508 macro refugee studies essay

Running head: PERCEPTIONS OF INTEGRATION BY BOSNIAN REFUGEES

Perceptions of Integration by Bosnian Refugees in the Treasure Valley

Craig Johnson

David Ejchorszt

Refik Sadikovic

Sarah Ritter

Sonia Serrato-Rojas

YuWen Chen

Professor: Dr. Royce Huston

1


Abstract

TBD

Keywords

Bosnian refugees, resettlement, integration (others TBD)

2


Table of Contents

t

3


Executive Summary

“An executive summary is a one-page statement of the problem, the

purpose of the communication, and a summary of the results,

conclusions, and recommendations. The same considerations of readers

and situation should guide your executive summaries.” This description

of executive summaries came from Purdue’s OWL website.

4


Introduction

The origins of refugee resettlement in the United States

officially began at the end of World War II when the simultaneous

effects of massive geopolitical human displacement coincided with the

massive loss of human life, generally, and the loss of working age

males, specifically. While there has been a long history of people

seeking refuge prior to WWII (Betts, Loescher, & Milner, 2012), the

refugee issue was primarily seen as the need to replenish “domestic

5


labor shortages” (p. 12) post-WWII, which generated the impetus for

the U.S. to join other nations in creating the International Refugee

Organization (IRO). While the IRO began as a temporary organization to

deal specifically with post-WWII displacement, it became a permanent

organization under the Refugee Convention of 1951 and was renamed the

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), which was

tasked with refugee protection and reintegration of displaced persons

in their country of origin or integration in another country. The

shift from a temporary to a permanent organization was partially due

to post-WWII Cold War politics and the West’s quest to perpetuate an

anti-communist agenda. It was during this time that the language

“persecution or fear of persecution” (p. 12) was used to formally

define a person claiming refugee status as a way to rhetorically fuel

anti-communism. The language of the early definition for refugees

persisted and is evident in the UNHCR’s current internationally

recognized definition of refugees:

owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons

of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular

social group or political opinion, is outside the country of

his nationality, and is unable to, or owing to such fear, is

unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country

(UNHCR, 2001).

6


The economic and political motivations underpinning the UNHCR and the

internationally recognized definition of refugees continues to

influence refugee integration and resettlement in the United States.

Since the end of World War II, the United States has resettled

refugees as part of its national policy and public identity, stating

that, resettlement “reflect[s] our core values and our tradition of

being a safe haven for the oppressed” (Office for Refugee

Resettlement, 2012). Rhetorically, this statement suggests

humanitarian benevolence as the United States’ primary reason for

resettling refugees; however, the Refugee Act of 1980, which is the

United States’ current legal document regarding refugee resettlement,

frames all aide accompanying resettlement in terms of a refugee’s

economic ability. The Refugee Act of 1980 states that in order for

social service agencies to receive funds for resettlement they must

“assist them to achieve economic self-sufficiency as quickly as

possible after arrival in the United States” (Refugee Act of 1980).

The underscoring of “economic self-sufficiency” as the primary gauge

for assessing “effective resettlement” is repeated in multiple

paragraphs of the Act (Refugee Act of 1980). The primacy of “economic

self-sufficiency” in resettlement greatly effects a refugee’s long-

term integration into his/her new community; therefore, the focus of

this study is to explore the interconnections between economic self-

7


sufficiency and community integration of Bosnian refugees in a

metropolitan city in the Northwest United States.

The History of Bosnian Conflict

Bosnia and Herzegovina, was a culturally rich jewel of the Balkan

republics in the former Yugoslavia. During the Bosnian War 1990s, it

suffered dramatically, involving Serbs, Bosnian Muslims ("Bosniacs"),

and Croats. According to census in 1991 approximately 44 percent of

Bosnian population was Bosniak, 31 percent of the was Serb, 17 percent

was Croat. On October 1991, Bosnia and Herzegovina decided to declare

the separation from Yugoslavia, and by 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina was

in a genocidal civil war, the worst war in Europe since World War II

(education.stateuniversity.com). Pre war size of Bosnian population

was 4.4 million, however the population had dropped a lot in the 1990s

due to the records of Bosnians who were killed (about 250,000) or who

fled outside of the country (about 1.2 million). In same time more

than 200,000 Bosnians were wounded in the war, and 13,000 were

permanently disabled, including thousands of children.

(education.stateuniversity.com). After the war, in 1999, it was

estimated 3.5 million people to be residing in Bosnia

(education.stateuniversity.com).

8


According to nytimes.com, from 1992 until 2007 the State

Department resettled around 131,000 refugees from Bosnia and

Herzegovina in the United States (nytimes.com).

According to Idaho office for Refugees According to the Idaho Office

for Refugees, those fleeing Bosnia and Herzegovina made up more than

half of the 5,000 refugees who resettled in Idaho during the 1990s

(idahorefugees.org).

History of Resettlement in Idaho

According to the Office of Refugee Resettlement, Idaho began

accepting refugees for resettlement in 1975 when then Governor John

Evans established the Indochinese Refugee Assistance Program in

response to the federal government’s requirement for all states to

participate in the resettlement of refugees fleeing the overthrow of

U.S. supported governments in southeast Asia. Shortly after Idaho

established legislation regarding resettlement of refugees, Idaho

began taking refugees fleeing communist states (Idaho office for

refugees, N.D.). (this would probably be a good place to insert total

numbers of resettled people since 1975, not per ethnicity but a lump

sum) Since the official establishment of refugee resettlement in

Idaho, the state has received refugees from multiple countries

9


including but not limited to Bhutan, Burundi, Somalia, Congo, Burma,

Iraq, Afghanistan, and Bosnia.

Resettlement Process

The U.S. State Department has the responsibility to oversee the

resettlement of refugees in the United States under the Bureau of

Population, Refugees and Migration (PRM), and uses this definition to

begin the process for resettlement ("Refugee admissions,”).

Once a refugee has received approval to resettle in the United

States, the person enters the United States Refugee Admissions Program

(USRAP) and begins the process for resettlement within the refugee

camp which includes medical screening, culture training, and a

background check to assess if the person is a security risk. Once this

process is completed travel arrangements will be made and the refugee

will depart for the host country. In the U.S. newly arriving refugees

are placed through a collaboration of 10 service providers that have

established resettlement sites throughout the country. This process

includes identifying and matching the individual/family needs with

community resources. Incoming refugees that have relatives living

within the U.S. are most often resettled with their relatives or

within the community where the relatives reside ("Refugee

admissions,”). The initial assistance provided from the U.S. State

Department includes a one time sum of $1,800 to provide for the

10


renting of an apartment, furniture, food, clothing, and staff salaries

to cover the initial resettlement. After the initial few weeks,

additional cash, medical, and resettlement support provided by the CBO

is supervised and funded through the Department of Health and Human

Services Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) ("Refugee admissions,”).

The purpose of the resettlement process is to provide initial services

to arriving refugees with the goal of immediate integration into the

U.S. society through job placement as early in the process as possible

(Nawyn, 2010; ("Refugee admissions,”).

Literature

Review

People who are forced to leave their own countries resettled a

new life in the pursuit of safe environment because of the natural

disaster or wars. We called these people as refugees. Kirk (2001)

explained,

“A refugee is someone who cannot go home or is afraid to go home.For refugees, their home is taken away, suddenly, and often by force. Since they must travel quickly and light, they leave the bulk of their possessions behind. They flee to a neighboring country where they may face inhospitable conditions, overcrowded refugee camps, few services, and little welcome” (p. 2).

In 2001, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

(UNHCR) estimated 10.3 million refugees from around the world

recruited in their organization. When refugees arrive in the U.S.,

11


they receive their right of natural citizens with legal documents, but

illegal immigrants (Kirk, 2011, p. 2-3). Franz (2005) indicated, “The

U.S. resettlement program has been based on the premises of permanent

residence and early economic self-sufficiency through employment” (p.

48).

However, moving to the host countries, refugees have to face the

social, cultural, and financial integration. The resettlement

agencies’ assistance, community support, and refugees’ self-

sufficiency are the main concerns to facilitate refugees’

resettlement. Franz (2005) pointed out, “The resettlement locations

depended either on sponsors’ locations, for family-reunification

cases, or on resettlement agencies’ resources, for free cases” (p.

61). However, the agencies’ supports cannot meet refugees’ needs after

they arrived in the host country. Franz (2005) pointed out, “In most

cases money allocated in the United States was insufficient for

refugees’ survival in the first month. Refugees were encouraged to

enter the job market as soon as possible, which makes many of the

stories about their first weeks in United States similar” (p. 61).

Franz (2005) further noted, “For free cases in the United States,

agencies met the refugees’ initial needs for housing, clothing, and

food. At this point local and volunteer affiliations became more

important in providing furniture, clothes, and food” (p. 61).

12


Resettlement of Bosnian Refugees in the U.S.

In this study, we focus on Bosnian refugees’ life integration. As

Hariz’s (2013) book mentioned,

At the outbreak of the war, Bosnian cultural diversity

became a matter of ethno-nationalistic politics; students,

workers, housewives, farmers, mothers, teachers and children

were all primarily defined by ‘their’ ethno-religious

identity, which for many became the only basis for

persecution-physical extermination and the forced expulsion

of whole communities from towns and villages across the

country. Almost half of Bosnia’s population of 4.5 million

people was forced to leave their homes, with about 1.6

million finding temporary refuge outside the country (p.

54).

The war forced the Bosnian refugees to leave their country of

origin. Bosnian refugees had to work as laborers rather than maintain

their original occupations and profession in the host country. These

life change factors influenced Bosnian refugees’ identities. Stein

(1979) proposed that occupational and economic adjustment is crucial

to adult refugees’ acculturation in a new country, much as educational

success is essential for refugee children’s acculturation. These group

13


processes affect one’s individual sense of identity and well-being.

(as cited in McBrien, 2005, p. 330-331).

In addition, Hariz (2013) found, “In some instances, identities

of the displaced have been partially or completely replaced, adapted,

hybridized and entangled with new identities, roles and places, while

in other instances there is a prevalent feeling of permanent

‘misplacement’, with an inability to reconstruct a sense of belonging

in a new social environment” (p. 54). Furthermore, Franz (2005)

explained, “When people are subject to a forced displacement involving

dramatic separation from specific practices and familiar social

environment- as well as involving loss of close family members – their

sense of belonging, displacement and alienation maybe quite profound”

(p. 54).

The social, cultural, language and economic dilemmas were

challenges for Bosnian refugees; therefore, acculturation is a scheme

to adjust the life in the host country. McBrien (2005) described,

“Acculturation is the change in an individual or a culturally similar

group that results from contact with a different culture” (p. 330).

However, if the supporting system were deficient, it would be hard for

refugees to have life adjustment well. Franz (2005) indicated, “the

social-support and acculturation schemes were insufficient to provide

14


the refugees with tools to improve their language skills enough to

find jobs in their prior professions” (p. 73).

McBrien (2005) also pointed out, “For refugees, discrimination

also affects the process of acculturation” (p. 330). Children usually

acquire the new language faster than their parents in the host

country. Refugee parents might not know how to help their children

with their school homework in the U.S. because of different cultural

beliefs. The cultural dissonance occurred (McBrien, 2005, p. 345). In

addition, Franz (2005) indicated, “Female Bosnian refugees were

frequently forced into low-paying, low-skill jobs because they could

not afford to attend acculturation

programs, such as language schools, in the host countries” (p. 73).

In Franz’s (2005) research in the interview showed, “The women I

interviewed focused on their families’ futures and on compromises that

could advance their social and economic acculturation, while men more

frequently compared their current situation with memories of the past.

The Bosnian men tended to link their identity to material possessions

and social status” (p. 75). Bosnian refugees of the gender identities

and they way to acculturate life in the U.S. were varied. Franz (2005)

found, “The women’s energies and ambitions were focused on the

dynamics of processes that, they anticipated, would improve their

families’ social and economic lot while their identity remained

15


grounded in the traditional values and norms and sociocultural

behavior patterns of life in Yugoslavia” (p. 94). In Franz’s (2005)

research finding in New York sample indicated, “women tended to

socialize in web, syncretic-web, and settlement-links networks, and to

use them to mobilize resources as well as to find emotional support.

In contrast, men of then used syncretic-web networks and compatriots-

in-fate relationships to socialize and relax” (p. 73).

Supporting System in the Treasure Valley: Refugee Community Plan in Boise

Boise of Idaho is one of places to provide refugees’

resettlement. In order to support refugees’ life integration, the City

of Boise and the Idaho Office for Refugees started to work the Refugee

Community Plan project in April 2009. Over one hundred-community

member, policy makers, service agencies, educators and volunteers got

involved in this project. There are six broad areas for refugee

resettlement: education, employment, healthcare, housing, social

integration, and transportation. Each section has its specific goals

and guidelines for community members to meet the goals.

According to the Refugee Community Plan of Boise (August, 2012), the

six broad areas of goals are as below,

1. Education Goal: Refugees of all ages have access to and participate in formal and informal education opportunities.

2. Employment Goal: Refugees have ample employment opportunities to achieve economic self-sufficiency.

16


3. Healthcare Goal: Refugees receive equitable, timely access to quality healthcare maximizing their wellness.

4. Housing Goal: Refugees enjoy appropriate and affordable housing options in the community.

5. Social Integration Goal: Refugees and the Boise Community intentionally work together, based on a shared commitment to mutual respect and social justice, to create a secure, welcoming,vibrant and cohesive society.

6. Transportation Goal: A regionally coordinated network of transportation services that supports effective integration of refugee populations into the community.

Boise has conducted The Refugee Community Plan for four years since

2009. This project built a solid foundation to provide refugees

outreach resources and self-sufficient training through community

collaboration. This project would continue to expand the resources and

improve the supporting system to facilitate refugees’ life integration

in the Treasure Valley.

Methods

Background of Study

This case study (Bogdin & Biklin, 2007) of the Bosnian refugee

community began as an Advanced Refugee Macro Practice class project.

This class was cross-listed for undergraduate and graduate students,

both at the master and doctoral levels. The class was a semester long

and met once a week for two hours and forty-five minutes. The students

17


participated in “team research” (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007, p. 80) and

collaborated on the research, interviews, and analysis.

Participants

There were six team researchers - three males and three females -

pursuing undergraduate and graduate degrees in either education or

social work. The participants we interviewed were all ethnic Bosnians

who gained refugee status from the Bosnia-Herzegovina war in the

1990s. There were four males and three females, whose ages primarily

ranged from forty-two to fifty-two, while two participants were

outliers aged twenty-five and sixty-three. The twenty-five year old

arrived in Idaho as a child while the other participants arrived as

adults. All of the participants are married, two participants were

married to each other, and one participant was the 25 year-old son of

the married couple. Four of the participants were interviewed without

a translator, and three of the participants were interviewed with a

Bosnian translator.

Data Collection and Coding

Data was collected using a questionnaire (Appendix A) created by the

team researchers. The questionnaire utilized elements from (social

capital theory (Putnam, add date), ecological systems theory, and the

Boise City Refugee Strategic Plan). In Bowling Alone, Putnam mentioned

18


that physical capital (tools) and human capital (training and

education) are to enhance the productivity of individuals and groups

in the social contacts (as cited in Ottebjer, 2005, p. 13). Putnam

also elaborated two types of social capital: bridge and bonding.

Ottebjer (2005) in his thesis of the social capital study in public

health explained, “Bonding social capital is inward looking and refers

to relations within homogenous groups such as families or social or

ethnic groups. Bridging social capital refers to relations between

different groups, networks that are outward looking and encompass

people across diverse social cleavages.” (p. 13).

For Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory, there are five

subsystems: Microsystems, Mesosystems, Ecosystems, Macrosystems and

Chronosystems. Bronfenbrenner (1994) explained the levels of the five

subsystems, “ moving from the innermost level to the outside.”

In order to meet the reliability and validity for this research

study, the team researchers assured that the process of data coding

would not have biased. When the team researchers began to conduct the

data analysis, reading field notes was the first step of coding data.

And then, opening coding, formulating the writing memos to find the

insights of themes (Emerson, Fretz & Shaw, 2011, p. 174).

19


In order to establish reliability and validity, the questionnaire

was translated into Bosnian, and the participants received both the

English and Bosnian versions.

The questionnaire was then given by two team researchers who

identified adult Bosnian refugees as participants by using a

convenience sample (cite). The questionnaire was given to four of the

participants to fill out independently. The researcher clarified

answers with follow-up phone calls, which took four days to complete.

The other three participants met with a Bosnian translator, who was

also a student in the class, and were given the questionnaire

verbally. The researcher translated the participants’ answers into

English while conducting the interviews and the process took one-and-

a-half hours. The team researchers coded the questionnaires a priori

(Gibbs & Taylor, 2005) using the themes in the Refugee Strategic Plan:

education, employment, housing, healthcare, social integration, and

transportation. From these themes we found the sub-themes (cite) of

expectations of the new community and successes and challenges of self-sufficiency.

Limitations

The limitations to this study were time, convenience

sampling, and a small sample size. Convenience sampling and the small

n limit the generalizability of our findings to the greater Bosnian

population. Convenience sampling may have also created both researcher

20


bias stemming from prior relationships and translation and participant

bias because some of the participants were related.

Findings and Discussion

The findings exhibit the complexity of resettlement at micro,

meso, and macro levels. Participants frequently expressed their

awareness of their abilities as individuals as they related to their

integration into the broader community. Their responses frequently

included overlaps between the themes of education, housing,

healthcare, social integration, and transportation, and they exhibited

connections between their prior experiences with their current

situations. Because of the interconnectivity between themes, we

discuss the findings under the three predominant themes of education,

employment, and social integration.

Resettlement Expectations

As a way to capture the longitudinal successes and challenges of

integration, we began the interviews with open-ended questions about

the participants’ expectations of resettling to the United States.

Bosnians are one of the more established local ethnic groups because

the majority of them arrived over a decade ago. Six of the seven

participants arrived in Idaho between 1997 and 1999, and one

participant arrived in 2000. Six of the seven participants expressed a

21


desire for security after living through a war. They expressed this in

terms of “safety,” “to live comfortable,” “to live a better life, home

no more there,” and to “move on with my life and live again instead of

just surviving.” Other expectations included finding a job, career

advancement, learning a language, creating friendships, citizenship,

and obtaining a passport for travel. In many ways, their expectations

mirror the themes in the Refugee Strategic Plan regarding education,

employment, housing, and social integration.

Education

Education in the areas of job advancement and English language

learning were ongoing concerns, both at the time of resettlement and

currently. Four of the seven participants were able to pursue some

form of post-secondary education. The twenty-five year old participant

is currently in school for a degree in business. One of the

participants received training as a mechanic and owned his own shop

until he became disabled. Two of the participants received degrees in

nursing and currently work as RNs. One of the women who received her

degree in nursing in the United States also stated it was a time in

which she felt discriminated against because, upon arrival, “I was not

allowed to practice nursing. My school credentials were not recognized

here in the USA.” Her feeling of discrimination and the ensuing

frustration are sentiments frequently exhibited by other refugees

22


resettling with education and/or credentials that are not recognized

in the United States. In addition to education and/or credentials not

being recognized, refugees also frequently express frustration over

the lack of knowledge and support in obtaining higher education. Three

of the seven participants specifically stated the lack of information

regarding higher education or further education as a complaint about

the resettlement agencies. The degree in which refugees exhibit

frustration over education and/or credentials not being recognized in

the United States and the lack of information about furthering their

education are well known in resettlement, so much so, in fact, they

are both issues addressed in the Refugee Strategic Plan.

In the area of English learning, the participants’ responses

reflected the complexity of learning a new language particularly when

the emphasis in resettlement is on finding a job. The participants who

had children and the participant who arrived as a child all reported

satisfactory English learning opportunities. One of the participants

spoke enough English, upon arrival, to become a medical and court

interpreter. Another participant learned some English while living in

Germany. He remarked that both countries used different methods for

teaching language. However, four of the seven participants reported

struggling to learn the language. The issues they cited were

inadequate transportation, time of classes conflicted with work,

23


personal “laziness,” and the emphasis on getting a job. The emphasis

on getting a job was expressed as, “refugees were asked to go to work

as first priority” and “refugees were asked to go to work before they

learned English language.” This is particularly disconcerting since

three of the seven participants specifically listed learning the

language as one of their “expectations” upon resettling to the United

States.

While all of the participants acknowledged English language

classes were an available resource, they also recognized that language

learning is ongoing and occurs in multiple environments. One

participant said, “I learned English language at work.” While other

participants said, learning a language “is an ongoing process” and

another said, it is “us[ed] in everyday life.”

Self-sufficiency

Achieving self-sufficiency is critical to a person’s well being,

which is evident in many of the participants’ expectations of life in

the United States. Statements such as, the desire to “live

comfortab[ly],” and find a good job suggest not only an interest in

achieving self-sufficiency but also an awareness of how self-

sufficiency contributes to overall well being. To address areas of

self-sufficiency we asked questions regarding initial support upon

resettlement, employment, and housing.

24


Initial support.

Overwhelmingly, participants expressed frustration with initial

support, even after being resettled for thirteen to sixteen years.

Their frustration was expressed as “not of good value,” “minimum

help,” “bare minimum,” and “if they accepted me to come here, they

should provide better assistance in the beginning.” While all of the

participants cited initial assistance available in multiple forms such

as, food stamps, cash assistance, medical and dental insurance,

medicaid, English language classes, volunteers to assist in navigating

the new city, and a case manager, they all also expressed how it was

not enough to become self-sufficient.

Employment.

Housing.

Even with the multiple issues brought up regarding initial

support to achieve self-sufficiency, five out of seven participants

expressed feelings of self-sufficiency, one participant did not answer

the question, and one participant said, “I still struggle a little

with English language and everyday life challenges. I am satisfied

with my self-sufficiency while comparing it with my life and

challenges that I had just after arrival.”

25


Three of seven participants got job hunting supports from the

agencies, but the the payments were in the minimum wages. Other three

participants worked for orientation classes for agencies. Once Bosnian

refugees resettle down their lives in Boise, they work for agencies

because they want to help more new refugee comers to resettle new

lives in the host country.

The agencies supports housing service for Bosnian refugees for a few

month after they arrived in Boise. Later, Bosnian refugees started to

buy their own house and they were satisfied with their housing status.

Social Integration

a desire to “settle down,” and become citizens

The Bosnian refugee participants know how to make use of social

resources to integrate their lives. For example, they were well-

trained to become self-sufficiency in the first eight-month in Boise.

They were satisfied with English language training because it helped

them to use in the workplace.

According to Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000; Ogbu, 1982; Olsen,

2000; Wingfield & Karaman, 2001), “cultural misunderstandings can

result in prejudice and discrimination, with the result that students,

26


already struggling with an unfamiliar language and confusing cultural

changes, must also work to overcome the impact of negative attitudes.”

(as cited in McBrien, p. 330, 2005).

Kirk (2011) suggested, “Serving refugees to resettle lives in the host

country should cultivate them to become self-sufficient resident

rather than take advantage of people who are in need, criminal intent

or personal awards. (p. 11).

Implications of Findings

TBD

Franz (2005) suggested, “The refugees’ adaptation to their own

expatriate communities and the host society is a complex, lifelong,

and continuously changing endeavor.” (p. 146).

Conclusion

TBD

27


References

Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (2011). Writing ethnographic

fieldnotes. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Franz, B. (2005). Uprooted and unwanted: Bosnian refugees in Austria and the

United States. College Station: Texas A & M University Press.

Idaho Office for Refugees. (2013). Strategic Community Plan. Retrieved

December 1,

2013 from

http://www.idahorefugees.org/home/refugee_community_plan/full_pla

n/

Idaho office for refugees. (N.D.). About refugees in idaho. Retrieved from

http://www.idahorefugees.org/refugees_in_idaho/

McBrien, J. L. (September 01, 2005). Educational Needs and Barriers

for Refugee

28


Students in the United States: A Review of the Literature. Review

of

Educational Research, 75, 3.)

Nawyn, S. J. (2010). Institutional structures of opportunity in

refugee resettlement: Gender,

race/ethnicity, and refugee ngos. . Journal Of Sociology & Social Welfare,

37(1),

149-167. Retrieved from

http://www.wmich.edu/hhs/newsletters_journals/

jssw_institutional/institutional_subs

cribers/37.1.Nawyn.pdf

Office of Refugee Resettlement, U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services. (n.d.).

resettlement history. Retrieved from Office of Refugee Resettlement

website:

http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/about/history

UNHCR. (2001). Refugees. Retrieved from

http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c125.html

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Population, Refugees, and

Migration (n.d.).

Refugee admissions. Retrieved from website:

http://www.state.gov/j/prm/ra/index.htm

29


Halilovich, H. (2013). Places of Pain: Forced Displacement, Popular Memory and

Trans-local Identities in Bosnian War-torn Communities. New York:

Berghahn Books.

United States. (2012). 10 Million Solar Roofs Act: Report (to accompany S. 1108).

Washington, D.C: U.S. G.P.O.

Appendix

TBD - possibly where we add graphs and charts

30

508 macro refugee studies essay

Documents