Introduction ___________________________________________________________________1

Background ___________________________________________________________________2Historical Roots of Current Migration Trends ___________________________________________3

Causes and Types of Migration ________________________________________________________4Economic and Labor Migration _______________________________________________________________4Refugees _________________________________________________________________________________6Forced Migrations ________________________________________________________________________10

Effects of Migration on the Security of Host States ______________________________________12Economic Impact _________________________________________________________________________13Terrorism and Crime ______________________________________________________________________14Perception of a Culture Besieged _____________________________________________________________17

Current Status ________________________________________________________________18Souring Immigration Attitudes and Policy in EU and Australia ____________________________18

The United States, Foreign Policy Shifts, and Migration __________________________________20

Refugee Issues in LDCs _____________________________________________________________21

Bloc Positions _________________________________________________________________23Regional Positions __________________________________________________________________23

Developed States _________________________________________________________________________23Developing States _________________________________________________________________________25

Non-Governmental Organizations ____________________________________________________26

Media Positions ____________________________________________________________________28

Business Positions __________________________________________________________________28

Summary ____________________________________________________________________30

Discussion Questions ___________________________________________________________32

Works Cited __________________________________________________________________33

Works Referenced ____________________________________________________________37

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Introduction

Migration, the flow of peoples from one state to another, has occurred at unprecedented rates in the 20th Ccentury. . There are currently 170 millionAs of a 2005 United Nations study, there were 191 million international migrants, people that live in a state other than their birthplace, in the world.,1

That total is double what it was in 1970.a number that is believed to have doubled since 1970 . The Second World War and the

subsequent end of colonial rule from Western European imperial powers created a

situation in the world that was conducive to migration. The rich states of Western Europe

had labor shortages that they sought to fill by appealing to citizens of their former

colonies. The main cCauses for migration in the second half of the twentieth c20th

Century, and still today, were economic migrants and refugees seeking asylum in other

statesare often economic, as people leave their homes to seek out economic opportunity. .

Refugee flows are caused by a variety of reasonscan also be involuntary, resulting from

persecution to environmental disasters, and . They tend to occur spontaneously, due to

the unpredictability of natural disasters or political crises. . While states saw potential

security threats caused by migration mainly in the form of economic downturn or

financial crisis, terrorist attacks carried out by migrants in the beginning of the 21st

century Century have put national security at the forefront of migration policy. .

As voluntary migration most often related to economic opportunity, it is not

surprising that people typically move from developing to developed states. When jobs

are not available in least developed states (LDCs), people are often forced to travel to

neighboring or even distant states in search of work. States fall into one of two

categories: the most developed countries (MDCs) and the least developed countries

1 “International Migration and Development,” United Nations. http://www.un.org/esa/population/hldmigration/Text/Migration_factsheet.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2006.

1

(LDCs). While this seems a natural progression of markets – labor supply moving to

locations in which there is ample demand, the process Migration poses many risks to

security for each of these groups. . MDCs Developed countries realize the value of

migrants to increase employment and productionas a cheap supply of labor, offering an

opportunity to bolster an economy dependent upon unskilled workers, which then bolster

the economy. . This economic growth does not come without costs, however, as a

significant influx of people from a given region or ethnic group can considerably alter the

makeup of communities and entire regions. At the same time, however, there is a

growing sense among the general public of these states that migrants pose a risk to their

culture. Migrants are viewed as outsiders, people who possess foreign ideas that do not

coincide with the identity of citizens of a particular state. . National security is also in

dangerput at risk in the contemporary world, where terrorism and battles with non-state

actors have surpassed conventional warfare between states as the primary threat. . In the

past five years, attacks carried out in MDCs developed were done so by terrorists who

migrated to the state for that purpose under the guise of economic or political refugees. .

The natural reaction is to crack down on migration in order to prevent enemies from

entering the country, but economic interests must also be balanced. .

LDCs face challenges due to migration in two different ways, depending upon if

populations are leaving or are

arriving. In cases where people are

emigrating from developing

countries, economies can face a

significant shock as surplus labor

becomes scarce. Economic downturn can lead to internal strife, often resulting in the

instability of the ruling government. Moreover, these states can face a “brain drain,” in

which most of the skilled laborers, those expected to drive a developing economy,

relocate to another state, thereby depriving the state of origin from its economic potential.

There are similar concerns when a significant population of migrants arrives in a

developing country, since there is now an economically depressed population seeking to

Least Developed Countries:A term which refers to the 48 countries and territories which are recognized by the United Nations General Assembly as being among the least developed countries and which are accorded special priority for the purpose of granting assistance.

Source: www.itu.int/osg/spu/intset/whatare/glossary.html

2

supplant traditional workers and to take available jobs at lower wages. The primary issue

LDCs face is the ability to deal with refugee flows. Sudden influxes of refugees mean

tThe state must cope with an increased burden on local economies and government

finances. . Failure to do so can result in resentment and threats to the security and

stability of the state from both the new arrivals and the existing population.

Preventing migration to avoid the potential security risks that accompany the

movement of people is can be an impossible task, both logistically and legallywhen

logistical and legal concerns are considered. . Advances in transportation, media, and the

continued existence of a wealth gap

between states encourage people to

relocate in search of better opportunities. .

Also, oOppressive regimes and warfare

across the planetthroughout the world

force innocent victims to seek refuge in nearby states to avoid persecution or death. .

Legally speaking, the United Nations (UN) does not possess the power to directly change

individual states’ policy on migration, as the organization was founded on the principles

of sovereignty. . Yet while the UN cannot impose policy change on states to better

handle the issue of migration, the issue itself will not disappearit does have the ability to

offer incentives and to work towards developing circumstances in which these population

flows are orderly and safe for both the migrants and the host states. LDCs rely on the UN,

in addition to other states and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), for the aid

necessary to properly handle and care for waves of refugees

.

Migration’s impactThe impact of migration on international security is felt in a

multitude of ways, including the national and economic security of the state. . The policy

dilemma facing the international community is how to effectively protect states from the

potentially harmful effects of migration while simultaneously helping the migrants

themselves, who in many cases are just searching for a better life. . Transforming states

Sovereignty:The principle that the state exercises absolute power over its territory, system of government, and population. Accordingly, the internal authority of the state supersedes that of all other bodies.

Source: www.afsc.org/trade-matters/learn-about/glossary.htm

Guest Worker:A foreign worker who is permitted to enter a country temporarily in order to take a job for which there is shortage of domestic labor.

Source: www-personal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/g.html

3

into fortresses closed societies that do not allow for immigration is not feasible, because

migration provides economic benefits to many states. . The humanitarian aspect of

migration, particularly refugee flows, must also be taken into consideration when

contemplating new migration policies. . Refugees move to other states because there is a

better chance of survival. . Yet, at the same time, migrants even political refugees may

pose threats to the national security of the states they enter. . Finding a solution that takes

into account all aspects of migration and strikes an appropriate balance between differing

types of security is the ultimate goalnecessary for the safety and security of states

throughout the world.

Background

Historical Roots of Current Migration Trends

The Second World War devastated Europe and undermined the global economy; .

by By 1945, its the European

population and infrastructure lay in

shambles, resulting . As a result,

there were extremein severe

shortages in labor necessary to

begin the rebuilding process, at a time when there was a surplus of work necessary to

rebuild states throughout the continent. . Simultaneously, Western European states began

the process of decolonizationThe war also resulted in a significant period of

decolonization, as the funding and manpower was no longer available to properly control

territorial possessions, coupled with a push for self-determination. . Citizens of these

former colonies in Africa and Asia moved en masse to the European continentEurope

seeking the vast opportunities offered by their former imperial masters. . Business

interests in Western European states actively recruited this inexpensive,

disposablereplaceable, and vast labor force.2 International migration into Europe after the

war was highly liberalized, emphasized by the recruiting of guest workers. . Problems 2 Goran Rystad, “Immigration History and the Future of International Migration” International Migration Review, Vol. 26, No. 4 (1992): 1171

4

today, however, are rooted in the idea European idea that the migration of foreign

workers would serve as a temporary solutionfact that this labor force was considered to

be temporary in nature, and was expected ultimately to return to its country of origin.. .It

was believed that, once the job of rebuilding these states was accomplished, the migrants

would return home. .When it became clear that migrants intended to stay and settle in

these West European states, segments of the public became xenophobic and racial

tensions grew, culminating in changes to immigration policy reflective of public opinion.

.

Decolonization itself also had major impactsan important impact on migration. .

Colonial powers, when dividing up the continent of Africaestablishing national

boundaries for their former possessions, often disregarded the natural divisions among

the differing peoples of the continentregion. . The political boundaries established when

colonies were being granted independence after the Second World War often cut across

cultural lines and sometimes forced numerous ethnicities to cohabitate within the borders

of a single state.3 Colonial powers sought to abandon these possessions sometimes as

quickly and easily as possible, resulting in a process that seldom took cultural and

regional differences into account. Some states, such as the Ivory CoastCote d’Ivoire,

Tanzania, Zambia and Kenya, benefited from the dissolution of cultural borderswere able

to prosper despite the fact that the newly independent states were made up of diverse

populations.. These states succeeded by emphasizing cooperation among ethnic

communities, and by promoting nationalism over cultural identity, and by defining

oneself by their nationality rather than by their culture.. In other newly born states, such

as Rwanda, Sudan, Angola or Uganda, instead of fostering cooperation, the political

boundaries produced struggles for powerfcaused a power vacuum between among ethnic

groups, and there was no longer a government of authority to maintain the peace.4 The

3 Constance G. Anthony, “Africa’s Refugee Crisis: State Building in Historical Perspective” International Migration Review, Vol. 25, No. 3 (1991): 5874 Ibid 587

5

social inequity and political infighting in these states has been a major notable cause of

the refugee problem in Africa, both past and present. .

Causes and Types of Migration

Economic and Labor Migration

One of the chief primary reasons people decide to leave one state in favor of

another is financial opportunity. . The wealth gapdisparity in wealth between the rich and

the poor creates causes a gap in economic opportunities amongst statespopulations. .

This The resulting migration flow normally occurs from LDCs to MDCsdeveloping to

developed states, as the latter generally offer increased economic opportunity. . Migrants

who move to seek employment fall into one of two categories: the unskilled laborers or

the professionalsand skilled. . The uUnskilled laborers constitute the majority of

emigrants, and new . eEmployment opportunities that typically pay far more than the

migrants would otherwise earn in their homeland await these laborers in the states to

which they migrate, however the decision to move can be expensive. . These

employment opportunities are not without costs or risks, however, The costs of migration

includeincluding travel expenses, administrative costs (ie: passports), and the price of

basic necessities of life such as securing shelter, food, and clothing.5

Most Many migrants of this ilk variety do not carefully weigh the costs and

benefits of such a move, as they see the opportunity for employment in the host country

as far outweighing the economic costs of the journey.; however, there is a basic

underlying expectation in the decision making.6 The ultimate motivator is the potential

for profit in the host country. Migrants expect to find employment, wages that exceed

that which they received in their home state, and an overall higher standard of living. .

One specific case study, done by Russell King and Melanie Knights, examined the

migrant community of Bangladeshis living in Rome, Italy (an MDC).. In their host

countryRome, Bangladeshi immigrants working in the service sector (restaurants & 5 Solomon Barkin, “The Economic Costs and Benefits of International Migration” The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 2, No. 4. (1967): 503.6 Ibid

6

hotels), an area where many unskilled laborers find employment in developed nations,

were making about approximately USD $12,000 United States dollars (USD) per

monthyear. . Comparatively, Bangladesh is a LDC,is home to one of the world’s lowest

per capitaaverage incomes, as the average citizen earns a mere USD $210 USD per year.7

Even the jobs considered undesirable by the indigenous people of Italy, because of their

miniscule low earnings, pay wages that greatly trump the opportunities available to

migrants in their home state of Bangladesh.

7 Russell King & Melanie Knights, “Bangladeshis in Rome: Migratory Opportunities” in Population Migration and the Changing World Order, ed. W.T.S. Gould and A.M. Findlay, 139-140 (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994)

7

For the poor, the

desirability potential of for

migration has increased in

the past couplerecent

decades due to the

continuously widening

income and employment gap

between LDCs and MDCsdeveloping and developed states. . In 1950, the average per

capita income gross domestic product (GDP) (PCI) of low-income countries was USD

$164 per year, and the average for high-income countries was some 23 times higher, ator

USD $3,841.8 More recently, in 2004, the average PCI per capita GDP among low-

income countries was USD $510, while it was a staggering 63 times higher in high-

income countries, at USD $32,040.9

The gap has widened considerably in

the past 50 years, with the poor

remaining poor whilst the rich

became far richer. . Further

increasing the potential for migration

is the wealth of knowledge that mass

media has provided the world. .

Citizens of LDCs are, more than ever

before, aware of the economic

disparities between their home and the developed world.10

8 Lucie Cheng & Philip Q. Yang, “Global Interaction, Global Inequality, and Migration of the Highly Trained to the United States” International Migration Review, Vol. 32, No. 3 (1998): 6349 World Bank, “Key Development Data & Statistics”, The World Bank Group, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20535285~menuPK:1192694~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html (accessed February 1st 2006)10 W.T.S. Gould and A.M. Findlay, Population Migration and the Changing World Order, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994), 117

Per Capita GDP in Selected Regions Relative to that of the Developed World, 1950-2001

Source: http://www.un.org/esa/policy/wess/index.html

Gross Domestic Product (GDP):Total value of a country's output, income or expenditure produced within the country's physical borders.

Source: www.gftforex.com/resources/glossary.asp

Per capita GDP:a value of how much a person produces in a year. It is calculated by dividing the Gross Domestic Product for a country by the number of people who live there.

Source: www.angliacampus.com/public/sec/geog/gn009/glossary.htm

8

In addition to the economic migrant majority of unskilled laborers and the

unemployed, there is a growing group of professionals moving from LDCs to

MDCsseeking jobs in developed states. . This also includes an increase in students who

look abroad when selecting a university for post-secondary education. . Observed

mMotivations to migrate for professionals are not entirely dissimilar from that of the

unskilled laborers. : Tthey seek better wages, improved living conditions, and similar

monetary goals ; however, these goals are in addition to career opportunities. . Differing

from the typical laborer, professionals seek

opportunities to better their current position or

advance their careers, whether it is via through

promotions, raises, or access to superior

equipment.11 While an obvious boon to the host,

the state sending their professionals abroad

experiences what is termed as a “brain drain.”12 Migration of professionals results in a

loss of very valuable human capital.

Refugees

Migration also occurs in the form of refugees: people escaping persecution and

oppression, fleeing from international or internal wars and conflict, environmental

disasters and degradation, or economic peril. . Refugee movements, or flows, are often

sudden, . potentiallySuch a situation

may catching receiving states off-

guard and unprepared to deal with the

influx of people. . Refugee flows are

typically large in number, further exacerbating the problems caused by lack of

preparation. . This is especially troubling considering where most refugee flows occur.

Contrary to popular belief, the vast majority of refugees do not seek asylum in 11 Lucie Cheng & Philip Q. Yang, “Global Interaction, Global Inequality, and Migration of the Highly Trained to the United States” International Migration Review, Vol. 32, No. 3 (1998): 63512 Ibid

Brain Drain:The emigration of a significant proportion of a country's highly skilled, highly educated professional population, usually to other countries offering better economic and social opportunity (for example, physicians leaving a developing country to practice medicine in a developed country).

Source: www.planetwire.org/glossarylist.php

Refugee:a person who has been forced to leave his/her home and has crossed an international border.

Source: www.doctorswithoutborders.org/education/bol/Glossary.htm

Origins of Major Refugee Populations in 2004Country of Origin1 Countries of Asylum Total

Afghanistan2 Pakistan, Iran, Germany,Netherlands, U.K.

2,084,900

The Sudan Chad, Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, DR Congo, Central African Republic

730,600

Burundi Tanzania, DR Congo, Rwanda, South Africa,Canada

485,800

Democratic Republic of Congo

Tanzania, Zambia, Republic of Congo, Burundi, Rwanda

462,200

Somalia Kenya, Yemen, U.K., USA, Djibouti

389,300

Palestine3 Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Iraq, Libya, Algeria

350,600

Vietnam China, Germany, USA, France, Switzerland

349,800

Liberia Guinea, Cote d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Ghana, USA

335,500

Iraq Iran, Germany, Netherlands, U.K., Sweden

311,800

Azerbaijan Armenia, Germany, USA, Netherlands

250,500

1. . This table includes UNHCR estimates for nationalities in industrialized countries on the basis of recent refugee arrivals and asylum seeker recognition.2. . This is a UNHCR estimate. . Despite major returns in 2004, the figure for Iran has been revised upwards in the light of a comprehensive registration exercise. . The figure for Pakistan only includes Afghans living in camps, and does not include some 1.9 million Afghans living elsewhere in the country, some of whom may be refugees, who were counted for the first time in a census in early 2005.3. . This figure excludes some 4 million Palestinians who are covered by a separate mandate of the U.N. . Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).

Source: United Nations High Commission on Refugees, “Refugees by Numbers (2005 edition)”, UN, http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/basics/opendoc.htm?

9

MDCsdeveloped states, they leave an area of impending danger and travel to neighboring

states for safety. . There were 9.2 million registered refugees still living in other nations

in 2004, however the number of new applicants seeking asylum was only 839,200,

representing a 16 year low.13 The majority of refugee movement in the world occurs

among developing nations, in areas such as Africa, South Asia, and more recently, the

Middle East (see Figures 1.1 and 1.2). . Examples of current recent events causing

refugee flows include armed conflicts in states such as Angola, Burundi, the Sudan, and

Colombia, recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan; , and natural disasters in South Asia,

specifically the Pakistani

earthquakes and the tsunami

of December 2004.14

Environmental reasons

for migration are not new, but

the severity of the problem has

increased in both number of

people affected and size of the

natural disasters. . Natural

disasters in South Asia,

including the 2004 tsunami in

Southeast Asia and the

earthquakes in Pakistan in

2005, are affecting more

people than ever before

because the region has both a

high population and high

population growth rate. .

13 United Nations High Commission on Refugees, “Refugees by Numbers (2005 edition)”, UN, http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/basics/opendoc.htm?tbl=BASICS&id=3b028097c#Refugees14 Council on Foreign Relations, “Global Conflicts Map”, CNN, http://www.cnn.com/interactive/maps/world/fullpage.global.conflict/world.index.html

10

Increased population growth not only creates results in a larger amount of people that

would be displaced by a natural disaster, but also contributes to the degradation of the

environment, as a disorderly flow is taxing a region unprepared for the population

inflow.. .

The larger populations impact the environment because of the increased strain on

the output capability of the land. . Due to these strainseffects, plus along with poor

agricultural and business practices, 11 per cent of Africa’s total land area has been

affected by human-induced soil degradation. , resulting inThe loss of useable soil has, in

turn, impacted the economics of regions throughout Africa. There has been a 25 per cent

drop in the productivity of cropland , due to the soil degradationthroughout much of

Africa.15 Population growth, however, is not the only reason for environmental

degradation. . Environmental degradationThis process normally occurs in LDCs, where

there is less funding to practice environmentally sustainable programs, and less

government ability to enforce regulations that restrict pollution. .

While most environmental factors cause internal displacement internally, there is

a growing sense that international migration is being seen by refugees as a solution to

environmental degradation. . The idea follows the simple logic that if a region has

deteriorated to the point where it cannot

sustain the population inhabiting it, then

the people should relocate and settle into a

new area. . This plan is flawed in the

long-term, however, because refugee flows

are sudden in timing and vast in numbers. .

Makeshift settlements are often established

to provide emergency shelter for the

refugees. . The very creation of large

settlements in other countries, quite

15 “Fact Sheet Desertification: Africa” GTZ CCD Project, http://lada.virtualcentre.org/eims/download.asp?pub_id=93546&v=5

Major Refugee Arrivals in 2004Origin Countries of

AsylumTotal

Sudan Chad , , Uganda , , Kenya

146,900

D.R. Congo Burundi , , Rwanda , , Zambia , , Uganda

38,100

Somalia Yemen , , Kenya 19,100 Iraq Syria 12,000 Côte d'Ivoire Liberia , , Mali 5,900 Burundi Rwanda , ,

Tanzania 4,200

Liberia Sierra Leone , , Côte d'Ivoire , , Guinea

3,700

Central African Republic

Chad 500

Rwanda Malawi , , D.R. Congo

500

11

possibly experiencing environmental problems themselves, will lead to environmental

degradation in the area to which refugees migrated.16 Additionally, migration due to

environmental degradation can also be related to economic issues, as . uUnemployment,

poverty, and increased pressure on available resources tend to be an underlying factor.

.The environmental disruption proves to be the deciding factor when choosing whether to

migrate.17

The primary cause of refugee movements in recent times, though, is armed

conflict. . There are multiple types of such conflict, but two are prominent in today’s

world: inter-state wars and intra-state ethnic conflict. . Inter-state warfare is warfare in

the traditional sense, wherethat in which two states and their respective armies meet in

battle. . In centuries past, armies would meet on a battlefield away from the centers of

population to fight. . The lives of civilians, while affected, were not disrupted in ways

that are comparable to modern times. . Modern warfare, and its highly advanced and

destructive weaponry results in the death of civilians and devastation of the infrastructure

needed for the survival of other civiliansotherwise innocent bystanders, resulting . inThis

is the root of refugee flows. . Afghanistan serves as a prime contemporaryrecent example

of what inter-state warfare can cause, as they have experienced two major wars in the

past 25 yearssince the 1980s. . The first war was the Soviet Union’s invasion in 1979,

and the second the United States’ military action to remove the Taliban in 2001. .

According to the Human Rights Watch, 3.7 million Afghan refugees fled the country to

escape these conflicts in the past 25 years.18 Similarly, refugee flows have stemmed from

the two wars fought in the Persian Gulf, in 1991 and in 2003. . The Persian Gulf War in

of 1991 resulted in the uprooting of between 4 million and 5 million people in the Middle

East in a span of just 12 months.19

16 Graeme Hugo, “Environmental Concerns and International Migration” International Migration Review, Vol. 30, No. 1(1996): 12317 Ibid 11818 Human Rights Watch, “Safe Refuge for Afghan Refugees”, Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/afghanistan/refugees-facts.htm19 Sharon Stanton Russell, “International Migration and Political Turmoil in the Middle East” Population and Development Review, Vol. 18, No. 4 (1992): 721

12

Ethnic conflicts, on the other hand, are fought between internal forces. . Ethnic

conflicts are defined as groups of people of differing religions, ethnicities, languages,

cultures, or tribes waging war on one another

or against the state within the borders of the

country.20 Problems stem from the

government being unable to properly mediate

and manage populations that are divided

deeply along ethnic lines. . In cases where the government is actively agitating the

situation by persecuting a minority group, ethnic violence can break out between the

majority and minority. . For example, in 1983, the Sudanese government instituted

Shari’a law throughout the country. . Shari’a law is the law of Islam, which meant tThe

government was imposing Islamic law onto minority groups that were of other religions. .

Non-Arab Sudanese felt their rights were being threatened by the state and, as a result,

the Second Sudanese Civil War broke out. .

A highly publicized conflict of this type occurred in the past decade, when the

Hutu majority in Rwanda began a campaign of genocide to rid the country of the Tutsi

minority in 1994. . The former colonial ruler of Rwanda was Belgium, and they strongly

supported the superiority of the Tutsi, the minority, over the Hutu, the majority.21 In

1990, President Juvenal Habyarimana and the Hutu-dominated government of Rwanda

utilized existing ethnic tensions to shore upconsolidate support for his regime, which was

in dire straits due tosuffering from a severe economic recession. . Four years later, iIn

1994, the killing began, when President Habyarimana was assassinated upon his plane

was shot down. . His death was blamed on Tutsi rebels, and all Tutsi members of this

tribe were declared enemies of the state. . The former colonial ruler of Rwanda, Belgium

strongly supported the superiority of the Tutsi, the minority, over the Hutu, the majority.22

20 Ibid 10021 Helen M. Hintjens, “Explaining the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda” The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 37, No. 2 (1999): 25022 Helen M. Hintjens, “Explaining the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda” The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 37, No. 2 (1999): 250

Shari’a Law:the code of law derived from the Koran and from the teachings and example of Mohammed; "sharia is only applicable to Muslims"; "under Islamic law there is no separation of church and state"

Source: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

13

Between April and May 1994, between 5 per cent to and 10 per cent of Rwanda’s

population was killed, and over more than two million Rwandans fled the country.23

Armed conflict within a state is not always fought because of ethnic tensions. .

Two warring political factions in Colombia, the left-wing Revolutionary Armed Forces of

Colombia (FARC) and the right-wing Auto-Defense Forces of Colombia, have been

waging a bloody battle for control of the government for 41 yearsmore than four decades.

. Colombians have had to abandon their homes to escape the conflict, for each

organization has been targeting civilians believed to be aiding the enemy their opposition.

. Some 250,000 Colombians currently reside in Ecuador, and the number of displaced

Colombians seeking refuge in other states is increasing each year.24

Forced Migrations

Refugee flows are often caused by the government of a state taking an active role

in the removal of its “undesired” citizens, usually ethnic minorities or political dissidents

or opposition. . The policies implemented to force migrations migratory movements

range from merely pressuring groups to leave, to creating conditions that make continued

residence unbearable. . While the former can compel people to leave of their own accord,

the latter often entails the idea of forcible expulsion. . An example of a state

implementing an expulsion policy towards a group of people occurred during the Persian

Gulf War. . The government of Saudi Arabia supported the fight against Iraq, and

expelled one million Yemini Yemeni migrants living in Saudi Arabia, because their home

state supported Iraq in the war.25

The extreme forms of this non-voluntary migration are violence, ethnic conflicts

and, worst of all, genocide. The Tutsis fled Rwanda not because they were living in

conditions that did not afford them equality, but rather because the Hutus undertook a

campaign of mass murder to drive the Tutsis out. Ethnic Albanians in the Kosovo region 23 Ibid 241, 24224 “UN Refugee Agency Official Spotlights Plight of Displaced Colombians”, States News Service, February 3rd, 2006, final edition. Lexis-Nexis.

25 Jeremy Hein, “Refugees, Immigrants, and the State” Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 19 (1993): 48

14

of Serbia were exposed to the horrors of genocide when President Slobodan Milosevic

undertook the program of “ethnically cleansing” the area of undesirables.

More commonly, though, governments put forth antagonistic policies with the

purpose of threatening minorities and stripping them of their rights, . This is a coercive

way to remove people. . Discriminatory laws can attack a minority’s religion, language,

culture, political viewpoint, restrict free speech and other individual rights, and

essentially regulate relegate them to the status of second-class citizens.26 The goal of

these policies is to create establish an environment of fear and persecution conducive to

driving out a particular group. .

While the goal is to get a minority group out of the country, that is not the

whole story. Removing a minority achieves a cultural uniformity that, in turn, also can

achieves another crucial goal: national security. . Governments feel threatened by

political opposition, no matter the level of strength that the opposition group possesses. .

Fidel Castro, shortly after establishing a new Communist communist regime in Cuba,

ordered the exile of a half million more than 500,000 members of the Cuban middle

class, because middle and upper social classes are seen as enemies of socialism, and are

likely to support ongoing efforts to remove a socialist regime.27 In doing so, Castro

believed he made the environment more secure as revolts would be less likely to happen

when a half million perceived “threats” were removed.. Similarly, the current genocide

in the Darfur region of the Sudan began due to insurgencies insurgents carrying out

attacks on the Sudanese government. . The government, seeing threats to its power,

responded by trying to remove the non-Arabs in Darfur. .

Effects of Migration on the Security of Host States

Security, and threats to it, can take on different forms depending on the area of a

state that is perceived to be at risk. . The conventional definition of security is national

26 Myron Weiner, “Security, Stability, and International Security” International Migration Review, Vol. 17, No.3 (1992): 10027 Ibid 99

15

security. . This type of security can be broken down into three parts. . The first

component of national security, the traditional view, is the ability of the state to militarily

defend itself from external attack.28 The second component is defense against internal

threats, such as ethnic conflicts. . Lastly, national security also encompasses balancing

the demand for resources by the population and with the supply availability of such

resources. .29 A breakdown in the balance, where the population’s demands exceed the

available supplies, can threaten the structural integrity of a government.30

Security is not merely limited to literal physical attacks on the state. . In addition

to national security, there is economic security and cultural securityare concerns over

economic and social concerns. . Protecting the economic security of a state and its

citizens is just as important as shielding them it from acts of war. . The security of

economics is a concern of the state on both the state level and the individual level . : On

on the state level, the extra costs that migration

can bring may place a strain on the

government’s funds and hurt overall economic

performance, whereas . onEqually important is the individual level, where the citizens of

a state can have their economic status threatened by the loss of employment to incoming

foreigners. . Thirdly is the idea of cCultural security, which can greatly influences a

state’s immigration policy and increases the tension between the public existing

populations and the new immigrants. . Xenophobia, the fear of foreign persons or ideas,

can have a profound impact on the way security is seenenvisioned. . The iIndigenous

people of a statepopulations may fear their culture or their identity will slowly disappear

with the infusion of undesired persons and ideas.31 If anti-immigrant attitudes become

28 Karen Jacobsen, “Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes” International Migration Review, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1996): 67229 National security concerns have recently been used to support claims that resources such as oil are of significant national concern. States have declared that protection of a free flow of oil represent important national security objectives, as a disruption in supply could cause significant economic damage.30 Ibid31 Ibid 110

Xenophobia:an irrational fear of foreigners or strangers

Source: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

16

popular with the public, it can result in violence that would, in turn, threaten national

securityensuing violence can pose a threat to national security. .

Economic Impact

Host states, or states that are on the receiving end of migration, experience both

economic benefits and costs from migrants. . Some of the rewards to the receiving states

are obvious. . For one, the host is on the receiving end of the “brain drain.”; the term for

the migration of professionals and other skilled people from LDCs to MDCs. This then

process adds an educated, skilled group of workers into the state’s economy, and is. This

is beneficial because it is more difficult to fill jobs requiring a higher skill setskilled

workers have a more positive impact on the economy than those with limited abilities. .

In terms of the uUnskilled laborers that migrate, it provides a larger workforce to fulfill

various jobs for which it can be difficult to find employees because the native considers

such positions undesirable populacejobs that are often low-paying, and unattractive to

existing populations. . Another benefit to the host is that the government receiving

receives more revenue in from taxationes. .Additionally, shareholders of companies,

receive larger returns on their capital investments since more workers render the

company more productive,.32

While the advantages are many, migration does not come without costs, The costs

to the host state are numerous both in perception and in realityboth perceived and real. .

Any belief of the existence of threats can cause change in public policy towards

immigration, regardless of whether that threat is real or imaginedrealisitic. . Arguments

put forth about the economic costs of migration include: the belief that unskilled laborers

put unnecessary burdens on the state, the straining of government resources to cope with

refugees, and the fear that acceptance of refugees (or migrants looking for work) will lead

to more asylum applicants, thus thereby aggravating the problem.33

32 Mark Kleinman, “The Economic Impact of Labour Migration” in The Politics of Migration, edited by Sarah Spencer, 61. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.33 Myron Weiner, “Security, Stability, and International Security” International Migration Review, Vol. 17, No.3 (1992): 116

17

A popular belief, especially in Western Europe, is that the unskilled, and thereby

undesired, migrants prove to be much too costly to justify their entrance into the state. .

The distinction between skilled and unskilled migrants here is important. . The public

sees the skilled migrant who is working higher-level jobs as a benefit to the economy,

and not a burden, whereas the unskilled migrant is looked down upon as dead weight for

the government. is seen as someone who will require more assistance from the

government than he is able to provide for the economy. The types of costs that unskilled

migrants put on the economy are numerous: , including costs borne by administrative

agencies, investments in infrastructure and housing for immigrants, job training, and

welfare agencies providing assistance to the poor.34 These costs are potentially more

perception than reality; in truth, migrant contributions to the economy through

employment can counteract many of the costs placed on the government. .

The economic impact of refugees is an entirely different problem. . The bulk of

the economic problems stemming from refugee flows occur in LDCsleast developed

countries, with an estimated 80 per cent of people who flee their homes seeking refuge in

other LDCs, similarly economically challenged states.35 Economic capacity is the ability

of the host state to absorb refugees into their country, and it is determined by factors such

as availability of land, employment opportunities, current infrastructure in placeal

limitations, and the land’s capacity to hold peoplesupport additional populations36. . In

LDCs, areas in which refugees tend to settle are already heavily populated and cannot

withstand a large influx of refugees, and the unpopulated areas of LDCs are normally so

because the land is unsuitable for settlement. . Refugees also place strains on medical

and educational services, transportation, infrastructure, available housing and available

jobs. . These stresses can potentially cause strife within the local community.37 On top

ofBeyond the costs to local economies, the government itself often has to provide shelter,

34 Goran Rystad, “Immigration History and the Future of International Migration” International Migration Review, Vol. 26, No. 4 (1992): 118335 William B. Wood, “Forced Migration: Local Conflicts and International Dilemmas” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 84, No. 4 (1994): 6236 Karen Jacobsen, “Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes” International Migration Review, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1996): 66737 Ibid

18

food, and other supplies for the new arrivals. . Further consider that mMany of the

governments called upon to provide assistance to new arrivals are quite poor and the dire

economic situations prior to the refugee flow become much worse.

Terrorism and Crime

Not all immigrants enter a country to escape poverty, oppression, or environmental

degradation. . As evidenced by recent attacks against the United States, Spain, and

Britainthe United Kingdom, migration has become a means for terrorists and other

transnational criminals to achieve their nefarious goals. . Transnational crime is carried

out by organizations spread across the globe, not individuals acting alone. . Terrorism

involving international migration is also seldom ever one individual acting alone, but

rather organized networks that carefully plan attacks.

Highly organized criminale networks pose multiple threats to international

security. . The ability to bribe, coerce, or use other illegal means to influence public

officials undermines the credibility and legitimacy of a state, in turn . This in turn could

leading to the destabilizing of a country. . If large enough, criminal organizations can

threaten order on an international level. . The worst threat posed to international security

comes about when organized crime takes uses its this ability to use money to influence

the government to the extreme:by funding revolutionary movements to overthrow the

government, thus gaining influence over the entire government if the revolt is

successful.38 With these organizations operating in many states across the world, the

movement of people and goods is necessary. , So so if a state that was deemed important

to these dark organizations was not cooperating, the organization would take steps to

undermine the state’s government in order to gain influence and improve its situation. .

Dark networkThese organizations groups are involved in the trafficking of many

illegal goods across national boundaries, such asincluding weaponry weapons and

humans (for prostitution or illegal migration). . The largest international crime trade,

however, is in drugs. . Production of illegal drugsnarcotics, like cocaine and heroin, is 38 Alan Dupont, “Transnational Crime and Security in East Asia” Asian Survey, Vol. 39., No. 3 (1999): 436

19

focused mainly primarily in East Asia and Latin America. . Drug The drug trade in East

Asia consists of products grown in one nation, such as Burma, manufactured in another,

like the Philippines, and then shipped off to their final destination state for sale,

frequently the United States. . The crossing of multiple national borders has produced

security problems that result from organized crimefor entire regions, and is often difficult

to interrupt. . By gaining more power and money, these illegal traffickers can

“purchase”bribe government officials to allow for easier trade. . For example,

Vietnamese border patrols, responsible for guarding the Vietnam-Laos border, were

arrested when it was that discovered they were working with Laos drug dealers to

facilitate narcotics smuggling across the border.39 The Philippines are is especially

troubled by the influence of organized crime. . In 1997, Philippine Senator Ernesto

Herrera described the current state of Philippine politics: “Drug money is corrupting and

co-opting elements in immigration, customs, the police, and the military. . It has even

penetrated the ranks of court officers and some well-placed officials.”40 The corruption

of state officials by organized crime, through the purchasing of government influence to

facilitate illegal activities, subverts the legitimacy of the government.

Recently, migration has spawned terrorism as a new threat to the security of states.

. The 11 September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks againstin the United States have illustrated

the possibility that international migration can pose a significant military threat. . These

attacks of September 11th were carried out by 19 men, all of whom were foreigners that

had migrated to the United States. . Subsequent attacks in Bali, Indonesia, Madrid, Spain

and London, England have further demonstrated the severe security risks that can stem

from migration. . All These three attacks involved terrorists who where migrants to the

targeted country. .Three of the five men detained in a failed follow-up attack in London

on July 21, 2005 were not born in Britain.41 Links to the terrorist organization al-Qaeda

were found in all of the attacks, meaning the preparation and organization behind

39 Ibid 44740 Ibid41 BBC, “The Suspects”, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/uk/05/london_blasts/investigation/html/suspects.stm, (accessed February 26th, 2006)

20

terrorism is found across many state lines. .Many charged with involvement in the

bombings in Bali appeared to first organize at a Muslim school in Malaysia, not

Indonesia.42

Compounding the problem in the modern world is the existence of weapons of

mass destruction. While the level of destruction is enormous, the size of the weapon itself

is not necessarily proportionate. If these weapons can be sufficiently concealed,

migration provides an easy, inexpensive way to carry out attacks.43 With modern warfare

being fought not between states and their respective armies, but between states and non-

state actors, terrorism is a prime concern for states.

Perception of a Culture Besieged

The possible dilution or erosion of culture The third majoris a threat to a host

state’s security is muchand is sometimes more perception than reality. . This believed

threat is the possible dilution or erosion of culture. The extreme form of this is known as

xXenophobia, which is defined as the fear of foreign people or ideas. Sometimes called

neo-racism, or differentialist racism, this new breed of discrimination does not

discriminate based on the idea of racial superiority, but . iInstead this bias is “predicated

on the imperative of preserving the group’s identity, whose purity it sanctifies.”44 The

belief is that those who are different and unwanted must be kept out in order to maintain

the purity of the culture. . The culminating theory of this neo-racism is a term French

social scientists coined “seuil de tolerance,” which translates into “the threshold of

tolerance.”45 European states have rejected the integration of migrants into society by

issuing temporary worker permits, rather than citizenship, hoping that migrants will

return to their native homes. . These anti-migrant actions were taken in an attempt to

42 BBC, “The Bali Bombers’ Network of Terror”, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/2499193.stm (accessed February 26th, 2006)43 Christopher Rudolph, “Globalization and Security: Migration and Evolving Conceptions of Security in Statecraft and Scholarship” (2002). Columbia International Affairs Online. 44 Roxanne Lynn Doty, “Anti-Immigrantism in Western Democracies” (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2003) 1945 Ibid 66

21

avoid passing crossing the perceived “seuil de tolerance,” after which the integrity of the

culture at large is at risk.

This public belief that their culture is under siege, or that the state’s sovereignty is

in jeopardy, puts pressure on the government to react in accordance to popular opinion. .

As evidenced in the Western states, such as France or the Netherlands, reactionary right-

wing parties can gain popularity and strength on the basis of anti-immigrant platforms. .

These parties provide a threat to the state’s power and national security where

governments are weak, such as in LDCs, and could potentially topple regimes in some

areas. . States often shift their public policy to more restrictive, anti-immigration stances

to avoid the potential problems that could arise if the reactionary right-wing parties gain

more power. . Discriminatory policies towards immigrants are partly to blame for the

riots in Paris, France and Sydney, Australia. . Also, the riots in the Middle East, caused

by outrage over inflammatory political cartoons published by a Danish newspaper, have

roots in the deep anti-immigrant sentiment among the public. . National security is

threatened if the public becomes too entrenched in the idea of protecting cultural security.

. The importance of this third “threat” to security is that, despite its basis being derived

from beliefs rather than factual evidence, it still impacts a government’s policy towards

migration.

Current Status

Souring Immigration Attitudes and Policy in EU and Australia

European politics have shown the effects of the public perception in recent years. .

Using nationalism, populist groups have stirred up anti-immigrant sentiments and gained

a strong following. . In 2002, Jean-Marie Le Pen of the National Front, a reactionary

right-wing party that proposes to send immigrants home and close the borders, took

France by complete surprise. When He he won 17 per cent of the national vote in the

first round of presidential voting, which placed him in the second and final run-off. .

Even more telling about this political shock was from where Le Pen received the majority

of his support: most of his votes were received in communities that had large immigrant

22

populations.46 Also during that year, in the Netherlands, thought to be one of the most

tolerant and inviting countries in Europe, the Pim Fortuyn’s List (PFL) won the second

most seats in the Dutch parliament. . The PFL is a Dutch version of the National Front,

advocating closing the borders because the Netherlands is “full.”47

Further fueling public opinion of immigration in Europe are four events of security

significance: the terrorist attacks of 11 September 11th 2001 in the United States, the

Madrid bombing on 11 March 11th, 2004, the London subway bombings on 7 July 7th,

2005, and most recently, the Parisian riots, which began on 27 October 27th, 2005 and

lasted 18 daysfor nearly three weeks. . The first three were terrorist attacks, carried out

by immigrants following a militant brand of Islam, who were able to migrate into the

various states in order to attack. . In light of these acts of terror, governments in Europe

became more concerned with the security threat posed by relaxed migration laws.

The Parisian riots, on the other hand, served to both demonstrate the results of

migrant suffering in Europe and stoke the flames of public resentment to foreigners. .

The vast majority of youths involved in the rioting were of immigrant descent, living in

ghettos outside of Paris. . These ghettos, or the suburbs as they are rosily referred to in

France,areas were built outside of major French cities during the wave of immigration

from former colonies – mainly primarily Muslims from North African colonies – during

the 1960s.48 These people moved to France in search of a better life, attempting to escape

poverty in their homeland to attain a better life for themselves and their children in the

affluent West. . Today, unemployment is 40 per cent in many of these ghettos, and the

youths living there feel trapped, as if they have no possibilities of moving upward in

French society.49 The people in these ghettos complain of racial discrimination in

education, employment, and treatment by police. .

46 Ibid 7047 Shamit Saggar, “Immigration and the Politics of Popular Opinion” in The Politics of Migration, ed. Sarah Spencer, 190 (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003)48 BBC, “Ghettos shackle French Muslims”, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4375910.stm (accessed February 2nd, 2006)49 Ibid

23

At the same time, attitudes towards immigrants in France have become even

worsemore combative, and . tThe National Front has gained support in the wake of these

riots. . Recent surveys showed that 25 per cent of French support Jean-Marie Le Pen’s

ideas on immigration, including the removal of immigrants from French suburbs.50 With

prejudice against immigrants increasing after the riots, and the riots occurring because of

socio-economic conditions created by racism, the situation has no foreseeable solution.

Down under, Australia is coping with the same tension between migrants and the

native population. . The beaches of Sydney erupted in riots on 11 December 11th, 2005

after two Anglo-Australians were attacked by a group of Lebanese-Australians. .

Violence escalated as the “Aussies”Australians retaliated when 5,000 young men

descended on the beaches and began attacking anyone who looked Middle Eastern.51 In

response, the “Lebs”Lebanese immigrants roamed the streets near the beaches and

destroyed storefronts. . The causes of the tension between Lebanese Muslims and

Australians are the same as those in France. : Tthe Lebanese live in communities with

“disproportionately high unemployment and poverty rates,” causing the youth of these

communities to feel trapped in these conditions because of their race.52 In recent years,

Australian attitudes towards promoting immigration have sharply declined. . As a result,

the government policy has shifted to restrict migration. . Yet, while public attitudes may

be against migration, the economic future of Australia cries out for more able

bodiesdepends on workers able to fill the jobs being left open by an aging population.

European and Australian immigration policy is currently caught at a crossroads. .

The population of both continents is aging, and migration provides a possible solution to

the employment issue in the coming years. . Terrorism is a very real security threat, with

two major terrorist attacks occurring in Europe in the past two years. . Both Europe and

Australia also face the prospect of future riots and conflict between the native population

and the migrant population. . The general public’s anti-immigration view sentiment is

50 Emma-Kate Symons, “Mood Turns Darkly Towards the Right”, The Weekend Australian, December 17th, 2005, Lexis-Nexis 51 Yvonne Abraham, “On the Beach: Why the Recent Riots in Australia Should Surprise No One”, The Boston Globe, December 25th, 2005, Lexis-Nexis.52 Ibid

24

not only creating tension between the public and immigrants, something that can create

potentially volatile situations, they empower reactionary right-wing groups to the point

where some fear their views are becoming a part of the political mainstream.

The United States, Foreign Policy Shifts, and Migration

The events of 11 September 11th, 2001 marked a turning point in the history of the

United States. . Foreign policy in America shifted dramatically, thrusting the fight

against terrorism into the spotlight as its prime objective. . With the focus on terrorism

also came an analysis of the US’sAmerican immigration policy. . The US has a well-

documented history of being a haven for immigration, openly accepting waves of

immigrants from all parts of Europe at the beginning of the 20 th centuryCentury, and most

recently immigrants from Latin America and Asia. , That was before the security threat

that migration poses was so gruesomely exposed. . A new wrinkle development in US

immigration policy is the profiling of males from Arab and Muslim countries, the states

from where the 19 hijackers originated. . Legal immigrants saw their rights further

diminished restricted by the USA Patriot Act, which was passed with the hope of

preventing future terrorist attacks.53

The international effects of the United States’ reaction to the attacks of 11

September 11th 2001 are felt in the War on Terrorthroughout the world as a result of its

Global War on Terror. . The United States took a proactive approach to preventing

terrorism. : Wwith a mission statement of finding terrorists and bringing them to justice

to ensure the peace and security of the world, the United States began a campaign

scouring the globe to hunt down terrorists. . Wars were fought begun in Afghanistan, in

2001, and Iraq, in 2003. . International security was the primary reason these wars were

fought, but while threats were removed, overlooked in these conflicts are the refugee

flows stemming from them: 200,000 Afghans fled their country in 2001 after the war

began, 500,000 left Iraq for Syria, and an additional one million Iraqis sought refuge in

53 Susan Martin, “The Politics of US Immigration Reform” in The Politics of Migration, ed. Sarah Spencer, 139 (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003)

25

Jordan.54 While the United States maintains that these conflicts are vital to the security of

the international community, Pakistan and Syria are bearing the brunt of the challenge

posed by migration away from the war zones, and are at risk of internal unrest due in

large part to these migratory flows. .

Refugee Issues in LDCPopulations in Least Developed Countriess

There are multiple refugee crises around the world. . The earthquake in Pakistan

resulted in the deaths of 87,000 people and the displacement of 3.5 million more.55 The

majority of those now taking refuge in emergency camps do not want to return to their

poverty-stricken regions of Kashmir or the Pakistani-Afghanistan border. . The tsunami

of December 2004 resulted in over more than 200,000 deaths and hundreds of thousands

left homeless. . For LDCsLeast Developed Countries, foreign aid is critical to the

mission of providing for these refugees. .

Refugees can pose a threat to the stability or existence of the government in their

host state. . Threats Potential for violence arises because refugee flows can provide

newly created internal threats to the government or place significant strain on the

government’s ability to properly supply its population with food, water, and shelter.56

Since the governments of some LDCs are weak, the inability to provide its people with

basic necessities of life can cause protests and rioting. . In November 2005, 500 refugees

from various African states at the Krisan Refugee Camp in Ghana escaped and relocated

themselvesintegrated into the broader Ghanaian population. . The cited reasons for

leaving the refugee camp included “poor accommodation and feeding … health and

sanitation problems and lack of education scholarships.”57 With a refugee population of

54 UN High Commission on Refugees, “2001 Global Refugee Statistics”, UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/news/opendoc.htm?tbl=NEWS&id=3d0f66ef2 (accessed February 3rd, 2006)55 Hans Greimel, “Pakistan braces for next quake challenge: sending survivors home” The Associated Press, January 29, 2006, Lexis-Nexis56 Karen Jacobsen, “Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes” International Migration Review, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1996): 67257 The Analyst, “500 Refugees on Rampage in Ghana” Africa News, November 11th 2005, Lexis-Nexis

26

64,000, Ghana faces serious problems if the actions of the 500 inspire other refugees to

protest the government over their deplorable living conditions. .

The influx of refugees also produces new internal enemies. . Refugee camps often

house guerillas, which results in serious security implications for both the host state and

the refugees themselves.58 In some cases, the sending state may launch raids into the host

state to attack refugee settlements. . In the 1980s, refugees fled South Africa to

neighboring states only to be hunted down by the South African military.59 South Africa

justified its actions by claiming that the refugee camps were home to armed insurgents

that threatened its national security. . The host state feels threatened by armed enemies of

the state residing in its borders and, to remove the threat, may attack refugee camps. .

This, in turn, endangers the lives of people living in the camps, the vast majority of

whom may be innocent. . Furthermore, future policy towards refugees is likely to take a

more restrictive turn if security issues arise because of the admittance of these

individuals. . Neighboring states began to ask refugees to seek asylum elsewhere after

the South African military attacked the settlements, in order to avoid further conflict,

whether internal or external.60

The situation in the Darfur of the Sudan is particularly alarming for security in

Africa. . The genocide in Sudan is causing an exodus of non-Arabs from Sudan seeking

to escape the conflict. . Armed militias known as the The Janjaweed militias are killing

non-Arab Sudanese in the Darfur region causing the death of 200,000 civilians and

leading 200,000 Sudanese to flee across the border to Chad in search of safety. .

Unfortunately, a region of barren desert awaits these refugees.61 Living conditions are

dire. There is a camp in the town of Kolloye, Chad where “10,000 refugees live in

roofless grass shelters that give little protection from the frigid night air and no shelter

58 Karen Jacobsen, “Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes” International Migration Review, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1996): 67259 Ibid60 Ibid 67361 UN High Commission on Refugees, “Chad/Darfur Emergency”, UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/chad?page=intro (accessed February 3rd, 2006)

27

from the punishing sun.” 62 Moreover, basic necessities of life like water and food are

scarce at best. These difficult living conditions can cause unrest and frustration among a

population of already unsettled people.

Recently, the Janjaweed started to attack refugee settlements established in Chad. ,

not only These attacks not only causeing the displacement and death of Sudanese

refugees, but so farmore than 20,000 Chadians citizens from Chad have been driven from

their homes and had their property destroyed.63 Beginning in December 2005, militias

based in the Sudan and armed by the Sudanese government joined with existing Chadian

rebels groups in Chad to attack and eventually topple the government of Chadthe host

country. . General Abakar Youssouf Mahamit Itno, the man in charge of border security,

believes that “Sudan wants to export the war in Darfur to us here … they want to use the

Janjaweed they armed to terrorize Darfur, to terrorize our population.”64 Not only are the

Janjaweed, a Sudanese militia, terrorizing people within Chad’s borders, but now

Chadian rebels from Chad are establishing bases in Sudan to rest and gather supplies for

further attacks on the government of Chad. . The refugee flow from the Darfur crisis now

directly threatens the national security of Chad.

Bloc Positions

Regional Positions

Developed States

Developed nations view migration with extreme caution. . On the one hand,

immigrants help with employment issueseconomic growth by adding to the labor supply.

. Still, migration poses serious risks to national security in the form of crime and

terrorism. . The immigration of skilled or professional peoples to MDCs developed states

is viewed as not only as a benefit, but something that policy must further facilitate. . The

European Union is working towards easing restrictions on labor migration to fill what it 62 Lydia Polgreen, “Refugee Crisis Grows as Darfur War Crosses a Border: 20,000 in Chad are Uprooted by Attacks.” New York Times, February 28th, 2006.63 Ibid64 Ibid

28

perceives as a “growing skills gap,” but this is aimed at attracting the skilled workers of

LDCs, not unskilled laborers.65 Its goal is a policy of “targeted migration,” which allows

migrants to bolster employment in sectors experiencing labor shortages, and but limiting

limits migration to only those sectorsother.66 Targeted migration means taking an active

role in determining what type of migrant is desirable for the economy, and keeping those

not desired outrefusing entry to others. . Restrictive immigration policies towards

unskilled laborers play a significant role in the increaseding amount of illegal

immigration, another problem facing MDCs developed states.

The European Union and the United States have place a majorput significant

emphasis on cracking down on illegal immigration. . On 28 February 28, 2002, the EU

laid out plans to fight illegal immigration, including the creation establishment of a

European border patrol and the toughening of laws to prosecute those who promote

illegal immigration.67 The United States faces similar problems. , as Aan estimated eight

million illegal immigrants currently reside in the US.68 Part of the problem is that the

US-Mexican border is easily crossed illegallyporous, due to the sheer size of the land

border. . Potential ways MDCs developed states can hslow downinder illegal

immigration include positive solutions, such as investment in LDCs to promote economic

growth and “bring work to the workers rather than workers to the work,” or bolstering

security via through methods such as increased patrolmenpatrols, walls, or fences.69

While most MDCs developed states have a somewhat restrictive stance on

migration, Japan’s policy is incredibly rigid. . At the forefront of the reasons Japan

enforces such a strict entrance and integration policy is the goal of preserving ethnic

homogeneity, the same concept that is gaining popularity in the European Union. . Both

65 Claude Moraes, “The Politics of European Union Migration Policy” in The Politics of Migration, ed. Sarah Spencer, 125 (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003)66 “The US National Intelligence Council on Growing Global Migration” Population and Development Review, Vol. 27 No. 4, 2001: 81867 “Combating Illegal Immigration at EU Level”, European Commission. http://europa.eu.int/comm/justice_home/fsj/immigration/illegal/fsj_immigration_illegal_en.htm (accessed February 3rd, 2006)68 W.T.S. Gould and A.M. Findlay, Population Migration and the Changing World Order, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994), 12169 Ibid 119

29

Japan and the European Union are staring down a potential economic crisis in coming

yearsforesee a looming economic upheaval in coming years, due to an increasingly aging

population not being able to produce a sufficient labor force. . This cautious, “wait and

see” approach to migration is only sustainable if Japan does is able to recover

economically, and to retrofit its economy to accommodate the realities of an older

workforce. . If they do, increased demand for labor will result in shortages across the

country, and may require the loosening of immigration regulations.70

Falling under the umbrella of illegal migration is crime and terrorism. The early

stages of the drug trade, such as growth and manufacturing, may be done in LDCs, but

the ultimate market for cocaine and heroin are in MDCs. Similarly, terrorist organizing,

planning, and training may be devised in a multitude of states, but the end goal is to carry

out attacks in major cities of their enemies. The most pressing issue to national security

for the West, as evidenced by recent attacks, is terrorism. Tougher migration laws or

strengthening border security to combat terrorism or narcotics trade may possibly achieve

the goals of national security, but there are trade offs on the economic end of restrictive

migration policies.

Developing States

The primary concernss for developing states are are the ability to cope with

influxes of refugees and attempting to combat transnational crime. . Some 70 per cent of

the world’s refugees are located in Africa or Asia, regions predominantly comprised of

LDCs.71 Refugees face many tasks challenges in establishing new settlements (temporary

or permanent), including procuring enough food, the availability of safe drinking water,

and accumulating wood materials with which to build shelters. . As a result,

environmental degradation is a strong possibilitysignificant concern in any new area in

which refugees settle.72 AlsoAdditionally, the receiving state in a refugee flow may not

70 “The US National Intelligence Council on Growing Global Migration” Population and Development Review, Vol. 27 No. 4, 2001: 81971 United Nations High Commission on Refugees, “Refugees by Numbers (2005 edition)”, UN, http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/basics/opendoc.htm?tbl=BASICS&id=3b028097c#Refugees (accessed February 4th 2006)72 United Nations High Commission on Refugees, “Environmental Concerns During Refugee Operations”, UN, http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/protect/opendoc.htm?

30

possess the funding funds necessary to properly care for the new arrivals, which causes

problems. . These states could look to foreign aid, from either MDCs developed states or

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), to assist in funding the programs needed to

sustain the new addition to the populationarrivals. . The governments of LDCs

sometimes seek other routes, because the acceptance of foreign aid can mean allowing

outsiders to influence your decision makingpublic policy initiatives, thus sacrificing some

degree of national sovereignty.73

National security is also at risk if refugee flows disturb the stability of ethnic,

racial, or religious groups in the state. . Many states in Africa are already coping with

deep divisions among their populations based on the grounds of ethnicity, race, or

religion. . A sudden influx of refugees can further aggravate the existing tensions. . The

possibility of this is greater if incoming refugees have a connection to a group already

there.74

LDCs also have the fear of their state being weakened, directly or indirectly.

Guerillas or insurgencies, fleeing the law of their former home and seeking to establish

new bases of operations, pose direct military threats to the security of state. Indirect

threats can result from transnational organized crime influencing members of the

government. Most recently, in South Asia, a new threat to socio-economic security has

emerged. The region has seen a dramatic shift in its narcotics problem. Instead of serving

merely a haven for the growing and manufacturing of heroin and cocaine, the region is

rapidly growing into a large base of users. Thailand, for example, has more heroin users

per capita than the United States.75 Long-term costs of health care and social services can

inhibit the government’s ability to fund development projects.

Non-Governmental Organizations(NGOs)

tbl=PROTECTION&id=3b03b6f44 (accessed February 4th 2006)73 Karen Jacobsen, “Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes” International Migration Review, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1996): 66374 Gil Loescher & Alan Dowty, “Refugee Flows as Grounds for International Action” International Security, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1996): 4875 Alan Dupont, “Transnational Crime and Security in East Asia” Asian Survey, Vol. 39., No. 3 (1999): 452

31

Non-Governmental Organizations, or NGOs, play a vital role in assisting states

with the financial burden of supporting and supplying refugees. . Refugee flows strain

local infrastructure and resources, meaning even the most basic of necessities, like food

and clean water, become scarce. . NGOs help alleviate the situation by providing

additional funding or supplies that the government cannot produce on its own. . Africare,

the leading NGO in African charitable work, claims suggests it has been heavily involved

in “virtually every humanitarian emergency in Africa since the 1970s.” This association

includes the Somalian refugee crisis of the 1980s, and crises created by armed conflict in

countries such as Burundi, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and Angola in the 1990s.76 Africare is

among the myriad NGOs who that specialize in the delivery of aid to areas in dire need. .

Africare is but one of many NGOs, including the International Red Cross and Oxfam

International, that specializes in distributing legal aid to migrants and refugees.

Other NGOs, such as the Human Rights Watch (HRW) or Amnesty International,

are advocacy groups that focus on the discriminatory aspects of migration. . HRW

recently addressed the International Organization of Migration to voice their its

displeasure at the inadequate measures taken to protect the basic rights of migrants. .

Additionally, in a piece drawn up by the HRW, International Catholic Migration

Committee, and numerous other NGOs, a declaration was made on the basic human

rights that refugees possess that must not be violated by the receiving state.77 While not

doling out humanitarian aid like Africare and other similar NGOs of that nature do,

NGOs like the HRW seek to assist migrants by ensuring their rights as humans are

protected regardless of where they move or what the reasons for moving aretheir

motivations for migration..

NGOs may be acting with the best of intentions, but their actions often have

unforeseen consequences. . Many refugee aid NGOs have administrators who see

76 Africare, “About Africare”, Africare. http://africare.org/about/history/history.html (accessed February 6th, 2006)77 HRW, “NGO Background paper on the Refugee and Migration Interface”, Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/refugees/ngo-document/ngo_refugee.pdf (accessed February 6th, 2006)

32

government officials in LDCs as “inefficient, indifferent, corrupt and inadequate.”78 This

condescending view toward the very governments these relief organizations are supposed

to be assisting often results in friction between the government and the organization,

which in turn limits the efficiency the aid distribution process. . The conflict between

NGO and state can become so severe that the state actually takes an obstructionist stance

to hinder the relief effort. . Sudanese government officials in the 1980s refused to issue

work permits or visas to volunteers as retaliation to the critical stance taken by the

NGOvarious aid groups.79 In the end, these feuds only hurt the refugees. .

Media Positions

Media reactions are partly to blame for the hostile attitudes toward immigration in

MDCdeveloped states. . In 2006, The the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten printed

twelve political cartoons in 2006 that depicted the Prophet Mohammed as, among other

things, a terrorist or a terrorist sympathizer.80 The Danish people’s negative attitude of

much of the Danish population towards Muslim immigrants is similar to those that of the

French and Dutch, and these feelings were put into print in these cartoons. . Reaction

across the Islamic world was swift and the outrage unanticipatedintense. . Islam forbids

the depiction of the Prophet Mohammed, therefore any illustration, let alone a politically

charged cartoon, is offensive. . Large Violent riots broke out in many Middle Eastern

states, where over 11 people diedresulting in the deaths of several bystanders, the

boycotts of Danish goods were boycotted, and Danish property destroyeduction of

Danish property.81 Newspapers in various states across Europe reprinted the cartoons, in

a sign of solidarity of with the Danish paper.. Similar anti-immigrant sentiments can be

found in Japan, as editorials support a Japanese bill in parliament that would require the

fingerprinting of all visitors to the island nation.82

78 Karen Jacobsen, “Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes” International Migration Review, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1996): 66379 Ibid80 Dan Bilefsky, “Danish Cartoon Editor on Indefinite Leave.” New York Times, February 11th, 2006.81 Ibid82 “Fingerprinting Visitors Common, Necessary” The Daily Yomiuri, April 17th, 2006, final edition. Lexis-Nexis.

33

Business Positions

Businesses in the developed world depend and thrive upon the influx of migrants

into a state. . Unskilled immigrants are able to find a variety of minimum-wage jobs

available in most developed states, and . the The wages are considerably higher than the

immigrants would receive in their state of origin, so it is a beneficial arrangement for the

worker. . Business, too, benefits from unskilled labor. Many of the jobs, such as the

service sector jobs that Bangladeshis are working in Rome, Italy, are difficult to fill

because citizens see the jobs as lowly and the wages miniscule. When businesses perform

well, it translates into economic growth, but using immigrants to fill jobs causes issues

with the publicdifficulties in public perception, such as in can particularly be seen in the

United States. . Over seven millionSome eight million illegal immigrants work in the

United States, or translating to 1 in 20 members of the American work force.83 Their

status as illegal immigrants fuels public criticism not only of the government for not

securing the borders, (for not securing the border) but also of businesses for hiring them. .

Yet, wWhile business comes under fire for employing illegal immigrants, it is often only

these immigrants that are willing to work the menial jobs that need to be performed.

83 Hanah Cho, “Demand and Supply; American Businesses Offer Jobs, and Illegal Immigrants Come” The Baltimore Sun, April 2nd, 2006, final edition. Lexis-Nexis.

34

Summary

Migration is an issue that affects all states of the world, in varying forms and with

varying results. . As long as there are natural disasters or battles foughtcountries resort to

war, there will be humans fleeing the effected affected areas in seek of refuge. .

Similarly, the difference in wealth between states will continue to motivate some to

migrate in search of better opportunities for themselves and their families. . The growing

interconnectedness of the world facilitates migration, with better transportation and

information access encouraging people to move from one state to another. .

Acknowledging migration as a cause for concern is the first step.

States face real andor perceived threats to their national, economic, and cultural

security from migration. . At the same time, however, migration provides benefits to the

state. . The MDCsDeveloped states of the world have to properly balance the benefits

and drawbacks of migration. . The fears of their people that their culture is fading

awayeroding and the increased threat to national security that transnational crime and

terrorism pose place pressure on the governments of MDCs these states to restrict

migration. . On the other handDespite these reservations, the economic problems of

unemployment and declining productivity can sometimes be solved by increased

migration. . The LDCs of the world are particularly vulnerable to internal threats to

national security from migration. . Ways to appropriately and effectively fund aid for

refugees that enter into states must be found, or else the government may find itself

governing over an angered group of refugees or an upset indigenous population. .

Refugee flows can also destabilize local economies from significant increases in demand

for food, water, shelter, and employment. .

Migration is not an occurrence that can be stopped. . Whether done legally or

illegally, for any of a multitude of reasons, people will find ways to move across borders.

. Policy addressing migration will only be successful if this is taken into account. . For

economic migrants, the key is in finding a balance between the threats to national

security that migration creates causes and the economic benefits of migrationthat it

35

achieves. . To appropriately handle a refugee flow, states cannot put up the figurative

walls to keep refugees out. Support systems of international aid must be in place to assist

states in helping meet the needs of refugees, or else national security could be

jeopardized. .

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Discussion Questions

Does a state have the right to deny entry of an economic refugee? Can it ethically deny a political or religious refugee? What body should have the right to determine the immigration policy of a given state?

What security risks posed by migration are the most significant in today’s world?

Are restricted migration policies feasible in today’s world of globalization?

Is the concept of “targeted migration” for economic migrants fair? Should MDCs developed states be picking the best candidates from LDCs to enter their country? Does this further fuel the brain drain?What affect does this selective process have on the host country? The country of origin?

In regards to refugees, what ways can the situation be handled better to keep stability within the stateHow can refugee populations be effectively controlled to ensure that national security interests are maintained?

To what extent should the root of migration be looked atexamined? Economic migrants relocate because their home states are impoverished and cannot offer opportunities to better their lives. Refugees often seek asylum in other states to escape persecution and violence. Should the focus be on migration itself, or the causes of migration?

Hostile populations in host states can lead to violence (see: Paris, France). . How can these racist attitudes among the public of host states be properly dealt withmanaged to avoid national security issuesinternal security concerns?

How can the international community better assist LDCs in coping with refugee issuesflows? Should refugees be denied entrance into a state if the state deems them a security risk?

Developed nations and developing nations are impacted differently by migration. , yYet in some areas, such as international crime and terrorism, there are common problems. . In what ways can different states work together to deal with migration?

What realistic steps can the UN take towards resolving some of the ongoing problems migration is causing today?

37

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