergee, Curps, Sik0fewl, Joshua-paquin, Chameleon, Tagishsimon, Bacchiad, Isidore, Greyfedora, Dvavasour, Ran, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Lesgles, Vina, Gauss, My-sidia, Karl-Henner, Bepp, Biot, Wevah, Jaboyce, Benzh~enwiki, Clemwang, Kevin Rector, Demiurge, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Vaeiou, Guybrush,Eisnel, Canterbury Tail, Esperant, Bluemask, BeavisSanchez, N328KF, Eyrian, Discospinster, Cfailde, Wrp103, Aris Katsaris, Dbachmann,Mani1, Paul August, MarkS, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Loren36, MaxPower, Aranel, El C, Kwamikagami, Visualerror, Sietse Snel, Den-nis Brown, Pablo X, AmosWolfe, Chemboss, Flxmghvgvk, Elipongo, Richi, Apostrophe, BenM, Lunapuella, Alansohn, Guaca, LtNOWIS,Arthena, Lokicarbis, Wiki-uk, Andrewpmk, Logologist, Primalchaos, Ferrierd, Snowolf, RPellessier, Wtmitchell, Velella, Jess Cully, LukeSurl,Lkinkade, Greentryst, OwenX, Mindmatrix, Camw, Grylliade, Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, Mountainfire, Crackerbelly, Oskart, Uris, Wikiklrsc,Peacefulvalley, KFan II, Shikai shaw, Male1979, Waldir, Kralizec!, Pictureuploader, Tutmosis, Gimboid13, Marudubshinki, Paxsimius, Gra-ham87, Cuchullain, BD2412, FreplySpang, Dpv, Kane5187, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Bomble, SMC, Infosocialist, LGBTech, Afterwriting, Thewub, Yamamoto Ichiro, FayssalF, FlaBot, Wikiliki, SchuminWeb, Eubot, Thexmanlight, Musical Linguist, Nivix, RexNL, Banazir, TruthInEv-idence, Chobot, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Wjfox2005, Flcelloguy, YurikBot, Rtkat3, RussBot, Longbow4u, Crazytales, Kvuo, DanMS, Paulb42,Stephenb, Grubber, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Grey Knight, MidnightWolf, Odysses, NawlinWiki, Hihihi, Borbrav, Bloodofox,Krea, Thiseye, Pylambert, Irishguy, Retired username, Matticus78, Misza13, Zelphics, Htonl, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Nescio, TransUtopian,Tetracube, Analoguedragon, X10, 21655, Black Regent, Barryob, Nikkimaria, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili, SigmaEpsilon, JLaTondre, Cassan-draleo, Moomoomoo, Tim1965, GrinBot~enwiki, Nick-D, DVD R W, CIreland, MacsBug, SmackBot, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, TestPilot,

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 345

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• Socrates Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates?oldid=677365164 Contributors: Magnus Manske, General Wesc, MichaelTinkler,Brion VIBBER, The Anome, Amillar, Larry Sanger, BenBaker, XJaM, Fubar Obfusco, Karen Johnson, William Avery, Ray Van De Walker,SimonP, Graft, Hephaestos, Tbarron, Elian, Stevertigo, Thomas Mills Hinkle, Patrick, Gbroiles, Gryphon202, Dhum Dhum, BoNoMoJo (old),Stephen C. Carlson, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, William M. Connolley, Snoyes, Kingturtle, Alvaro, Bogdangiusca, LouI, Poor Yorick,Cimon Avaro, Deisenbe, Jeandré du Toit, Evercat, Mxn, Quizkajer, Adam Conover, Mewok, RodC, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Timwi,EALacey, RickK, Radgeek, Dandrake, WhisperToMe, Hao2lian, SatyrTN, Haukurth, CBDunkerson, Tpbradbury, Dinopup, Furrykef, Buridan,Jim Mahoney, Banno, Pollinator, JorgeGG, Jni, Bearcat, Nufy8, Robbot, Pfortuny, Mazin07, TomPhil, Fredrik, Kizor, Wblakesx, RedWolf,Mirv, Merovingian, Academic Challenger, T2space, Timrollpickering, Sunray, Hadal, JackofOz, Aggelophoros, Guy Peters, Cyrius, Nagel-far, Alan Liefting, Jsan, NewSocrates, Centrx, TOO, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, ScudLee, Oberiko, Sj, Nadavspi, Nunh-huh, Fudoreaper,BenFrantzDale, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Brian Kendig, Mark Richards, Obli, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Alison, Gamaliel, WHEELER,Varlaam, Guanaco, Per Honor et Gloria, Beowulf king, Eequor, Taak, Solipsist, Chameleon, Jackol, Wildt~enwiki, Wmahan, Gadfium, Utcursch,Pgan002, Andycjp, Ruy Lopez, Calm, R. fiend, Gdr, Regin LARSEN~enwiki, DCrazy, Blankfaze, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, OverlordQ, Pi-otrus, Slartoff, Jossi, Sean Heron, Rdsmith4, Girolamo Savonarola, JimWae, Mitaphane, RetiredUser2, Bodnotbod, M.e, Pmanderson, TwoBananas, Arcturus, Beginning, Neutrality, Didactohedron, Trevor MacInnis, Canterbury Tail, Lacrimosus, Chrisbolt, Dryazan, Natrij, Shahab,Freakofnurture, Poccil, Haiduc, Jiy, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, FranksValli, Masudr, FiP, Vsmith, Jpk, Francis Schonken,Peccavimus, Xezbeth, Ponder, Ibagli, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Waxwing slain, Furius, Brian0918, Lycurgus, Kwamikagami, Clayboy,

346 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

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Webb, Dylan Lake, Credema, Chill doubt, Wisl, Papipaul,Spencer, LegitimateAndEvenCompelling, Stradkid27, Ioeth, JAnDbot, Almwi, Deflective, Husond, NapoliRoma, Barek, MER-C, Dsp13, TheTranshumanist, Andrasnm, Matthew Fennell, Instinct, Taospark, Nancehixon, Seddon, OLP1999, Awien, Johnman239, Coolhandscot, 1nertia,Kerotan, GoodDamon, SteveSims, Cdg1072, Meeples, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, Doomhydra, Starquin, VoABot II, MartinDK, AuburnPilot, Adam keller,ZooTVPopmart, Dhmartin99, Jeffreydiehl, Rivertorch, Tedickey, Cic, Froid, Avicennasis, Midgrid, Seski, Catgut, Indon, Ali'i, Nposs, All-starecho, Schumi555, Vssun, DerHexer, Lukegerard, CCS81, Debashish, Hbent, RichMac, Kridily, Rickterp, Adriaan, FisherQueen, Vam-piretrees, Fullquiver, Hdt83, MartinBot, Phantomsnake, PaulLev, Pádraig Coogan, Poeloq, AnthonyMastrean, Uriel8, Mschel, Tropador, Alex-iusHoratius, Creol, Lilac Soul, Pomte, Iamryan365, Tinoket, RockMFR, Jira123, J.delanoy, Andrewgigg7, I.mikey, EscapingLife, Numbo3,Athaenara, Jreferee, Brenda maverick, Kyrathnom, Nothingofwater, Gltackett, DanielEng, Chocobear, Crocadog, Brother Officer, Impy156,Katharineamy, Broker of darkness, Jmohblonde, (jarbarf), Allreet, NewEnglandYankee, Cadwaladr, SJP, Jakea1020, Tanaats, Smitty, Mets-Fan76, Khokhar976, Tonytula, Atheuz, Cometstyles, Evb-wiki, Vanished user 39948282, VicVega123, Natl1, Pdcook, Inwind, JavierMC,Useight, Vinsfan368, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Idarin, Jonas Mur~enwiki, Christopher Mann McKay, Deor, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Johnfos,Orphic, CSumit, Rucha58, Hersfold, Laurent1976~enwiki, Jmrowland, Nburden, Orthologist, Joeveale, Bsroiaadn, Chitrapa, Barneca, Supr-cel, Amboisvert, Philip Trueman, Af648, TXiKiBoT, Eeldrop, Tgrams, FitzColinGerald, Solidwolf19, Ridernyc, Anonymous Dissident, LeonBlade, Mocko13, Brett epic, Qxz, Lradrama, Ontoraul, Seraphim, MackSalmon, GregX102, Broadbot, Abdullais4u, Kmcc138, LeaveSleaves,Delbert Grady, Starseeker shkm, Cremepuff222, Jeeny, Pishogue, Anarchangel, Jermerc, Maxim, Isis4563, Themat21III, Chillowack, Leopabe,Billinghurst, RandomXYZb, Enigmaman, BobTheTomato, Synthebot, Aweihgiwurhg, Wikidan829, JesterCountess, Sylent, Kazra61, Dorkules,WatermelonPotion, HiDrNick, Dessymona, Cindamuse, AlleborgoBot, Symane, TehPoep, Malachiluke, Legoktm, Mustard9000, Nick Denkens,EmxBot, Xolaam, Givegains, Demmy, AHMartin, Cosprings, Newbyguesses, EJF, MikeRumex, SieBot, Negrofit, Éiginnte, Whiskey in the Jar,Jwray, Jpdohler, Tresiden, Fixer1234, Tiddly Tom, Scarian, Meldor, Callipides~enwiki, Invisible Noise, Mikeg2000, Caltas, Rainbowpara-keet1996, Triwbe, I, Podius, Keilana, Footballman101, Tiptoety, Oda Mari, Sbowers3, Filos96, Jarrod1937, Oxymoron83, BjörnEF, Avn-jay, Steven Crossin, Poindexter Propellerhead, QuinnTheAspie, Techman224, BenoniBot~enwiki, Aiden Fisher, Kostatoronto3, Mitya1, Van-ished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Hsf-toshiba, Winterheat, Tradereddy, Doom2099, Burtonwilliams, JL-Bot, Myrvin, Troy 07,Naturespace, ImageRemovalBot, Lucascp, Athenean, Schipbob, Martarius, Linkycheng, ClueBot, SouthernThule, Bratz10019, Wikievil666,Postmortemjapan, Headpantsnow, Jan1nad, Lawrence Cohen, RODERICKMOLASAR, Herakles01, Leavemeto, Franamax, Nealal, Sean-

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 347

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• Jesus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus?oldid=677689079 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Lee Daniel Crocker, Brion VIB-BER, Eloquence, Mav, Wesley, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, AstroNomer~enwiki, Taw, Slrubenstein, BlckKnght,Malcolm Farmer, Ed Poor, RK, Larry Sanger, Etu, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, JimboWales, Scipius, Danny, Christopher Mahan, Rmhermen,Christian List, Gianfranco, PierreAbbat, M~enwiki, SimonP, Shii, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Merphant, FvdP, Mbays, Ktsquare, Zoe, David spector,Graft, Heron, Somebody~enwiki, Sara Parks Ricker, Camembert, Hirzel, Dominique Michel~enwiki, Dwheeler, Isis~enwiki, J.F.Quackenbush,Modemac, Soulpatch, Olivier, Someone else, Rickyrab, Ram-Man, Leandrod, Mkmcconn, Stevertigo, Nevilley, Frecklefoot, Thalakan, Lir,Nealmcb, Patrick, Kchishol1970, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Paul Barlow, Zocky, EvanProdromou, Kwertii, Llywrch, Kiiaapet, Fred Bauder,Oliver Pereira, DopefishJustin, Isomorphic, Jtdirl, BoNoMoJo (old), MartinHarper, Gabbe, Stephen C. Carlson, Tannin, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64,Kalki, Dcljr, Cyde, IZAK, Sannse, Shoaler, Arthur3030, Linus Walleij, Sven Eriksson~enwiki, CrucifiedChrist, Eric119, Bjpremore~enwiki,SebastianHelm, Mpolo, Goatasaur, Tregoweth, Mr100percent, Dgrant, 168..., Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Ronabop, Mkweise, Ahoerstemeier,NoLordButJesus, William M. Connolley, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Samuelsen, Theresa knott, Snoyes, FightingCock, TUF-KAT, Susan Mason,Notheruser, TUF-KAT, Basswulf, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, BigFatBuddha, Rlandmann, DropDeadGorgias, Kevin Baas, Ugen64,Amcaja, Usedbook, Lupinoid, Dietary Fiber, Whkoh, Cyan, Uri~enwiki, H7asan, Rossami, Vzbs34, Susurrus, Kwekubo, Big iron, Andres, Jiang,Evercat, Samw, TonyClarke, Efghij, John K, Lukobe, Csernica, Edaelon, Mxn, Ilyanep, Denny, Etaoin, Vargenau, Administration, Jengod, AlexS, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, EALacey, Andrevan, RickK, Reddi, CTSWyneken, Randyc~enwiki, JCar-riker, Visorstuff, Billdakelski, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Jwrosenzweig, Fuzheado, Andrewman327, Gutza, Rednblu, Aaboelela, WhisperToMe,Timc, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, CBDunkerson, Lfwlfw, Tpbradbury, Talkingtoaj, Maximus Rex, Dragons flight, Morwen, Saltine, Taxman,K1Bond007, Lkesteloot, Val42, Mattworld, VeryVerily, Populus, Miterdale, Buridan, Ed g2s, Ark30inf, Fairandbalanced, Warren Heitzenrater,Bevo, Nricardo, Xevi~enwiki, Traroth, Nickshanks, Joy, Bjarki S, Jecar, Fvw, Kenatipo, Bloodshedder, Raul654, AnonMoos, Scott Sanchez,George m, Hawstom, Wetman, Chrisjj, Bcorr, Jerzy, Proteus, Johnleemk, Todcoul, Flockmeal, DLR (usurped), Adam Carr, David.Monniaux,Finlay McWalter, Frazzydee, Pollinator, UninvitedCompany, Francs2000, Jeffq, Owen, Carlossuarez46, Jni, Espo111, Dimadick, Jason Pot-ter, Phil Boswell, Branddobbe, Nufy8, Robbot, Rossnixon, NorseLord, Ke4roh, Noldoaran, Astronautics~enwiki, Frutoseco~enwiki, ChrisG,Moriori, Fredrik, PBS, Tomchiukc, Jredmond, Stevemissions, Jenmoa, RedWolf, Moncrief, Goethean, Altenmann, Psychonaut, Stephan Schulz,Yelyos, Romanm, Modulatum, Sam Spade, COGDEN, Chris Roy, Mirv, Postdlf, Wjhonson, Merovingian, Amgine, Henrygb, Academic Chal-lenger, Chiramabi, TimR, Desmay, Flauto Dolce, Rholton, Rursus, Texture, Meelar, Humus sapiens, Roscoe x, Timrollpickering, Caknuck,Budo, Tobycat, Sunray, Bkell, Hadal, UtherSRG, Saforrest, David Edgar, Wereon, Johnstone, Bdiddy, Mandel, ElBenevolente, Anthony, Lupo,Diberri, Alanyst, Guy Peters, Xanzzibar, Znode, Cutler, Dina, Alan Liefting, Dawoodmajoka, SimonMayer, Cedars, Exploding Boy, Centrx,Dominick, Dbenbenn, Smjg, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Manco, Christiaan, SamB, Jacoplane, Gtrmp, ScudLee, Andries, Fennec,Gene Ward Smith, Ewg, Isam, Sj, Matruman, ShaneKing, Nadavspi, Inter, Wolfkeeper, Nunh-huh, Fudoreaper, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason,Lee J Haywood, Lethe, Tom harrison, Ferkelparade, Timpo, Brian Kendig, IRelayer, Zigger, Binadot, Sashal, Dissident, Obli, Monedula,Quadra23, Bradeos Graphon, Peruvianllama, Alterego, Wwoods, APOLLOTHEATRE, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, Moyogo, Zora, Curps,Jonathan O'Donnell, Gamaliel, Joconnor, Home Row Keysplurge, Joe Kress, Abqwildcat, Jdavidb, DarkFantasy, Cantus, Leonard G., Chess-Player, Syed Atif Nazir, Jfdwolff, Duncharris, H-2-O, Beardo, Dsmdgold, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Guanaco, Tom-, Dkmiller, 20040302, Luis rib,Jason Quinn, Prosfilaes, Siroxo, Wranga~enwiki, Eequor, Allstar86, Matt Crypto, Velrith106, Chameleon, Bobblewik, Jrdioko, Lord Cornholio,Golbez, Mooquackwooftweetmeow, Wmahan, Rishartha, Aenea666, Robertangel30, Neilc, OldakQuill, Son of Rishartha, Yoshiah ap, Ebbpeg,ChicXulub, Kennethduncan, Robsteadman, Jhahn2k4, Chris Strolia-Davis, Chowbok, Fergananim, Utcursch, LordSimonofShropshire, Andycjp,Geni, ElgertS, CryptoDerk, Gdr, Knutux, Slowking Man, Yath, Meagher, LucasVB, Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, Jodamiller, Mustafaa, Timlane,Rienzo, Hurtstotalktoyou, MarkSweep, J3ff, Loremaster, MisfitToys, Scottperry, Eregli bob, Quickwik, Kaldari, ABOLISH CHRISTIANITY,Jossi, Stefie10~enwiki, Rdsmith4, JimWae, MaxImus Rex, DragonflySixtyseven, Maximus-Rex, Jesster79, PaulSlinski, Maximus R3x, Ala-han, Maximus Fagot, Lord Rishartha, Rlquall, Tothebarricades.tk, PSzalapski, Husnock, RISHARTHA, Keldajon, Satori, Mysidia, M.e, Tail,FUCK OFF, Zfr, Lady Tara, Timothy Usher, Sam Hocevar, Biot, Arcturus, Popadopolis, Sillydragon, Asbestos, Mamdu, Gary D, Rantaro,Rishartha is forever, Neutrality, RiShArThA, Pitchka, Zeeshanhasan, Veruus, Marcus2, Usrnme h8er, Joyous!, Ojw, Michael L. Kaufman,

348 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

WeedWhacker, JohnArmagh, Humblefool, Kartheeque, Trilobite, Parmadil, Zondor, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Squash, TheObtuseAngle-OfDoom, JesusHChrist, Grunt, Lacrimosus, Strbenjr, RevRagnarok, Gazpacho, Switisweti, Millisits, Mike Rosoft, Kingal86, Lucidish, Ta bushi da yu, Jayjg, Rfl, Freakofnurture, Monkeyman, Fanger, Haiduc, DanielCD, An Siarach, Imaglang, A-giau, Svdb, Discospinster, ElTyrant,Patricknoddy, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Ultimasurf, Rhobite, Guanabot, Sladen, Brutannica, FranksValli, Supercoop, Wise mike, Jjb,Wclark, C12H22O11, Cnwb, FiP, MCBastos, Pjacobi, Clawed, Wrp103, Rama, Ardonik, Tomtom~enwiki, Zappaz, Silence, ArnoldReinhold,EliasAlucard, Narsil, User2004, Upi, Kzzl, Auto movil, Moochocoogle, Xezbeth, Mjpieters, Xgenei, Roodog2k, Antaeus Feldspar, Socrates-Jedi, Dbachmann, Wadewitz, Nard the Bard, Grutter, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, Stereotek, Gonzalo Diethelm, MDCore, AndrewMcQ,Bender235, ESkog, Khalid, Android79, Sc147, MattTM, TerraFrost, Ntennis, 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Rock-hopper10r, Toh, Blotwell, Man vyi, Valmy, Sasquatch, DG~enwiki, Acjelen, Nk, Moogle, WikiLeon, Numerousfalx, Pschemp, Kx1186, 99of9,PJ, John Fader, Idleguy, MPerel, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Rocray, Pharos, Pearle, Jonathunder, Mmejido, Irishpunktom, JesseHogan, Al-imustafakhan, Leifern, Mareino, Geschichte, Orangemarlin, DannyMuse, Espoo, Swaggart, Ranveig, OneGuy, Storm Rider, Red Winged Duck,Kuratowski’s Ghost, Jonked, Nazli, Gary, JYolkowski, Tablizer, Digitalzack, AdamM, Vslashg, SnowFire, Mo0, Polarscribe, Dr Zen, Jamyskis,119, Eric Kvaalen, Mu5ti, Atlant, Mr Adequate, Avkrules, Inky, Babajobu, Improv, The Rev of Bru, Andrewpmk, Jeffhos, Fornadan, Cheese-Dreams, Paradiso, Lord Pistachio, ABCD, Riana, AzaToth, Opticon, Lectonar, Calton, MarkGallagher, SlimVirgin, Lightdarkness, Virid-ian, Kel-nage, Mac Davis, Mailer diablo, Ynhockey, Honeydew, AtonX, Fawcett5, InShaneee, Spangineer, Cjc244, Malo, Katefan0, Snowolf,GeorgeStepanek, Ravenhull, Fivetrees, Johns2326, Eric Straven, BanyanTree, Rebroad, Zantastik, Dabbler, Knowledge Seeker, Cburnett, Su-ruena, Garzo, Evil Monkey, BrandonYusufToropov, Tony Sidaway, CloudNine, Randy Johnston, Danwaggoner, Mrcolj, Jesvane, LFaraone,Dominic, CubOfJudahsLion~enwiki, ArturoR, Skyring, H2g2bob, Tarakananda, Sfacets, Computerjoe, Kusma, Jguk, Ianblair23, Versageek,SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard, Alai, Ghirlandajo, Inebriatedonkey, HGB, Tornapartbydingos, Kazvorpal, Kitch, KTC, Dan100, Drivinghighway61,Aristides, RyanGerbil10, Dismas, Shadowlost, Falcorian, Oleg Alexandrov, TShilo12, Shimeru, Nautical Mongoose, CranialNerves, Hijiri88,Averykrouse, Michael Gäbler, DarTar, Gmaxwell, Weyes, MickWest, Jgofborg, Philthecow, Boothy443, Kelly Martin, Billhpike, Jeffrey O.Gustafson, Jcfried, Mel Etitis, OwenX, O918273645, Woohookitty, LizardWizard, I834, Jesus-Christ, GrouchyDan, FeanorStar7, Recnilgiarc,JarlaxleArtemis, Professor Ninja, Shreevatsa, TigerShark, Anilocra, Scriberius, Masterjamie, Sesmith, Jersyko, PatGallacher, Frtillman, UncleG, Jpers36, Plek, Benhocking, Carcharoth, Rangerdude, Madchester, Pookpook282, Briangotts, Trevorparsons, Alakhriveion, Before My Ken,Commander Keane, Veratien, ^demon, WadeSimMiser, Encyclopedist, JeremyA, The Wordsmith, Baxter0, Prozak, Chochopk, Jeff3000, Trödel,MONGO, Sdgjake, Ropcat, -Ril-, Eleassar777, Jacottier, Bkwillwm, Zikari, Tomlillis, Schzmo, Grace Note, Contele de Grozavesti, Bchan,Wikiklrsc, Bbatsell, Terence, Striver, JRHorse, Flamingspinach, GregorB, Mckayje3, Ignus, Zzyzx11, Pictureuploader, Mindwiz, GalaazV,Brendanconway, Wayward, , Prashanthns, Gimboid13, RomeW, Essjay, Alan Canon, Melissadolbeer, Halcatalyst, Dremo, Junjk, Pfal-stad, KHM03, Tydaj, Lords Page, Radiant!, Edsmilde, MrSomeone, Mandarax, Aidje, MassGalactusUniversum, SqueakBox, Hihellowhatsup,Ashmoo, Graham87, Sparkit, WBardwin, Alienus, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Cuchullain, DarkSerge, BD2412, Galwhaa, Dead-corpse, MC MasterChef, David Levy, Bunchofgrapes, FreplySpang, Duryodana, Metaspheres, Island, Schmendrick, RxS, TomWS, Bikeable,Dpr, Reisio, BorgHunter, Whoutz, Search4Lancer, Jdcooper, Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Angusmclellan, Nauraran, Koavf,Nobs, By George, Apesbrain, Wikibofh, Collins.mc, Athrash, Commander, Vary, Ikh, PinchasC, Lugnad, Amire80, TAS, Linuxbeak, JHMM13,Rschen7754, Tangotango, TexasDawg, Sdornan, GOD, Suirotra, Sargonious, Captain Disdain, Blome, AwkwardSocks, MZMcBride, Tawker,Kajmal, Gramaic, 4r2emi, Voretus, Zizzybaluba, Excellent15, Merrilee, DouglasGreen~enwiki, Durin, Afterwriting, Arm The Homeless, Thewub, Bhadani, TheGWO, Noon, Jack Lumber, Eleazar~enwiki, Onlytofind, Hermione1980, Yuber, GregAsche, Sango123, Dirtygreek, Ya-mamoto Ichiro, Firebug, Dracontes, Leithp, Heptor, Exeunt, Scorpionman, Ravidreams, Titoxd, CDThieme, Bobstay, Ian Pitchford, CAPSLOCK, Marax, SchuminWeb, Babawaba, Fidelio2~enwiki, Astrogoth, RobertG, Rasbelin, Black Sword, Musical Linguist, Doc glasgow, ElCid, Winhunter, Dbollard99, Nihiltres, Alhutch, GnuDoyng, Who, TetraMaster, MacRusgail, Chanting Fox, Isotope23, Rclose, Hottentot, Ian-warren, Hackloon, Celestianpower, Lilmul123, Tombombadil, RexNL, PropertyIsTheft, AdamantlyMike, Mark J, Fish Supper, Redwolf24,Scottinglis, RobyWayne, Alexjohnc3, Avichsc, Egthegreat, Finchsw17, Str1977, DevastatorIIC, Quuxplusone, President Rhapsody, Vilcxjo,Jwarthur, Jeremygbyrne, Phatcat68, Krun, Sgrayban, Andrewcotter, TeaDrinker, Wikipedia is Communism!, Pikiwedia~enwiki, Millonesis-gay, Codex Sinaiticus, Wikipedia Administration, Zaxios, EronMain, Big Hurt, ZScout370, Clockwork Soul, Malhonen, Andriesb, Bmicomp,Cannywizard, Noitall, Sellhorn~enwiki, Daycd, Mannyisthebest, Skellum, Gurubrahma, BradBeattie, Cpcheung, Le Anh-Huy, David L Rat-tigan, Silversmith, GordonWatts, Jeffrywith1e, Lamrock, King of Hearts, Slow Graffiti, Rekleov, Andrew Eisenberg, Emerymat, Ryddragyn,HalifaxRage, ...adam..., Chobot, Sherool, Haldrik, Kazuba, DTOx, Bornhj, Mhking, Merbúb ibn Javed, Gdrbot, Korg, 10qwerty, Volatile-Chemical, 334a, Bgwhite, Portress, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, EvilZak, Gwernol, Jesus is the Christ, Tayv, Flcelloguy, Kralahome,Metaeducation, Elfguy, Nhoj, EamonnPKeane, UkPaolo, Roboto de Ajvol, Satanael, Tadanisakari, Chanlyn, Jsolinsky, Sortan, Abeo Paliurus,Newbie222, Manimal~enwiki, Vuvar1, JoeMystical, Kinneyboy90, Sceptre, Hollowed Ground, Wester, Hairy Dude, Atomiktoaster, Alan216,Beltz, Cwphd97, Richman9, Brandmeister (old), William on Round Objects, Cooke, MattWright, Tznkai, Anglius, Christians, Fayte, Daverocks,RussBot, Sputnikcccp, Crazytales, Kauffner, John Smith’s, Red Slash, The Literate Engineer, Jtkiefer, John Quincy Adding Machine, WAveg-etarian, Jumbo Snails, Severa, Anonymous editor, Garglebutt, Thomas S. 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16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 349

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350 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Erikeltic, Blink punk 182, Maima, NE Ent, MrPacman0, Administration log, Karenjc, Chicheley, Bbagot, Balloonman, Tjplaw, Trunks6, Fuzzle,Gregbard, Halofan101, Dankostka, Melgibson1, TJDay, NurahC, Haha2007, Imcool69, Spotswood Dudley, Rudjek, Phatom87, Prometheu5,Bobdole1111111116, Ihavehappythoughts, Sopoforic, Pjh3000, AgreeToBe, Cydebot, Elisabeth2~enwiki, Wikien2009, Dr. Mott, Jabaldy33,Margarine, Fluence, Retoru, Mb93j, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Jonathan Tweet, Chhajjusandeep, Meznaric, Reywas92, Gatoclass, Bulgary16,Fireballems, CaliforniaKid, Mishamo, Steel, Registered user 92, Aristophanes68, Angulimalo, Penshurstpride, HokieRNB, Willy Meyer, Stop-menow100, Shaitan Al Mahdi, Alfirin, MegaHL90, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, TotallyRandom95, Craw Returns, Red Director, Life is like abox of chocolates, Sullivan9211, Tootle, Anthonyhcole, Cristian Cappiello, Rshawtx, Colin Keigher, Denghu, Bornsommer, Boardhead, So-dermalm, Llort, Wooly mamoth, FlintJ, Kernel8008, Mackauk, Seanieb64, Redsox00002, Dannygsam, Rracecarr, Charles Thomsen, DanielJ. 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Kathovo, Pulseczar, Moizkhanmalik, TheTruthiness, Mattalec101, Edal,Spicynugget, Chris goulet, Alientraveller, Mnemeson, Protoaurelius, A.J.Chesswas, Squall082, PJtP, Kalarn, Scarletspeed7, Neutralaccounting,Gfrins, Dfrg.msc, Rajin, Jasmeetsinghsekhon, Raykak, Jimhoward72, Jakshale, Bobajimmy, Signaleer, Bob the Wikipedian, 00666, Savage232,Zloog, Insiriusdenial, Jeztah, Casey24, Natalie Erin, Adballer30, Scottandrewhutchins, Rompe, Apalmer225, Northumbrian, Escarbot, DavidRonald2, Oreo Priest, Sdrawkcabton88, Mongoose123, El Jogg, SnoopingAsUsual, KirkHammett, Shea224, Giggle1217, Breakdowninflorida,AntiVandalBot, Cdaw22, Bk4u5002, Superfish2490, Majorly, Jeeebus, Almighty god, 04asmdg, Luna Santin, Widefox, Guy Macon, Lostcae-sar, Cs92, Sayadjinn, Rico7, Yomangani, Brian0324, Aheydari, Fru1tbat, Antique Rose, Muski27, Voortle, Gnixon, Tchoutoye, Doc Tropics,Ohtaryon, Phatboi96, Orfilms, Willscrlt, Axemurder785, Home Computer, Abidur, Dr who1975, Karthik sripal, Jj137, Zachwoo, Fayenatic lon-don, Scepia, Mackan79, Randywilliams1975, SadanYagci, Keshidragon, Pkwheeler, Earlysda, Enskie, Tigeroo, Leechingrabbit, DanArmiger,MECU, HarlaMary, Crispus, ARTEST4ECHO, Ashleigha, Stratedge, Gh5046, Coviti, Vader99, Johnny Sumner, Jonrmcleod, Alphachimp-bot, Mphudson, Killjoy Zero, Ned Netterville, David Shankbone, Falconleaf, Mercury543210, David aukerman, Lanov, Myanw, Dmerrill,Imagius, Baileypicks24, Eetommyj, Greatmuslim10, Yancyfry jr, Caper13, Fennessy, JAnDbot, Bradarproductions, Judaschrist666, Deflective,Stratface, Husond, Nolanadams, Sonic16, Geneisner, MER-C, Epeefleche, The Transhumanist, Avaya1, Caracaskid, Andrasnm, Kujawapowwa,Mcorazao, Ericoides, Matthew Fennell, Janejellyroll, Scythian1, Raziel 9909, Sakuratoku, DarkTemplar~enwiki, Patroklis, Trebor trouble, CodyC, OLP1999, Mungey, Nicholas Tan, Howdoustop85, Githoniel, Hmitt, Sophie means wisdom, Melvin Beanhead, Andonic, The Glow Pt. 2, Hut8.5, LordShard, Anonymous 2.0, Kerotan, Xact, LittleOldMe, SiobhanHansa, Yahel Guhan, Repku, Tommy gosden, Riddleout, Sherblast317,Magioladitis, Nomorecyber, Lenny Kaufman, Shravak, Mattb112885, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, The-g-man, Cambio~enwiki, Aznman, Peace-ful.driver, AuburnPilot, Jeff Dahl, Escarlati, Medz, Tfe, Wahidjon, JNW, Yandman, Manderiko, Scipio Carthage, Esmehwk, Khalidkhoso, Lach-inhatemi, Aithon, Keeferbeefer, Hikarumitani, Plain jack, Techron, Cat Whisperer, Seelig, Eddieblade, Absolutpiracy, Imwid3awak3, Nyttend,The Dud, WODUP, Cilstr, Vertebreaker, Chesdovi, Prestonmcconkie, Froid, Monkeydog, Wikiboy101, BenW, PelleSmith, Caesarjbsquitti,Evlear, SparrowsWing, Avicennasis, Sam Medany, Robkellas, Bubba hotep, Notary137, Farhanmahfooz, Truthspreader, Lošmi, KConWiki,Titotix83, Catgut, Theroadislong, Rezzu, Zcflint05, Mezaan, Jimbesity, Animum, SSZ, Iammichelle, Zetterberg40, Cyktsui, Reza1, Nposs, Se-berle, Just H, Lancombz, HeBhagawan, Bluepotato, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Afaprof01, Arcasu, Wrad, Hamiltonstone, Rsgoodsp, Justanother,Kane1047, Nat, Gregbrown, Cerpintaxt12, Schumi555, RedMC, Brunky, Vorador~enwiki, Just James, JRomero, Glen, Chris G, DerHexer,JaGa, Dragonflysixty, C.Logan, Esanchez7587, CCS81, Valerius Tygart, LukePrince, Baristarim, Ekotkie, Nonny1991, Peter zhou, Patstuart,Xlboy~enwiki, Szczepan1990, 5 octaves, Deyna, Dark hyena, Lukejtharries, Aflyax, Gavrun, Haggai.aj, Fluteflute, Welshleprechaun, GSGS-GSG, NatGertler, Cdecoro, Trouble Tim, BTEC, Wassupwestcoast, Alihasnain, FisherQueen, Stealthound, Opiner, Richardperry, Grandia01,Crewsd, Richmartini, Rocker956, Warnakey, Xalvas, Bluemancope, Axlq, Zeus, Ed411, Snapps50, Aaahooh, Mathai1, Donebeingmoses, DougFunny, Rocketgirl2, Dukelandis17, Charles Edward, SCJohnson77, Lovelaughterlife, Lance6968, Mschel, CommonsDelinker, Serenaacw, AzerRed, Faceboyjim, Arcaenum, Pewp monstuh, Lightofwadowice, Sporazoa, Mabbott, Snoil23, Badhand, Gaga5000, Fipplet, Beit Or, Djma12,Three ways round, Razorfox, RockMFR, JabbaXErnie, William Warner, Matt57, J.delanoy, Sasajid, Nityanandaram, Beckabella77, Jmlee369,JoeyBlaze1989, DrKiernan, Carre, EscapingLife, Kjudson16, Huey45, ChrisLozar12, Bogey97, Hardytlc, Virgil Valmont, Huvt, Extr3mer,Metalhead61, To Live Is To Die, Sunnyd 1, Jamienodder, About To Get Pwned, Adamski24, 72Dino, Skaryder, Mbentvelzen, Phalanxes,All Is One, Fredmercury, Bradbosch, Lordofthe9, Superjesus33, SeraphHell, Hasslebank, Mycroft~enwiki, ChocolateButterr, CrazyChor-usChap, Joesabre2000, Ricadelide, WarthogDemon, Ian.thomson, The Crying Orc, Kappasigmarules, Bumstuffersgonewild, Bobthebuilder1,Ghjghjg, Bjorn1990, Kappasigmadude, G. 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16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 351

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352 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

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• Sigmund Freud Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud?oldid=677585380 Contributors: Magnus Manske, MichaelTinkler, TheCunctator, Derek Ross, Tuxisuau, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Slrubenstein, Jzcool, Sjc, Andre Engels, Eclec-ticology, Jkominek, Danny, Fredbauder, Karen Johnson, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Mswake, Rsabbatini, Camembert, KF, Hephaestos,Atlan, Someone else, Ram-Man, DennisDaniels, Ubiquity, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Vaughan, Paul Barlow, Kwertii, Dreamword, FredBauder, Jahsonic, Nixdorf, Pnm, Liftarn, Menchi, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Zeno Gantner, IZAK, GTBacchus, Yann, Karada, Delirium, Arthur3030,Dori, Egil, NuclearWinner, ArnoLagrange, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Angela, Kingturtle, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Scott, Big iron, Deisenbe,Jeandré du Toit, Xgkkp, Lukobe, Raven in Orbit, Empetl, Hashar, RodC, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Bemoeial, Stone, Lfh, David Thrale, DanielQuinlan, Fuzheado, Rednblu, Hao2lian, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Jjshapiro, Alight, Matthew speedy, ,דוד Bjarki S, Rbellin,Qertis, EldKatt, Adam Carr, MD87, Carlossuarez46, Dimadick, Robbot, Josh Cherry, Sander123, Fredrik, Goethean, Ankur, Altenmann,Lowellian, Ktotam, JB82, Caknuck, Sunray, Sheridan, Delpino, Mywyb2, Pengo, Dina, Alan Liefting, Pabouk, Giftlite, DocWatson42, An-

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 353

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354 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

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356 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

or Together?, Bornhj, Mhking, JesseGarrett, Cshay, VolatileChemical, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, DaBomb, EvilZak, Gwernol,Algebraist, FrankTobia, Awbeal, S.M., The Rambling Man, Measure, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Praneeth11, Sceptre, Wester,Stan2525, Jachin, Mahahahaneapneap, Cwphd97, Brandmeister (old), Fayte, Phantomsteve, Red Slash, Anonymous editor, Asswagon, Splash,Pigman, Heaven’s Wrath, CanadianCaesar, Max 2000, Akamad, Chensiyuan, Ukauthor, Stephenb, Manop, Mikemea, Gaius Cornelius, Speer-meister, ALavelle, Abarry, Wimt, RadioKirk, Ugur Basak, Austinmayor, Eckxsz, MIRight, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Swollib, Anomie, Wiki alf, Nir-vana2013, Aeusoes1, RattleMan, LaszloWalrus, Grafen, Arichnad, Deskana, Jaxl, Johann Wolfgang, DSYoungEsq, Mhartl, Cognition, Rjensen,Taco325i, Robchurch, Nader85021, Dureo, Thiseye, Slarson, Jhurlburt, Cleared as filed, Equilibrial, Irishguy, Alex25~enwiki, Retired username,Madison3, Johno95, Banes, Marketex, Chromis, Adamsedgwick, Raven4x4x, Ezeu, Froth, Vivaldi, Letsmakemybed, Formeruser-82, Misza13,Jfdunphy, Tony1, Bucketsofg, DGJM, Aaron Schulz, Michael Drew, Xompanthy, Lockesdonkey, Samir, Afternoon, Psy guy, Tachs, Jtc, DenisC., Kewp, Speedoflight, Mrbluesky, Nlu, Wknight94, Fallout boy, Alfonze, Crisco 1492, Notjustanumber, Boondigs, Richardcavell, FF2010,Kriskhaira, Theuniversal, Maximusveritas, Eeksypeeksy, Deville, Jacob Eliosoff, Phgao, TheKoG, Okieman1200, Nikkimaria, Theda, Jwissick,Spondoolicks, Mike Selinker, Atheist108, QzDaddy, BorgQueen, GraemeL, For7thGen, JoanneB, Nothlit, Stare at the sun, Peter, Dreman1731,Kevin, Willtron, JLaTondre, Jaranda, Ethan Mitchell, ArielGold, SorryGuy, Ajuk, Jack Upland, RunOrDie, X3210, Ybbor, Katieh5584, Kung-fuadam, Jonathan.s.kt, Ben D., Jeremy Butler, Captain Proton, RG2, Ramanpotential, Maxamegalon2000, SailorAlphaCentauri, Philip Stevens,Airconswitch, Rhegann, Jasongetsdown, Norm3, Missed, Babij, DVD R W, Finell, Saikiri, Jaysscholar, Eenu, Arcadie, Hiddekel, Sardanaphalus,Sarah, KnightRider~enwiki, Remiel, SmackBot, Laughing Man, Amcbride, Snrdon, Brandon39, Aim Here, Rob110178, Deborah909, Khfan93,Zazaban, Aiman abmajid, Pkpatel88, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Olorin28, Grazon, Wrinehart, Pgk, Od Mishehu, Ramdrake,Yuyudevil, Davewild, Ssbohio, IainP, Michaelbeckham, Nawsum526, Delldot, Cla68, Ernham, Louisfergie, Vilerage, Canthusus, KittenKlub,Keakealani, Alsandro, Dolcej, Sebesta, Gaff, Xaosflux, Gilliam, Sonnavnorge, Quidam65, Molimo, Hmains, Isaac Dupree, Eug, Winterheart,Honbicot, ERcheck, Senterstyle, Underneath-it-All, Andy M. Wang, Squiddy, CC2009, Cowman109, Qtoktok, Vercalos, MKaiserman, Izehar,Jake Larsen, Bh3u4m, Master Jay, Ferix, Keegan, TimBentley, Dahn, Jopsen, Persian Poet Gal, Bjmullan, Stubblyhead, Rmt2m, Danbradley123,DBP, ViolinGirl, MalafayaBot, Bethling, Fizban~enwiki, Day22, Apeloverage, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mikean23, Dlo-hcierekim’s sock, TheLeopard, Dustimagic, Coojah, DHN-bot~enwiki, DKalkin, Riphamilton, Roy Al Blue, Paul Vogel II, William Allen Simp-son, A. B., Gracenotes, Mexcellent, Scalene, Meitme, Royboycrashfan, Zsinj, Akhenaton06, Daniel Haggis, Camillus McElhinney, Trekphiler,Can't sleep, clown will eat me, DHeyward, HoodedMan, Jinxed, Battlefield, Quartermaster, Hmlarson, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, Nixeagle, Som-mers, Bobred, TheBlueFlamingo, Nima Baghaei, Matthew, TheKMan, Azumanga1, Jajhill, Rrburke, Chrismchugh28, Kcordina, Edivorce,Cleshne, SundarBot, Elendil’s Heir, Tartarusrussell, JSmith9579, Stevenmitchell, Ig0r10, Lox, Khoikhoi, Amazon10x, Jmlk17, Mistico, Pas-torwayne, Krich, Masalai, EndAnonDiscrimination, Flyguy649, NoIdeaNick, PrometheusX303, Jimboothfan69, Khukri, Msingerman, Sc00t,Nakon, Savidan, Oanabay04, Paul haynes, Raichu, JJstroker, MichaelBillington, FrankWilliams, Legaleagle86, Nick125, RaCha'ar, Dsarokin,Hoof Hearted, Borching~enwiki, Dreadstar, Mlomize, Anoriega, Paroxysm, Hgilbert, Garry Denke, Drooling Sheep, Wisco, A.W.Shred, Jk-lin, Ghaleonh41, Crazzzzy!!!999, Ultraexactzz, Ddevlin, Nittin, Kotjze, Blockinblox, Smokeypuppy, Knowledgeispower~enwiki, Kendrick7,Big Pimpin, RJBurkhart, Where, Mitchumch, Daniel.Cardenas, Ligulembot, Sayden, Rodrigogomespaixao, Mwelch, Enriquecardova, Deiz,New York City, Joshuak, Pilotguy, Wikipedical, Kukini, Andrei Stroe, Wilt, S.T. Stories, Lanford, Ohconfucius, Aandrei, Will Beback, Cy-berevil, Pinktulip, Letoofdune, Michael David, SashatoBot, Master and Commander, Nishkid64, Polutlas, Vylen, Visium, Jon1990, AThing,Swatjester, Alan Trick, Gloriamarie, Harryboyles, BrownHairedGirl, Rklawton, TheTruth12, Minaker, Giovanni33, Alakey2010, Srikeit, JzG,Zahid Abdassabur, Nrafter530, Kuru, T g7, AmiDaniel, Acidburn24m, Euchiasmus, Guroadrunner, Cesium 133, Meatball7227, Adgsgda,J 1982, Tazmaniacs, Ocee, Camroni1015, Teal6, Disavian, Calum MacÙisdean, CPMcE, A Different World, Aroundthewayboy, Stradv16,Mrlopez2681, ShaunA1, Shlomke, CartmansBalls, Bucksburg, Pyrrhotism, This user has left wikipedia, Edwy, Chodorkovskiy, Coredesat, Mer-chbow, Nthornton, Rundquist, Ezss7, NYCJosh, JohnWittle, Vanished user 56po34it12ke, Majorclanger, Cashthischeck, Like tears in rain,PseudoSudo, CoolKoon, Zohar7, The Man in Question, Oublier, MarkSutton, Kyphe, Incomplete~enwiki, Mrfeek, Stwalkerster, Noah Salz-man, Epeeist smudge, Mr Stephen, InnerCityBlues, Dicklyon, Codyw100, Zombiebaron, Aarktica, David irving, Dcflyer, Cyanidesandwich,Botibacsi, Ryulong, Onetwo1, AEMoreira042281, Digsdirt, NyFan4life192, MoCiWe, EricR, Quest15, Impm, Squirepants101, Wikiwikiwiki-wikiwiki, MrDolomite, PDXblazers, Politepunk, Nautical Phasmid, Ginkgo100, DCM~enwiki, Timb345, Nehrams2020, Seqsea, Cat’s Tuxedo,Zootsuits, Partyatsaads, Longshot14, Theheightstx, Deanh, Vircabutar, Ojan, Shoeofdeath, Rob-nick, Westfall, Pegasus1138, Roswell native,JHP, J Di, Nicee14, Hynca-Hooley, Tony Fox, Shoshonna, Newyorkbrad, DavidOaks, Factfreak, Bite the Wax Tadpole, Color probe, CivilEngineer III, Az1568, Courcelles, Anger22, Adam sk, Dengine, Loyh, Olir, Pjbflynn, Tawkerbot2, HRH, Dlohcierekim, Daniel5127, Ouishoe-bean, Plasma Twa 2, Trade2tradewell, Flubeca, AbsolutDan, Southleft, Eastlaw, Ghollingsworth, Textbook, Fvasconcellos, Adasta, Joey80,Dhammapal, Wolfdog, Anthony22, The Prince of Darkness, The Morphix, Violentsockz, Unixguy, CmdrObot, Janegca, Jarjarbinks1234, Sar-castic Avenger, Mattbr, Kevin j, Ltakle, Scohoust, Iced Kola, BogdanM02, Bopmeister, BeenAroundAWhile, Jerry Jones, Picaroon, Xanderer,N3X15, Blve23, Shawats29, Nunquam Dormio, Drinibot, Fabrib, GHe, Oddperson, Kylu, Billsbest, Green caterpillar, ShelfSkewed, WeggeBot,Avillia, Moreschi, Casper2k3, Chicheley, Mike5193, MrFish, Lookingforgroup, Ketorin, Nestinso, Gregbard, Vanished user k9iuw4roilaldkj,Ludicris323, Rudjek, Cydebot, Karichisholm, Pomykala, Iloveyou8830161, Peripitus, Jackyd101, Conquistador2k6, Ebrown2112, Jmangin,ClonedPickle, Steel, Fair Deal, Aalbc, Ramitmahajan, Qbadge, Wingchild, RaymondShaw, Sruav, Crowish, Khatru2, Llort, A Softer Answer,Crssbow, Yehchoi, Pascal.Tesson, Luckyherb, WhiteDima, Julian Mendez, Legendary Steve, Amandajm, Capedia, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT,Iheartchrisyang, FastLizard4, Askcheung92, JayW, Ward3001, Lisatolliver, CJ King, Omicronpersei8, AJMW, Oystercult, Nuclearllamas, Lo2u,Mr. balls, UberScienceNerd, JimmB, Gimmetrow, Satori Son, Rab V, Rodeo70, FrancoGG, BetacommandBot, EnglishEfternamn, Rjm656s,RandomOrca2, Lid, Thijs!bot, Skb8721, Badbats, Biruitorul, Sk8er317, Redrum671, Edmusketloader, TonyTheTiger, Willworkforicecream,Tonykummer, David from Downunder, Daniel, Kablammo, Ucanlookitup, Jd2718, Lisa0419, Vidor, Dicekick, Savager, Anupam, Dmaz, Mol-loy13121988, Headbomb, Newton2, Fluxbot, Marek69, White28, Nickballslap, Klepas, West Brom 4ever, John254, Zulfikkur, Frank, Tapir Ter-rific, Gopman1, PaperTruths, TheDukeistheman, Wildthing61476, Cool Blue, Keelm, Inner Earth, JustAGal, Omegared25, Lsd420, Philippe,CharlotteWebb, Greg L, 00666, FreeKresge, MinnesotanConfederacy, Natalie Erin, Takaja, Escarbot, Porqin, Ju66l3r, Trlkly, KrakatoaKatie,AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Majorly, Sego 7, Luna Santin, Chubbles, Emeraldcityserendipity, Leoniemcc, Online anti, Doc Tropics, Edokter, Drwho1975, ABCxyz, Scepia, Hello0, Brian0880, TexMurphy, College Watch, JackCalc, Malcolm, MECU, Hoponpop69, Jessiejames, Politi-caljunkie23, VTFoxx, Swartenhus, Pratyushdayal, Smm650, Oldnag85, Dmerrill, MishMich, Amarkov, Bondolo, Canadian-Bacon, Ingolfson,Mwprods, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Knowsitallnot, Dogru144, Leuko, Husond, Michaelh613, HowardC2, ChtFreak64, Altairisfar, Candent shli-mazel, Postcard Cathy, Porlob, Boxjockey, Andrew3 8 90, MER-C, Sonicsuns, Jedi34567, Hamburgler343, CyberAnth, Zephyrnthesky, Archdude, Gretzkyv99, Midnightdreary, Ghartwig, Michig, Commment, Endlessdan, Albany NY, Kelly9690, Hut 8.5, E1foley, Hfhdh, Dream Focus,ReignMan, Bearly541, Rothorpe, GoodDamon, Y2kcrazyjoker4, J.kirk, Demophon, Yahel Guhan, Bencherlite, Meeples, Doom777, Kibiusa,

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 357

Mewtwowimmer, Magioladitis, Connormah, Fundamentaldan, 75pickup, Know it all2006, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Hb2019, Augustgrahl,Tyedyejedi, AuburnPilot, WeFightTheSystem, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, JNW, Mbc362, ZuG, Rayindiana, Ling.Nut, Joeyszy, Lucyin, Spyder-boyy, The Enlightened, Jim Douglas, Dinosaur puppy, Jatkins, Cartoon Boy, Brusegadi, Bubba hotep, KConWiki, WhatamIdoing, Bmgrocks,Sanket ar, Cajunstud13, 2206, Ciaccona, Allstarecho, Dazza26, Absolon, LaMona, SlamDiego, Fang 23, Texasguy~enwiki, Jtk6204, Glen,DerHexer, Edward321, Esanchez7587, TheRanger, StarmanHaxor, Wdingus, Anonymous55, Dblanchar, Star Wars117, Cliesthenes, Fuseau,Hdt83, Mmoneypenny, Tomshatto, STBot, Gandydancer, Kontar, Racepacket, Andrewperlmutter, UMKC, Tvoz, Tusharh, Timeloss, Lax-matt, Wowaconia, Elijah Craan, Miraculousrandomness, Rettetast, Andytuba, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Irisheagle, Creol, PrestonH,Dswimr615, Bmrbarre, Svanatter, Lancefeathery, J.delanoy, Wittj, Chernus, Lilstudy94, HorsePodger, Lizrael, Perskram, WikiBot, Wtim-rock, SteveLamacq43, JLawler, Chilloutmo~enwiki, Siryendor, Jerry, KatjaKat, Abogan, Nalax18, Joshua B Mills, Acalamari, Thucydides411,RIPSAW1986, Royalhistorian, Speasley, DarkFalls, LordAnubisBOT, Patrick19, Nemo bis, Grosscha, Mgmax~enwiki, Ryan Postlethwaite,Nessa06, Zeisseng, Photolarry, Balthazarduju, Gurchzilla, TehPhil, Mdumas43073, Wikiwopbop, Noahcs, Missuri33, Konstantine39, (jar-barf), Buckunit50, MCBasherStool, Raining girl, Qwertyuiop3545, Uiopoiuy, DELTA9224, Kdeibert, Brian ricks, NewEnglandYankee, TheLe-gendaryOWA, Buddyholly24, Trilobitealive, SJP, JPatrickBedell, UltraJoshua, KCinDC, Lukedpotter, Anabate, Kraftlos, Flatterworld, Mufka,Erik Swanson, Potatoswatter, DoctorMJ, Dpm12, Keecheril, Mossburg (usurped), Kenneth M Burke, Benjaminso, Nikki311, Kfm88, Jcsten,D.M.N., Tom Meller, Credidimus, Albanderuaz, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Jevansen, Freezeouttm, Skywalker Sensei, Mike V, Bie211, Pastor-david, Manlyman1229, Cuckooman4, Sikorak95, Gtg204y, Kbenroth, Dublecee, Kman618, Jvcdude, Xpanzion, Andy Marchbanks, Jlittlenz,Wiki3857, Minimafiaaj, Martial75, Scewing, Davecrosby uk, Squids and Chips, WikiMan53, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Michaeloptv, Loveforall-mankind, Egghead06, Sam Blacketer, Malik Shabazz, Deor, VolkovBot, Thedjatclubrock, Johnfos, Rucha58, TheMindsEye, HyperSonicBoom,Alexandria, Butwhatdoiknow, JustinHagstrom, Dkhiggin, MethMan47, Kevmac1238, Tpn 56 4, David10041004, Mnemonic2, Philip Trueman,Yohidaddy, Kziegenbein, Joel2o06, Billynoors, Dominic93, TXiKiBoT, D4S, Sroc, Holla87, Zamphuor, Sir Jelly Man, Moogwrench, Bdb484,Knag, BWMSDogs, Die4Dixie, Dan Tarrau, Mstrglen, Miranda, Sswonk, Agriffinny, Redwallfan, Otto42, Tehpwnz, Twirlr, Michael riber jor-gensen, Someguy1221, Nukemason4, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Sxc-lil-chavxx, Moyyom, C.J. 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358 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Christoph Braun, EmausBot, Wookiee123, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Ghostofnemo, Mihernan, Timothyjchambers, Conung, Fellytone,Farragutful, Juniperjoline1, RenamedUser01302013, Bull Market, Avpolk, Hohho56oy, Jim Michael, Nissenbaum, Alyssahassan, Lamb99,Shearonink, Kkm010, ZéroBot, John Cline, Illegitimate Barrister, Moorglade, Liquidmetalrob, Shabbirraju, Neun-x, Themagicnipple4, TheNut, Midas02, McYel, H3llBot, Zloyvolsheb, SporkBot, Wikignome0530, Ukguyspriggs, Dagko, Rostz, Jkb24, Peace is contagious, Dante8,Palosirkka, Judyholiday, SBaker43, ChuispastonBot, RayneVanDunem, Rusted AutoParts, Qpzmghfj, Ebehn, Special Cases, WoodyAllenGuy,Markg17, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Unterguggen, Kakorot, LittleJerry, Sleddog116, Goose friend, Brett2829, CallidusUlixes, Ftoner882,Snotbot, Dee11john, RajaNeela1993, Mr. D. E. Mophon, CopperSquare, JoetheMoe25, Delaywaves, Groupuscule, North Atlanticist Usonian,BobbyRipper, Helpful Pixie Bot, Nilem12, Popcornduff, El duderino, Breawycker public, Newyork1501, DCBotTrick, Calidum, TheKingLe-gacy, Wbm1058, Ramaksoud2000, ABellaMorrison, BG19bot, Neptune’s Trident, Krenair, TGilmour, Kaltenmeyer, Jweaver28, MusikAn-imal, Kendall-K1, Informant16, BizarreLoveTriangle, Marcocapelle, IraChesterfield, AngusWOOF, Rigamarolekids, Docter1, The LovableWolf, JL.CinemaStudies, Catperson12, KoolKoori, Buffgorilla, Polmandc, Cygnature, West1132, RGloucester, TheCentristFiasco, EricEnfer-mero, NoWikiFeedbackLoops, BattyBot, Pendragon5, Justincheng12345-bot, Ascourge21, Rosalina523, Md576, Nick.mon, Khazar2, Eb7473,NWOTruther, Logographicthings, Stumink, Tahc, Hridith Sudev Nambiar, Dexbot, Br'er Rabbit, Reverend Mick man34, Pama73, CharlesEssie, Komalo008, Kelenna, VIAFbot, Builtiger, Rott7, Zziccardi, Christinaxx, Rotlink, Choor monster, Gmporr, Ouzotech, Epicgenius, Com-puterGeek3000, BreakfastJr, Pestcamel44, Daniel.villar7, Jodosma, Samuel Peoples, Dustin V. S., Johanna Russ, Lindenhurst Liberty, Crunkus,ArmbrustBot, Theniallmc1, Monktrane1, Commons sibi, DDear99, KyleLandas, Jb423, Jacedc, Jwcorpening, Jaredzimmerman (WMF), Man-druss, Jeffersonassbang02, Shearflyer, .InfiniteHiveMind., Kbabej, SNUGGUMS, SpanishChapters, Stamptrader, GPRamirez5, Marchoctober,Laurenthian, Redleaffalling, Whomyl, Monkbot, Architect2014, Trackteur, Thinkersocial2014, Kinfoll1993, Goweegie2, Nnsm2, Omio Asad,Alakzi, RoaringFlamer41, KasparBot, SilverSurfingSerpent, CatKaiser, Haxxorsid and Anonymous: 2030

• James Joyce Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce?oldid=675748974 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Mav, Sjc, Ed Poor,Danny, XJaM, Meempants, Atorpen, Unukorno, Deb, Ortolan88, SimonP, Zadcat, Isis~enwiki, Modemac, Edward, Jahsonic, Yann, Delir-ium, Paul A, Card~enwiki, Ellywa, Mdebets, Ronz, Jimfbleak, Snoyes, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jdforrester, Ijon, Netsnipe, Jiang, JohnK, Jod, Colmlinehan, Jengod, Charles Matthews, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Jm34harvey, Fuzheado, Rednblu, Doradus, DJ Clayworth,Tpbradbury, Tempshill, Ed g2s, Wetman, Flockmeal, Lumos3, Dimadick, Bearcat, Kryptos, Fredrik, Hernanm, Naddy, Kokiri, Mayooranathan,Postdlf, Meelar, Timrollpickering, Tanuki Z, UtherSRG, Profoss, Anthony, JerryFriedman, Amir Dekel, Pabouk, Cobra libre, Amorim Parga,Netoholic, Lupin, Anville, Alison, Henry Flower, Jdavidb, Chips Critic, Beardo, Djegan, Thomas Ludwig, JillandJack, Rparle, SWAdair, Bob-blewik, Tagishsimon, Btphelps, Espetkov, Vivero~enwiki, Fergananim, Utcursch, MikeX, Cckkab, Antandrus, Eroica, MisfitToys, Ryano, Bod-notbod, Two Bananas, Lumidek, Danielsh, JohnArmagh, MakeRocketGoNow, Demiurge, Trevor MacInnis, Jfpierce, RevRagnarok, Guppyfin-soup, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, Simonides, O'Dea, Poccil, George V Reilly, CGP, Buffyg, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Qutezuce, Ericam-ick, Ahkond, Mani1, Paul August, Night Gyr, Stbalbach, Bender235, Steerpike, Autrijus, Shanes, Susvolans, Cacophony, Bobo192, Smalljim,Func, Redlentil, Icarusfall, Filiocht, RadetzkyVonRadetz, Jpecora, SpeedyGonsales, Rajah, Rje, Saluyot, Andrewbadr, Polylerus, Mareino,Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Red Winged Duck, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Prometheus7Unbound, Philip Cross, Dachannien, Andrew Gray, Calton,SlimVirgin, InShaneee, Mysdaao, Bart133, Velella, Benson85, Suruena, Dirac1933, Marcello, Ghirlandajo, Stemonitis, FrancisTyers, Angr,Boothy443, Ivana1, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, RHaworth, TigerShark, Etacar11, Camw, TheoClarke, ^demon, WadeSimMiser, Ardfern,MONGO, Jok2000, Lapsed Pacifist, GregorB, Isnow, Jacj, Palica, Graham87, BD2412, Grammarbot, Sjö, Ash211, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu,Eoghanacht, Seidenstud, Lugnad, Tangotango, SpNeo, Vegaswikian, Lairor, Brighterorange, Nandesuka, Husky, Mikecron, Ian Pitchford,RobertG, Musical Linguist, Who, RexNL, Gurch, Organisciak, Ben-w, Piniricc65, WouterBot, K2wiki, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wave-length, Huw Powell, Snappy, Tznkai, Zafiroblue05, Splash, Pigman, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Ugur Basak, Nawl-inWiki, Wiki alf, Veledan, Chick Bowen, RazorICE, Dogcow, Anetode, Silvery, Henderson@aol.com, Mikeblas, Mooncowboy, Denihiloni-hil, Semperf, Tony1, Occono, Klutzy, Jpeob, Fenian Swine, Nlu, Vicent Tur i Serra, Fallout boy, StanHubrio, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia,Dast, Bhumiya, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Nolanus (usurped), Rms125a@hotmail.com, Doktor Waterhouse, Harabanar, Hurakan, Hender-son1@aol.com, Fram, Tobble, Whobot, Mais oui!, Curpsbot-unicodify, Gorgan almighty, Red Darwin, GrinBot~enwiki, Iago Dali, Stumps,DVD R W, Kf4bdy, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Brian1979, Ralphbk, Classicfilms, Moeron, Haza-w, Herostratus, Griot~enwiki,KnowledgeOfSelf, Bowsie Jnr, CRKingston, Blue520, Leki, Jtascarella, JJay, Alsandro, IstvanWolf, Sebesta, SmartGuy Old, Gaff, Perdita,Eclecticerudite, Gilliam, Kazkaskazkasako, SauliH, Jethero, Acheloys, MK8, Deepsky, Papa November, Cretanforever, Ryecatcher773, Dlo-hcierekim’s sock, El Gringo, DHN-bot~enwiki, Alfion, A. B., Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Sumahoy, Quartermaster, Cripipper, Atropos,Ww2censor, Addshore, AltheaJ, Seduisant, Dharmabum420, MartinRobinson, Jwy, Nakon, Blake-, Nick125, Artie p, Jklin, Smerus, Drewalan-walker, Ohconfucius, Yannismarou, Rory096, Bcasterline, Vriullop, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BrownHairedGirl, Zahid Abdassabur, Broomeater, Kuru, John, Loodog, Pthag, Arialblack, Tktktk, Jmhuculak, AMac2002, Kransky, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, MarkSutton, Kyoko, Waggers,SandyGeorgia, Jayzel68, Vagary, Dl2000, Christian Roess, SubSeven, Hu12, Iridescent, Dekaels~enwiki, Mosa123ic, Joeteller, Wikeawade,JStewart, Toocold, Blehfu, AGK, Biff boffkins, IronJohnSr, Tawkerbot2, Jgjournalist, AshcroftIleum, Briancua, Norasl, Daedalus969, JFor-get, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Dycedarg, BeenAroundAWhile, Nunquam Dormio, Yarnalgo, Leujohn, Lazulilasher, Brandubh Blathmac, Neelix,Kronecker, Martinramble, Cydebot, John McCarthy, Slp1, Jainituos, Aristophanes68, Mattergy, Flowerpotman, Xxanthippe, Bornsommer, ASofter Answer, NRZarrugh, RelHistBuff, DBaba, Kozuch, Bob Stein - VisiBone, Archnoble, Omicronpersei8, Maziotis, Jimcripps, Mamalujo,BetacommandBot, Mattisse, Jon C., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Lord Hawk, Fourchette, Kablammo, Edwardx, Evil Angry Cat, Bwthurbe, Tjpob,Folantin, JustAGal, Farrtj, Taxelrod, AlefZet, Escarbot, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Opelio, Will1604, Quintote, Leghorn, Fayenaticlondon, Modernist, Pistolpierre, Spencer, Wahabijaz, Sluzzelin, Albany NY, Sarah777, MegX, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, Celithemis, Bongwar-rior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Edgarisaballer, Enormousrat, JNW, Tedickey, Ppival, Nick Carraway, Hekerui, Lassic81, Acornwithwings, Tt225, Spontini, LorenzoB, Spellmaster, Exiledone, Vssun, Vlad b, Agamemnon117, DerHexer, Warchef, TeodoroV, Hugh McFadden, Pleidhce,Gwern, MartinBot, Pádraig Coogan, Myrthe, Sagabot, RP88, Tented, Rettetast, Giano II, Rob Lindsey, Anaxial, Quywompka, Darksmiter, Busstop, Eustatius, CommonsDelinker, PrestonH, Smokizzy, J.delanoy, Simonfieldhouse, Nev1, H4x5k8, DrKiernan, Trusilver, OhNoPeedyPee-bles, Uncle Dick, Libroman, Keesiewonder, George415, J.A.McCoy, Smeira, McSly, Skier Dude, Billthekid77, Wynia, NewEnglandYankee,Sensei48, Ljgua124, Jay ryann, Robertgreer, Madhava 1947, Brian Honne, KylieTastic, Evb-wiki, HenryLarsen, Donmike10, Anahuac war-rior, Treisijs, VDWI, Ja 62, Dolugen, Scewing, Jebbs, GrahamHardy, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Hugo999, Littleolive oil, Malik Shabazz, Deor,VolkovBot, L.A.Nutti, Dohanlon, Pelirojopajaro, Geoffw1948, Philip Trueman, Martinevans123, TXiKiBoT, CuentaDisponible, Williamchace,Rei-bot, Dedalus22, Someguy1221, Catriona1, Serephucus, ^demonBot2, Geometry guy, Zacariasd, Emi emu, Katimawan2005, Motmit, Eu-bulides, Bellend bill, Falcon8765, Softlavender, Someguy303, Jmood, Dick Shane, Symane, Roland zh, Padfoot714, EmxBot, Red, CMBJ, RedHurley, AHMartin, Edward Turner, Double Dickel, SieBot, FMPJ, Nihil novi, Sonyack, Etni3s, Caricaturechild, Ulysses54, Lehaneb, Georgia

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 359

Anderson, Keilana, BWSFam90, Happysailor, Drhoehl, Starwarsbuffyccg, Boksol, Shorty2009, Lightmouse, Polbot, KathrynLybarger, Benon-iBot~enwiki, Belacqua Shuah, OKBot, Seedbot, Bossdoyle, Mr.x the 3rd, Dear Reader, Plivak, Dabomb87, Pinkadelica, Denisarona, EscapeOrbit, LarRan, Randy Kryn, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, PipepBot, Kitsunetsuishi, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, Scart-boy, EoGuy, Violace, RashersTierney, Elsweyn, Regibox, Lawofcosines, Parkwells, Dylan620, Piledhigheranddeeper, Ottava Rima, Puchiko,Mfogar01, Ernstblumberg, Knoit911, Jeanenawhitney, Alexbot, Lefty3.0, Noneforall, AZLEY, Graham77, Robthornehello?, Keelan111, York-shirian, Sun Creator, Jotterbot, Tnxman307, DeltaQuad, Redthoreau, 6afraidof7, Bricebc, Aitias, Boozinf, Hyoshida, Kluedke, DumZiBoT,RexxS, Jovianeye, Bigbander, Little Mountain 5, MarmadukePercy, ZooFari, MystBot, Mapoftehran, Addbot, The Sage of Stamford, Jojhutton,Tcncv, Steve.Pseudonym, ContiAWB, Rocky Mountain Goat, Крепкий чай, Glane23, Sun Ladder, AndersBot, LinkFA-Bot, Sürrell, Feketekave,Wholetone, Tide rolls, Codwar, Sindinero, Michaello, Marksdaman, Pageturners, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, Victori-aearle, Jamesmanz003, IW.HG, Eric-Wester, Szajci, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Liberaler Humanist, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Citationbot, Aljazbastic, E2eamon, Daven3t, W.stanovsky, Eumolpo, Neurolysis, LilHelpa, Stuka77, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Mark Sheridan, Lollepol,JALatimer, DSisyphBot, Ledballoon2, Jackthestroller, Eagleeyez83, Almabot, Lesjflswjf, J04n, GrouchoBot, A dullard, SDedalus91, Thun-derlightning33, Irishflowers, MadGeographer, Cresix, Locobot, Robsoto, Backwards15, Glic16, Nietzsche 2, Green Cardamom, Luiza1202,Wupop, Pmann5, Anna Roy, Michael93555, Yanajin33, Leighpatterson1, Jim no.6, Garrett Cook, Bolostoysrat, Cannolis, I dream of horses,LittleWink, Tóraí, Skyerise, Hamtechperson, RedBot, Wikiain, Jauhienij, SpaFon, Creesyboo, TobeBot, Patsytiger, ПешСай, Lam Kin Keung,Lotje, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, Andymcgrath, G R Taneja, Ktlynch, Rilegator, Ashot Gabrielyan, Diannaa, MistaPepsi, Peacedance, SatdeepGill, Kosneo, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, MShabazz, Exilegoesout, TisTRU, EmausBot, John of Reading,WikitanvirBot, JimJoyce2, Ladshomes, Undinal, StiffyAdams, Shane Down Under, Taro-Gabunia, TyroneSamuels, AvicBot, ZéroBot, Traxs7,Eltacodor, The Nut, HugoLoris, 1234r00t, Suslindisambiguator, AndrewOne, Erianna, KinturkMan, Mayur, Bomazi, MLWatts, Skpelkon,ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Pooeyfacemagee, Bped1985, Movses-bot, Cjweber, Vincent Moon, O.Koslowski, Widr, Nolabob, Bridini, Help-ful Pixie Bot, Zachdawg61, Lowercase sigmabot, Mr. Stradivarius on tour, Peebleje, MusikAnimal, Tomello, Jan Sapák, Orchidéenne~enwiki,Ostera65, Min.neel, Amy L Smith, 220 of Borg, Ireland - My Country., Bill.D Nguyen, Riley Huntley, Chernyi, I1990k, Neuroforever, Medi-ran, Khazar2, Ehlslaw, Dexbot, FiverFan65, Brhaughey, VIAFbot, Frosty, Mona Samulescu, Universitate ub, Choor monster, I am One ofMany, Julian Felsenburgh, Atlas-maker, BealBoru, Nigellwh, Ugog Nizdast, Zenibus, Paul2520, Monkbot, LawrencePrincipe, Vanished user31lk45mnzx90, Aklein62, Learnerktm, Solomon262, Coinred, Reibe67, Connaught4, Sekine93, Mr Big Eichelhäher, Jansena1, Killeaney, DaveBowman 2001, SandSpietta90, Monsieurdionysus, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, Psychoanalymass, Anna livia 100 and Anonymous: 825

• MahatmaGandhi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi?oldid=676918091 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, BrionVIBBER, Mav, Wesley, Tarquin, AstroNomer~enwiki, Jeronimo, DanKeshet, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Youssefsan, Danny, XJaM, JeLuF,Arvindn, Atorpen, William Avery, SimonP, Shii, Graft, Heron, Fonzy, Mintguy, Youandme, Tzartzam, Twilsonb, Stevertigo, Frecklefoot,Edward, Thalakan, Bdesham, Lir, Kchishol1970, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Hit star31, Dante Alighieri, Trevor H., Georgec, Shyamal, SamFrancis, Menchi, Ixfd64, Fruge~enwiki, Chinju, Gaurav, Lquilter, Vinodmp, Zanimum, Phoe6, Qaz, Yann, Plasticlax, Flamurai, Sebastian-Helm, Minesweeper, Tregoweth, ArnoLagrange, Jleybov, Mkweise, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Ronz, Arwel Parry, Docu, Snoyes, Den fjättradeankan~enwiki, Jebba, Jdforrester, Kingturtle, Jaybee~enwiki, Julesd, Dietary Fiber, Error, FQuist~enwiki, Sugarfish, Sir Paul, Bogdangiusca,Cyan, LouI, Vzbs34, Nikai, Susurrus, Kwekubo, Dpol, Jiang, Kaihsu, Jeandré du Toit, Evercat, TonyClarke, Mxn, Raven in Orbit, Coren, HolIgor,Ventura, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Viz, RickK, CTSWyneken, JCarriker, Jay, Fuzheado, Slark, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, DJClayworth, CBDunkerson, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Imc, Hyacinth, Grendelkhan, Kaal, Nv8200pa, Zero0000, Omegatron, Mowgli~enwiki,Buridan, Ed g2s, Thue, Tjdw, Raul654, Wetman, Jason M, Pakaran, Jerzy, Jusjih, Flockmeal, Jamesday, David.Monniaux, MD87, FinlayMcWalter, Michael Glass, Hajor, Owen, Shantavira, PuzzletChung, Phil Boswell, Chuunen Baka, Sjorford, Paul W, Bearcat, Gentgeen, Alex-Plank, DavidA, Dale Arnett, Phil R, Pigsonthewing, Moriori, Fredrik, Chris 73, Rdikeman, Donreed, Moncrief, Jmabel, Goethean, Ankur,Seglea, Naddy, Chancemill, Chris Roy, Postdlf, P0lyglut, Rma212, Henrygb, S13~enwiki, Clngre, Hemanshu, Auric, Blainster, Humus sapiens,Timrollpickering, Jondel, Sunray, Matty j, Rrjanbiah, Sheridan, Hadal, Millosh, JesseW, JackofOz, Robertoalencar, Ambarish, Anthony, GuyPeters, Mattflaschen, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina, Decumanus, Centrx, TOO, Dbenbenn, JamesMLane, Christopher Parham, N12345n, KimBruning, Nichalp, Haeleth, Seabhcan, Inter, Netoholic, Lethe, Tom harrison, Lupin, Ferkelparade, Samuel J. Howard, Mark Richards, Obli, Ich,Peruvianllama, Ds13, Everyking, No Guru, Curps, NeoJustin, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Cantus, Leonard G., Duncharris, Guanaco, Dm-maus, Jorge Stolfi, Sundar, Gandhiserve, Mboverload, Siroxo, DaveBrondsema, Marcusvox, Gugilymugily, ElfMage, Bobblewik, Golbez, Maxpower, Stevietheman, Barneyboo, Robsteadman, Tom k&e, Giridhar, Utcursch, LordSimonofShropshire, Pgan002, Andycjp, Karlward, Fys, RuyLopez, Geni, CryptoDerk, SarekOfVulcan, Antandrus, Beland, Joeblakesley, Salasks, Apox~enwiki, Ravikiran r, JoJan, Fuscob, MisfitToys, Pi-otrus, Scottperry, Lesgles, Kaldari, PDH, Khaosworks, Profvk, Mukerjee, Jossi, Heman, Rdsmith4, Mihoshi, Tomandlu, Szajd, Bumm13,PFHLai, Mysidia, Yossarian, Starx, Monk Bretton, Soman, Anirvan, Creidieki, Neutrality, Greventlv, Joyous!, Jcw69, Montanean, Robinklein, Syvanen, Kartheeque, Gilles paul, Deeceevoice, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Squash, Acsenray, Canterbury Tail,Esperant, Zaf, N-k, SYSS Mouse, Corti, Grstain, Dryazan, Mike Rosoft, Lucidish, Shahab, Ornil, D6, Freakofnurture, Wikkrockiana, CALR,DanielCD, Dablaze, Mercurius~enwiki, Discospinster, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Rhobite, Avriette, Guanabot, Fungus Guy,Somegeek, Satyadev, Luqui, Vsmith, Spundun, Silence, Cagliost, Murtasa, Mjpieters, Rummey, Arthur Holland, Ashwatham, Pavel Vozenilek,Paul August, SpookyMulder, Jorrell, Indrian, Horsten, Bender235, Unugy~enwiki, Mgedmin, Deprifry, Ntennis, Kaisershatner, LordGulliv-erofGalben, Mirage5000, Brian0918, Dpotter, CanisRufus, Alren, IndianCow, Sfahey, Izalithium, El C, Kiand, Kwamikagami, Mwanner,Ferret face, Aude, PhilHibbs, Shanes, AreJay, Sietse Snel, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Cacophony, Leif, IFaqeer, Guettarda, Causa sui, ChrisB,Grick, Bobo192, Balajiviswanathan, Chan Han Xiang, Revolutionary, Walkiped, Cmdrjameson, Spug, Fenster, MaxHund, Vishwas~enwiki,Tobacman, Sabretooth, Russ3Z, Amontero, Cavrdg, Ahc, Sasquatch, Jojit fb, ריינהארט ,לערי Photonique, Mahulkar, Shanen, Kbir1, Solar,Wytukaze, Obradovic Goran, Idleguy, Sam Korn, PochWiki, Kierano, Pearle, Jonathunder, JesseHogan, Hooperbloob, Orangemarlin, Friviere,Ranveig, Jumbuck, Raj2004, Juicyboy 325, Klipper~enwiki, Prashmail, Alansohn, Gary, PaulHanson, Sepro, Polarscribe, Melromero, Hydri-otaphia, Borisblue, Atlant, Rd232, Casbo92, Paleorthid, Ronline, Andrew Gray, TintininLisbon, JoaoRicardo, Riana, LRBurdak, AzaToth,Lectonar, Splat, Ferrierd, Lightdarkness, Kel-nage, Seans Potato Business, Mac Davis, Mailer diablo, Pippu d'Angelo, InShaneee, Cdc, Eu-kesh, Denniss, RyanFreisling, Malo, Metron4, DreamGuy, Ywong137, Snowolf, Mid, Ravenhull, KJK::Hyperion, Benna, Ombudsman, Melaen,Bbsrock, Immanuel Giel, BanyanTree, Dhammafriend, Fourthords, Irdepesca572, ABraidotti, Evil Monkey, VivaEmilyDavies, Sailingstefan,Jobe6, Tony Sidaway, Grenavitar, CloudNine, Sciurinæ, Mcmillin24, Oliver s., Jguk, Mmsarfraz, BDD, Freyr, Sether, MIT Trekkie, SomniusKenate~enwiki, Alai, Redvers, Saiyanfan13, Embryomystic, Dan100, Umapathy, Markaci, Chrysaor, Tintin1107, Adrian.benko, Vanished userdfvkjmet9jweflkmdkcn234, Dismas, Tariqabjotu, Mahanga, SteveHFish, Sicking, Hijiri88, Sam Vimes, Zntrip, Swaroopch, Tristessa de StAnge, Newnoise~enwiki, Weyes, Angr, Boothy443, Iquadri, Rorschach, Octernion, Mel Etitis, OwenX, Woohookitty, Jacen Aratan, Shreevatsa,

360 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

TigerShark, Wdyoung, Yansa, Rocastelo, Spettro9, Ganeshk, Mark K. Jensen, Syiem, LupSubBrad~enwiki, ToddFincannon, Armando, Topsyn-ergy, Robert K S, Briangotts, Iconoclast~enwiki, Taciturnip, Trödel, Shmitra, Tabletop, Kelisi, Bkwillwm, Schzmo, Psneog, Krzysiek~enwiki,Flamingspinach, John Hill, Pgilman, Stochata, Blacksun, Anevba, DaeX, Wayward, ThomasHarte, Toussaint, Gimboid13, Jacj, Adjam, Zpb52,Nileshbansal, Ajshm, Marudubshinki, Emerson7, EtLux, Paxsimius, MassGalactusUniversum, SqueakBox, Jarkka Saariluoma, Jebur~enwiki,Graham87, Alienus, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Deadcorpse, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Pranathi, Dwaipayanc, Josh Parris,Canderson7, Lhademmor, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Tim!, P3Pp3r, Nightscream, Koavf, Chirags, Vary, Alex Nisnevich, PinchasC, Amire80,Tangotango, TheRingess, MZMcBride, Tawker, Darguz Parsilvan, Elefuntboy, Vegaswikian, Benl47, Haya shiloh, Ligulem, Sohmc, Moorlock,Brighterorange, Yug, Unfocused, Supernathan, MarnetteD, Matt Deres, Sumanch, GregAsche, Sango123, Manupilatus, Yamamoto Ichiro, Jesu-sizrizen, Titoxd, Elsan, Ageo020, JEdward, Ian Pitchford, RobertG, Kiwichris, Musical Linguist, Mickyates, Gold Stur, Doc glasgow, Nihiltres,JdforresterBot, Alhutch, Woozle, SouthernNights, AGGoH, Fragglet, RexNL, Gurch, PrinceA, Valermos, Moontorch, Atomic Cosmos, Quux-plusone, Brendan Moody, TeaDrinker, Mattman00000, Alphachimp, Parerga, Piniricc65, Thecurran, Gurubrahma, Gareth E Kegg, Shaun3000,King1, SumSumne, Psantora, Colenso, Chobot, DaGizza, Nightingale, Lightsup55, Jaraalbe, VolatileChemical, Stephen Compall, Bgwhite, Cac-tus.man, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, Dakar, Flcelloguy, Hilighter555, Elfguy, Vjz666, Wavelength, Khushi, Hawaiian717, MarcMyWords, Sudar-shanhs, Hairy Dude, Deeptrivia, Gyre, Spartiate, Cwphd97, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Michael Slone, Aznph8playa, Jtkiefer, Musicpvm, Sillybilly,Hornplease, Severa, Conscious, Pimpmaster, Farside6, Splash, H.b.~enwiki, Rajeshd, Stalmannen, Cwlq, SpuriousQ, GusF, CanadianCaesar,Maor X, Hydrargyrum, Akamad, Chensiyuan, Grubber, Lord Voldemort, Gaius Cornelius, Alex Bakharev, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Gsingh,Preserver, Wimt, Cunado19, TheMandarin, Rhindle The Red, Anomalocaris, William Caputo, Srini81, Marcus Cyron, Shanel, Friday, Nawl-inWiki, Swollib, Rak3sh, Muntuwandi, Rohitbd, DavidConrad, Ethan, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Spike Wilbury, Nirvana2013, Aeusoes1, Brainy-Broad, Grafen, Erielhonan, Badagnani, Jaxl, Harksaw, Tailpig, Rjensen, Taco325i, Janet13, Kitabparast, 2p4dp, Anetode, Cholmes75, Litefoot,Kingpomba, Bobak, Raven4x4x, Waqas1987, Effco, Zanin, Misza13, Fs, Nick C, Tony1, Ospalh, Bucketsofg, SameerKhan, Syrthiss, AaronSchulz, EEMIV, Kyle Barbour, Davidsteinberg, Priyanath, DeadEyeArrow, Ejl, Tachs, Cardsplayer4life, Oliverdl, Deepak~enwiki, Maunus,Siyavash, Phenz, Limetom, User27091, Slicing, Wknight94, Ms2ger, Vishalgupta95, Fallout boy, Mugunth Kumar, Tigger69, Richardcavell,BazookaJoe, DieWeisseRose, Akashiiii, Emijrp, Johndburger, Balarishi, KingKane, Hermione J. Granger, Fulup, Ninly, Gtdp, Encephalon,Teiladnam, Cynicism addict, Nikkimaria, Chopper Dave, Malaiya, Djkimmons, Spondoolicks, Mike Selinker, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili, Pb30,Empion, Schauba, GraemeL, DGaw, Rlove, JoanneB, Peyna, Arthuc01, CWenger, Nirav.maurya, LeonardoRob0t, Alemily, Kulturvultur, Emc2,JLaTondre, Pratheepps, Rouge8, Garion96, Staxringold, AMbroodEY, X3210, JeffBurdges, Tarquin Binary, Kungfuadam, Aeosynth, CaptainProton, Tim1965, RG2, Ramanpotential, NeilN, Benandorsqueaks, Andrew73, SkerHawx, Wallie, Mikegrant, Groyolo, Soir, Jmeden2000,Street Scholar, Luk, Pournami, Sandeep4tech, Torgo, Sardanaphalus, PKtm, Treesmill, Attilios, Yakudza, SmackBot, Lijujacobk, YellowMon-key, Brandon39, Slarre, Unschool, Deborah909, Monkeyblue, Classicfilms, Saravask, Bobet, Ksargent, Zazaban, Reedy, Prodego, InverseHyper-cube, Royalguard11, Olorin28, Melchoir, K-UNIT, Argyll Lassie, Grazon, Sajita, Fdt, Mindspillage on Speed, Pgk, C.Fred, Vald, Tjj~enwiki,Feyer, Jagged 85, Gagandeep, Thunderboltz, Patrickneil, ScaldingHotSoup, Piccadilly, Scifiintel, Zyxw, Dwslassls, Delldot, Miljoshi, Paxse,PJM, Vilerage, IronDuke, Warfvinge, Nscheffey, Edgar181, Wittylama, HalfShadow, Yamaguchi , Srkris, Magicalsaumy, Aksi great, Gilliam,Brianski, Quotemstr, Hmains, The Famous Movie Director, Desiphral, Ennorehling, Nahtanoj04, Holy Ganga, Honbicot, ERcheck, A SunshadeLust, Wookipedian, Qtoktok, BenAveling, Fetofs, Izehar, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Jamie C, Pecher, Vikrams-ingh, Keegan, Ishango, CompREM, Ian13, Catchpole, BrandonCsSanders, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Liamdaly620, Miquonranger03, WikiFlier,Silly rabbit, Apeloverage, Mike1, Timneu22, (boxed), Hibernian, Victorgrigas, KureCewlik81, JoeBlogsDord, ImpuMozhi, Dlohcierekim’ssock, Dustimagic, CMacMillan, Baronnet, Ned Scott, KC., Konstable, Bil1, A. B., Rlevse, Mexcellent, GoodDay, Mladifilozof, Rama’s Arrow,ClarkF1, Daddy Kindsoul, Modest Genius, Saiswa, Mark Riehm, Royboycrashfan, Zsinj, Mark philip, Onlytalent, Muboshgu, Can't sleep, clownwill eat me, RyanEberhart, Ajaxkroon, Tamfang, Shantrika, DéRahier, Eliyahu S, Writtenright, Furby100, Ahudson, Zone46, Onorem, Nixea-gle, Arnavj, Bobred, AMK152, Nima Baghaei, Scotsboyuk, TheKMan, TKD, Krsont, Jian5 narag, PlasticFork, Arnob1, Coolfrood, BolivianUnicyclist, Kcordina, Joesmoe8, Edivorce, Apofisu, SundarBot, Aktron, Threeafterthree, Stevenmitchell, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka, Activision45,Krich, Smooth O, Tomstoner, Cybercobra, Nakon, Savidan, JonasRH, TedE, Astrogeek, VegaDark, 49ers14, Horses In The Sky, Duncapota-mas, Rustypup49, Candacechivis, SnappingTurtle, Shadow1, Atul Pradhan, Marc-André Aßbrock, ShaunES, Akshaysrinivasan, Gujuguy, Sidha,Hammer1980, BryanG, Ghaleonh41, Lisasmall, Jlujan69, Maelnuneb, Kotjze, Ninja Kurosai, Kfasimpaur, Sean Karol, Kendrick7, Bdiscoe,Panserbjorn, Evlekis, Er Komandante, Suidafrikaan, Swedenman, Bidabadi~enwiki, Al001, RossF18, Pilotguy, Wikipedical, Chrisjonesmic,Kukini, Tesseran, Wilt, SubTACanWor, Cvieg, Ohconfucius, Amartyabag, Will Beback, Aghitza, Akraj, Cast, Lambiam, Esrever, Nishkid64,Akubra, Dono, ArglebargleIV, LtPowers, Rory096, Swatjester, Skyscrap27, TheTruth12, Valfontis, Trojan traveler, Srikeit, Pizzadelivery-boy, Dbtfz, Kuru, Khazar, John, AmiDaniel, Terminator50, Machodude25, Vgy7ujm, Cronholm144, Kipala, Heimstern, CPMcE, Aaronchall,Park3r, Soumyasch, Greyscale, Scottishchick, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Evenios, Shyamsunder, JorisvS, Coredesat, Merchbow, EvanRobidoux, CaptainVindaloo, Green Giant, ErinKM, Vanished user 56po34it12ke, Siddharth ballal, Stelio, Syrcatbot, Yogesh Khandke, De-viathan~enwiki, Ben Moore, Ckatz, LebanonChild, CyrilB, Speedboy Salesman, A. Parrot, Across.The.Synapse, CJ Withers, Yashkochar,JHunterJ, Gunray, Bless sins, Shimmera, Fuzzy510, Dreamteam~enwiki, Loganlogn, Jdelphi, Tasc, Booksworm, Matthew Massey, Freyr35,Macellarius, Waggers, Indianman20, Anonymous anonymous, Ambuj.Saxena, Ryulong, KurtRaschke, Halaqah, Shijaz, Avant Guard, RMHED,Peyre, Iamthejenk, Vagary, Darry2385, Drpaluga, Dl2000, Amitch, Politepunk, Ashimac, Rakeshkraja, Seb Patrick, Srinikasturi, RudyB, HisS-paceResearch, Fan-1967, Iridescent, Michaelbusch, Mike Lewis08, Laddiebuck, Spartian, Paul venter, Joseph Solis in Australia, Skapur, TimDrew, J Di, Necrotaylor, Tony Fox, Sam Li, Matt714, Belgium EO, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Jackbergin, Sanjaychoudhry, Bharatveer, Maelor,Dr92, Supertigerman, Ggalav, Anger22, Adam sk, Benchaz, Tubezone, Fdp, Tawkerbot2, Htims nivek, Siredwlynch, Virad, Nobleeagle, Ol-lieegg, Hpropsom, Bearingbreaker92, Nirax, The Haunted Angel, Sephiroth554, Isaac1682, =CJK=, Sarvagnya, KNM, Paulmlieberman, Wolf-dog, Unknownworld, CmdrObot, Ekn~enwiki, Randhirreddy, Ale jrb, Wafulz, Shiva’s Trident, Zmaz0ox, Fredfredson, John Riemann Soong,Iced Kola, Newbrak, Picaroon, Bigone2345, Ipaat, Arnabchaks, Randalllin, Drinibot, GHe, SaadRajabali, Sendrin, AshLin, Ohsnowsoft, Gan-fon, Shandris, Avillia, Anil1956, Wratmann, Mattvaccaro, Rohita, Karenjc, Chicheley, Cdobson, Basar, MrFish, Besidesamiracle, Simeon,Gregbard, Sanjay Tiwari, Rudjek, Cydebot, Americ8, Peripitus, Pyroorb, Chhajjusandeep, Reywas92, MC10, Unblessed, Fair Deal, Aristo-phanes68, Ramitmahajan, ChardingLLNL, Dhanveer, Rifleman 82, Michaelas10, Clayoquot, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Danorton, JFreeman,Mortus est, Corpx, Frostlion, ST47, Lugnuts, Huysman, Philip1992, Babub, Mr. XYZ, Tawkerbot4, Kirandotc, Banjee ca~enwiki, DougWeller, Arvind Iyengar, Chrislk02, Rockromeo, Asenine, Iliank, AroundTheGlobe, Koonhoe~enwiki, Lee, Googleman2000, Garik, BaLlnuts,Kozuch, Blindman shady, Ward3001, Apandey, Briantw, Diabloblue, Omicronpersei8, Prof75, Leonjbrm, Lo2u, UberScienceNerd, Jjjenka,Gimmetrow, Vkvora2001, Rbanzai, Aldis90, Nrabinowitz, Kingstowngalway, Evil666, BetacommandBot, Paragon12321, Rusl, Doodlefaceleft,Edmusketloader, TonyTheTiger, Kennypro9, Jobber, Kablammo, A Pair of Shoes, Serpent-A, Hazmat2, Steve Dufour, N5iln, Smee, Edwardx,

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 361

Prdindian89, Mereda, Burnzy86, Headbomb, Marek69, John254, Bobblehead, TheTruthiness, Java13690, Randomfrenchie, X201, Alientrav-eller, JustAGal, Anirved, CharlotteWebb, Nick Number, Tatra, Scshute, Scottandrewhutchins, Manikond@gmail.com, Escarbot, Jimmah, Men-tifisto, Ju66l3r, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, GopalSharma, Jeames, Akulabubu, Konman72, Pizzaparty99, Fedayee, Luna Santin,Jrrao, Aprogressivist, Vish 106, Carolmooredc, WoodstockEarth, Tchoutoye, Prof.Thamm, Atavi, Dr who1975, Karthik sripal, Manushand,THEunique, Malcolm, MECU, Ariah, Yellowdesk, Johnny Sumner, Hoponpop69, KingNewbs, Trakesht, Spartaz, CharCoal, Jankit, Shousokut-suu, Cbrodersen, Ontario54, Myanw, Ellissound, MikeLynch, DOSGuy, Wvaughan, JAnDbot, Xnux, Manishjoshi19311, Husond, Kjmt, Ek-abhishek, Bakasuprman, MER-C, Skomorokh, Ivandunn, The Transhumanist, AP.BOT, Janejellyroll, Arch dude, Db099221, PubliusFL, Lol-master, CleanUpCrew, Vikram ramesh, KuwarOnline, Plm209, Kmisra, Xeno, Rueben lys, Restname, Kerotan, Mrmdog, Y2kcrazyjoker4,SiobhanHansa, Bencherlite, Chintanshah123, Hai hello, Benstown, PrimroseGuy, Zadenk, Jaysweet, KaElin, Parsecboy, Bennybp, Bongwarrior,VoABot II, VanDykeBrown, Viggyjiggy, Cambio~enwiki, AuburnPilot, Vivsriaus, Stefan2004, Jetstreamer, Kuyabribri, Shutyerclam, CattleGirl,Kajasudhakarababu, Faizhaider, Doug Coldwell, Flession, UKSF, ThomasGFunk, Royal Maratha, Dinosaur puppy, Marznafri, DrRon~enwiki,Chesdovi, Dimsim37, Leeborkman, Hisownspace, Indu Singh, Hekerui, Presearch, Kannanp, Cgingold, Tuncrypt, L10vizzk, Lenschulwitz,Huseyx2, Destine', Sesesq, Zepheriah, Toddcs, Mpieckowska, Fang 23, Anit.pimple, Amit Patel, Bharathiya, Vlad b, Dharmadhyaksha, Wog-gyWoggy, Glen, Talon Artaine, JaGa, Philg88, Vstata, Piyush 2006, WinstonRothchild, Fabrice Ferrer, Purslane, Teardrop onthefire, Jindo,King Dracula, Hugobone, TheRanger, Patstuart, Milkcrisp, Max Power58, Slashmore, Camapily, Smartinfoteck1, Tanmay best, Salimi, Al-ihasnain, Skumarla, A. 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Anderson, Tsmall2231, Seraphim, Allakky, RonaldDuncan, Linsnick, Psy-chotroll, Buddhipriya, Soul Train, Wassermann~enwiki, Stuttgart1950, Mannafredo, Carnivean, Rsseck17, Josephabradshaw, Windja2, Dude-manbro, Gp2much, Mazarin07, Nikkul, Piyush Sriva, Zain Ebrahim111, Smellsam44, Tri400, Lerdthenerd, Be.human, Synthebot, Svarukala,Charlieedwinthompson, Burntsauce, Softlavender, Kagori, Scheibenzahl, Brendon1555, Sevela.p, Ozsvensk, Sesshomaru, Bporopat, Zerged,BPrider, Pjoef, AdhunikaSarvajna, Bitbut, AlleborgoBot, John kingston, Hasam, FastFood27, Masterofpsi, Itsnoteasybeingbrown, Teetotaler,Rathat48, DuncanCraig1949, AltShiftTheL337, PeterBFZ, Vibsir2, Quietbritishjim, SieBot, Cdrk, Brenont, Senorsquiggles, Gprince007, Pal-lab1234, Scarian, ToePeu.bot, Eeemoteb, Athangjain, Viskonsas, Teknolyze, Siddharthd101, Triwbe, JabbaTheBot, Tylercosgrove, GlassCo-bra, Vrlobo888, KnowledgeHegemony, TR, Aillema, Tiptoety, Rudeboyskunk, Crackfucus, Praveen goud, Arbor to SJ, Austy351, Openpage,Simpson3883, Moi8642, DevOhm, Oxymoron83, Jack1956, Naimesh.thakkar, Umair123456789, Beast of traal, Theoneandonlyother, An-droid Mouse Bot 3, Theevilbob, Sapovadia, Lightmouse, TrufflesTheLamb, Polbot, MASQUERAID, Templars26, Tds247, Rhsimard, PbBot,Mynamespatrick, AMbot, Madhavacharya, Darkmetaknight64, Dpilomansion, Aumnamahashiva, Vice regent, Janggeom, Blaze hole00, MoriRiyo~enwiki, Hamiltondaniel, Rajeshbiee, Ayounali, Georgekera11, Huku-chan, AJadhavji, Quinacrine, Saule sauliite, Dabomb87, PerryTa-chett, Pinkadelica, JL-Bot, Sitush, Randy Kryn, Kanonkas, ImageRemovalBot, Deavenger, RegentsPark, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Dkcreatto,ClueBot, Leclaird, Binksternet, PipepBot, Zeerak88, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cliff, EoGuy, Arakunem, Ostarbursto, Jesus111, Mercy-Otis, Cube lurker, TheOldJacobite, सुभाष राऊत, Apple1976, DifferCake, Lxherman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Jon.bobby123, Adamfrange, PM-Drive1061, Arjun2hotty, Shatrunjaymall, Mnuez, Stuartmiddleton, Ashashyou, Puruvara, DragonBot, LeoFrank, Underaverage05, Freddy18,Ilovezeth, Bricksmasher, Bateau, Jordansmithdabest, Diderot’s dreams, Alexbot, TheSnacks, Tomeasy, Relata refero, Lordricha, Papna, Gob-eshock Gobochondro Gyanotirtho, Ottre, SpikeToronto, Shalimer, Simon D M, Sun Creator, Thebudman2008, Jimmy da tuna, Thesunkenroad,NuclearWarfare, World, BlueCaper, Aman asv, Princhest, Holothurion, Xxagile, Drop of Soul, Redthoreau, Tonybowyer, Zaile61, Shem1805,Aman Zaidi, BOTarate, Another Believer, Chinmay N Kumar, C628, Axelchick2395, JaneGrey, Pensil, Donvito08, Roadahead, Versus22, Mk-lobas, Subbuktek, Johnny raghhhhh, Spidermen, Indopug, Psymier, Liberal Humanist, DumZiBoT, Camboxer, JSteinbeck2, XLinkBot, Athrion,Annas.k, AgnosticPreachersKid, Swedengirl, DrOxacropheles, Nathan Johnson, Vanished user k3rmwkdmn4tjna3d, Agent007ravi, Niketsun-daram1977, Od22, WikHead, Yr Wyddfa, Karpouzi, BadNightmare 7, Sashko295, WikiDao, Mar bells87, JaredH20, Vicksburg360, Ksetlur,Good Olfactory, SelfQ, Sherepunjab4u, Tar-ba-gan, Kburts, DanTheShrew, Pharmakos, Aragupta, DylanLiebhart, Mdbertram, Bhutamsa, TheSquicks, Addbot, Anusha mallireddy, Mortense, Some jerk on the Internet, Barsoomian, Beamathan, Jojhutton, Micromaster, To refine, Knowl-edgeHegemonyPart2, Masur, Thaejas, Ronhjones, Adirele, Koekani, CanadianLinuxUser, Noozgroop, Aaftabj, Masako Kawasaki, Download,Epicadam, Lihaas, EhsanQ, Profitoftruth85, Debresser, NittyG, AnnaFrance, Deamon138, SpBot, LinkFA-Bot, Sunzlvy, 5 albert square, Lown-sclear, Kahasabha, Chazella, AgadaUrbanit, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Niranjanmehta, Andrevruas, Guitarledgend109, Rasulnrasul,Legobot, Drpickem, SamLin, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Granpuff, Ajp2000, Csalmon, Dimitrischristoforou, Pavn123, Reenem, , Goin-goveredge, Eduen, Hazardasd, AnomieBOT, Wikikoti, 1exec1, X-showboat-king-x, Commander Shepard, Sebco7, Ulric1313, Materialscien-tist, DAFMM, Citation bot, OllieFury, Tezpur4u, Manga-assasin42, Dewan357, Irek Biernat, ArthurBot, Parthian Scribe, Xqbot, Vrghs jacob,S h i v a (Visnu), Sampayu, Eric Yurken, ForIndia, Dav3395, GenQuest, Cited third page, HFret, Vanished user xlkvmskgm4k, Srich32977,Almabot, Epthehonest, Anonymous from the 21st century, GrouchoBot, Andres arg, Cruz-iglesia, Omnipaedista, Umar Zulfikar Khan, Gorge-CustersSabre, Supernova0, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Franco3450, Sayerslle, Ace111, Broodwaif raj, Irving92, Doulos Christos, Someone963852,Conman336, Alialiac, Nihar S, Glic16, Nietzsche 2, Marzedu, Akhilaum, Verbum Veritas, Shadowjams, A.amitkumar, Mkarja, Thehelpfulbot,Tpetschauer, Mudassir Rizwan, Green Cardamom, Tktru, Hillsbro, LSG1-Bot, Csa.certified, Macruzq, Avorrok, FrescoBot, Rudra79, Ams-

362 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

terdam360, Paine Ellsworth, Coltsfan1284, Jimijohn, Tobby72, AlexanderKaras, Ace of Spades, Atmapuri, Gchoitz, D'ohBot, Jonathansuh,Свифт, Aghniyya, Amartya ray2001, DrRom, Askalan, Purpleturple, KnowledgeAndVision, Xhaoz, Pure rabari, Citation bot 1, Launchballer,Pshent, All knowledge is free for all, Salmachisti, Tkuvho, SpacemanSpiff, Princeofdark07, Richard Reinhardt, Deepakcg, Asheps13, Jone-sey95, Vladmirfish, Steph-mals, Calmer Waters, Tinton5, The.megapode, Sluffs, Moonraker, N0thingbetter, MastiBot, SpaceFlight89, Fixer88,NeutronTaste, Motorizer, Nash17, Jandalhandler, Akkida, Vikrambedekar, TedderBot, Bsananda, Abc518, EfAston, Kgrad, FoxBot, Tobe-Bot, Vibhutemahesh, TheHyksos, DixonDBot, BengaliHindu, Vinay84, Throwaway85, Sheogorath, Standardfact, Sarangsaras, Necrophilebeast,Uppayi mappila, Arunbandana, Rasputin Rumplestiltskin, Heyy963, Jesse933, Dream dare do, Theflyingeyebrows, Jethwarp, January, Amyz-zXX, ManinderKhabra, Ansumang, Pravsingh1, Lemonsky91, Dj questy, Immyownworsenemy, 2Tone89, Neal wells, Linguisticgeek, Canuck-ian89, Diannaa, Srithern, Hari7478, Tbhotch, World8115, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, Jackehammond, DRAGONBOOSTER, Phlegat, In ictu oculi, WildBot, EmausBot, And we drown, John of Reading, Desertroad, Franjklogos, Mk5384, Gored82, An-shuman.jrt, Dewritech, Murphy4709, Pdbowman, GoingBatty, JohnValeron, Smitty1337, Bull Market, Wikiturrican, Thomasionus, Dvnaveen,Lucyrjones, Kkm010, The Madras, Fdf3, ZéroBot, Cupidvogel, Vensatry, Paradawx87, RGS, Trinidade, Alpha Quadrant, Thomasdav, Zloyvol-sheb, Wikignome0530, Jarodalien, Bluesky10, Wayne Slam, Someone65, Rcsprinter123, Jay-Sebastos, Yesitsraining, Norsci, Karthikndr,Mazurczak88, Joshua Doubek, IGeMiNix, Brandmeister, Sachinvenga, Shrigley, Judyholiday, AlexJohnTorres12, Lacobrigo, Matsievsky, Jere-myMcClean, Bill william compton, DarkXWeatherX, ChuispastonBot, Brigade Piron, Mittgaurav, Vivvt, DASHBotAV, Paulinindia, Manu-active, Shi Hou, Deaddebate, TitaniumCarbide, Olliejd11, Vaibhavs80, Renegadegill, Kenneth67, Lklusener, Viki9896899778, Helpsome, WillBeback Auto, ClueBot NG, Thebombzen, Msathia, Shahrameshb, King Of Aviators, Aberdonian99, Zuzubak, LogX, Rangers1007, Olliejd12,BarrelProof, Joefromrandb, Fauzan, Ravneek, Ewhitney3316, Nok163, Peaceout22345003, Millermk, LJosil, Ambkj123, Yster76, Errantsig-nal, Wdchk, Tinpisa, Akhil.bharathan, Hazhk, Aurora Glory Paradise, Kim Traynor, Sabinabraham, Newyorkadam, LesLein, Coulten, NorthAtlanticist Usonian, IgnorantArmies, Harsimaja, Hisham, Helpful Pixie Bot, SuprCookie, Thisthat2011, Dev1240, Sreeking, Indu27, Ayanosh,Titodutta, Rajananand456, BG19bot, AbhiSuryawanshi, ASHaber, Goldfinger123, Politics19, Sahara4u, PhnomPencil, Frze, Jogi don, Anub-hab91, Dhanikataria, Debastein, Asha14, Pradeeptubati, Joydeep, CitationCleanerBot, Jeancey, Wodrow, Liczk, Zedshort, 1292simon, Math-nerd314159, Ubiquinoid, Adamstraw99, 9711CA, Vanischenu, Achowat, Nicke.me, Tamravidhir, BattyBot, KatieBU, Dav subrajathan.357,Samirbodkhe, Veazul, Haymouse, Timothy Gu, ChrisGualtieri, Sermadison, Alexyoung97, Nick.mon, Khazar2, Itbeso, Олеґ, Kumarila, Stu-mink, JYBot, Dylanvt, Srinubabuau6, Thhist, Harsh 2580, BrightStarSky, ABDEVILLIERS0007, Dexbot, Charles Essie, Mogism, Coolden-nisjo9490, Abitoby, Ashwin147, Sp1nd01, Svpnikhil, Vivekmandan, Beckmanse, Sriharsh1234, Rushikesh.tilak, KSK-War, Where’stheanykey,Mifciw, Wikirishiaacharya, Vanished user kjn lsr35kjhwertsek4, Royroydeb, Prabhu Prasad Tripathy, SteamWiki, Vanamonde93, BreakfastJr,Ashishben, Eshwar.om, Rahul RJ Jain, DrAndrewWinters, BEST STAR 907, Pragmatic Idealist, Vgnome, Flat Out, Wamiq, Jan Kaninchen, Cen-soredScribe, Nawintechno, Saramohanpur1940, Montonius, Ugog Nizdast, The Herald, ThinkingYouth, Zaketo, Inanygivenhole, KhoikhoiPos-sum, Jackmcbarn, Notthebestusername, Yoonadue, Philofiler, RouLong, Bladesmulti, Bojo1498, Sachinjangra0, Ithinkicahn, Meteor sandwichyum, Royalcourtier, Atcovi, Seabuckthorn, Lakun.patra, Skr15081997, Bittenfig, Viratk, Pohnnyjham, Mahusha, Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka,Shane Cyrus, Indrajitdas, Vinícius94, Olef641, Ssven2, Ibirapuera, Ankurjoshi87, PatTheMoron, Kautilya3, Happyned, Mahajandeepakv,SourceOhWatch (SrotahaUvacha), Srinivasprabhu933, Sqizcm, Rimjhimgolf, Debtang1019, Conradjagan, Sumedh Tayade, Hemal.hansda25,KasparBot, A3X2, Roman Windfeller, Haxxorsid and Anonymous: 2067

• T. S. Eliot Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot?oldid=677410392 Contributors: Eloquence, Mav, Tarquin, Sjc, Deb, WilliamAvery, Camembert, Hephaestos, Someone else, Leandrod, DennisDaniels, Ubiquity, Jazz77, Infrogmation, DopefishJustin, Jahsonic, ChuckSMITH, Mkweise, Kricxjo, Kingturtle, Andres, Kaihsu, Alex756, John K, EdH, Mxn, RodC, Charles Matthews, Wik, DJ Clayworth, Tp-bradbury, Maximus Rex, Itai, SEWilco, Thue, Rbellin, Jusjih, Francs2000, Dimadick, Bearcat, AlexPlank, Robbot, Pfortuny, Pigsonthewing,Chocolateboy, Goethean, Naddy, Lowellian, Mirv, Ashley Y, Sverdrup, Academic Challenger, Timrollpickering, Hadal, UtherSRG, JackofOz,Wereon, Mandel, Quadalpha, SoLando, Xanzzibar, Oobopshark, Pengo, Cutler, Ndorward, Centrx, Crculver, DocWatson42, Cobra libre, NatKrause, Nunh-huh, Tom harrison, Folks at 137, Ds13, Everyking, Elinnea, Dratman, Gamaliel, Jackol, Bobblewik, Valium~enwiki, Neilc, Gad-fium, Utcursch, R. fiend, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Bhuck, OverlordQ, MarkSweep, PDH, ShakataGaNai, Rdsmith4, Bodnotbod, Necrothesp,Icairns, Yossarian, MRSC, Joyous!, Mschlindwein, Jp347, Dedalus (usurped), HamYoyo, ELApro, Flex, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, BKH2007,D6, Simonides, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, An Siarach, Buffyg, Discospinster, Pmsyyz, FiP, YUL89YYZ, Pratfall, MeltBanana, JPX7, Ben-der235, Patton1138, ESkog, Pjrich, Shanes, EurekaLott, Dalf, Prsephone1674, Bobo192, Hurricane111, Smalljim, Wipe, Clawson, Evolauxia,Filiocht, Viriditas, Elipongo, Dungodung, Rajah, Rje, Cunningham, Ardric47, MPerel, Sam Korn, Lunapuella, Merope, Alansohn, PaulHan-son, Richard Harvey, Walter Görlitz, Ben davison, Arthena, Neonumbers, Philip Cross, Ricky81682, Kevin M Marshall, Damnreds, AzaToth,Justinbb, Splat, SlimVirgin, Mailer diablo, WikiParker, Snowolf, Chicopac, Wtmitchell, Velella, Bbsrock, Benson85, Pioneer-12, Amorymeltzer,Sciurinæ, Mikeo, Alai, Drbreznjev, Eric Herboso, Bookandcoffee, Ron Ritzman, Pcpcpc, Woohookitty, Bjones, Mindmatrix, FeanorStar7, RHa-worth, Masterjamie, James Kemp, Splintax, Dodiad, Vhata, Duncan.france, Clemmy, Smmurphy, Wayward, MechBrowman, ZephyrAnycon,Mandarax, SilhouetteSaloon, Graham87, Deltabeignet, DavidCane, Kbdank71, Thisdude415, Jclemens, TWaye, Rkevins, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi,Mayumashu, Koavf, Jake Wartenberg, JubalHarshaw, Vary, Mick gold, ElKevbo, Merrilee, Afterwriting, Tomtheman5, The Deviant, FlaBot,Dpknauss, Ground Zero, Old Moonraker, Dan Guan, Vclaw, GT, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Arwin~enwiki, Str1977, Maltmomma, Meyer, GarethE Kegg, JonathanFreed, Great Deku Tree, King of Hearts, Chobot, Quycksilver, DVdm, Gdrbot, Hall Monitor, UkPaolo, Roboto de Ajvol,The Rambling Man, Siward, Strangefreeworld, YurikBot, JJLeahy, RobotE, Andyroid, RussBot, Sputnikcccp, Severa, Zafiroblue05, SpuriousQ,Stephenb, Grubber, Archelon, James Nicol, Schoen, Abarry, B. Phillips, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, DragonHawk, Lsisson, LiniShu, Phil Bas-tian, Welsh, Rjensen, Geoff NoNick, Thiseye, Equilibrial, JDoorjam, Silvery, Xdenizen, Jpbowen, Kaiwhakamarie, Semperf, Tony1, Bucketsofg,Jimbo35353, DeadEyeArrow, Psy guy, Bota47, Evrik, Nlu, Wknight94, Avraham, Rwxrwxrwx, Sandstein, Dbratton, Adam Holland, Pastricide,Deville, Homagetocatalonia, Saaadi, Theda, Closedmouth, Diimmortales, De Administrando Imperio, Alasdair, Whobot, Tyrenius, JLaTondre,Spliffy, Johnpseudo, Stevouk, Allens, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, JDspeeder1, Iago Dali, Stumps, DVD R W, CIreland, JonnyB, SmackBot,Haymaker, Classicfilms, BeteNoir, Impaciente, Jmmeemer, Unyoyega, D C McJonathan, ScaldingHotSoup, Verne Equinox, Delldot, Eskimbot,Discordanian, Hongshi, Kintetsubuffalo, Hbackman, Lexo, Typhoonchaser, Eddy b, T-Bone, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, Andy M. Wang,Vontafeijos, Rmosler2100, Bluebot, Keegan, Tree Biting Conspiracy, NakedCelt, MalafayaBot, Sadads, Josteinn, Nbarth, Baronnet, Yakuman,D-Rock, Philipvanlidth, Mookiemp, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, Rrburke, Addshore, Edivorce, Badbilltucker, Constants, Ascreavie, Makemi, Nakon,Oanabay04, Whipsandchains, Dreadstar, Allansteel, Richard001, TGC55, DoubleAW, Trevor.sawler, Hgilbert, Sa54364, Drc79, Jitterro, Timriley, FelisLeo, Kukini, Rossp, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, Michael David, SashatoBot, Rory096, Mksword, Ser Amantio diNicolao, BrownHairedGirl, TheNathanator, Dbtfz, John, Mcshadypl, Loodog, JohnCub, Bo99, Tim bates, Agentscott00, JoshuaZ, Tornadoman,Ckatz, Pfold, The Man in Question, Ian Dalziel, JHunterJ, Astuishin, Notwist, Beetstra, Waggers, Neddyseagoon, Midnightblueowl, Anonymous

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 363

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• Charles Darwin Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin?oldid=676918001 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Paul Drye, BrionVIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Robert Merkel, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Malcolm Farmer, Rjstott, Andre Engels, XJaM, Darius Bacon, Deb,Anthere, Mswake, DonDaMon, R Lowry, Sfdan, Ewen, Olivier, Someone else, Frecklefoot, Edward, Michael Hardy, TimShell, Felsenst, Bri-anHansen~enwiki, Gui, Lexor, Shyamal, Karl, Gabbe, Tannin, Ixfd64, Dcljr, GTBacchus, Arpingstone, Alfio, Kosebamse, Ejrh, 168..., Stw,MartinSpamer, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, KAMiKAZOW, Jimfbleak, William M. Connolley, Ahkitj, Angela, Jebba, Jdforrester, BigFatBuddha,Ugen64, Poor Yorick, Vzbs34, Andres, Evercat, Rob Hooft, Jengod, Popsracer, Charles Matthews, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Andrevan,Wikiborg, Pm67nz, Fuzheado, Wik, Zoicon5, Steinsky, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, Gryon, Kiley481, Tpbradbury, Itai, K1Bond007, Ed g2s,Thomasedavis, Samsara, Shizhao, Nickshanks, Dcsohl, Opus33, Fvw, Dpbsmith, AnonMoos, Johnleemk, Camerong, Pollinator, Jhobson1,Mjmcb1, Lumos3, Dimadick, Jason Potter, Phil Boswell, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Rossnixon, Pigsonthewing, Altaar, Moriori, Fredrik, ZimZa-laBim, Psychonaut, Yelyos, Romanm, Naddy, Sam Spade, Smallweed, Lowellian, Mirv, Postdlf, Wendy Wendy, Henrygb, Academic Challenger,Dukeofomnium, Flauto Dolce, PxT, Texture, Ojigiri~enwiki, Andrew Levine, Rebrane, Hadal, JesseW, Saforrest, JackofOz, Wereon, Johnstone,Mushroom, Raeky, Lupo, Cyrius, Dmn, Cutler, Dina, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Jyril, Barbara Shack, AtStart, Pretzelpaws,Nunh-huh, Vfp15, Netoholic, Lee J Haywood, Tom harrison, Doovinator, Lupin, Fastfission, MSGJ, Zigger, Rj, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkon-rad, Wguynes, Maha ts, Curps, Leonard G., Jfdwolff, Duncharris, Guanaco, Mboverload, Solipsist, Neilc, ChicXulub, Kennethduncan, Gadfium,

364 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Utcursch, Andycjp, DocSigma, Farside~enwiki, Fys, Alexf, Bact, Nova77, Popefauvexxiii, Gdr, Knutux, Yath, Quadell, Subsailor, Antandrus,MisfitToys, Piotrus, Kaldari, PDH, Jossi, MacGyverMagic, Adamsan, JimWae, DragonflySixtyseven, Squishy, Togo~enwiki, Jokestress, Thin-cat, Cornischong, Necrothesp, Icairns, Vasile, Sam Hocevar, MRSC, Dave L, Asbestos, Iantresman, Neutrality, Ctac, Okapi~enwiki, Joyous!,Jcw69, Ukexpat, Dcandeto, JohnArmagh, Trilobite, Karl Dickman, Ratiocinate, Nogwa, Adashiel, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Grunt, Aperey,Canterbury Tail, Esperant, Gazpacho, PhotoBox, Mike Rosoft, Lucidish, D6, Rfl, Astronouth7303, CALR, DanielCD, Bwil, Noisy, Discospin-ster, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Rhobite, Brutannica, KarlaQat, Schuetzm, Vsmith, BalowStar, Silence, Dave souza, JimR,User2004, MeltBanana, Xezbeth, Mjpieters, Antaeus Feldspar, Wadewitz, Paul August, Night Gyr, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, Kaisershatner,Jnestorius, Mrfixter, Brian0918, Aranel, Danieljackson, CanisRufus, Sp7412, Kross, Aude, Shanes, Linkoman, RoyBoy, Nickj, Nrbelex, Guet-tarda, Causa sui, Bobo192, O18, Reene, Longhair, Adraeus, John Vandenberg, Shenme, Dpaajones, ZayZayEM, AllyUnion, Johnteslade, Estebs,Cohesion, ParticleMan, Pokrajac, SpeedyGonsales, Jojit fb, Nk, Rajah, BM, PeterisP, Pschemp, Vanished user 19794758563875, GChriss, SamKorn, Pharos, Jonathunder, Mareino, HasharBot~enwiki, Orangemarlin, GK, Jumbuck, Danski14, Siim, Gary, JYolkowski, Cogent, SnowFire,Walter Görlitz, Njaard, Mr Adequate, Paleorthid, Craigy144, Andrew Gray, Wouterstomp, ABCD, Logologist, Riana, Sade, AzaToth, Lec-tonar, MarkGallagher, Lightdarkness, Viridian, Fawcett5, Cdc, CJ, Eukesh, Malo, Bucephalus, Bbsrock, Captain Seafort, Sphivo, KnowledgeSeeker, Cburnett, Suruena, Docboat, Evil Monkey, Aaarrrggh, Tony Sidaway, CloudNine, Dirac1933, Inge-Lyubov, Shoefly, Flyaway1111, Dr-breznjev, Dan100, Adrian.benko, Tariqabjotu, Mahanga, Matthew238, CONFIQ, Postrach, Pcpcpc, Feezo, Stemonitis, MickWest, Mntlchaos,FrancisTyers, Kelly Martin, Reinoutr, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, FeanorStar7, TigerShark, Anilocra, Etacar11, PaulHammond,Onlyemarie, Carcharoth, Kzollman, SP-KP, BlankVerse, Jeff3000, MONGO, Tomlillis, Grace Note, Cbustapeck, Al E., John Hill, Macad-dct1984, Miwasatoshi, Tutmosis, Wayward, Gimboid13, Essjay, MarcoTolo, Alcoved id, Ironcorona, Dysepsion, Emerson7, LeoO3, GSlicer,Mandarax, SqueakBox, Graham87, Marskell, Chris Weimer, WBardwin, Alienus, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Teflon Don, Chun-hian,David Levy, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, RxS, Melesse, Jhskg7843hjskdyg7843ythiul43h, Canderson7, Drbogdan, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf,Goingin, Jweiss11, Kinu, Lockley, Vary, Shiver~enwiki, Bill37212, TrickyApron, Tangotango, Bruce1ee, Jmcc150, Tawker, HandyAndy, Sp-Neo, Gudeldar, Ccson, Sajad.Ghafarzadeh, Crazynas, NeonMerlin, Mcauburn, Durin, Brighterorange, Bhadani, Zelos, Olessi, Reinis, Gre-gAsche, Sango123, Jesus Is Love, DirkvdM, Textgenie, Yamamoto Ichiro, Dionyseus, Titoxd, FlaBot, RobertG, Old Moonraker, CalJW, MusicalLinguist, Doc glasgow, Godlord2, JdforresterBot, Nivix, Chanting Fox, LiquidGhoul, CarolGray, Hottentot, Celestianpower, RexNL, Gurch,Atomic Cosmos, BitterMan, Krun, Nick81, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Sensation002, Jtmichcock, Erp, Phoenix2~enwiki, King of Hearts, Chobot,Visor, Jaraalbe, DVdm, Mhking, StephenDeloney, Gdrbot, Korg, VolatileChemical, 334a, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, Therefore, Gwernol, Cor-nellrockey, Debivort, Flcelloguy, EamonnPKeane, Barrettmagic, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, RobotE, Sceptre, Blightsoot, HairyDude, Deeptrivia, Jachin, Peter G Werner, Weldingfish, Brandmeister (old), Daverocks, JarrahTree, Midgley, Petiatil, Musicpvm, Koffieya-hoo, Homerius, Lofty, Ericorbit, Finlandia~enwiki, Netscott, Stevecov, Gerbil, Paulck, GusF, Crism, CanadianCaesar, RadioFan, Stephenb,Lord Voldemort, Gaius Cornelius, Cryptic, Wimt, TheGrappler, Srini81, K.C. Tang, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Mal7798, Curtis Clark, Wiki alf,Obarskyr, Neural, Badagnani, Jaxl, Tailpig, Justin Eiler, Taco325i, VetteDude, Dureo, JDoorjam, Nick, Ragesoss, Kdbuffalo, Robdurbar, Shin-mawa, Banes, Dppowell, Daniel Mietchen, Jpbowen, Krakatoa, CecilWard, Jbourj, Moe Epsilon, Kaiti, Misza13, Dannyno, Tony1, MichaelDrew, T, M3taphysical, Riczan, BOT-Superzerocool, Gadget850, Tachs, Cardsplayer4life, Derek.cashman, Haemo, CLW, Acetic Acid, Bronks,Wknight94, Pawyilee, BazookaJoe, FF2010, Fastfizzion, Shiroi Hane, Deville, Homagetocatalonia, Ali K, The-, Silverhorse, Bigdog52, Theda,Closedmouth, Jwissick, Nemu, Davril2020, Th1rt3en, Ehouk1, JQF, Dcb1995, GraemeL, JoanneB, Alasdair, TBadger, AlexTG, Jjhunt, Os-wax, Smurrayinchester, Guillom, Mais oui!, Spliffy, Gorgan almighty, M.A.Dabbah, Grovermj, Kungfuadam, Thomas Blomberg, Purple Sheep,Asterion, Amberrock, DVD R W, Bibliomaniac15, Enigmaniac~enwiki, Nick Michael, Arcadie, Snalwibma, IslandHopper973, Sintonak.X,Yakudza, Joshbuddy, A bit iffy, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Ashenai, Cwcarlson, Jclerman, Aquilla, Bobet, ThreeDee912, KnowledgeOfSelf,TestPilot, Olorin28, Bigbluefish, Pavlovič, Kimon, CRKingston, Pgk, Jacek Kendysz, Jfg284, Davewild, Thunderboltz, Patrickneil, Bwithh,Zyxw, Jrockley, Colossus34, Veesicle, Majts, Frymaster, HalfShadow, Alsandro, Mrhinman, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi , Aksi great, Gilliam,Hmains, TRosenbaum, Honbicot, Rmosler2100, Durova, Poulsen, Amatulic, Izehar, Bluebot, Keegan, Aidan Croft, Skookum1, SlimJim, Per-sian Poet Gal, Ian13, Rshu, Stubblyhead, Jordanhurley, Hebel, PrimeHunter, MalafayaBot, Silly rabbit, Afasmit, NewGuy, Jeff5102, NeoNerd,Kungming2, CMacMillan, DHN-bot~enwiki, Rcbutcher, Konstable, Gracenotes, Mikker, Zachorious, QuimGil, Zsinj, Camillus McElhinney,Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Alexstep uk, Jefffire, Danielkueh, Saralvr247, Vanished User 0001, Rrburke, Graspol, Chcknwnm, Edivorce,Coz 11, Phaedriel, Munibert, Grover cleveland, The tooth, GuildNavigator84, Khukri, Nibuod, Andie142105, Bigturtle, Retinarow, Nakon,Savidan, VegaDark, Jiddisch~enwiki, Dvc214, Koratnia, Dacoutts, Richard001, RandomP, Eran of Arcadia, PTHS, ShaunES, Tmaty, Steve-Hopson, Wisco, Doodle77, DMacks, MonkeyMumford, RichAromas, Kotjze, Engleham, Ck lostsword, Pilotguy, Carlosp420, Ohconfucius,SashatoBot, Danielrcote, Nishkid64, Eliyak, Rory096, Bcasterline, Anlace, Srikeit, Zahid Abdassabur, Itsame, Kuru, John, Writtenonsand,Scientizzle, J 1982, Kipala, Heimstern, Soumyasch, Tim bates, UpDown, Breno, Shadowlynk, JoshuaZ, Hemmingsen, Mgiganteus1, Kransky,Cielomobile, Jeran, Thomas Gilling, Uranidiot, MAURY, Soccergirl412, MarkSutton, Slakr, Filanca, STL Dilettante, Epeeist smudge, Berks105,Charlesingalls759, Jon186, Stizz, Xiaphias, Giant Blue Anteater, Cos05, Սահակ, SandyGeorgia, Ka34, Jaketh 1991, Krasnoyarsk, AdultSwim,Midnightblueowl, Ryulong, Fluppy, Citicat, Darry2385, Amitch, Hu12, Cnbrb, Burto88, Radman 99 1999, BranStark, Mig77, Vanished user,11K, Seqsea, K, Dekaels~enwiki, Birdoman, Craigboy, Paul venter, Joseph Solis in Australia, Shoeofdeath, Walton One, Sander Säde, J Di,Delta x, Jlrobertson, Cbrown1023, Sam Li, Richard75, Esurnir, Az1568, Barrab, Adam sk, Dontlookatme, Eluchil404, Tawkerbot2, I5bala,Axt, Lahiru k, Manoeuvre, Shudde, InvisibleK, Chickenfeed9, Thatperson, Bogo237, Asteriks, Andrew E. Drake, Wafulz, Zarex, Dycedarg,BeenAroundAWhile, Ebo claxon, RedRollerskate, Holy-sniper, Denham062, Kylu, Baskaufs, FlyingToaster, Outriggr, Charlie Gorichanaz, Bal-lista, Standonbible, Pgr94, Qwert21, Casper2k3, Neelix, BigBang19, Kayy911, Yopienso, Tim1988, Nnp, MrFish, Drakey7, Nauticashades,TJDay, Rudjek, Logicus, Deightona, U kno it, HalJor, Cydebot, Karimarie, Amanduhh592, Nbound, Abeg92, Vladistheman27, Darqknight47,Reywas92, Metanoid, Steel, Astrochemist, A vivid dreamer, Flowerpotman, Corpx, Llort, ST47, Frood42, Wikipediarules2221, Luckyherb,Tkynerd, Amandajm, Karafias, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Lunchonme, Chris Henniker, Garik, JayW, Ward3001,Chicken Soup, Omicronpersei8, Lindsay658, Landroo, Sweetmoose6, Tuxide, Gimmetrow, Michael Johnson, Rosser1954, EvocativeIntrigue,FrancoGG, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Wikid77, Opabinia regalis, Haydenmercer, Mohsinwaheed, O, DanaUllman, Brainboy109, Kablammo, Ucan-lookitup, Andyjsmith, Mpallen, Rosarinagazo, Marek69, Shot info, Tellyaddict, Keelm, Mnemeson, BehnamFarid, Leon7, Warfwar3, Bunzil,Dugwiki, Deipnosophista, SusanLesch, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, LachlanA, Ialsoagree, AntiVandalBot, AlanHarmony, Ekvcpa, Majorly,Luna Santin, Sobaka, Crabula, Dbrodbeck, Opelio, EarthPerson, ReverendG, Quintote, Prolog, Ronja Addams-Moring, Mal4mac, TimVick-ers, Tmopkisn, Whoosher, Dylan Lake, Chill doubt, MECU, Myanw, Homerbklyn, Canadian-Bacon, Mikenorton, JAnDbot, NBeale, Husond,Athkalani~enwiki, DuncanHill, Petecarney, MER-C, Dsp13, Nathanalex, Arch dude, Nwe, Chemprincess5, Nicholas Tan, Honette, Hamsterlop-ithecus, BenB4, Andonic, Xeno, Muirwood, Frankie816, TAnthony, Tstrobaugh, Jrmccall, LittleOldMe, Dmmd123, Connormah, WolfmanSF,

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 365

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MystBot, Tedgrant, Jokermcjokerson, Starfire777,Surtsicna, RedHand777, KirbyManiac, Hawkania, Addbot, Yousou, Mathdude101, Lilipatina, DOI bot, Tdbostick, Guoguo12, Ldesilva, Olderand ... well older, Lenwbrown, RAC e CA12, Ironholds, Jackmcnicol, Leszek Jańczuk, Zonataz, NjardarBot, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, Econo-Physicist, Poopypantz88, Jagfan71, Granitethighs, LinkFA-Bot, Lemonade100, Quietmarc, Ike2013101, Jimiraywinter, Tassedethe, 84user,Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Kiril Simeonovski, CountryBot, ,רנדום Zombieisland, Luckas-bot, Schmidtmandaddy, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Ngompol,Rsquire3, TRLIJC18, Intercalate, MacTire02, BoringHistoryGuy, Armchair info guy, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, 1exec1, DPachali, Hadrian89,Lecen, Cloudy67, Ulric1313, Mann jess, Wandering Courier, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Yonzzy, Bob Burkhardt, Gameraydar,Jamiemaloneyscoreg, PIL1987, GB fan, ArthurBot, WalkerMW, Xqbot, Chaboura, The Banner, Alexlange, Drilnoth, Austisle, DSisyphBot,Scareneb, XZeroBot, DrStrangelove95, Onecatowner, Stiivyn, HaleyZZ, Bradshaws1, Tyrol5, Aa77zz, Groovenstein, GrouchoBot, Pattern-Spider, Twirligig, Omnipaedista, Brandon5485, Prunesqualer, RibotBOT, Grcaldwell, NqZooArchive1969, Locobot, Sidious1741, Methcub,Spellage, Howdy541, Robert FitzRoy, Misortie, PM800, Erik9bot, Pauswa, Green Cardamom, Penguin1021, Cosans, Tiramisoo, WikiDisam-biguation, Mbrandt21, Routerone, Endofskull, Oashi, Kwiki, M.Gray, Citation bot 1, Intelligentsium, Moosewood122, Pinethicket, Haaqfun,Wikibetter, Hypernovic, Thinking of England, Meaghan, A1 Aardvark, Beao, Aspstren, Wikididact, Kgrad, FoxBot, TrickyM, TobeBot, Trap-pist the monk, Animalparty, Comnenus, Standardfact, Bladyniec, BeckenhamBear, Livingrm, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, Amiodarone, Leondu-montfollower, Begoon, 30daysinAK, Le Docteur, WikiTome, JV Smithy, Innotata, Tbhotch, Roastalle2009, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Rjwilmsi-Bot, Bento00, Saruha, Khin2718, Scieberking, Androstachys, DASHBot, Mukogodo, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4,Ncsr11, John beta, Dwalin, TuHan-Bot, AgRince, Bad Gopher Gear, JSquish, ZéroBot, John Cline, PBS-AWB, Playdagame6991, Dondervogel2, Dez9999, H3llBot, SporkBot, Someone65, LarkinToad2010, Libertaar, Bumfake, TheAlmightyBob42, MonoAV, Lucidhappyguy, Lewis274,Trigger Twiggy, Striker2712, Rangoon11, Ben120480, DASHBotAV, AGXD095, Senecasd, San9663, Kleopatra, LM2000, ClueBot NG, Tan-bircdq, CocuBot, Wendyroseberry, Jhenderson8, Movses-bot, Wcwarren, Slowking4, XxXDylanWillard, Hazhk, Bernie44, StKyrie, Ronald B.Grant, JamesChambers666, Girly Brains, North Atlanticist Usonian, Susan+49, Pragmaticstatistic, Manutd999, Tholme, Psbaucom, MKar, Ar-tifexMayhem, Mrjohncummings, Timmoreland, Graham11, Salmonne, Beastcuber, Cadiomals, Glevum, DeliciousMeatz, Harizotoh9, MrBill3,Wernot, Cormag100, Salvadorcases, BattyBot, Imwikir, Cloptonson, ChromaNebula, Gilborrego, Khazar2, JYBot, Tow, Dexbot, ReverendMick man34, Thrillbillkillstill, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Jamesx12345, Gautamh, Sukanta Sarkar, Chandler wiland, Lomicmenes, Royroydeb, I amOne of Many, Luismanu, AmericanLemming, Inglok, Irisbox, Crispulop, Vinny Lam, OccultZone, Esquin, Thephil12312, Monkbot, Zacwill16,Digidarg, SalopianTank01, AsteriskStarSplat, Mndata, Rationalobserver, Tetra quark, KasparBot, FindingJohnCornford, Bringem Young andAnonymous: 1562

• Lyra Belacqua Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyra_Belacqua?oldid=659839929 Contributors: SimonP, CatherineMunro, Topbanana,Finlay McWalter, Zandperl, Dumbledad, Wereon, Benc, David Gerard, Dfmclean, Gtrmp, Ferdinand Pienaar, Utcursch, Phil Sandifer, GdB,Yueni, FT2, YUL89YYZ, Xezbeth, E03bf085, AdamSolomon, Ascorbic, SidP, Mogigoma, Ian Moody, Mangojuice, MC MasterChef, Chipuni,The wub, Platypus222, Mordicai, Borgx, RussBot, Icarus3, Taejo, Hede2000, Yllosubmarine, NawlinWiki, Veledan, Fabulous Creature, Zythe,

366 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

User27091, Ms2ger, Eurosong, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Cyphase, Tphi, Mdiamante, Gilliam, DivineLady, Colonies Chris, Tsca.bot,Ioscius, JesseRafe, Peter17, Fame live4ever, Mr. Random, Ospinad, The Man in Question, JHunterJ, Andyroo316, TPIRFanSteve, Fastnature-dude, Elbeonore, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Cosmic quest, Kevin McE, Rawling, Drinibot, ShelfSkewed, Oden, Cydebot, Mooman95, Treybien,TicketMan, Computerfan, Thijs!bot, Noneofyourbusiness, DebateLord, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Majorly, Antique Rose, Coyets, Béka, Halti-amieli, Deflective, Anthony Krupp, Simscar, ChazBeckett, Sergeant.cross, STBot, PrestonH, Wiki Raja, Tikiwont, Uncle Dick, Interrobang²,Captain Infinity, Creepzerg3, Crazymagic, VolkovBot, ABF, Murderbike, Stefan Kruithof, Stagyar Zil Doggo, WOSlinker, Dendodge, Ultimat-erasengan, Quizer 85, BotKung, Edkollin, Lyraneress, S8333631, Jack Merridew, Grieferhate, Bguest, Smaug123, Mas 18 dl, CaptainIron555,Lord Opeth, Alywen14, Stormwhisper, ImageRemovalBot, Faithlessthewonderboy, ClueBot, TracyLinkEdnaVelmaPenny, Surréalatino~enwiki,SteppAN, Keraunoscopia, Lyrasbp, Jtanium, Blanchardb, NoriMori, Loolylolly1997, Yui Tokito, Calor, Dudedubba, Manumoka, Pjmccormick,Chowchillah, For An Angel, WikHead, Sergay, BlonddudeGoneDark, Jemimaiscool, Bellachia, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Avlass, Ronhjones, Mn-mazur, Fifth Fountain, Jomunro, Ingicopha, AussieLegend2, Bear300, Yobot, Renie Anjeh, Lyra lover, The Earwig, AnomieBOT, Hilarious93,Darth Newdar, LilHelpa, Tad Lincoln, Mathonius, Luka1184, FrescoBot, Kausill, Cannolis, LittleMissVixen562, Galladeon, Fastilysock, JarrodK, VernoWhitney, WikitanvirBot, Xx-LyraaBelacquaa-xX, Tommy2010, Chuckweinberger, ClueBot NG, Merlin 04, Mogism, Choor monster,Pincrete, 14-228th, NoFourthWall, Coolabahapple and Anonymous: 231

• Chelsea Manning Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_Manning?oldid=677576087 Contributors: Deb, Shii, Mjb, Boud, MichaelHardy, Jimfbleak, Kingturtle, Darkwind, Julesd, Conti, Dcoetzee, WhisperToMe, Tpbradbury, Morwen, Topbanana, Michael Glass, Bearcat,Pigsonthewing, Moriori, Moncrief, Psychonaut, Auric, Timrollpickering, HaeB, VanishedUser kfljdfjsg33k, David Gerard, DocWatson42,MSGJ, Gamaliel, Pne, SarekOfVulcan, Beland, Robert Brockway, Kaldari, Anythingyouwant, OwenBlacker, Bumm13, Necrothesp, TiMike,McCart42, Moxfyre, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Hydrox, FT2, Bender235, Dralwik, Evolauxia, Hismattness, Adrian~enwiki, Alansohn,Elron, Philip Cross, Andrewpmk, Andrew Gray, Lord Pistachio, SlimVirgin, Ynhockey, Hohum, Simon d, Tony Sidaway, Geraldshields11,LFaraone, Sleigh, Martian, KTC, April Arcus, Kenyon, Tariqabjotu, AlexTiefling, Zntrip, Thryduulf, Georgia guy, Scriberius, Asav, Daira Hop-wood, Ekem, Elmarco, Apokrif, Randy2063, Frungi, Zzyzx11, Toussaint, Dovid, Mandarax, SqueakBox, Jmbranum, BD2412, Nightscream,Koavf, Lockley, MZMcBride, Jehochman, Pyb, Bensin, Yug, Tarc, Toby Douglass, Cfortunato, MarnetteD, McPhail, John Z, ViriiK, Bgwhite,Peregrine Fisher, ThunderPeel2001, Sceptre, Crazytales, Pburka, Me and, CambridgeBayWeather, Alex Bakharev, Rsrikanth05, Anomalo-caris, ENeville, Neutron, Tony1, SColombo, Hobit, Pawyilee, Bdell555, Paul Magnussen, Emijrp, Silverhorse, SMcCandlish, Saudade7, PetriKrohn, GraemeL, Cffrost, Geoffrey.landis, X-mass, DoriSmith, Erudy, Zefrog, NeilN, Timothyarnold85, Tom Morris, Victor falk, Nark-straws, Yvwv, SmackBot, Lestrade, Prodego, McGeddon, Jtneill, Anastrophe, Kintetsubuffalo, Nil Einne, HalfShadow, Skizzik, Icemuon, Am-atulic, Father McKenzie, Emufarmers, Snori, Roscelese, RayAYang, Ted87, Hgrosser, Ian Burnet~enwiki, Chendy, George Ho, Schwallex,Muboshgu, DHeyward, OSborn, King Vegita, Fuhghettaboutit, Tapered, Martijn Hoekstra, Ohconfucius, ZScarpia, Ser Amantio di Nico-lao, John, NYCJosh, Thegreatdr, Collect, Beetstra, Meco, Podlover98, Ace Frahm, Noleander, OnBeyondZebrax, HelloAnnyong, Cowicide,Cls14, MaxHarmony, Woodshed, Zaphody3k, Nitinblr, Eastlaw, Doceddi, JForget, Americasroof, BeenAroundAWhile, CuriousEric, NE Ent,The Photographer, Slazenger, Cydebot, Ubiq, Reywas92, Slp1, Anthonyhcole, Meowy, MarS, Jayen466, ThatPeskyCommoner, Crichton91,DumbBOT, ErrantX, Ivy Shoots, Gaijin42, Qwyrxian, Spudst3r, JSmith60, EdJohnston, Nick Number, Tocino, JasonJack, Cladeal832, Wide-fox, Obiwankenobi, Seaphoto, Carolmooredc, Pro crast in a tor, Smartse, Coyets, Yellowdesk, David Shankbone, CombatWombat42, Eri-coides, Adjwilley, PaleAqua, Rothorpe, Y2kcrazyjoker4, Wasell, Magioladitis, Connormah, MastCell, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Kim Dent-Brown,AMK1211, Harelx, I JethroBT, Theroadislong, Cgingold, Lenschulwitz, Torchiest, Extremesash, Sue Gardner, Daemonic Kangaroo, Misarx-ist, Gandydancer, Nandt1, Tvoz, Rettetast, Giachen, CommonsDelinker, PStrait, Trusilver, R. Baley, Writegeist, It Is Me Here, DarkFalls,Veriss1, Arms & Hearts, DadaNeem, Shoessss, BigHairRef, Sigmundur, KylieTastic, AzureCitizen, Ajfweb, Adam Zivner, Netmonger, JeffG., Redchiron, Drmargi, Abigailgem, Oshwah, Perohanych, Dormskirk, Noformation, Christopher Connor, Tri400, Malick78, Michaeldsuarez,Newzjunkie, Djbclark, Bahamut0013, Thegong21, The Devil’s Advocate, Laval, Michael Frind, Archwyrm, Logan, Tumadoireacht, Legoktm,Hazel77, SieBot, StAnselm, Mycomp, WereSpielChequers, Psbsub, Ivankinsman, BankBank, Yintan, Whiteghost.ink, Crash Underride, Inter-change88, Belorn, Bentogoa, Toddst1, Arbor to SJ, Matthewedwards, Bsherr, KoshVorlon, Kumioko (renamed), Capitalismojo, Mr. Stradivar-ius, WikiLaurent, A21sauce, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs787sads, ImageRemovalBot, Ossguy, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, SummerWith-Morons, Daffydavid, GorillaWarfare, All Hallow’s Wraith, Mattgirling, XMattingly, Gregcaletta, Acornwebworks, Drmies, Cube lurker, WattiRenew, Acluke, Boing! said Zebedee, Timberframe, Bevinbell, Niceguyedc, Bellatrix Kerrigan, Parkwells, Cirt, Lessogg, Rockfang, Bone-yard90, No such user, Ktr101, Mumiemonstret, Nymf, Resoru, Larphenflorp, Codster925, V7-sport, NuclearWarfare, TheRedPenOfDoom,7&6=thirteen, Redthoreau, Another Believer, Lot49a, Berean Hunter, Johnuniq, Liberal Humanist, Karppinen, EdChem, Against the current,XLinkBot, Gnowor, Ninja247, Boyd Reimer, Richard-of-Earth, MystBot, ESO Fan, Good Olfactory, Bridgetfox, Yaik9a, Jogershok, Addbot,ERK, CubBC, Kelly, Some jerk on the Internet, Jojhutton, Mootros, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, Deadeasy, Lihaas, Chzz, Jasper Deng,Bob K31416, William (The Bill) Blackstone, 84user, Alanscottwalker, OlEnglish, Totorotroll, Apteva, Zorrobot, Jarble, CountryBot, Brynn,Alfie66, Tartarus, Kuzetsa, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fountain Posters, JJARichardson, Grebaldar, Evans1982, Reenem, Plazmatyk, Dmarquard,Bbb23, AnomieBOT, Miantonimah, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, Rejedef, Knowledgekid87, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, RadioBroad-cast, Citation bot, E2eamon, Richard Jay Morris, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Aquila89, TracyMcClark, Hammersbach, Bihco, Srich32977,Javisensei, Ragityman, Armbrust, Ute in DC, Lenore, Mark Schierbecker, Brutaldeluxe, A Quest For Knowledge, Sqgl, Sidious1741, JonDe-Plume, Richard BB, Rayboy8, Gnuish, VasOling, DasallmächtigeJ, FrescoBot, NSH002, Joep01, Qwartoblogspotcom, LucienBOT, Adam9389,Midrashah, Astronomyinertia, Bartimaeus blue, HJ Mitchell, Endofskull, Elmor, Iqinn, Gordonlighter, Sopher99, MBbjv, Pinethicket, Abduc-tive, Tóraí, Jonesey95, MarcelB612, Stiche1775, Calmer Waters, Skyerise, BigDwiki, Bmclaughlin9, Thinking of England, Jaguar, FormerIP,Cullen328, PremieLover, Arbero, Enemenemu, Justiceinlaw, Kgrad, Krobin, Lotje, Callanecc, Trente7cinq, My Dog Is Bart, Reaper Eternal,Connelly90, Canuckian89, ThinkEnemies, Jhenderson777, Ammodramus, Tbhotch, Phoenix and Winslow, Brakoholic, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00,Balph Eubank, Rollins83, DoRD, Martinaxp, Pinkbeast, EmausBot, Bushin2016, WikitanvirBot, Ghostofnemo, Coolohman, Ajraddatz, STAT-icVapor, Hula Hup, Zerotonin, 7daysahead, GoingBatty, JohnValeron, Ausairman, Unklscrufy, Dishcmds, Solarra, Passionless, Jim Michael,ZéroBot, John Cline, Illegitimate Barrister, Elandy2009, BushidoDevilDog, Goeatadick11, DallasGoldBug, Lechonero, Cobaltcigs, Ebrambot,H3llBot, Zloyvolsheb, Dennis714, SporkBot, Freakshownerd, Josh Gorand, Chezi-Schlaff, Bedouinali, Wikidandi, Auerfeld, IFreedom1212,Djapa84, Julierbutler, Brandmeister, Shrigley, BluWik, Ginger Conspiracy, Farbod68, Küñall, Nw39, ChuispastonBot, AndyTheGrump,HandsomeFella, Robin Lionheart, Solvingstuff, BabbaQ, WrenandStimpy, Spicemix, Mjbmrbot, Socialservice, Ma2nschaft, Sonicyouth86,87v7t76fc4iguwevf7657436253yd4fug754ws67dtfugiy67t8576, ClueBot NG, DavidStewart85, TucsonDavid, Jnorton7558, Jack Greenmaven,Andrei S, Downtoearthtim, Gilderien, Kevinrelliott, Wordgrrl, Harold Darling, AlamedaReader, Adair2324, BrekekekexKoaxKoax, -sche,Blahage22, Lenogan, Heis semperfi, SunCountryGuy01, Slowking4, Frietjes, Delusion23, HazelAB, CopperSquare, Zmaher, Mohd. Toukir

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 367

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• Pierre Trudeau Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Trudeau?oldid=677440874 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, JoshGrosse, SimonP, Zoe, Montrealais, Edward, Kchishol1970, JohnOwens, Menchi, Ixfd64, Zanimum, Delirium, Flamurai, Minesweeper, Dgrant,Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Angela, Julesd, Cyan, Poor Yorick, Vzbs34, Jfitzg, Jiang, The Tom, Pascal, Crusadeonilliteracy, Adam Bishop, Van-ished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Trontonian, RickK, Mowens35, Dysprosia, Colipon, WhisperToMe, Wik, Timc, Prumpf, IceKarma, DJ Clayworth,Vancouverguy, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Mackensen, Indefatigable, AnonMoos, Frazzydee, Pollinator, Denelson83, Jni, Bearcat, Gentgeen,Nufy8, DavidA, Dale Arnett, AlainV, Earl Andrew, RedWolf, Jmcnally, Mathieugp, Naddy, Merovingian, Auric, Timrollpickering, Acegikmo1,Sunray, Scruss, Hadal, Saforrest, Ddstretch, Profoss, Anthony, Twiin, Cyrius, SimonMayer, Xyzzyva, Alerante, Hylaride, Jwagstaff, Vfp15,HangingCurve, Wilfried Derksen, Everyking, No Guru, P.T. 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Fawcett5, Samaritan, Hu, Malo, Bart133, Brown Shoes22, Miltonhowe, Hunter1084, Velella, Andrew Norman, Gdavidp, Helixblue,Zander, ReyBrujo, Blahedo, Evil Monkey, Brholden, Cmc0, Djsasso, Embryomystic, Michaelm, Ceyockey, Sam Vimes, Bastin, Gwk, IanMoody, Boothy443, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, FeanorStar7, Professor Ninja, Thivierr, Stickguy, Jacobolus, Dowew, Doctorkb, Table-top, Kelisi, GregorB, Paullb, McRuf2, Formeruser0910, Theducks, Paxsimius, Graham87, Jameslouder, BD2412, Padraic, BorgHunter, Sjö,Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Seidenstud, ABCXYZ, Koavf, Jake Wartenberg, Wikibofh, Jivecat, WoodenTaco, MZMcBride, Nneonneo, Mikedelsol,Enoch Lai, SeanMack, Boccobrock, The wub, Matt Deres, Yamamoto Ichiro, SNIyer12, Titoxd, MegaSlicer, ChildOfTheMoon83, FlaBot,Ntwhz, Ground Zero, Duomillia, Mister Matt, CaptainCanada, Camperdave, RexNL, Arctic.gnome, Quuxplusone, Btmccarthy17, Xerrex,Alphachimp, Faustus37, OpenToppedBus, BradBeattie, Infernalfox, King of Hearts, Chobot, SFrank85, DVdm, 121a0012, Bgwhite, Uva-duck, E Pluribus Anthony, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, Kinneyboy90, Carolynparrishfan, RussBot, Murphyj87, Witan,DanMS, CanadianCaesar, CambridgeBayWeather, Wimt, EngineerScotty, NawlinWiki, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Complainer, Rjensen, Porce,CrazyC83, RFBailey, Formeruser-82, Misza13, Zwobot, Michael Drew, Lockesdonkey, Figaro, Joe Katzman, Psy guy, Kewp, Haemo, Duff-DudeX1, Rizla, Nick123, Jkelly, CanadaGirl, FF2010, Scheinwerfermann, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia, Manticore126, Encephalon, Nikkimaria,Closedmouth, Eduard Gherkin, Josh3580, Joshw, JoanneB, Alm93, QmunkE, Whobot, Arad, Allens, Katieh5584, Jonathan.s.kt, Mebden, PaulErik, Philip Stevens, One, Bibliomaniac15, BomBom, Sardanaphalus, Drcwright, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Nfitz, Unschool, InverseHyper-cube, Skeezix1000, WilyD, Barstool prof, Verne Equinox, Piccadilly, Michael Dorosh, S charette, Dyersgoodness, Srnec, HawchiJewHawchi,The Rhymesmith, BigBoyRubio, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Kurykh, Skookum1, Akiramenai, Mokwella, Raymond arritt, AeomMai, John-John7, TheFeds, Viewfinder, Baa, William Allen Simpson, Darth Panda, GoodDay, George Ho, Tsca.bot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,Fishhead64, OrphanBot, MeekSaffron, Yidisheryid, EvelinaB, Rrburke, Wes!, Parent5446, Kittybrewster, Addshore, Jjjsixsix, AndySimpson,Pepsidrinka, Masalai, Random updater, Flyguy649, Downwards, Seandals, Mystic eye, Nakon, Oanabay04, TedE, Kevlar67, Archos, Chargh,JGGardiner, John wesley, Kismetmagic, Rarfac, Scott531, Jklin, Drc79, Gildir, JackO'Lantern, Curly Turkey, The Fwanksta, Ohconfucius,Nishkid64, BrownHairedGirl, Srikeit, Kuru, Akendall, John, JackLumber, ChrisPC, Vgy7ujm, Gobonobo, Guat6, Perfectblue97, Abc85, Acu-men76, Majorclanger, IronGargoyle, HADRIANVS, VerruckteDan, Kopf1988, MarkSutton, Agathoclea, Gandalfxviv, Davemcarlson, Cerau-rus, Avs5221, Dbo789, ElMoIsEviL, Chef 17, Qyd, Dr.K., Citicat, Agent 86, Dl2000, Hu12, Alan.ca, Iridescent, Canadaolympic989, Toddss-chneider, Mikehelms, Gualtieri, Joseph Solis in Australia, MigGroningen, Hawkestone, Twas Now, Neotenic, Adam sk, Esn, Tawkerbot2,Daniel5127, FRogers, MadJack, Laurasunderland, J Milburn, JForget, Enlight, InvisibleK, Porterjoh, Lesothoman2005, CWY2190, MrFish,MaxEnt, Themightyquill, Cydebot, Slp1, Gogo Dodo, B, Shirulashem, DumbBOT, Paddles, Doublesuede, Mathew5000, NorthernThunder,Ward3001, Hahbie, Scarpy, Omicronpersei8, Zalgo, TakTak, PKT, BetacommandBot, JamesAM, 0lorenzo0, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul,Erich Schmidt, David from Downunder, Kablammo, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, John254, Malarious, Arthur Ellis, JustAGal, Alfalfahotshots,Marco Thomas, Mentifisto, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Blarrrgy, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Dbrodbeck, QuiteUnusual, Hotelcalifor-nia1976, Cloachland, Truenorth1, Snowdrop44, Fayenatic london, Spencer, Gregorof, Pete Peters, Gökhan, JAnDbot, Deflective, PostcardCathy, Barek, Hut 8.5, R27182818, GoodDamon, Freshacconci, Connormah, Qwertman1, Freefry, Daibot~enwiki, Brusegadi, Reece Llwyd,Lonewolf BC, Dilan11, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Gurthang, Boffob, Nat, Chivista~enwiki, Spellmaster, Cillas001, Mr. No Funny Nickname, Kideas, Oroso, Abebenjoe, MatJohnson, Hdt83, MartinBot, Tvoz, BSimpson85, Juansidious, CommonsDelinker, Omertop, Soulscanner, Fight-ing for Justice, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Tlim7882, TotallyTempo, AVX, Jumpingman, Longbranch, Shawn in Montreal, Bishzilla,DarkFalls, Clerks, Ryan Postlethwaite, Aboutmovies, Ypetrachenko, Oceanflynn, Go leafs go 3000, Plasticup, Nwbeeson, Whitebro, Rinothan2,Dude331, Joshua Issac, TomDodger, Que-Can, FrankEldonDixon, Andy Marchbanks, Thismightbezach, Vranak, G2bambino, DSRH, Leebo,The Duke of Waltham, Jeff G., Nburden, Harfarhs, Soliloquial, WOSlinker, Epson291, Bmgstfx, TXiKiBoT, Batsnumbereleven, Cosmic Latte,

368 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Alan Rockefeller, A4bot, Tomstdenis, Anna Lincoln, LeaveSleaves, BritishHistorian, Thomas419ca, Carlsbad science, Craiggyb, Jolenecassa,Eulalie Écho, Happyme22, Snieckus, Steve Smith, Jcr234, Insanity Incarnate, Imokru, Reginald Perrin, Schonbrunn, D. C. Thomas, Hmwith,Iloveweed, Gaelen S., Dustintml, Brenont, Calliopejen1, Scarian, Aruse, Dawn Bard, Caltas, SE7, Keilana, Tiptoety, Nopm, 6mat1, Lightmouse,Dallyripple, Macy, OKBot, Kumioko (renamed), G.-M. Cupertino, 45dtp3412ds.dds, Spitfire19, Maelgwnbot, Eshalis, Dabomb87, Duffy2032,Illinois2011, DRTllbrg, Denisarona, Jimmy Slade, Mr D Mills, Vanhorn, ImageRemovalBot, Highoctane232, ClueBot, Ottawaian, M3campbe,The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, Chessy999, Amsterdave, SomeGuy11112, Franamax, NiD.29, Joao Xavier, CounterVan-dalismBot, Blanchardb, Dengero, Sponge1001, DragonBot, Hulkamania14, Autospark, Markhenick, Estirabot, Ntb613, DWiatzka, Nuclear-Warfare, JasonLamarche, Noxia, RedMe, John Paul Parks, Thingg, Aitias, Patricusrex, Katanada, Vanished User 1004, SewerCat, Skunkboy74,Jonxwood, Little Mountain 5, -Ðêåth-™, Cmr08, Popo24975, Vianello, Good Olfactory, Bridgetfox, RyanCross, Thatguyflint, Kbdankbot,Benyii, Addbot, CubBC, Grayfell, Willking1979, Jojhutton, Atethnekos, Adam Shafran, Fieldday-sunday, Kwanesum, Fluffernutter, Ducio1234,NjardarBot, Cst17, Skyezx, Mnmazur, Gorbi, Yespm, Favonian, Kinou, Johnnycakes8787, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Kelly190, Gail, Zorrobot, LuK3,Qatarwiki, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Candy655, Jujubeaibe, Sopm, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Mr.Electron, Materialscientist, Cita-tion bot, E2eamon, ArthurBot, Xqbot, The sock that should not be, Wperdue, JCole416, Pontificalibus, Iamdrumming, Tiller54, Miesianiacal,Frankie0607, RibotBOT, The Interior, Secret09, Headhitter, Dipshit 123, Moxy, Shadowjams, Katieknows, Sh3n3ll3, A.amitkumar, Arathun,J929, FrescoBot, VS6507, Recognizance, KokkaShinto, Paulcsid500, Dger, 117Avenue, Citation bot 1, Nhlinthepeg, LEROX99, 5Celcious,FriedrickMILBarbarossa, King kahn20911, Skol fir, Mjbhoney, Arbero, Thedudeyouhatetomeet, Mr Serjeant Buzfuz, Schwede66, Qaqwewew,Rr parker, Stroppolo, Hwy43, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Ryo24679, MShabazz, Raellerby, EmausBot, John of Reading, Maumau1000, Lotsoul, Go-ingBatty, Bobby9754, Bt8257, Sp33dyphil, Slightsmile, K6ka, Lucas Thoms, Zictor23, John Cline, Sundostund, CrimsonBot, TheAmericaniza-tor, H3llBot, Scarbluff, SporkBot, IAMBONNEMA, Donner60, Diodecimus, EricClarion, 28bot, ClueBot NG, Gilderien, Satellizer, Lawrytd,O.Koslowski, Widr, PaoloNapolitano, AlexanderTBriggs, Helpful Pixie Bot, Maruful, Poto6, Shad0wdawg, BG19bot, Vale of Glamorgan, Ser-bia101, Tholden28, Knoper, Teachergibson, Kndimov, They, PhnomPencil, Jpbk1234, Memorykey12, Loganbby, Mark Arsten, PACHO10,Canoe1967, Acardozo34, Altaïr, PZAJ, Harizotoh9, The evacipated, Glacialfox, BattyBot, NaBallard, Cimorcus, Junius52, SD5bot, Euro-CarGT, Ducknish, Yeahhellodude, Sahidgosgdoi, Zeeyanwiki, Dbryman2000, Hmainsbot1, Dtroll, Fromthevaults, Caleb Dorey, MLGBOPS,Cantab12, Lugia2453, CanadianJudoka, Irbananaking, Ashbeckjonathan, Marxistfounder, Vanamonde93, V-manABC123, JrScholes, James-DLankin, Cmckain14, 7532665a, Kaede17, Lilscrappy18, Awseomedudecoolkidsvensevenbro, Gmwikipedier, Zentonil, Kahtar, Stamptrader,1982vdven, Dkodm4romf4, Blairall, Hayes12345, Melcous, Monkbot, Stevedavidson7230, Filedelinkerbot, Anonymous 12345, LRB7, Amor-tias, TranquilHope, KH-1, D.S. Cordoba-Bahle, Strongjam, Cm7 smcs, 192.168.1.ip, Riddho123, KasparBot, Had32 and Anonymous: 1085

• Florence Nightingale Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale?oldid=676310370 Contributors: Magnus Manske, DerekRoss, Eloquence, Vicki Rosenzweig, The Anome, Christian List, Deb, William Avery, Heron, Leandrod, Mrwojo, Edward, Kchishol1970,AdSR, Michael Hardy, Erik Zachte, Liftarn, Ixfd64, Paddu, Skysmith, Ellywa, Docu, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Jebba, Andrewa, Julesd, Kylet,Jimregan, Barfoed, Lancevortex, Rob Hooft, Mxn, Raven in Orbit, Mulad, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Lfh, Sbwoodside, Teresag, CBDunker-son, Tpbradbury, Itai, Andy Fugard, HarryHenryGebel, Proteus, Francs2000, Owen, Jni, Dimadick, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Moriori, Fredrik,Tomchiukc, Schutz, Postdlf, Yosri, Henrygb, Auric, Timrollpickering, Jondel, Mendalus~enwiki, Mervyn, Modeha, JackofOz, Alba, Dina,Giftlite, DocWatson42, Nunh-huh, Cobaltbluetony, Meursault2004, Mark Richards, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Jacob1207, Varlaam, Can-tus, Rick Block, SupXl, Duncharris, Yekrats, Djegan, Jackol, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Edcolins, Isidore, Utcursch, Alexf, Information Habitat,SURIV, Quadell, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Piotrus, Mr impossible, The MoUsY spell-checker, Ruzulo, Joyous!, JohnArmagh, Alperen, Eisnel,Canterbury Tail, Mike Rosoft, D6, Atrian, MattKingston, 83-129-67-118, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Wk muriithi, Silence, YUL89YYZ,Francis Schonken, Ericamick, User2004, Arthur Holland, Mani1, Nard the Bard, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, Bender235, Djordjes, Kbh3rd,JoeSmack, Aecis, El C, Kwamikagami, Kross, RoyBoy, Cacophony, CeeGee, Peter Greenwell, Bobo192, Vervin, Smalljim, Clawson, C S,Shenme, Viriditas, Lonpicman, Dtremenak, AKGhetto, Rockhopper10r, Kaganer, Jojit fb, Cyrillic, JesseHogan, Nsaa, Supersexyspacemonkey,Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Danski14, Wereldburger758, Alansohn, Gary, Basie, Ben davison, Arthena, Carbon Caryatid, Andrewpmk, Ricky81682,Craigy144, Rodw, Andrew Gray, Riana, Wikidea, SlimVirgin, Fritzpoll, Avenue, Bart133, MattWade, Snowolf, GJeffery, Matthewpun, Sci-urinæ, LFaraone, Bsadowski1, Netkinetic, HenryLi, Oleg Alexandrov, Mahanga, Brookie, Spartacus007, Dmartin@ukonline.co.uk, RichardArthur Norton (1958- ), Reinoutr, Woohookitty, GrouchyDan, TigerShark, Whitehorse1, Guy M, Carcharoth, Robert K S, Dowew, Eleas-sar777, Kelisi, Rakooga, Terence, AnaZ, Macaddct1984, Eras-mus, SDC, Btyner, Prashanthns, Gimboid13, Palica, Dysepsion, Mandarax,Graham87, Cuvtixo, Achen00, Kbdank71, DiamonDie, Schmendrick, RxS, Erikvanthienen, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Koavf, Jake Warten-berg, DeadlyAssassin, Mick gold, JHMM13, Bruce1ee, SMC, Stevenscollege, Mike Peel, Bensin, Sampson~enwiki, JohnnoShadbolt, Titoxd,FlaBot, Calvin Wilton, Windchaser, Doc glasgow, Mathbot, Godlord2, Nihiltres, JdforresterBot, TheMidnighters, Nivix, Gurch, Alexkasper,Thecurran, Mounir~enwiki, King of Hearts, DVdm, Antiuser, Dj Capricorn, Banaticus, HJKeats, Captain Scotch, JPD, Barrettmagic, YurikBot,Wavelength, Cosmicpop, StuffOfInterest, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Ericorbit, Bhny, SpuriousQ, Stephenb, Polluxian, Gaius Cornelius, Vincej,Rsrikanth05, Wimt, Burek, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Aeusoes1, Naskies, Grafen, ZacBowling, Rjensen, Mesolimbo, Howcheng, Kymara,Hymyly, THB, TakingUpSpace, Brandon, Jpbowen, Moe Epsilon, Formeruser-82, Semperf, Zwobot, BOT-Superzerocool, DeadEyeArrow,Asarelah, Paaskynen, Mgnbar, Alpha 4615, Wknight94, Homagetocatalonia, Warfreak, Closedmouth, Rms125a@hotmail.com, JoanneB, Alas-dair, Contaldo80, Guillom, MartinUK, Mais oui!, Curpsbot-unicodify, Garion96, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, NeilN, AssistantX, DVD R W,EdNeave, Bwiki, Paxman, Amalthea, SmackBot, Pwt898, Historian932, David Kernow, KnowledgeOfSelf, FloNight, Unyoyega, AndreasJS,Delldot, Arniep, Lexo, Wittylama, Shai-kun, Antidote, Gaff, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Webwarlock, Honbicot, Sepa, Durova,Bluebot, KaragouniS, Parmesan, Quinsareth, Bduke, Ghost.scream, Thumperward, Miquonranger03, Anchoress, MalafayaBot, Baa, DHN-bot~enwiki, Darth Panda, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Talmage, Snowmanradio, Ww2censor, Thisisbossi, Zazpot, MDCollins, Parent5446,Addshore, Midnightcomm, Celarnor, Soosed, Krich, Thalion Hurin, Ritchie333, BostonMA, Mattm591, Kntrabssi, RaCha'ar, Dreadstar, Akri-asas, Lessthanthree, Fagstein, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Immort~enwiki, Kukini, Ohconfucius, Glacier109, The undertow, SashatoBot, Lambiam, SerAmantio di Nicolao, Archit Patel, Conspire, Kuru, John, Wtwilson3, Gobonobo, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, RandomCritic, Stwalk-erster, Beetstra, Noah Salzman, Rock4arolla, Neddyseagoon, Hogyn Lleol, Dummies102, Dl2000, KJS77, Quaeler, Rofti, Cnbrb, Ginkgo100,Luwo, Iridescent, HJMills, Clarityfiend, Sibadd, NativeForeigner, Tony Fox, DavidOaks, Blehfu, Courcelles, Rhetth, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim,Ghaly, Kurtan~enwiki, Fvasconcellos, SkyWalker, JForget, Ale jrb, Mattbr, Vanished user sojweiorj34i4f, TVC 15, Jokes Free4Me, Jimknut,Bakanov, Casper2k3, Rmallins, Owen2510, ProfessorPaul, Cydebot, Jpb1301, Gogo Dodo, Ctatkinson, Xxanthippe, DangApricot, Pgg7, Tri-dent13, DumbBOT, Asenine, PamD, Satori Son, GeneChase, Inoculatedcities, DJBullfish, Hypnosadist, Malleus Fatuorum, Canute, UjjwalKrishna, Epbr123, Mercury~enwiki, Pajz, Jaxsonjo, Oehoeboeroe, N5iln, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Missvain, John254, James086, Yettie0711,Massimo Macconi, Dantheman531, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Quintote, AnAj, Autocracy, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, Modernist,

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 369

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• Monty Python Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python?oldid=677482507 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Mav, The Anome,Manning Bartlett, Sjc, Danny, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Zoe, David spector, Dwheeler, Tedernst, Leandrod, Jdlh, Frecklefoot, Kchishol1970, Rabin,Sigg3.net, Skysmith, Pcb21, Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Samuelsen, Darrell Greenwood, Jdforrester, Birchtree, Александър, Camryl,Vzbs34, Nikai, Chrysalis, Shammack, Raven in Orbit, Schneelocke, A1r, Jay, Mahaabaala, DJ Clayworth, HappyDog, Tpbradbury, Kaare,Furrykef, Nv8200pa, Thue, Quoth-22, AaronSw, Russell Dovey, Jerzy, Jusjih, UninvitedCompany, Rossumcapek, Shantavira, Phil Boswell,Chuunen Baka, Sjorford, Bearcat, Moncrief, Naddy, Mirv, Academic Challenger, Desmay, Rursus, Ojigiri~enwiki, Meelar, JB82, Wally, Safor-rest, JackofOz, David Edgar, Profoss, Zaui, GreatWhiteNortherner, Alan Liefting, Gobeirne, Alexwcovington, TOO, DocWatson42, Geeoha-

370 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

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A Kitten!, Davidjk, AMK1211, Waacstats, Mollika,TnaNoZombiesAllowed, Zoltarpanaflex, Torchiest, Zharta, Spellmaster, Exiledone, Matt Adore, Cliché guevara, Hoverfish, Elsecar, JediLofty,JamminBen, Dowlingsimon, Shorelander, Rowy, SquidSK, Gwern, Magnus Bakken, SpecialWindler, MartinBot, Urban.spaceman, Nique1287,Aleandra~enwiki, R'n'B, MrBronson, Ibn Battuta, Gherkin22, Monkeyperson, Nev1, Rgoodermote, Terrek, Musicalprodigy, Rob Burbidge,Eliz81, Derwig, Tdadamemd, Balsa10, Jspatr2, Dispenser, Dpa1994, DavidSprehe, Unicycle77, Timboy23, HiLo48, Coin945, Richard D.LeCour, Kandy Talbot, Fleebo, SJP, Bwatts28, Cmichael, Juliankaufman, Unitof, Nikki311, Andy Marchbanks, Taylornm, Vkt183, Xcoun-try99, Midasminus, Onion6, Sjones23, Lambrook, Aesopos, Broadwaydiva, Mark dallas toronto, United Light, Ebay3, Sampathkrishna, Mbrm-brg, Xerxesnine, Magnius, Aymatth2, Albval, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Carpedia, Dendodge, ^demonBot2, Gunsnzeppelin333,Kc161989, Greensox6, Kmhkmh, Jamesmarkhetterley, Malick78, Zalinda Zenobia, Mendors, Orca99usa, Temporaluser, Sue Rangell, Picnico,Sacularamacal13, Barrympls, Zeppelfloyd, MuzikJunky, AKR619, Abraxsis, Dawn Bard, Caltas, CfmWild, Fishes dish, Keilana, Comedycris,Jack Djanogly, Lucile-in-the-sky, General Greasy, Kurdtkobainfan1, Grak79, Targeman, MadTheDJ, Polymath618, Lightmouse, KathrynLy-barger, Hobartimus, Venatoreng, Correogsk, Jóhann Heiðar Árnason, Spartan-James, Fuddle, StaticGull, Legionarius, Cielago, Ncasci, Denis-arona, Lloydpick, Escape Orbit, Pnelnik, Jwk3, ImageRemovalBot, Ratemonth, Martarius, De728631, ClueBot, Binksternet, Aokmeister, Snig-brook, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, Jummas, Drmies, Oddmartian2, TheOldJacobite, Bobgoss, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc,Pitt the elder, Trivialist, DragonBot, 60 Delta, Monobi, Lucymoran, Tnana, CoolMattew555, M.O.X, Mtsmallwood, Redthoreau, Thisisthelo,Nigenet, 20-dude, Mlaffs, Barrett74, Yonskii, 1ForTheMoney, Nibi, Joe Suggs, Indopug, Miami33139, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Nogare18,X24actor, Gazimoff, Vianello, Good Olfactory, KnightsofNi566, Addbot, Jafeluv, Tcncv, CullenNZ, SpellingBot, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday,Ironholds, John Sauter, NjardarBot, Dougbast, Chamal N, Ccacsmss, Chzz, Iancarine, Hombykidyea, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Kisbie,Guy1890, Evaders99, Fernandosmission, Radiopathy, Bochan808, AnomieBOT, Comic Book Runner, 1exec1, Ssgoku4000, Meganfoxx, Pianonon troppo, Eric Schutte, Kingpin13, ChristopheS, Explicitphrases, Editbringer, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Nofunafuti, Kolm14, Sketch-moose, Capricorn42, Ringkichardthethird, Khajidha, Comraderick, Sellyme, Wollikins, Tad Lincoln, Ariel19, Ubcule, Wondertwins activated,Designer1993, J04n, BaboonOfTheYard, GhalyBot, Th3 mag1k man, Volgar, SD5, Misslovelylily720, George2001hi, McAnt, Mblem1, Fres-coBot, John11johng, Troglo, DrJimOR, Monkshood82, Cheesecake12345678, Ablebakerus, MarB4, Wheelsoshea, JIK1975, Mimzy1990,HelpnWP, E247, Svetlance, Lyricallysatirical, Johnbutler1, Fumitol, The King of Australia, Ch7ummy, Fedokosmokrator, Cnwilliams, Dyson-berea, Tim1357, Double sharp, Trappist the monk, Wotnow, Rampant unicorn, Joey1978, Taariq hassan, Defender of torch, Trinie, Ché Gra-ham, Carminowe of Hendra, Canyq, Remco007, Mean as custard, Between My Ken, RjwilmsiBot, Spacejam2, GDBarry, Wikkitywack, John ofReading, WikitanvirBot, Efficacious, Oh Frustration, KeelieRoyer, Akjar13, Minucc, Smitty1337, Awesomerperson97, Thecheesykid, Jenks24,Bighippoeatsyou, Dkvincent, Medeis, Dennis714, Unreal7, Anoldtreeok, Demiurge1000, Kellyselden, Capitalsown, Skylang, Bill Hicks Jr.,Chickenguy13, TheDeviantPro, Montypissoff, Xonqnopp, ClueBot NG, Yoshi314, Derfel73, Bencooperwiki, Estreet1, Joefromrandb, Frogpen-

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guin, TyWMick, The whales eyebrow, Ryan5f, Widr, JordoCo, Hyliad, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Neptune’s Trident, Princetoniac,Wpete510, Gonnym, Snow Rise, Supernerd11, CitationCleanerBot, PVou, The Almightey Drill, Chmarkine, Cliff12345, Hotgardener, Xpion,Chie one, Mitchell NZ, Petehvill, Sminthopsis84, Mogism, Jayeee, Erstwhilepromotions, Aqlpswkodejifrhugty, Beckaroona, Jc86035, Pincrete,Bienmanchot, Noonshadow, Rybec, Sir Not Appearing On This Wiki, Dr.Gulliver, Aquajets1, Cecil Huber, Chocolatebacon11, Sleeve jobs,Carlos Rojas77, BurfyAdkins, Monkbot, Joe Vitale 5, Nicola Leoni, Bob3458, Daltonsky9, Security expert west london, Justbecause5, Foot-ballgeek99, Uv9800, TheReeDog, Cspoleta, Chrandles, Puppisissupadupacool, Feroze Ahmad 2, KasparBot and Anonymous: 1018

• Sherlock Holmes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes?oldid=677667347 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske,TwoOneTwo, RjLesch, Derek Ross, Eloquence, Mav, Malcolm Farmer, Sjc, Ed Poor, Arvindn, PierreAbbat, Deb, Ortolan88, William Avery, Si-monP, Ant, Zoe, Heron, Comte0, Formulax~enwiki, Mintguy, Isis~enwiki, Modemac, Hephaestos, Mrwojo, Frecklefoot, Edward, Kchishol1970,Infrogmation, Tubby, Ken Arromdee, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Paul Barlow, Kwertii, Isomorphic, Liftarn, Wwwwolf, Bobby D. Bryant,Ixfd64, Kalki, Zanimum, Paul A, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Docu, Samuelsen, Darrell Greenwood, Kingturtle, Darkwind, Cgs, Jll, Lupinoid,BenKovitz, Rayray, Mr.Zed, Zarius, Idcmp, Jihg, Trontonian, MarkBoydell, Ww, Lfh, JCarriker, Jm34harvey, Dysprosia, Dandrake, Jwrosen-zweig, Rvolz, StAkAr Karnak, WhisperToMe, Wik, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Ann O'nyme, Wernher, Shizhao, Ccady, Dpbsmith, EldKatt, Un-invitedCompany, Owen, RadicalBender, Moshems, Ckape, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Sander123, ChrisO~enwiki, Fredrik, Chris 73, Donreed,Altenmann, Sparky, Naddy, Chancemill, Lowellian, Burn the asylum, Petermanchester, Postdlf, Pingveno, Flauto Dolce, Litefantastic, Mee-lar, Auric, LGagnon, Timrollpickering, Mervyn, Dcutter, Delpino, Sdibb, TexasDex, Ludraman, Tobias Bergemann, SimonMayer, Fabiform,Xyzzyva, Exploding Boy, Dbenbenn, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Fosse8, Cobaltbluetony, Abigail-II, Tom harrison, Angmering, Ido50, Peruvian-llama, Alterego, Everyking, No Guru, Henry Flower, Gamaliel, DO'Neil, Beardo, Daibhid C, Finn-Zoltan, AlistairMcMillan, Beryllium, Ice-berg3k, Matt Crypto, Decagon, DÅ‚ugosz, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Wmahan, Chowbok, Etaonish, DocSigma, Uranographer, Alexf, Telso,Latitudinarian, Mike R, R. fiend, Dvavasour, Gdr, Formeruser-81, LucasVB, Stephan Leclercq, Antandrus, OverlordQ, MisfitToys, Scottperry,Am088, Khaosworks, Nils~enwiki, Rdsmith4, Gaul, Thincat, Sshenoy, Kuralyov, SimonLyall, AmarChandra, Rlcantwell, Neutrality, Joyous!,Mschlindwein, Neale Monks, Claude girardin, Jh51681, MakeRocketGoNow, Damieng, Guybrush, DmitryKo, Kate, DavidL (usurped), MikeRosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Bonalaw, Maestro25, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, DouglasJohnston, Aris Kat-saris, Cdyson37, Roodog2k, Antaeus Feldspar, Mani1, MarkS, Gonzalo Diethelm, SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, Sum0, Zaslav, Kbh3rd,Neko-chan, BACbKA, PlasmaDragon, Ylee, Nysalor, Kwamikagami, Kross, Worldtraveller, Tom, RoyBoy, Gershwinrb, Thuresson, Bobo192,Cretog8, Rramphal, Longhair, Bill the Greek, AmosWolfe, 23skidoo, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson, Bhooshan, Thanos6, Pokrajac, Giraffedata,Man vyi, Steveklein, TheProject, Jmeisen, WikiLeon, Troels Nybo~enwiki, Cunningham, Pschemp, DCEdwards1966, Espoo, Skychrono,Frodet, Grutness, Honeycake, Alansohn, Sumalsn, Rray, Blahma, LtNOWIS, Tobych, Proteus71, Lokicarbis, Les FL, Philip Cross, Rd232, Inky,Ricky81682, Robin Johnson, Andrew Gray, Yamla, Lectonar, PoptartKing, Lightdarkness, Jaardon, Dodonov, Hu, Malo, Metron4, DreamGuy,Snowolf, Brown Shoes22, Wtmitchell, Melaen, Bucephalus, Velella, Immanuel Giel, GJeffery, BRW, Cburnett, Garzo, Tony Sidaway, RJFJR,RainbowOfLight, Dirac1933, Randy Johnston, Sciurinæ, Lerdsuwa, H2g2bob, P Ingerson, Jguk, Sleigh, IVoteTurkey, Ghirlandajo, PureR,Throbblefoot, Brookie, A D Monroe III, Pcpcpc, Noz92, Weyes, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Starblind, Woohookitty,Bunnyhero, Camw, Jason Palpatine, Whitehorse1, StradivariusTV, Uncle G, Kurzon, EnSamulili, BlankVerse, Dowew, MONGO, CS42, Table-top, Kelisi, Hailey C. Shannon, Adityam, GregorB, Goystein~enwiki, SDC, Waldir, Jon Harald Søby, Gimboid13, Plw, Turnstep, Hovea, Man-darax, Graham87, WBardwin, Deltabeignet, BD2412, David Levy, Kbdank71, OGRastamon, JIP, Milyle, Doylefan, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu,Tim!, Koavf, Gryffindor, DeadlyAssassin, Carl Logan, Vary, DynSkeet, Carbonite, JHMM13, TheRingess, MitchellTF, Captain Disdain, Sp-Neo, Vegaswikian, Afterwriting, The wub, MarnetteD, Matt Deres, Sango123, Kasparov, Leithp, JohnDBuell, Enda80, FlaBot, Lsloan, Mum-blingmynah, RobertG, Old Moonraker, Thexmanlight, Loggie, KarlFrei, JodoYodo, CarolGray, Kerowyn, NekoDaemon, MosheZadka, RexNL,Gurch, Jay-W, Brendan Moody, Gryphonius, Alphachimp, Jmkprime, BradBeattie, Lemuel Gulliver, Newsjunkie, WouterBot, Chobot, DVdm,Bgwhite, RogerK, Flcelloguy, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Sceptre, Adamhauner, Hairy Dude, Kollision, Rtkat3, Huw Powell, MJustice,DTRY, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Maw, GLaDOS, Danbarnesdavies, SpuriousQ, Spycoops, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Polluxian, Gaius Cor-nelius, Jenblower, Rsrikanth05, Bovineone, Wimt, Tavilis, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Trademarx, Ou tis, Fabulous Creature, Długosz, Schlafly,Methelfilms, Patchyreynolds, SCZenz, Loonquawl, Irishguy, JohnnyZen, Cholmes75, ShadowMan1od, Jpbowen, Krakatoa, PhilipC, Davemck,Raven4x4x, Ezeu, Scs, TDogg310, David Pierce, Zzzzzzus, Alex43223, Zythe, Loopus, Dissolve, EmiOfBrie, Mister Man, DeadEyeArrow,Bota47, Nescio, Shadowblade, Acetic Acid, Sir Isaac, Brisvegas, Gnusbiz, Werdna, Jessek, Bantosh, Pydos, Wknight94, Elysianfields, Spin-nakerMagic, Unforgiven24, Tuckerresearch, J S Ayer, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Mike Selinker, Rikozarzour, SMcCandlish, BorgQueen, JoanneB,Ipstenu, Benshepherd, Smurrayinchester, Anclation~enwiki, Mais oui!, Piecraft, Spliffy, Deriobamba, Stevouk, Ybbor, Katieh5584, JDspeeder1,DearPrudence, Kingboyk, Airconswitch, Mardus, DVD R W, Tom Morris, Pasi, Mhardcastle, Veinor, User24, JJL, BonsaiViking, SmackBot,Nickyindia, Elonka, Espresso Addict, Haymaker, Lestrade, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, Mdiamante, Londonlinks, ParkerHiggins,Thunderboltz, RedSpruce, Dwanyewest, BPK2, Canthusus, TheDoctor10, Kintetsubuffalo, Kdg81, Mad Bill, Dyslexic agnostic, Marktreut,Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Crimsonfox, Kevinalewis, Andy M. Wang, Rmosler2100, Hraefen, Cowman109, Master gopher, Unint, TimBentley,Ian3055, Jm307, SynergyBlades, Joseph Q Publique, Dr bab, B00P, Thumperward, Xiliquiern, Alligators1974, MidgleyDJ, SchfiftyThree, Droll,Sadads, TheFeds, Kythias, Whispering, DHN-bot~enwiki, H-b-g, Darth Panda, Rama’s Arrow, Brideshead, ClaudiaM, Trekphiler, Can't sleep,clown will eat me, Nick Levine, ReferenceMan, Tamfang, Greypilgrim86, Quartermaster, Atropos, Vulcanstar6, LC Revelation, JMLofficier,Emamian, Computerman45, Addshore, Edivorce, Elendil’s Heir, Magmagirl, Artemisboy, Snowbound, MTebbe, Sailorptah, YankeeDoodle14,Fuhghettaboutit, Muksit, Digresser, B jonas, EVula, SnappingTurtle, Taggart Transcontinental, Derek R Bullamore, Sljaxon, Jklin, SpiderJon,DMacks, Bob Castle, Gildir, BrotherFlounder, Primogen, FelisLeo, Kukini, Drunken Pirate, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Blahm, The undertow,SashatoBot, Sassafras, Lambiam, Sherlock Whippet, ArglebargleIV, AThing, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BrownHairedGirl, Nareek, RealmMan,John, Pliny, Gobonobo, NewTestLeper79, Xornok, UpDown, Coyoty, Number36, Peterlewis, Tim from Leeds, Chris 42, IronGargoyle, Nellis,Syrcatbot, ENSSB, Chrisch, Stuartfanning, Comicist, Pedantic of Purley, Stwalkerster, Symmetric Chaos, Beetstra, STL Dilettante, Mr Stephen,Hargle, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Mets501, Doczilla, Herrpoon, Midnightblueowl, Hammeff, Dukemeiser, Zapvet, Bobbaxter, Haveronjones,Darry2385, Rpab, Dl2000, Hkd2029, Politepunk, DabMachine, Norm mit, BranStark, ISD, Iridescent, JMK, Clarityfiend, Athenaeum, ColonelWarden, Masoninman, Joseph Solis in Australia, Shoeofdeath, Newone, Mihitha, StephenBuxton, Twas Now, Rnb, CapitalR, Hideyuki7, CharlesT. Betz, Ewulp, Courcelles, Casper Gutman, Woodshed, Pjbflynn, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Jh12, Generalcp702, HDCase, JForget, Tedmaryn-icz, Adam Keller, Dan0 00, CmdrObot, Wafulz, Seb162005, Elyu, Interstellar, Cchris, Jayunderscorezero, Makeemlighter, JohnCD, Dynzmoar,Visionthing, Drinibot, Jnicho02, Reahad, Noha307, Locuteh, Birchbaston, Simply south, WeggeBot, Neelix, Michael B. Trausch, Gran2, De-vatipan, MrFish, Besidesamiracle, Lookingforgroup, Jpwrites, Phósphoros, Mattbuck, Cydebot, Mblumber, Nightbird~enwiki, Kanags, Trey-bien, Glenn branca, Aristophanes68, Gogo Dodo, MattButts, ST47, DocDee, Pascal.Tesson, Ttenchantr, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Bookgrrl,

372 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

Keircutler, Ssilvers, Vyselink, BenStorer, Voldemortuet, Click23, Malleus Fatuorum, Jon C., JeweledAurora, Mawfive, Raldage, Qwyrxian,TonyTheTiger, 271828182, Jedibob5, GentlemanGhost, Gltimmons, Aurelien Langlois, Sagaciousuk, N5iln, Sdream93, Mojo Hand, Marek69,Tbmorgan74, DTPQueen, Affiray, Arcarti, James086, Ctu2485, Girl Sherlock, Ackatsis, DanDud88, Alientraveller, Double-L, Dfrg.msc, TheCulprit, Icarus 23, Themeparkfanatic, Dawnseeker2000, TheGiantHogweed, Scottandrewhutchins, Escarbot, Cliffewiki, LachlanA, LegendSaber, AntiVandalBot, CommanderCool1654, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Opelio, JHFTC, QuiteUnusual, Shirt58, Bookworm857158367, Prolog,Onlybizet, CarolineMcC, 17Drew, RapidR, Fivepast, Fayenatic london, Tadas12, Modernist, Darklilac, Mutt Lunker, Qwerty Binary, Myanw,Leuqarte, Bocephusjohnson, Klow, Gökhan, MikeLynch, DCincarnate, Lhagiang, JAnDbot, Rl201, Deflective, Husond, MER-C, LeedsK-ing, Agrestis, Ericoides, Supertheman, Seddon, Midnightdreary, The Unitied States Of America Warrior 60,000, Social Rage 70, MB1972,Albany NY, Awien, Hewinsj, Dcooper, Atriel, Hut 8.5, J Greb, Rothorpe, Siddharth Mehrotra, Wildhartlivie, Asafoetida, Magioladitis, Conan-fan1412, ZPM, Johndonut, Pedro, Celithemis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Dekimasu, Fallon Turner, Awesome Dad, AtticusX, Kalepook, SherlockBrett, JamesBWatson, Twisted86, Trishm, CTF83!, Sodabottle, Dep. Garcia, RuthieK, Froid, John1701, Cartoon Boy, Nick Cooper, DomingoPortales, GroovySandwich, Prismsplay, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, LookingGlass, Blackasursowl, DerHexer, Drevlyanin, Lenticel, ChazBeckett,Daemonic Kangaroo, Dtassone, Tintinlover123, Mykas0, Wikianon, Laura1822, B9 hummingbird hovering, MartinBot, Schmloof, Addison7,Arevco, Serkul, Seinfeld99, CliffC, Kiore, Scarlet Princess, Juansidious, Rsl12, Keith D, Padillah, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Siddharthkrish,Kh8s, Sibi antony, J.delanoy, Nev1, Gotyear, Trusilver, TheLastAmigo, Dr.Who, Tlim7882, Bitethesilverbullet, Markola, Tikiwont, Eliz81, The-greenj, 88888, MattB2, Paris1127, Pokepedia~enwiki, McSly, Jigesh, Balthazarduju, Grmanners, WebHamster, JayJasper, HiLo48, Vegan4Life,NewEnglandYankee, Molly-in-md, Perry lax, SmilesALot, Sensei48, TheScotch, Malerin, Themoodyblue, Madhava 1947, KylieTastic, Comet-styles, Lord Of Monkeys, RB972, Yeatesy, Audiovore, DH85868993, Redrocket, Ajfweb, Bonadea, JavierMC, Straw Cat, Gelbard, Ktoonen,Wilhelmina.rush, Vkt183, GHYTHEY, Phlyz, Redtigerxyz, Lights, Sam Blacketer, Deor, OLEF641, VolkovBot, ABF, Derekbd, MeaningfulUsername, Gin007, DSRH, Jeffsul, Rtrace, AlnoktaBOT, Dougie monty, Philip Trueman, Mkcmkc, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Jofre~enwiki, Moog-wrench, Isulfir, Alan Rockefeller, Zummis, RedVeat, Vipinhari, Bahamut Elite, DaoKaioshin, Lawnmadonna, Debutante, Chikanamakalaka,Dj thegreat, Afluent Rider, Yyyyyy333222111, Devoxo, Hyper Summer, Imababy, Joeljpb, Aymatth2, Anna Lincoln, John Carter, Melsaran,Martin451, Leafyplant, Buddhipriya, LeaveSleaves, Mannafredo, DesmondW, DBetty, Liberal Classic, Annrules, Tdalby, RadiantRay, Nokom,Greswik, Blurpeace, Lerdthenerd, Davethefish42, DavidHitt, Enviroboy, AgentCDE, Vchimpanzee, RaseaC, Spinningspark, Kai, Sesshomaru,WatermelonPotion, Locke9k, Monty845, Showers, Laval, DeluxeSuperFly, Treepig2, B.romberg, ComputerWolf, Quantpole, Sushisurprise,Logan, PGWG, Wattyie, Lottie33, Ishboyfay, DivaNtrainin, EmxBot, Tsukikosagi, Deconstructhis, Cvmdavies, Lizzyewer, Cosprings, Oedii,SieBot, StAnselm, Coffee, Slatersteven, Maher-shalal-hashbaz, Nubiatech, Tresiden, Nihil novi, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, Jack Mer-ridew, Krawi, Juru, Alaxr274, Ajc2711, Doug4422, Tomwhite56, TrulyBlue, Norgor, Arda Xi, Sunny910910, Johncurrandavis, A312551,NobleWeek, Oxymoron83, Jack1956, Artoasis, Mankar Camoran, Faradayplank, Baseball Bugs, Samatarou, Pepso2, Miniapolis, Lightmouse,Amcfadgen, Escape Artist Swyer, RSStockdale, Ks0stm, Alex.muller, ShadowPhox, Moletrouser, AMbot, Venomous Pen, Nphaneuf, Svick,Rjfost, Alvis Rofhessa, Stfg, Magalvao, StaticGull, Dlkwiki, Captain Teague, Sherlock2040, Vinay raikar, Supersixfive, Dabomb87, DRTllbrg,Watson’s Notes, H1nkles, Graminophile, Escape Orbit, Lmahan, ASBiskey, Tatterfly, Danausplexippus, Leranedo, Rw0000001, Loren.wilton,Elassint, ClueBot, Tmol42, AndrePeltier, DFRussia, Wedineinheck, Snigbrook, Josh0322, CaptainJae, The Thing That Should Not Be, Sweet-lew13, Activeentity, Rjd0060, Swedish fusilier, TJ Dimacali, Jtomlin1uk, Gawaxay, Bikeroo, Robman94, Keraunoscopia, Czarkoff, Arakunem,Saddhiyama, Cp111, Zdecent, Nickelfish~enwiki, Boing! said Zebedee, Hafspajen, Mezigue, Blanchardb, Psource, Piledhigheranddeeper,Trivialist, Davidovic, Gerald G-Money, Jagdfeld, Raisrulez, Supergodzilla2090, DragonBot, McMarcoP, Excirial, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy,Tomeasy, Erebus Morgaine, The persistent invincible, Eeekster, Conical Johnson, Gtstricky, SpikeToronto, Flameking11, NuclearWarfare,Andrewtriggs, UltraEdit, Kuanche, Seantrinityohara, Cormack666, Cr7i, Rajashreepatel, Mtsmallwood, Elcapitanhowdy, Rui Gabriel Correia,C628, Jtle515, Vegetator, Snackeru, Yakman69, Lord Cornwallis, Osmius, JDPhD, Bellwether BC, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Bobcat4214, AA4PC,Sing2pray, DumZiBoT, Mbakkel2, Darkicebot, Tigging, Crazy Boris with a red beard, Captain108, BarretB, Classiv, XLinkBot, Gnowor,Gerhardvalentin, PSWG1920, Lobo, HappyJake, Bob Curtis, NellieBly, Oldradioshows, BlonddudeGoneDark, Saffy123, Frickwg, Badgernet,Noctibus, MarmadukePercy, WikiDao, Linesdata~enwiki, TravisAF, Zacharie Grossen, ZooFari, NostalgiaVista, Komobu, Trendnewly12, That-guyflint, Zainboy, Kbdankbot, D.M. from Ukraine, Addbot, Cxz111, Blanche of King’s Lynn, Hiitse, Willking1979, Watson9194, Prettybabe,Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Edanon~enwiki, Queenmomcat, Unclewalker, Malikov, Adam Warlock 2, Phil’sFriend, Older and ... wellolder, Cooksi, Fencatic, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Noozgroop, Reedmalloy, Switzpaw, LaaknorBot, Chamal N, Ccacsmss, Glane23,Fluffy25, Istrucktheglass, Zero no Kamen, Isabel100, Web comic, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Proxxt, Norman21, Tassedethe, Peridon, Wolfeye90,Scienceislife, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Smeagol 17, Jan eissfeldt, Gail, SasiSasi, David0811, Greyhood, Chalkumro, Hobr, Goodmanjoon,Сдобников Андрей, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Granpuff, 2D, Legobot II, Donfbreed, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Ndlax, AprilBlood,Jim0watkins, Benjamin1111, BAPACop, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Kitty Kattie, CinchBug, Maraadler, INS Pirat, Neilgreatorex, AyrtonProst, Pablocasal380, Greg Holden 08, Define Life, Alexkin, Againme, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, Bility, Tonyrex, AnomieBOT, BRPierce,Floquenbeam, Cinemajay, Six words, Jim1138, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, Saseitz, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Guff2much, Flewis, Jacob2718,Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, 90 Auto, Citation bot, Jehuty103, Tbvdm, Sherifisac, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Cameron Scott,Mattboy909, Xqbot, Zad68, Sketchmoose, Chaboura, Luuvabot, Cedricthecentaur, Greatgreekgod, Gensanders, DSisyphBot, Gilo1969, Wicke-drob, The Evil IP address, JesseLeiman, Tyrol5, JCrue, TheWanderer64, Ruy Pugliesi, Broncos4ever, AVBOT, RibotBOT, JoeLoeb, Funnypic-tures, GainLine, Shadowjams, Hipofizis, Green Cardamom, LubieeOx, Captain-n00dle, HolmesDragon, Satishmania, Tumunu, Reborn221,FrescoBot, Anna Roy, Newklear Phil, LucienBOT, Dk9bhardwaj, AlexanderKaras, SherlockHolmesOnTheRioGrande, Ndboy, Distended narra-tion, Rectitudo, Yickbob, Red3biggs, Bcefjj805, Muzmah, Footyfanatic3000, Keserman, Billtkd, Colourednana, Ablebakerus, ClickRick, Ham-burgerRadio, Hexagon70, Citation bot 1, Elliott2000, Bobmack89x, Pinethicket, Grammarspellchecker, HRoestBot, PHILTHEGUNNER60,Jonesey95, DzWiki, Newblackwhite, Calmer Waters, A8UDI, Moonraker, Marqso, Jschnur, Brucewh, Mediatech492, Smijes08, Île flottante,Petro Gulak, Fumitol, MNRhubarb, Sherlockfan, FoxBot, TobeBot, Mr Mulliner, Royal Blue Jersey, Jiskran, Lotje, Greenleaf547, Singing-Zombie, JuhoV, Vrenator, Coldwarshot, DingleMr, Klomin10, Defender of torch, Fmndu9acgh79q3, NerdyRaspberry, Chickenfish333, Pep-picatred, Aronlee-eva, David Hedlund, Greenp3, Camron 6, J-C Bubbendorf, Merlinsorca, Diannaa, Yeng-Wang-Yeh, Tbhotch, Reach Outto the Truth, Loisanwin, Banjogirl424, Spideyismycopilot, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, Samuel Rosenbaum, RjwilmsiBot, Vb513,Erfo46, YuryCassini, Perspeculum, Tatoranaki, EmausBot, Sir Arthur Williams, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, RachelJLevine, Rasputin72,PleasanceC, Tal1962, Smellytango22, Pareelz09, Wowprdi, Kensternation, Scardinoz, Ethine, Zerkroz, GoingBatty, BeeoftheBirdoftheMoth,Londoner77, Ayaaa, Martino1968, Mrmannyman2, NotAnonymous0, Jorvikian, Solarra, Remington1122, Jagbaraljuger, Princess Lirin, Duke-ofwin, Wikipelli, Mikebru, Trntrff, JDDJS, Postwar, ZéroBot, John Cline, Cupidvogel, Fæ, Traxs7, BabyNJ, MassaAlonso, Martinh96, Cyberia3,Jordancelticsfan, Mmarcuswarren, Azuris, Peter 437, Elektrik Shoos, Snorlaxingimarsson, Monkeybutt50, Mugglebear, K kisses, Powerpuff-

16.13. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 373

bubbles23, SporkBot, Cymru.lass, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, IronJohn2000, RaptureBot, Jay-Sebastos, TyA, Lamb chops x, IGeMiNix, Rykald-inho, Yorkshiresoul, TomorrowWeDie, BartlebytheScrivener, Sailsbystars, Orange Suede Sofa, Rangoon11, JMS-Natchez, PDethBW, Comi-carmageddon, Clementina, Gregums, Khushwantsingh987, Terra Novus, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, Multiplex72, Agent bishop, Ebehn,SherlockDwoney5, Alwayssoma, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Dr. Persi, Jon7245, MelbourneStar, TruPepitoM,SirHenryJosephBell, Carr1331, O.Koslowski, Graciado, Rezabot, ThaddeusSholto, Widr, Llorracsemaj, SnakeRambo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Li-braryman125, DevilsHarmonica, GBGabe, RobertGustafson, Lolm8, Holly the Short, Seesawmajorydoor, SchroCat, BG19bot, Radkris ig,Bdarrell, Prasan2008, Mykindabook, DeepSnowBand, Steve Milburn, George Ponderevo, Ilikedoilies, Frze, AvocatoBot, Allenehorner, CusopDingle, Bakerstreetreg, Bugjuice2, Mark Arsten, Storfix1, Batman194, Atomician, Godzilladude123, Abhilash ramadagi, Pretty Girl Barbie,Writ Keeper, Arun1291, Ssonday002, Hamish59, Shisma, Cygnature, Wrath X, Achowat, Abra thomas, Jonadin93, Mrt3366, Deatheater36,Khazar2, Ricercar a6, JYBot, Kanghuitari, Dexbot, Wikiman103, Archieb123, Codename Lisa, Yasnas, Mogism, Kota171717, Sgumibear,TwoTwoHello, Magicpillows, Iamsherlocked, Pokajanje, Eameam19, Np3 666, Happy2BUrDork, Ankitsingh1708, Humorideas, Ob376, Donf-breed2, S3wd, Epicgenius, Daniel.villar7, Jodosma, Clive Lyons, JohnMarkOckerbloom, Matty.007, Hechidnat, CensoredScribe, Marigold100,Cinerama Comment, Mooseandbruce1, Somchai Sun, Machho, SNUGGUMS, BBCGuy2, Rehilly, Ithinkicahn, JohnSmith5000100, Koti.hung,Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Tranquility of Soul, Sherlock502, LawrencePrincipe, Goblinshark17, Ishinoak, SparrowHK, Samantha Ireland, Iny-ouchuu shoku, KasparBot, SingingJoseph4MusicalFilmFans, SJDBurgess and Anonymous: 2251

16.13.2 Images• File:'Today_capitalism_has_outlived_its_usefulness’_MLK.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/

%27Today_capitalism_has_outlived_its_usefulness%27_MLK.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: 'Today capitalism has outlived itsusefulness’ MLK Original artist: Liz Mc

• File:1878_Darwin_photo_by_Leonard_from_Woodall_1884_-_cropped_grayed_partially_cleaned.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/1878_Darwin_photo_by_Leonard_from_Woodall_1884_-_cropped_grayed_partially_cleaned.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Woodall 1884 Original artist: Leonard Darwin

• File:221B_Baker_Street.JPEG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/221B_Baker_Street.JPEG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://www.stutler.cc/other/misc/baker_street.html Original artist: Russ Stutler

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• File:A_Study_in_Scarlet_from_Beeton’{}s_Christmas_Annual_1887.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/A_Study_in_Scarlet_from_Beeton%27s_Christmas_Annual_1887.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Beinecke Rare Book & ManuscriptLibrary, Yale University [1] Original artist: David Henry Friston

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• File:Annie_Darwin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Annie_Darwin.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: Lukas Fenner, Matthias Egger, and Sebastien Gagneux Annie Darwin’s death, the evolution of tuberculosis and the need for systemsepidemiology, Int. J. Epidemiol. (2009) 38(6): 1425-1428 doi:10.1093/ije/dyp367 (archive); where reproduced with permission from theEnglish Heritage Photo Library, which asserts copyright Original artist: Unknown photographer, uploaded by en:User:Duncharris

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Fair use Contributors: U. S. Army Records Management and Declassification Agency, released to public as submitted evidence in court pro-ceeding and available here Original artist: Chelsea Manning

• File:Christ_cleans_leper_man.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Christ_cleans_leper_man.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: photo taken by Sibeaster Original artist: Unknown

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• File:CollateralMurder.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/CollateralMurder.ogv License: Public domainContributors: Wikileaks at http://collateralmurder.com/ Original artist: US Apache helicopter

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• File:Darwin_Statue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Darwin_Statue.jpg License: Public domainContributors: http://www.darwincountry.org/explore/021736.html Original artist: Shropshire Museums

• File:Darwin_Tree_1837.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png License: Publicdomain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Charles Darwin

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• File:Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_(1871).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Originally published in The Hornet magazine; this image is available on University College London Digital Collections (18886) Originalartist: Unknown, The Hornet is no longer in publication and it is very likely for a 20-year-old artist in 1871 to have died before 1939

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• Derivative of Pierre Trudeau Original artist: Speaker: JasonLamarcheAuthors of the article

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• File:Gandhi_Boer_War.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Gandhi_Boer_War.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors: http://web.mahatma.org.in/pictures/images/piccat0007/sa_1024_0015.jpg Original artist: Unknown

• File:Gandhi_Commons.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Gandhi_Commons.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sergio Valle Duarte

• File:Gandhi_Graffiti_San_Francisco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Gandhi_Graffiti_San_Francisco.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Victorgrigas

• File:Gandhi_Jinnah_1944.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Gandhi_Jinnah_1944.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: gandhiserve.org Original artist: Unknown

• File:Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Brown, Judith. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1989, p. 116. Originalartist: Unknown

• File:Gandhi_Memorial_Kanyakumari.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Gandhi_Memorial_Kanyakumari.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gandhi_Memorial_Kanyakumari.jpgOriginally uploaded 4:06, 1 January 2005 (UTC) by Tony Jones (talk) to en:Wikipedia (log). Original artist: Tony Jones

• File:Gandhi_South-Africa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Gandhi_South-Africa.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.resurgence.org/resurgence/pictures/Gandhi214.jpg Original artist: Unknown

• File:Gandhi_Tolstoy_Farm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Gandhi_Tolstoy_Farm.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: gandhiserve.org Original artist: Unknown

378 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

• File:Gandhi_Willingdon_caricature_1932.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Gandhi_Willingdon_caricature_1932.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dinodia.com/photos/MKG-33384.jpg Original artist: Unknown

• File:Gandhi_and_Indira_1924.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Gandhi_and_Indira_1924.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Scan by Yann from a picture given by Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad. Original artist: Unknown

• File:Gandhi_and_Kasturbhai_1902.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Gandhi_and_Kasturbhai_1902.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mahatma.org.in/books/images/io0002/pg0002_1.jpg Original artist: Un-known

• File:Gandhi_and_Nehru_1942.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gandhi_and_Nehru_1942.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: http://img27.fansshare.com/pic105/w/timeline-of-indian-history/1200/26947_timeline_of_indian_history.jpg Original artist: Credited to Dave Davis, Acme Newspictures Inc., correspondent [1]

• File:Gandhi_at_Darwen_with_women.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Gandhi_at_Darwen_with_women.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://flickr.com/photo_zoom.gne?id=639764555&size=l Original artist: Un-known

• File:Gandhi_home.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Gandhi_home.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Ghandiji Ashram Original artist: Dave Morris

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• File:Gandhi_suit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Gandhi_suit.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: gandhiserve.org Original artist: Unknown

• File:Gandi_bista_Novi_Beograd.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Gandi_bista_Novi_Beograd.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 rs Contributors: Transferred from sr.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:BokicaK usingCommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Иван Ћурчић at sr.wikipedia

• File:GaudenzioFerrari_StorieCristo_Varallo2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/GaudenzioFerrari_StorieCristo_Varallo2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file has been extracted from anotherfile: GaudenzioFerrari StorieCristo Varallo.jpg.Original artist: Gaudenzio Ferrari

• File:Gerard_van_Honthorst_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Gerard_van_Honthorst_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Gerard van Honthorst

• File:Global_War_on_Terrorism_Service_ribbon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Global_War_on_Terrorism_Service_ribbon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image Us gwotser rib.png:<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Us_gwotser_rib.png' class='image'><img alt='Us gwotser rib.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Us_gwotser_rib.png/96px-Us_gwotser_rib.png' width='96' height='27' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Us_gwotser_rib.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Us_gwotser_rib.png 2x' data-file-width='106' data-file-height='30' /></a> Original artist: Ipankonin

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• File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides

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• File:Grave_James_Joyce.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Grave_James_Joyce.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: de:Grab James Joyce.jpg Original artist: Lars Haefner - uploaded by Albinfo

• File:Griepenkerl,_Beseelung_der_menschlichen_Tonfigur_durch_Athena.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Griepenkerl%2C_Beseelung_der_menschlichen_Tonfigur_durch_Athena.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:found online [2], James Steakley Original artist: Christian Griepenkerl

• File:Gérôme_-_L'entrée_du_Christ_à_Jérusalem_-_cadre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_L%27entr%C3%A9e_du_Christ_%C3%A0_J%C3%A9rusalem_-_cadre.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Jean-Léon Gérôme

• File:HMS_Beagle_by_Conrad_Martens.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/HMS_Beagle_by_Conrad_Martens.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: English Wikipedia (13:42, 15 October 2005. User:Dave souza 1235x821(73563 bytes) (HMS Beagle in the seaways of Tierra del Fuego, painting by Conrad Martens during the voyage of the Beagle (1831-1836),from The Illustrated Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, abridged and illustrated by Richard Leakey ) Original artist: Conrad Martens(1801 - 21 August 1878)

• File:Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• James_Joyce_by_Alex_Ehrenzweig,_1915.jpg Original artist: James_Joyce_by_Alex_Ehrenzweig,_1915.jpg: Alex Ehrenzweig• File:James_Joyce_signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/James_Joyce_signature.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: Heritage Auction Galleries Original artist: James JoyceCreated in vector format by Scewing

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380 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

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• Derivative of Jesus Original artist: Speaker: Matthew David GonzálezAuthors of the article

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• File:KLM_MD_11_AMS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/KLM_MD_11_AMS.jpg License: CCBY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Innotata using CommonsHelper.Original artist: Kristoferb (talk).

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• File:KellyIngramMLKStatue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/KellyIngramMLKStatue.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Magnus Manske usingCommonsHelper.Original artist: Kinu Panda (w:User:Kinu). Original uploader was Kinu at en.wikipedia

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• File:MII.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/MII.png License: Public domain Contributors: HaraldFuchs, Tacitus über die Christen, Vigiliae Christianae, 1950, p. 65. A reprint from a photographic facsimile: Tacitus. Codex Lau-rentianus Mediceus 68 I. (II.) [comprising Bks. 1-5, and 11-16 of the Annals; and Bks. 1-5 of the Histories]; phototypice editus. Praefatusest Henricus Rostagno (Enrico Rostagno); in Du Rieu (W. N.) Codices Graeci et Latini phototypice editi, etc. tom. 7. Leiden, 1902.Original artist: Tacitus (text copied by a monk in the 11th century). Photographic facsimile by Henricus Rostagno, 1902.

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386 CHAPTER 16. SHERLOCK HOLMES

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