2015 UPDATEHobbs Report on Educational Excellence:Theory to Practice & Alternative Assessment InnovationRobert Hobbs

Email: dr.rdhobbs@gmail.com

International Middle East Conference on Liberal Arts & Business Affairs

2015 UPDATE

AbstractThe Hobbs Report focuses on:• Building a solid learning foundation based on pedagogical research

• Evidence-based Instruction• Cutting-edge Curriculum• Alternative assessment innovations!Current focus:• Globalization & climate change• Brain-based teaching• Focus on learner & learner outcomes• Skills & knowledge to cope with 21st century rapid change and

technological advancement

Thesis statement (Hobbs, 2011 & 2012)

If educators scrutinize explicit and implicit directions embedded in curriculum & instruction design, then apply a constructivist approach with a theoretical notional-functional pragmatic-aesthetic foundation and evidence-based practice, then the result will maximize student outcome potentials by stimulating critical & creative thinking to better prepare them for the 21st Century!

Solid intellectual foundation – intro:• Higher Education must prepare students for graduate schools anywhere, everywhere

• Macro-curriculum design must include relevant content & technology (Hobbs, 2011 & 2012)

• Micro-curriculum design must include informed instruction of brain-based teaching (Hobbs, 2011 & 2012)

• Students must cope with rising demand for energy & natural resources, and

• International corporate & governmental policy negotiation

The Overlapping Trilogy toward Excellence

•Reflective Value•Redirection•A Way Forward>>>

Reflective value, format delineation:• 1) Instructor meta-cognitive adjustments to include recent research

• 2) integrate updated theories into instructional delivery

• 3) curriculum innovation to support enhanced technology

• 4) embedding into curriculum idealized cultural climate

Reflection < Status Quo > ProjectionImpact• Of selected educational trends

• Technology• Social change• International economies

Anticipated• Adaptations for implementing mission

• Shared visions• Students achieving 21st century success

Developmental and Learning Foundations

at the neurological level

Physiological aspects• 22 billion neurons• Trillions of synapses…• Transition to adulthood

precludes elaborated posterior heteromodal system interfacing phonological and orthographic representational systems

(Booth, Burman, Meyer, Gitelman, Parrish, & Mesulam, 2004)

Psychological aspects• Maturation increases

electrochemical activation during lexical tasks of word manipulation

• Increased working memory due to axonal thickening by lexicalized repetition

(Nagy, Westerberg, & Klingberg, 2004)

Second Language Learning Environments• Cognitive strategies differ from culture to culture; Target language strategies differ; Language learning predisposes learning a culture (Roselli & Ardilla, 2003)

• Teachers must communicate HIGH expectations and belief in students

(Schunk, 2004)• Gentle patience is essential because learning comes in – Lags - and bursts! (Novick & Sherman, 2003)

Ramifications of STRESS and Nervousness• Stress causes the brain to perform at reduced potential

• Reduction of cognitive dissonance is essential for learning

• Students learn better when they are calm and happy(Lupien & Schramek, 2006)

Alternatives:• Social learning activities facilitate learning as per Humanistic Theory (Schunk, 2004)

• Humorous interventions cause biochemical changes that alter hormone levels and reduce stress (Christie & Moore, 2005)

Memory facilitationEpisodic memory

• Students must share relevant information concerning lessons,

(Siegel, 2001)

• …which conforms to Contextual Theories

(Schunk, 2004)

Semantic memoryCurriculum and instruction

must:• Deepen and broaden

student vocabulary by -• Exposing students to

numerous sentence constructions, collocational variations, and lexemic nuances

(Oulette, 2006; Stahl, 2006)

Adequate Sleep & restStudents must be alert.

Completed sleep cycles are essential for optimal cognitive operations.

Students who spend all night in diwaniyas,* with friends, at parties, studying or writing or surfing the net or…anything…

…REDUCE learning capability because of misfiring synapses, which causes

slurred speech and

inefficient cognitive processing

(McDermott, Lattoste, Chen, Musto, Bazan, & Magee, 2003)

* Diwaniya is a social place (no alcohol – it’s illegal in Q8)

Reflecting on Learning Foundations

•Piaget•Vygotsky•Bandura

Piaget

• Neurological research supports Piaget’s assertion that:

• Knowledge and intelligence continually change…because

• The brain continually alters its own structure (Brink & Hagoort, 2004; Indefry, Hellwig, Herzog, Seitz, and Hagoort, 2004)

Current support of Piaget’s concepts• Intelligence and biological entities reciprocally engage with environment, thus

• Knowledge is the resulting product of learning activities

(Gredler, 2005)

Student readiness is...Vocabulary + Context =

• Inference and assimilation are external elements of cognitive organization

• “Teacher accommodation” means offering alternative explanations to aid student understanding

(Healey & Montgomery, 2006)

essential to learning.Content Understanding

Vygotsky• Signs and symbols = psychological tools

• Psyche tools transform (human consciousness) + develop (higher cognitive functions)

• Psychology = dialectal synthesis of (process analysis + dynamic relations)(Gredler, 2005)

Application of Vygotsky: S.R.M.S.?ZPD + MI + LS = SRMS?

• ZPD = Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)

• MI + LS = Multiple Intelligences + Learning Styles (Denig, 2004)

• SRMS = Self-Regulated Management System (Dembo, 2004)

5 step SRMS utilizationAssessment proposal• 1) recall• 2) recognition• 3) collaborative memory

Then, 4)reflection and5)strategic projection…

Kuwait University study

by Al-Balhan (2006)

Digest of Middle East Studies

[replication of USA studies)

MI = Multiple Intelligences

LS = Learning Styles

Al-Balhan (2006) replicated Denig’s (2004) assertions concerning the communication of MI & LS to teachers and students.

Barrington (2004) emphasized teachers strengthening of student intelligences and versatilities.

Taylor (2005) stressed the importance of captioned video to improve reading.

Bandura• Students learn most from observing peers;

• Students refine mechanisms to optimize learning;

• Bandura labeled this process as Reciprocal Determinism;

• Bandura advocated self-management, self-monitoring, and self-efficacy

(Gredler, 2005)

• Attribution theory explains that students will blame external forces for their own failure (Varma & Krishnan, 2001)

• Current teacher manuals extol the value of having students:

• Self-report (Popham, 2006)

• Self-assess (Wiggins, 1999)

Redirection: an assessment proposal3 score meta-cognitive assessment• 1) Fill in the blank short answer exam with specified time limit; Stop! Self-score and evaluate.

• Recall Score.• 2) Students receive answer bank; redo exam; Stop! Self-score and re-evaluate.

• Recognition Score.• 3) Collaborate in small groups. Negotiate answers. Check collaborative answers against notes & text. Re-score.

• Collaborative Score. • Reflect on Learning Process. (Hobbs, 2009, 2011, 2012)

Assessment, an Alternative ProcessFormative assessment• Recall• Recognition• Collaboration• Reflective Analysis• Projection• Commitment

Summative assessment• Recall• Recognition• Accountability

Supporting Theory for Redirected Assessment Proposal

• Time limits increase stress in a positive way to motivate students (Lupien & Schramek, 2006)

• Meta-cognition enhances learning (Juliebo, Malicky, & Norman, 1998)

• Focus on learning strategies enhances learning (Huang, 2004)

• Requiring rewrites reinforces spelling and sentence construction (Slavin & Cheung, 2005)

• Learning independent word strategies alleviates struggling (Harmon, 2002)

Theory and Instruction IntegrationFour categories of theories:

• Decoding of input• Encoding of output

• Motivation• Assessments

• Skinner originated stimulus response

• Pavlov established classical conditioning

• The Increment Hypothesis explains scaffolding in which skills and knowledge build upon previous acquisition

(Schunk, 2004)

Decoding input• Input Theory:Silent Reading = Least Stressful + Most Beneficial

Method(Krashen, 1991)

• Nouns / Verbs processed in different areas of brain:Nouns (static + iconic) = integrated neural activity processing

Verbs (movement + position) = synaptic activity + proprioceptive information

• 2 Hemispheres Dynamically interact :auditory comprehension = (syntactic + prosodic) information

(Friederici & Alter, 2004)

Decoding input, slide 2

• Dual analysis:a) 3 step word processing = lexical (Access + Selection +

Integration)b) Deeper analysis = split second cascaded word recognition process

+ optimal use of context (semantic + syntactic processing)(Brink & Hagoort, 2004)

• Sentence intelligibility is NOT 100% = implies need for variety of explanations (Healy & Montgomery, 2006)

• Use film for teaching vocabulary, but not grammar (Lommell, Laenen, & d’Ydewalle, 2006)

• Extensive vocabulary is a predictor of higher education academic success (Nist & Mohr, 2002)

• Teachers must encourage students to use target vocabulary to reveal clarification needs (Goldstein, 2002)

Encoding Output• Prototype Theory is applicable to student written work;

Imitation Theory is applicable to student oral presentations

(Schunk, 2004)• Instructors must vary types of assessments to fully

comprehend student abilities fairly (Hunt, Touzel, & Wiseman, 1999)

• Alignment (assessment + instruction) + (instruction + curriculum) = Accuracy in (evaluation + credibility)

(English, 2000)• Reinforcement = (oral + written) work > because > Ability parcellization = complementing (alternative brain functions + different neural patterns)

(Hillis, Boatman, Hart, & Gordon, 1999)

Motivation• Drive Theory = motivation

to reduce feelings of NEED(Gredler, 2005)

• Humanistic Theory = cognitive + affective processes (behaviors + thoughts + feelings + self-awareness)(Schunk, 2004)

• Expectancy Value Theory = Value (anticipated outcomes + efforts)(Schunk, 2004)

• Student (Predicting + Problem Solving) Skills = Success in Industry(Friedman, Harwell, & Schnepel, 2006)

• Distinct use of prosody stimulates memory

(Firbas, 1972)• Voice modulation of pitch

increases neural activity (Mayer, Steinhauer, Alter, Frederici, & Cramon, 2004)

• Emotionally charged issues elevate priority, engagement, and motivation (Wesson, 2001)

• Emotions affect Teaching (Nunnelley, Whaley, Mull, & Hott,

2003)• Caring + Convictions =

Motivation (Noddings, 1995)• Ambiguity stimulates the brain

(Stowe, Paans, Wijers, & Zwarts, 2004)

• Complex stimulus = Increased syntactic processing

(Indefry, Hellwig, Herzog, Seitz, & Hagoort, 2004)

AssessmentRelevant Theories• Schema Theory: recall schema + recognition schema = learning outcome

• Goal Theory = predicts (achievement) + states (purpose) + provides (focus) +motivates (comparisons)

• Reinforcement Theory: student learning = (review + revision) exponentially(Schunk, 2004)

A WAY FORWARD

1) Continued Curriculum Renovation2) Projections3) Problems for the Next Generation4) Pedagogically Coping with Change

A Way Forward• The educators goal:

Accountability = scoring (fair + accurate)(Gunter, Estes, & Schwab, 2003)

• Testing secrecy is immoral; Students should know (what + how) they will be tested (Wiggins, 1999)

• Uncertainty contributes to failure• Testing must be transparent

(Amrein & Berliner, 2002)• Formative assessments improve = student achievement improves

(Block, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2004)• Teaching improves = assessment results guide

instruction(Taras, 2002)

Componential Efficacy • Ongoing Curriculum Renovation

Major components: classroom management, scaffolding materials, student-centered syllabi, professional development (Miller, 2001)

• Instructors engage students in using footnotes, endnotes, frontmatter, backmatter, reference sections, indices, and appendices to inspire independence (Marsh & Willis, 2003)

• Shared rubrics allow students and teachers to refine expectations and outcomes (Huba & Freed, 2000)

• Collaboration of teachers with students empowers learning communities (Gordon, 2004)

• Relevant professional development activities indirectly enhance student success by strengthening intercultural roles (Budak, 2005)

• Peer observations serve teachers by having them reflect on their own teaching, not others (Gunter, Estes, & Schwab, 2003)

Preparing for the Projections• Billions of mini-computers will permeate furniture, clothing, structures, and tangible objects (Kurzweil, 2005).

• Bill Gates (2005) said pattern recognition search engines will sift through information “infusing data with meaning and context” (p. 100).

• China graduates 4 times as many engineers as the USA (Gerstner, 2005), yet the US publishes 34% of the world’s scientific information while China publishes 5% (Friedman, 2005).

• US Secretary of Education Spellman (2005) said that 80% of the future jobs will require higher education.

Problems for the next generation• Nearly half of the ice cap has melted (Anderson, 2008).

• Kekic (2008) considers Kuwait a medium risk for foreign investments.

• Mobile phone customers receive cash via cell phones in Kenya, South Africa, and Philippines (Standage, 2008)

• Larger investments in healthcare and remedies strengthens economies in the developing world because of increased productivity (Kazatchkine, 2008).

• World leaders meet to negotiate reducing fossil fuels while pursuing access to fossil fuels (Rachman, 2008).

• China is the world’s largest exporter, emits the most greenhouse gases, and has the largest bank and 3 of 6 of the largest companies (Woodall, 2008).

Pedagogically coping with changeTertiary educators must prepare the next generation to

face the problems created by this generation (Windshitl, 2002)

Transplanting school reform models globally is inherently complex (Myles, 2007)

Negative attitudes toward reading must be eliminated by:

1. Offering self-monitored skills work2. Choices in selecting progressively more difficult

texts3. Creative alternatives for fulfilling requirements4. Opportunities for collaboration5. Mobility

(Carbo, 2008)

Summation If educators explore results and implicit indications of current research and apply the knowledge toward building curriculum and delivering instruction, then student outcomes will be maximized.Curriculum ideas?• 1) Notional • 2) Functional • 3) Aesthetic • 4) Pragmatism • 5) for • 6) creative • 7) critical thinking

• 8) student outcomes(Hobbs, 2011)

Instruction ideas?• 1) Passive & Implicit

• 2) Explicit & Active• 3) Vague & Abstract• 4) Improving a student product

• 5) Reflexive• 6) Artistic• 7) Extrapolation

(Hobbs, 2012)

References A-B• Al-Balhan, E. (2006), Spring). Multiple intelligence styles in relation to • improved academic performance in Kuwaiti middle school reading. Digest of Middle East Studies, 15 (1), 18-34.

Retrieved August 2, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.• Amrein, A., & Berliner, D. (2002). High-stakes testing, uncertainty, and student • learning. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 10 (18), 1-76. Retrieved February 3, 2006 from ProQuest

database.• Anderson, A. (2008). The great melt. The Economist: The World in 2008, 149-150. • London: The Economist Newspaper Limited.• Baker, D., Church, G., Collins, J., Endy, D., Jacobson, J., Keasling, J., Modrich, • P. Smolke, C, & Weiss, R. (2006, June). Engineering life: Building a FAB for biology. Scientific American,

294 (6), 34-41.• Barrington, E. (2004). Teaching to student diversity in higher education: How • Multiple Intelligence Theory can help. Teaching in Higher Education, 9 (4), 421-434. Retrieved March 25, 2008

from EBSCOhost database.• Block, D., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2004). Working • inside the black box: Assessment for learning in the classroom. Phi Delta Kappan, 86 (1), 9-21. Retrieved

April 4, 2006 from ProQuest database.• Booth, J., Burman, D., Meyer, J., Gitelman, D., Parrish, T., & Mesulam, M. • (2004). Development of brain mechanisms for processing orthographic • and phonological representations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16 (7), 1234-1249.• Brink, D., & Hagoort, P. (2004). The influence of semantic and syntactic • context constraints on lexical selection and integration in spoken-word comprehension as revealed by

ERP’s. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16 (6), 1068-1084. (ERP = Event Related Potential)• Brown, V. (2008). Best practices in gifted education: An evidence-based guide. • Childhood Education, 84 (3), 175. Retrieved March 26, 2008 from ProQuest database.• Budak, Y. (2005). La notion de programme et la formation pedagogue des • enseignants de langues vivantes en Turquie. European Journal of Teacher Education, 28 (1), 23-33. Retrieved

March 30, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.

References C-F• Cangelosi, A., & Parisi, D. (2004). The processing of verbs and nouns in neural • networks: Insights from synthetic brain imaging. Brain and Language, 89, 401-408.• Carbo, M. (2008). Best practices for achieving high, rapid reading gains. • Education Digest, 73 (7), 57-61. Retrieved March 26, 2008 from ProQuest database.• Christie, W., & Moore, C. (2005). The impact of humor on patients with • cancer. Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing, 9 (2), 211-218. Retrieved August 16, 2005 from

EBSCOhost database.• Dembo, M. (2004). Motivation and learning strategies for college success; A self-• management approach (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.• Denig, S. (2004). Multiple intelligences and learning styles: Two complementary • dimensions. Teachers College Record, 106 (1), 96-111. Retrieved August 2, 2006 from EBASCOhost

database.• English, F. (2000). Deciding what to teach and test; Developing, aligning, and auditing the • curriculum (Millenium edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.• Firbas, J. On the interplay of prosodic and non-prosodic means of functional • sentence perspective. In The Prague School of Linguistics and Language Teaching, pp. 77-94.

London: Oxford University Press.• Friederici, A., & Alter, K. (2004). Lateralizaion of auditory language functions: • A dynamic dual pathway model. Brain and Language, 89, 267-276.• Friedman, M., Harwell, D., & Schnepel, K. (2006). Effective instruction; A • handbook of evidence-based strategies. Columbia, SC: Institute for Evidence-Based Decision-

Making in Education, Inc.• Friedman, T. (2005-2006, December-February). Engines of knowledge. • Newsweek Special Edition, p. 47.

Reference G-H• Gates, B. (2005-2006, December-February). The new road ahead. Newsweek • Special Edition, 100.• Gerstner, L. (2005-2006, December-February). Sputnik was nothing. • Newsweek Special Edition, 98.• Goldstein, J. (2002). Instructor’s manual and test bank to accompany building, improving, • and advancing vocabulary skills. West Berlin, NJ: Townsend Press.• Gordon, S. (2004). Professional development for school improvement: Empowering learning • communities. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. • Gredler, M. (2005). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice. Upper Saddle • River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.• Gunter, M., Estes, T., & Schwab, J. (2003). Instruction: A models approach (4th ed.). • Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.• Harmon, J. (2002). Teaching independent word learning strategies to struggling • readers. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 45 (7), 606-615. Retrieved February 2, 2005 from ProQuest database.• Healy, E., & Montgomery, A. (2006). Consistency of sentence intelligibility • across difficult listening situations. Journal of Speech, Language, & Hearing Research, 49 (4), 823-834. Retrieved

August 20, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.• Hillis, A., Boatman, D., Hart, J., & Gordon, B. (1999). Making sense out of • jargon; A neurolinguistic and computational account of jargon aphasia. Neuron, 24 (8), 1813-1823.• Huang, L. (2004). A little bit goes a long way: The effects of raising awareness of strategy • use on advanced adult second language learners’ strategy use and oral production. (Doctoral dissertation, University of

Toronto, 2004). Retrieved April 4, 2006 from ProQuest Dissertations & These, ISBN: 0-612-91605-7.• Huba, M., & Freed, J. (2000). Learner-centered assessment on college • campuses: Shifting the focus from teaching to learning. New York: Allyn & Bacon.• Hunt, G., Touzel, T., & Wiseman, D. (1999). Effective teaching; Preparation and • implementation. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.

References I-L• Indefry, P., Hellwig, F., Herzog, H., Seitz, R., & Hagoort, P. (2004). Neural • responses to the production and comprehension of syntax in identical utterances. Brain and

Language, 89, 312-319.• Jacobsen, J. (2007). Educators rank topics for quality coursework. Journal of • Quality and Participation, 30 (3), 16-18. Retrieved March 26, 2008 from ProQuest database.• Juliebo, M., Malicky, G., & Norman, C. (1998). Metacognition of young readers • in an early intervention programme. Journal of Research in Reading, 21 (1), 24-35. Retrieved

June 19, 2006 from ProQuest database.• Kazatchkine, M. (2008). Stopping the plagues; Investing in health can create • stronger economies. The Economist: The World in 2008, p. 97. London: The Economist Newspapers

Limited.• Kekic, L. (2008). The spread of political risk. The Economist: The World in • 2008, p. 145. London: The Economist Newspaper Limited.• Kurzweil, R. (2005-2006, December-February). Science, not fiction. Newsweek • Special Edition, 79.• Krashen, S. (1991). The input hypothesis: An update. Georgetown University • Roundtable on Languages and Linguistics; Linguistics and language pedagogy: The state of the art, pp. 409-

431. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.• Lommel, S. (2006). Foreign-grammar acquisition while watching subtitled • television programmes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 243-258. Retrieved August 23,

2006 from EBSCOhost database.• Lupien, S., & Schramek, T. (2006). The differential effects of stress on memory • consolidation? Theoretical comment on Beckner et al. (2006). Behavioral Neuroscience, 120

(3), 735-738. Retrievd August 23, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.

References M-N• Marsh, C., & Willis, G. (2003). Curriculum: Alternative approaches, ongoing • issues (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.• McDermott, C., Lattoste, G., Chen, C., Musto, A., Bazan, N., & Magee, J. • (2003). Sleep deprivation causes behavioural, synaptic, and membrane excitability alterations in

hippocampa neurons. The Journal of Neuroscience, 23 (29), 9687-9695.• Meyer, M., Steinhauer, K., Alter, K., Friederici, A., & Cramon, D. (2004). Brain • activity varies with modulation of dynamic pitch variance in sentence • melody. Brain and Language, 89, 277-289.• Miller, C. (2001). An interpretive case study of a person-centered model of • instruction: An application of Carl Rogers’ learning theory in a web-based course. (Doctoral dissertation,

University of Kentucky, 2004). Retrieved August 8, 2006 from ProQuest database.• Myles, J. (2007). Partnerships in educational development. Canadian Journal of • Higher Education, 37 (1), 113-118. Retrieved March 26, 2008 from ProQuest database.• Nagy, Z., Westerberg, H., & Klingberg, T. (2004). Maturation of white matter • is associated with the development of cognitive functions during childhood. Journal of Cognitive

Neuroscience, 16 (7), 1227-1233.• Nist, S., & Mohr, C. (2002). Advancing vocabulary skills (3rd ed.). Marlton, NJ: • Townsend Press.• Novick, L., & Sherman, S. (2003). On the nature of insight solutions: Evidence • from skill differences in anagram solution. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56A (2), 351-

382. Retrieved Auguest 2, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.• Noddings, N. (1995). Teaching themes of care. Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (9), 675-• 679. Retrieved February 27, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.• Nunnelly, J., Whaley, J., Mull, R., & Hott, G. (2003). Brain compatible • secondary schools: The visionary principal’s role. NASSP Bulletin, 87 (637), 48-59. Retrieved August

2, 2006 from SAGE Publications.

References O-R• Oliva, P. (2005). Developing the curriculum (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.• Oulette, G. (2006). What’s the meaning got to do with it: The role of • vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 98 (3), 554-566. Retrieved August 20, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.• Peter, G. (2008). More schools teaching entrepreneurship. Research Technology • Management, 51 (2), 6-8. Retrieved March 26, 2008 from EBSCOhost database.• Popham, W.J. (2006). Assessment for educational leaders. Boston: Allyn and • Bacon.• Posner, G. (2004). Analyzing the curriculum (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.• Rachman, G. (2008). The paradoxical politics of energy; The urge to get off oil • and find more of the stuff. The Economist: The World in 2008, pp. 95-96. London: The

Economist Newspapers Limited.• Rolstad, K., Mahoney, K., & Glass, G. (2005). The big picture: A meta-analysis • of program effectiveness research on English language learners. Educational Policy,

19 (4), 572-594. Retrieved June 25, 2006 from SAGE Publications database.• Roselli, M., & Ardilla, A. (2003). The impact of culture and education on non-• verbal neuropsychological measurements: A critical review. • Brain and Cognition, 52 (3), 326-332.

References S-T• Schunk, D. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed). • Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill-Prentice Hall.• Siegel, D. (2001). Memory: An overview, with emphasis on developmental • interpersonal, and neurobiological aspects. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40 (9), 997-1011.• Slavin, R., & Cheung, A. (2005). A synthesis of research on language • instruction for English language learners. Review of Educational Research, 75 (2), 247-285.

Retrieved June 19, 2006 from ProQuest database.• Spellings, M. (2005-2006, December – February). Let’s get serious. Newsweek • Special Edition, 99.• Stahl, N. (2006). Strategic reading and learning, theory to practice: An interview • with Michele Simpson and Sherrie Nist. Journal of Developmental Education, 29 (3), 20-27.

Retrieved August 15, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.• Standage, T. (2008). Cash on call; Mobile payments in the developing world. • The Economist: The World in 2008. London: The Economist Newspaper Limited.• Stowe, L., Paans, A., Wijers, A., & Zwarts, F. (2004). Activations of “motor” • and other non-language structures during sentence comprehension. Brain and Language, 89,

290-299.• Taras, M. (2002). Using assessment for learning and learning from assessment. • Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 27 (6), 501-510. Retrieved April 4, 2006 from

ProQuest database.• Taylor, G. (2005). Perceived processing strategies of students watching • captioned video. Foreign Language Annals, 38 (3), 422-428. Retrieved June 19, 2006 from ProQuest

database.

References V-W• Varma, P., & Krishnan, L. (2001). The effect of cognitive complexity and • nature of the outcome on causal attribution. The Journal of Social Psychology,

126 (5), 639-647. Retrieved August 8, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.• Wesson, K. (2001). What recent brain research tells us about learning. • Independent School, 61 (1), 58-71. Retrieved August 2, 2006 from EBSCOhost

database.• Wiggins, G. (1999). Assessing student performance. San Francisco, CA: John • Wiley & Sons, Inc.• Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. (2007). Curriculum development; A guide to practice (7th

ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.• Windshitl, M. (2002). Framing constructivism in practice as the

negotiation of • dilemmas: An analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and

political challenges facing teachers. Review of Education Research, 72 (2), 131-175. Retrieved July 22, 2006 from ProQuest database.

• Woodall, P. (2008). The new champions; Guess who’ll be rising up the • statistical charts in 2008. The Economist: The World in 2008, p. 78. London:

The Economist Newspapers Limited.

Updated Version: augmentation to References• Hobbs, Robert Dean (2011).

Multilingual model construction based on superior cognitive skills of multilingual students. PROQUEST Dissertations & Theses, UMI No. 3484309.

• Hobbs, R.D. (2011). Evidence of multilingual superiority: Implications for KG-12 curriculum [enhancement]. In C. Lentz (ed.), The refractive thinker (vol. 6): Post-secondary education (pp. 71-106). Las Vegas, NV: The Refractive Thinker Press.

• Hobbs, Robert Dean (2012). Diverse multilingual researchers contribute language acquisition components to an integrated model of education. International Journal of Multilingualism, 9(3), 204-234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2011.630736