contentsstark fact sits on your shoulder as you read andrew miller’s account of south african...

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contents page

featuresEducational resilience: the power to make a differenceEducational resilience: the power to make a differenceEducational resilience: the power to make a differenceEducational resilience: the power to make a differenceEducational resilience: the power to make a difference 33333by Elly Robinson

Being a role model was part of a teacher’s modus operandi 30 yearsago. Today, it is again understood that teachers can influenceoutcomes by helping students build educational resilience—theability to bounce back from adversity.

Embedded literacy: a political process with educational characterEmbedded literacy: a political process with educational characterEmbedded literacy: a political process with educational characterEmbedded literacy: a political process with educational characterEmbedded literacy: a political process with educational character 77777by Elsa Auerbach

Literacy is no longer—if it ever was—a source of power andindependence. In the ‘knowledge society’, it is a means for analysisand information and is best applied to a social purpose.

Effective strategies for low-level literacy learnersEffective strategies for low-level literacy learnersEffective strategies for low-level literacy learnersEffective strategies for low-level literacy learnersEffective strategies for low-level literacy learners 1212121212by Natalie Nawrocki

An Australia-wide research project discovers a variety of approachesand strategies used by low-level literacy teachers, and it is importantthat these lessons are shared.

15 up: charting the influence of literacy and numeracy15 up: charting the influence of literacy and numeracy15 up: charting the influence of literacy and numeracy15 up: charting the influence of literacy and numeracy15 up: charting the influence of literacy and numeracyachievement on later lifeachievement on later lifeachievement on later lifeachievement on later lifeachievement on later life 1616161616by Sheldon Rothman

Early achievements in literacy and numeracy have a positive influenceon later outcomes in further education, training and employment.

RegularsPractical MattersPractical MattersPractical MattersPractical MattersPractical Matters 2121212121Art has a range of uses as a teaching medium in adult education.Ruth Woods shares her ideas for teaching ESL and literacy classes.

Open ForumOpen ForumOpen ForumOpen ForumOpen Forum 2626262626Jim Thompson, ACAL president, discusses how to get adult literacyback on the agenda. He also talks about the need to developcollaborative partnerships with businesses, community groups andlocal governments.

Foreign CorrespondenceForeign CorrespondenceForeign CorrespondenceForeign CorrespondenceForeign Correspondence 2828282828Close to half of South Africa’s adults are functionally illiterate. Thisstark fact sits on your shoulder as you read Andrew Miller’s accountof South African literacy’s journey through apartheid and beyond.

PPPPPolicy Uolicy Uolicy Uolicy Uolicy Updatepdatepdatepdatepdate 3131313131Australia needs to work closely with its states and territories,according to a project by the National Centre for VocationalEducation and Training. Reviewed here by Rosa McKenna andLynne Fitzpatrick, the project examines international policies andtrends, and has a close look at the implications for Australia.

Beside the WhiteboardBeside the WhiteboardBeside the WhiteboardBeside the WhiteboardBeside the Whiteboard 3636363636Michael Chalk—former VALBEC and Fine Print committeemember, literacy and ESL teacher, exponent of flexible and onlinelearning, talks to Sarah Deasey about…just about everything!

2 f ine print a journal of adult engl ish language and l i teracy education

Editorial

V A L B E CThe Victorian Adult Literacy and Basic Education Council (VALBEC) aims to lead the adult literacy field through identifying issues of importance to practitioners and facilitating positive change. This is achieved through networking, professional support, the sharing of information and the promotion of best practice.

Welcome to our winter edition. While it may be winter inVictoria, we haven’t gone into hibernation. This editionof Fine Print is as vibrant as ever, with a collection ofarticles informing us of the changes and challenges facingadult literacy and basic education across Australia and theworld.

It is interesting to note that most articles either directly orindirectly have a common pedagogical theme: literacy initself is not empowering, it is the context in which it takesplace that gives it power.

Elly Robinson looks at resilience research and explores howpositive adult contact, such as interaction with teachers,is a key factor in building educational resilience. Throughdeeper level relationships, expectations and a willingnessto share power, teachers can influence the educationaloutcomes of their students. Good news.

A few literacy myths are debunked in Elsa Auerbach’sarticle. With reference to the social changes brought aboutby globalisation, Elsa shows us how literacy plays a role insocial change—not as the framework for change, but as avehicle for ‘analysis and action’. Literacy needs to besituated locally, and taught and used in service of localaction.

It’s always good to have statistical evidence that showswhat we already know. Through the Longitudinal Surveysof Australian Youth, Sheldon Rothman supports thecontention that achievement in literacy and numeracyinfluences later outcomes in further education, trainingand employment.

Nata l ie Nawrocki ’s nat ional research into e f fect ivestrategies for low-level literacy learners documents lots ofapproaches teachers have found useful when teaching thisgroup of learners.

Our regular features reappear! In Open Forum, ACALpresident Jim Thompson outlines the work ACAL has todo in getting adult literacy back on the agenda in thiselection year. We welcome readers’ contributions to ourforum pages on this and other issues in coming editions.

In Policy Update you can read the preview by RosaMcKenna and Lynne Fitzpatrick of an NCVER projectthat investigates international literacy policies, trends andin i t i a t ive s . How does Aust ra l i a f a re in re la t ion tointernational adult literacy policy and provision? Thisart icle, again, picks up the stated theme of l i teracycontextualised in adult experience.

Teachers wil l be tantalised by Ruth Wood’s GeneralCurriculum Options unit developed around public art inPractical Matters. From the perspective that arts andculture play a major part in lifelong learning, Ruth sharesher teaching ideas for ESL and Literacy classes—and thebest part is you don’t need to be an art teacher. Ourpedagogical theme sneaks in again.

Foreign Correspondence is one of my favourite sections ofFine Print. In this edition Andrew Miller details thecolourful and unique pathway through apartheid anddemocratic policies that literacy education has taken inSouth Africa. Largely an historical account, with somesurprising ironies, Miller also considers the challenges ofthe future. Our theme re-emerges when Miller makes linksbe tween educa t ion and capac i ty bu i ld ing o f ru ra lcommunities.

We hope you enjoy this edition. It’s a great winter’s read.

Jacinta AgostinelliVALBEC

f ine print a journal of adult engl ish language and l i teracy education 3

Whether teachers are keen to motivate younglearners to achieve or simply see them as anuisance to be tolerated, an understanding of

positive youth development will alleviate the associatedtensions and stresses. Incorporating the basic principles ofposit ive youth development, including the basics offostering resilience in the classroom, will not only enhancethe learning experience for the young learner but also thosewho around him or her. I’ll start by looking at risk-takingbehaviours and their role in adolescent development,before considering how these behaviours impact on thedevelopment of resilience. In conclusion I’ll examine howthese concepts can be inf luenced in a learning en-vironment.

Risk-taking behaviourOver the past few decades, adolescence has increasinglybeen seen as a developmental stage in its own right, wherechildhood behaviours are adapted and adjusted to adultforms. The beginning of adolescence is generally seen ascoinciding with the physical changes of puberty. Wherethis stage of development ends is much harder to define,as individuals move through each stage of development ata different rate. This is due to the influence of social,cultural and other factors which impact on the timingand nature of change over this period, including the wayin which adolescence is viewed and defined in differentsocieties and cultures.

The period of mid-adolescence is typically characterisedby increased experimentation and risk-taking behaviours.Risk-taking is seen as encompassing a range of behavioursthat characterise the adolescent’s striving for independence.It is not until late adolescence that young people are morelikely to understand the consequences of their behaviours.In late adolescence one’s cognitive capacity is enhancedby educational and other experiences, coinciding with anincrease in the development of realistic and practicalvoca t iona l goa l s , the capac i t y to engage in adu l trelationships, and refinement of adult values and beliefs.

It is important to bear in mind that risk-taking is not apurely adolescent exploit—we all take risks, large and small,every day. Some risk-taking can also be considered in apositive light; to take a risk often means to try somethingdifferent, and may be the only way we learn what ‘works’for us and what doesn’t. A certain amount of risk-takingbehav iour by young peop le i s a l so cons idered de-velopmentally normal, especially around the ages of 14–16 years. Adolescents have more opportunities to engagein risk-taking behaviour than children do, and engagingin something risky is often a new and exciting way to beatboredom. Whilst this is sometimes a concern, overall thisbehaviour is a normal part of the push for independence.

Risk-taking behaviours can be viewed as a continuum,ranging from high-risk to low-risk situations and activities.Behaviours such as debating, presenting in front of theclass and playing sport can all be seen as risks at the lowerend of the spectrum for young people. Unsafe sexualbehaviour, injecting drug use, train surfing and drinkdriving, on the other hand, are considered high-riskbehaviours that ring the ‘alarm bells’ of those workingwith young people.

Research has shown that engagement in such high-riskbehaviours is often associated with young people who havea lack of connectedness with important people and toplaces in their lives, for example school, family and peers.Research also suggests that some young people, particularlythose who are depressed or alienated, may take more risksthan others and engage in higher-risk activities. Youngpeople may also be unsure of rules and expectations, andmay just think of their behaviour as fun, challenging orexciting.

The challenge facing society is to equip young people withthe skills and strategies to make healthy choices about theirrisk-taking. In this way, young people will be able to takerisks which help them learn and develop boundaries andself-concepts. In addressing this challenge an important

Educational resilience: the power to makea differenceby Elly Robinson

One challenge for educators is how to create and maintain an effective learning environment for young people.

This also applies to the adult education field, where teachers and trainers must cater for a range of ages,

experiences and motivations. In these circumstances, teachers may be surprised to find they are experiencing

fluctuating degrees of enthusiasm for the job. However, there are strategies on hand to help overcome the

problem.


concept to understand is resilience, with its associatedfactors and influences.

ResilienceResilience is defined as the tendency for a person to beable to ‘bounce back’ from adverse conditions or situations.It is the key to why, under the same set of circumstances,one person will do well while another will fail.1 Ratherthan it being a trait, it is seen as an interaction betweenthe pe r son and the env i ronment . Re sea rche r s a r eparticularly interested in what factors contribute to makethis interaction positive, rather than negative, for theresilient individual.

Coming to understand this posit ive interact ion hasrequired an examination into the protective factors orcircumstances that help buffer a young person from harm.These factors can moderate or mediate risk factors andenvironments around young people, and increase thelikelihood of positive health outcomes. These factors in ayoung person’s life will often—though not always—yieldresilience.

Protective factorsProtective factors are often examined on an individual,family and environmental (such as school and community)level. Individual protective factors include verbal andcommunication skills, problem solving abilities, easytemperament, empathy and spirituality. However, thesefactors alone are not now seen as sufficient in their ownright to protect an individual from harm—they coexistwith family and environmental influences in a youngperson’s life. These include social skills, good familyrelationships, academic success, having (at least one)posit ive adult role model and connectedness to thecommunity.

Examining risk behaviours from a resiliency perspectivehas shifted the focus from a deficit model of youthdevelopment, or seeing young people as problems to besolv ed. The pos i t ive youth development model hasattempted to define what factors can be influenced tominimise young people’s involvement in risky behaviours.This perspective also recognises that engagement in onerisk behaviour often increases the likelihood of involvementin others. Therefore, enhancing protective factors is likelyto impact on more than one of the young person’sbehaviours.

Educational resilienceResilience that is related to the school or learning domainsfor young people is often termed educational resilience.Educational resilience can be defined as the increasedlikelihood of academic success, despite adversities related

to environmental conditions and experiences. Positiveadult contact is a key protective factor in educationalresilience, and teachers are often listed as the sources ofthis positive contact.2

This indicates that there is increasing evidence that ateacher’s interaction with a student will go some waytowards predicting educational success. Benard (1991)3

suggests that teachers who have the power to make adifference provide and model a number of protectivefactors—including meeting the young person’s need forsafety, love and belonging, respect, learning, accomplish-ment and meaning. This is not through any specificprogram, but at a deeper level of relationships, expectationsand a willingness to share power.

The difficulty for educators is how to apply these conceptson a day-to-day basis. It assumes that all teachers andtrainers have a desire to extend their relationship with astudent beyond that of a simple didactic exchange. Thiscan be particularly difficult with a young person who givesevery impression that they’d rather be anywhere else thanin a training or educational program, and who appearshell bent on ridiculing the educator and others. The key isto recognise the fact that understanding and addressingthis behaviour is in the interests of everyone. It makes fora positive learning environment that increases the health—particularly the mental health—and wellbeing for allinvolved.

Behaviours that are disruptive or attention-seeking morethan likely serve a developmental purpose for a youngperson who does not necessarily have the skills to use moreadvanced methods to gain what they need. They are oftenlearned behaviours that have served a purpose for theyoung person over a long period of time. It may not bepossible to change these behaviours in the time you havewith them, but you can do two things. One is to modeland encourage them to use a l ternate ways of com-munication to get what they need. They can’t know howto use these if they don’t know they exist or have notexperienced how they work. The other method is to believethat there is an innate capacity of all people to learn andachieve. This belief is backed up by the work of eminentUS psychologist Roger Mills.4

educational resiliencecan be defined

as the increased likelihoodof academic success


Positive learning climatesMills’ research has found that any young person has thepotential to access a strong, healthy ‘self-righting’ capacity—an ‘innate resilience’, no matter what their history ofdisadvantage. This includes an inbuilt motivation to learn,and the capacity to master and understand a given subject.Outcomes in targeted schools have also shown thatirrespective of the extent to which a young person has beenalienated from the learning experience, this healthymotivated state of mind can be re-engaged.

Part of this approach addresses the mind-state of theeducator and the climate that they create within theireducational program. There is recognition that a positiveclimate cannot always be created, and that there are amyriad of reasons for this—a bad night’s sleep, personalproblems or illness, for example. Regardless of a teacher’sdaily mind-state, what is recognised is the requirement foran atmosphere that will foster the best set of circumstancesfor learning.

Mills suggests nine guidelines to help teachers create thispositive learning climate which can tap into a student’sinnate resilience.5

1. Be climate-oriented versus task-orientedIf both teacher and student are in the right frame of mind,a great deal of learning can be achieved in a small amountof time. No lesson plan will be good enough to counteracteither party’s reluctance to teach or learn. The best way ateacher can try to foster such a climate is to take care ofthemselves—recognise where a student’s behaviour iscoming from, respect this, and tend to one’s own wellbeing.

2. Don’t take it personallyYoung people deal with situations in the way that theyknow best; they may have no other strategies or options toutilise. Their behaviour may seem malicious or intentional,but this may be the teacher’s personal interpretation ofthe behaviour, and anger and frustration may arise as aresult. In heated situations it is important for the educatorto step back and realise that the young people may onlybe doing the best they can considering the way thingslook to them.

3. Be confident that you can engage on healthissuesEven the most alienated and difficult young people havea natural tendency towards mental health and wellbeing.Experience has shown that consistency, clarity, firmness,affection and empathy can help to trigger this tendencyonce more. Having the ability to look beyond the expressedlearned role of the young person to their strengths canhelp to elicit compassion, respect and caring. Adults have

the advantage of experience that may offer a path awayfrom the troubled thoughts that contribute to a youngperson becoming ‘s tuck’ in maladaptive patterns ofbehaviour. These alternatives need to be offered in a spiritof compassion.

4. Model and teach mental healthIf teachers and trainers can manage not to take a youngperson’s behaviour personally, and remain impervious totheir attention-seeking efforts, they can appropriatelymodel unconditional self-esteem and presence of mind.In offering genuine concern, interest and unconditionalregard to young people, educators demonstrate theirworth. When different actions and reactions to situationsare modelled, young peoples’ minds are opened to differentand healthier perspectives.

5. Don’t be a doormatOffering students respect and belief in their ability doesnot equate to an inv i ta t ion to be ing wa lked ov er.Disrupting the class is unacceptable; understanding theneed for rules and order is respectful. Involving studentsin rule-setting and consequences is an age-old way ofinitiating reciprocal respectful relationships. Followingthrough on these rules and disciplinary procedures in amatter-of-fact way elicits the most cooperative responsefrom students.

6. Build relationshipsBeing able to function with a healthier state of mind opensthe door to greater understanding of another’s behaviour.Recognising what they are making of a situation on acognitive level helps teachers be more empathic about thelearner’s perspectives. This helps to build more thoughtfuland supportive relationships.

7. Practice effective disciplineNegative behaviour from students still requires inter-vention which helps to set limits. Ideally, discipline shouldbe administered in a non-judgmental and no-nonsenseway. Acting-out behaviour can best be dealt with in acalm and secure state of mind, incorporating a sense ofunderstanding and assistance. This will help to shift thesituation in a positive direction towards a solution.

8. Resist labellingSome educators will have a preconceived idea about thecharacteristics and attitudes of young people, virtuallybefore they set foot in the classroom. These young peoplethus come to the teaching situation with a strike alreadyagainst their name. As a result, the chance to engage their‘healthy’ side has already been dealt a blow. Students needto be given the chance to start again. ‘There is no hopewhen hope is not allowed to surface’.6


9. Develop rapportEducators need to develop relationships with young peoplebased on something other than their problem behaviours.This may involve interaction around their interests oreveryday events. Such interactions al low learners tocontribute to conversations without being in a one-downposition. The relationship can then be further built onfrom a disciplinary perspective, and this increases thepossibility of students seeing the learning environment inways contrary to their conditioned thoughts.

These guidelines will complement current practice withyoung people in the classroom. The suggestions are specificin their relevance to fostering resilience. It is importanthowever to appreciate that it is not solely the teacher’sjob, (nor is it possible) to foster resilience in isolation. Itneeds support from family and community. Others in theworkplace must have a good unders tanding of theguidelines, and knowledge of the community supportservices for young people to supplement them. One of thegreatest helping hands one can give a young person is tohelp them access the services they need at any given time.This will ultimately enable young people to sustain a stableenvironment and allow their natural capacity for learningto re-evolve. In the 1950s, Abraham Maslow was the firstto recognise that the higher needs of learning and self-actualisation could not be considered when basic needs offood, shelter and warmth were not yet met.

Successful learning and development occurs with thefacilitation of the following ‘conditions of empowerment’.These help to address some of these basic needs :7

• Caring relationships that provide love and consistentsupport, compassion and trust.

• High expecta t ions that convey re spect , prov ideguidance and build on the strengths of each person.

• Opportunities for participation and contribution thatprovide meaningful responsibilities, real decision-making power, a sense of ownership and belongingand ultimately a sense of spiritual connectedness andmeaning.

These three broad areas offer a framework for strategieswhich give educators the opportunity to work differentlyfrom the deficit model of the past, where a need wasidentified and addressed. While there has been a plethoraof best-practice strategies that have been associated withpositive learning outcomes for young people—such asmentoring, full service schools and community service—none would be successful without ensuring qual i ty,respectful relationships surround the program.

A common belief is also that young people who aremarginalised or at-risk do not have a family that cares for

them. This is often untrue, and involving family in thelearning experience of the young person may be possible.Let family members share their achievements. It is worthremembering that other family members may not havepositive memories of learning environments, and mayexhibit some initial reluctance in becoming involved orsee it solely as the young person’s business. This does notnegate the importance and significance of the offer.

The most important message to take away from resilienceresearch is that it is relationships, beliefs and expectations,rather than any specific programmatic approaches, whichwill help to foster resilience. While this deeper level ofconnectedness may be difficult to implement in a short-term class situation, it may help to bear in mind that anychange is good change.

If teachers can facilitate a positive learning experience forone young person who has never engaged in the right setof circumstances for this to happen previously, it can onlybe considered a victory.

Elly Robinson has worked in young people’s health for11 years. Her experience ranges from youth work toeducation and training of workers. She currently worksas part-time coordinator of the education and professionalservices unit at Jesuit Social Services, and is also a self-employed consultant. Elly can be contacted on:[email protected]

References1 Rinehart, P. & Kahn, J. (2000), Growing absolutely fantastic

youth: A guide to best practices in healthy youth development,

The Konopka Institute for Best Practices in Adolescent Health,

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA (PDF), http:/ /

www.allaboutkids.umn.edu/kdwbvfc/fr_pub.htm

2 Wayman, J. (2002), The utility of educational resilience for

studying degree attainment in school dropouts, The Journal of

Educational Research , 95 (3), 167–180.

3 Benard, B. (1991), Fostering resi l iency in kids: Protective

factors in the family, school and community, Portland, Oregon:

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.

4 Mi l l s , R . (1997) , Tapp ing inna t e r e s i l i ence in today’s

c l a s s rooms , r e s e a r ch /p rac t i c e , 5 (1 ) . h t tp : / / educa t i on .

umn.edu/CAREI/Reports/Rpractice/Spring97/tapping.htm

5 ibid.

6 ibid.

7 Benard, B. & Marshall, K. (1997), A framework for practice:

Tapping innate res i l ience, research/practice, 5 (1). http: / /

e d u c a t i o n . u m n . e d u / C A R E I / R e p o r t s / R p r a c t i c e / S p r i n g 9 7 /

tapping.htm


The most profound, far-reaching and significant impact

of literacy on people’s lives is its empowering potential.

To be literate is to become liberated from the constraints

of dependency. To be literate is to gain a voice and to

participate meaningfully and assertively in decisions that

affect people’s lives. To be literate is to become politically

conscious and critically aware and to demystify social

reality. Literacy helps people to become self-reliant and

resist exploitat ion and oppression. Literacy provides

access to written knowledge and knowledge is power.1

This quote makes some pretty strong claims for literacy.My hope is that it makes readers just a little uncomfortable.Committed and passionate literacy practitioners know allabout the flaws in the myth that literacy is the key toeconomic and cognitive development. By embracing claimsfor literacy’s potential for empowerment, however, we‘critical educators’ may be contributing to a differentversion of the literacy myth. In this article, I will arguethat just as it is not literacy which leads to cognitive oreconomic development, and it is not literacy per se whichleads to social change or community empowerment.Whatever transformative power literacy may have comesfrom how it is contextualised and what it is in service of.

Thus, when we look at family literacy, community literacyand literacy practices in schools, part of what we need tofocus on are the ways in which we, as literacy practitionersand educators , connect what we do to the ongoingstruggles of learners who are living, working and learningin those contexts. We need to embed our work in localmovements and organisations that are fighting to changethe conditions of participants’ lives.

This line of argument is certainly not new. For socialchange activists and community organisers, it is statingthe obvious. In his opening comments at the literacyconference held in Cape Town in November 2001, KadarAsmal—a long-t ime act iv i s t in the s truggle againstapartheid, and Minister of Education in South Africa—argued that those who think literacy in itself is going toyield empowerment are deluding themselves. He argued

that texts are often used as instruments of separation,alienation, and oppression. When literacy is privileged overthe knowledge o f o rd ina ry peop le , i t c an becomedisempowering. Asmal’s argument is a warning not toposition literacy as the key to liberation. Such privilege isnot only misleading, but dangerous—potentially creatingliteracy as a fault line for segregation.

Michael James, an activist in San Francisco who workswith youth on health, employment, drug prevention andother social issues, likewise argues that the notion thatliteracy is empowering is naive and counterproductive.

Many literacy educators and programs today would hope

their programs were indeed transformative. The new

interest (in literacy for transformation) has also generated

an inclination to mystify literacy, to ascribe to it catalytic

properties far beyond its actual utility. It has captured

the imaginations of many activists and educators for

whom it represents a panacea for social and political

inequities…literacy alone rarely guarantees privi lege,

access, or political leverage. When practitioners naively

accept this idea, they sabotage their credibility with their

students, who, in many cases, have an ability to recognise

such idealism and know when to reject it.2

When literacy is ascribed with such power it underminesthe importance of the context itself. As James says, illiteracy(sic) is usually addressed as a social or educational problem,rather than as a symptom of larger and far more complexpolitical contradictions.

The antidote to these larger political problems is organisingfor change through concerted action. This was the lessonof the civil rights movement in the US, and the struggleagainst apartheid in South Africa. Concerted action hasbeen the lesson of union movements around the world,and is the current struggle being played out in Australiawith oppos i t ion to asy lum seekers and re fugees indetention. Literacy has played a role in each of thesemovements—not as the structural framework for change,but as a vehicle for analysis and action.

Embedded literacy: a political processwith educational characterby Elsa Auerbach

It is a myth that literacy is in itself empowering. Many practitioners now talk of ‘really useful literacy’, where

literacy is localised to help learners acquire the practical knowledge whereby they can achieve social goals.


What James is calling for is not educational activity with‘ re l evant ’ content , but po l i t i ca l proces se s wi th aneducational character. It is the context in which literacyeducation takes place and the struggles in which it isembedded that are the forces for change—not literacyitself.

Living with globalisationIn broad geopolitical terms, the realities which contextualiseour l iteracy work are globalisation (global economicapartheid) and resistance to it. These two contradictoryforces have been called globalisation from above andglobalisation from below. The former consists of trans-national forces that are consolidating power and wealth inthe hands of the few while increasing the impoverishmentof the many. The latter refers to the emergence of localorganisations challenging the forces of transnationalism andneo-liberalism. We need to understand the forces ofglobalisation because they are so powerful in shaping family,community and school life.

So far, much of the discussion about globalisation withinliteracy circles has focused on the impact of globalisationon literacies—how it has changed literacies and how literacyeducation needs to accommodate these changes. There seemto be two tendencies within this discussion. On the onehand there are those who focus on the study of multiple,local literacies and the ways in which globalisation threatenslocal identities, discourses, and literacies. On the other arethose who focus on the ways in which new technologieshave profoundly changed communication within andbetween regions, requir ing new attention to mult i -modalities, multimedia, critical media literacy, the discoursesof power, and so on. Often the local and the global areframed as contradictory—some argue for the need to protectthe local and others argue for the need to provide access tothe global. You could call these the ‘power of literacies’ vs.the ‘literacies of power’ camps.

I believe that this debate misses the mark on two counts.First, it focuses too much on the changing nature ofliteracies at the expense of understanding the changingnature of the economic and political context of learners’lives. Second, it constructs a false contradiction betweenthe global and the local. What happens when the question

of how globalisation shapes literacy education is inverted?How can literacy contribute to shaping and resistingglobalisation from below? Contextualising our work withinlocal organisations which challenge globalisation fromabove connects the local with the global.

Globalisation from aboveMy argument rests on an understanding of the geopoliticaland economic contexts in which we work. As you considerthese statistics, facts and trends, think about how each ofthese factors shapes families, communities, workplaces,and/or schools.

Of the 100 largest economies in the world, 51 arecorporations, not countries. US$1.5 trillion flows dailyacross international borders.

Globalisation from above is characterised by (and some ofthese wil l look ominously famil iar) : changing workstructures; global markets; transnational finance andfinancial institutions (IMF, WTO, World Bank) whichsupersede national governments; corporate restructuringand transnational mergers; privatisation, deregulation oftrade; tariff agreements; economic control taken out ofcontrol of poor countries; global assembly lines (sweatshops,child labour); accelerating migration; militarisation, and thedismantling of welfare systems.

Global i sat ion from above has resul ted in increasedimpoverishment and inequality; the concentration ofweal th; a growth of poverty ; g lobal ecologica l andenvironmental damage; economic volatility; permeabilityof borders and migration cycles, and the deterioration ofhuman rights.3

Globalisation from belowIn the face of all this change, a new hybrid transnationalresistance is developing. It’s not really anti-globalisation,but a movement to shape globalisation in the interests ofpoor. Globalisation from below is characterised by asolidarity that crosses the boundaries of nations andidentities, and ignores narrow interests. Movements areemerging all over the world in social locations which aremarginal to dominant power centres, and there is concertedaction with diverse local starting points.4

Globalisation from below has resulted in:• struggles against child labour• union organising• protection of indigenous peoples/cultures• resistance to engineered food• environmentalist movements• debt cancellation campaigns• anti global sweatshop campaigns (Nike, Gap, etc).

the realities whichcontextualise our literacy

work are globalisation(global economic apartheid)

and resistance to it


These campaigns have created networks that cut acrossnational borders. Local struggles are seen to be differentfacets of the broader struggle which, while working locally,simultaneously form global alliances where the combinedforce is greater than the sum of individual forces (Seattle,Davos, Calgary).

This analysis is a reminder (certainly not one you are likelyto hear in an election year) that major global forces andnot individual competence shape life possibilities. Itsuggests that promoting new multimodal literacies as thekey to participation in the globalised world risks becominga 21st century version of the ‘literacy myth’. It also suggeststhat preserving local literacies is not going to provideprotection, access or power in the face of the onslaught ofglobalisation from above, and its economic apartheidjuggernaught.

What’s the alternative?One alternative is a pedagogy that applies the adage of‘think global, act local’ to literacy education. This approachsuggests that change is possible, not when individualsimprove their skills or expand their repertoire of practices,but when they join with others in challenging the specificcondit ions and forces which undermine their com-munit ies—when the loca l l i terac ies and the mult i -modalities and technologies are acquired and used in serviceof action. In this view, literacy programs might be situatedin local issue-based movements, with content focused onanalysis, skills, practices and discourses that enable peopleto participate in organising for local change within a globalnetwork.

US adult education program workers Tony Baez and EvaMack5 offer examples of such courses: parents learn publicspeaking skills so they can participate in parent associations,local and school council meetings; they learn small businessskills so they can set up child-care cooperatives and studyeducation and law as they work with educators to developcommunity-control in schools. Concerned adults work withteenagers in street theatre projects as an alternative to streetlife or develop the writing and computer skills necessary toproduce a community newspaper. Neighbours learn researchmethods so they can document pollution caused by thewaste products of a closed factory. Community members

learn script writing and video production so they can sharetheir concerns and visions for their community with a wideraudience. In each case, sites of community struggle becomesites of learning.

Relatively recently I edited a collection of case studies ofESL community partnerships.6 The projects described inthe book were located in many parts of the English-speaking world—from the Nunavut province in Canada,to South Africa, UK, New Zealand and the US. Beyondgeographic diversity, the projects reflect diversity acrossage, gender, linguistic and national origin. Some projectswere home-based, others community-based or school-based. Although the projects reflected incredible diversity,there were common recurring themes in terms of theplanning and administration of family and communityliteracy projects as well as in terms of their pedagogicalcomponents.

A NOT-literacy focusOne of the most important lessons across projects was that,although many of the partnerships were set up as ‘ESL’ or‘ l i teracy ’ projects , the part ic ipants/ learners wantedopportunities to become more active and proactive incommunity life. The result was that many partnershipstook the form of programs focusing on communityenterprises, computer education, addressing communityproblems, creative writing, and in some cases, recreation.English or literacy acquisition were by-products of theseinitiatives rather than being their primary focus.

The context is the keyThe importance of contextua l factors in des igningpartnerships was repeatedly stressed. As one of the Somaliorganisers of a project in London said, ‘You can’t work onliteracy if housing is bad’.7 These contextual factors rangefrom the broadly political, to the economic, social andlogistical.

Not surprisingly, the South African community partner-ships addressed the role of the political context mostexplicitly, describing the legacy of apartheid in shapingthe cu l ture o f s chool ing , and the imposs ib i l i ty o fconceiving change within schools without embeddingchange within the community. The partnerships werestructured to promote the democratic participation ofparents who had, under apartheid, been denied any voiceor role in either school or community development.

The understanding that educational problems originatedouts ide the educat ion sys tem led to a s t ra tegy forintegrating school and community reconstruction througha wide range of economic development projects linked toschools. Parents and community members decided to set

concerned adultswork with teenagers

in street theatre projectsas an alternative

to street life


up a vegetable cooperative, a day-care business, computertraining faci l i t ies , a training program for ceramics,bricklaying and metalwork, and a community park. Thevegetable garden was a response to malnutrition andpoverty and, as one parent said, ‘It impacts on learningbecause a hungry child cannot think…So our gardenhe lp s l e a rn ing ’ . 8 A day ca re c ent r e was s e t up bycommunity women which addressed school attendanceproblems and at the same time shifted traditional genderedeconomic roles within the community.

What was most interesting was that often the negativepolitical climate (which devalued parents, their culture, theirlanguage, and their knowledge) made the work of thepartnerships even more powerful—precisely becauseparticipants faced these forms of oppression on a daily basis,the projects took on meaning as a positive force for change.

Owned by the communityOne theme which emerged over and over again was thetheme of ‘ownership.’ I have mixed feelings about thisword—it implies commodification, but the point is thatpartnerships flourish when there is a shift from outsiderto insider control. There were four interrelated factorswhich promoted ‘ownership’:

• involving community members in planning• ensuring non-hierarchical relations between partners• staffing the project with people from the learners’

linguistic and cultural backgrounds• promoting leadership of community members.

Partnerships which were unilaterally initiated by dominantinstitutions (universities or service agencies) based on theirperception of community needs, often met communityresistance in the form of non-participation. Simply put,nobody came. Projects which originated in the communitiesthemselves, or which involved communities in planningfrom the beginning, did not encounter these difficulties.

Letting go of the planAnother key factor in many of the projects was the ‘lettinggo of the plan’. Many of the authors attribute the successof their partnerships precisely to the ways they deviatedfrom the original proposal. As the professionals listened tocommunity members, they realised that the goals they hadestabl ished did not ref lect community real i t ies andaspirations.

Conventional educational interventions are often designedby experts who decide what the target groups need, how itis to be delivered, and what the outcomes will be. But mostof the partnerships in the book attributed their success atleast in part to the fact that what happened was unexpected,unplanned, and unpredictable, or ‘wild.’ The Londoncommunity partnership9 was initially designed as a series ofcourses for Somali women, but when the women didn’tparticipate, it became evident that they could be reachedthrough working with children. The Somali staff set up afootball club for youth and other projects including a men’sproject motivated by high unemployment among men andtheir resulting sense of dislocation. Thus, through thisindirect approach, adults were eventually involved. Anumber of the projects evolved to provide pathways toleadership development.

Network to other organisationsSuccessful partnerships built on or linked to pre-existingcommunity organisations, rather than competing withthose already in place. The Nunavut project stressed theimportance of connecting community initiatives with eachother and filling gaps, rather than duplicating or addingnew entities. The effect of this strategy is to strengthenorganisations that already have histories and ties to thecommunity, rather than draining resources away fromthem.

Value and exploit language diversityHiring staff who are tied to the participants’ communitiesand who speak the learners’ language/s, values and invitesthe use of learners’ first languages, even in ESL projects.Seve ra l p ro j ec t s wh ich s t a r t ed wi th an ESL focusexperienced dramatic shifts when they switched to firstlanguage use. In Soweto, parents who had been reticentwhen stories were in English, participated eagerly whenthe stories were translated into African languages, and theythen helped with the translations. Inclusion of heritagelanguages can be a polit ical statement. In Nunavut,indigenous languages have been officially excluded untilrecently, so promoting community choice in language/literacy use was a stance that supported local control.

These studies underscore the importance of involvingcommunity participants in the selection of program andcurriculum content. Once participants become involvedin the process of selecting program/curriculum content,they chose to focus on issues—like stable housing, soccer,or gardening—rather than skills.

This is not newWhat I’ve outlined here is really old news in many countriesof the two-thirds world—just not the countries of theindustrialised world. As Martin and Rahman suggest, we

inclusion of heritagelanguages can be a political

statement


in industrialised nations can learn from the literacy workin countries like Bangladesh.10 They argue in favour ofwhat they call ‘really useful literacy’, which entails theacquisition of practical knowledge to help people act ontheir world, harnessing learning to a social purpose. Theirsis a vision of literacy that ensures democratic control overthe curriculum, and the development of literacy materialsenabling people to take power whilst promoting respectand trust.

One of the political lessons of globalisation is that the

local and specific struggles of ordinary people all over

the world can become part of the wider, international

struggle for democracy, social justice and equality. As we

a l l , in our d i f f e rent ways , l i ve out the meaning of

‘globalisation from above’, the question is: how can we

make our work part of an alternative and deeply subversive

‘globalisation from below’…?11

I wish to conclude by referring back to the quote at thestart of this article to highlight a wonderful paradox. It isonly by debunking the myth that literacy in itself isempowering that we can position ourselves to contributeto the struggles that challenge us all. By acknowledgingthe limitations of our work as literacy practitioners, wecan support a broader vision of democratisation.

Founder of the influential Highlander School, MylesHorton, once said, ‘If you have a goal that you can attainin your lifetime, it’s the wrong goal’.12 The point of anideal or vision is not to reach it, but to let it guide one’s

journey. What I’ve proposed in this article is a direction,not an attainable goal. As Horton also says, when we decidejust what our vision is then we can start to ‘just hack awayon it’.13

Dr Elsa Auerbach is a professor of Engl ish at theUniversity of Massachusetts/Boston. She has worked andwritten extensively in the areas of adult literacy, adultESOL, participatory curriculum development, familyliteracy and workplace ESOL/literacy.

References1 James, M. (1990), Demystifying literacy: Reading, writing,

and the struggle for liberation, Convergence, vol. 23: 1 (14–

2 5 ) .

2 ibid.

3 Brecher, J., Costello, T. & Smith, B. (2000), Globalisation

from below: The power of solidarity , Cambridge, MA: South

End Press.

4 ibid.

5 Baez, T. & Mack, E. (1996), ‘Reclaiming and transforming

community through adult educat ion’ , in Walsh, C. (ed.) ,

Educat ion r e fo rm and soc ia l change : Mul t i cu l tura l vo i c e s ,

s t rug g l e s , and v i s i on s . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Er lbaum

Associates.

6 Auerbach , E . ( ed . ) , (2002) , Cas e s tud i e s in c ommuni t y

partnerships , Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.

7 ibid.

8 ibid.

9 ibid.

1 0 Martin, I. & Rahman, H. (2001), ‘The politics of really useful

l i t e r acy : s i x l e s sons f rom Bang l ade sh’ , in Crowthe r, J . ,

Hamilton, M. & Tett, L., Powerful literacies, Leicester: The

National Organisation for Adult Learning (NIACE).

1 1 ibid.

1 2 Horton, M. (1998), The long haul: An autobiography, New

York: Teachers College Press, 226–8.

1 3 ibid.

if you have a goal that youcan attain in your lifetime,

it’s the wrong goal


Adult literacy teachers, particularly in the adultcommunity education (ACE) sector, have fewopportunit ies to meet and discuss e f fect ive

teaching s t ra teg ies for low- leve l l i t e racy s tudents .Teachers are allocated minimal hours for developing theirskills, networking and/or undertaking training. Thereare also minimal processes in place to document andshare the experiences of teachers. Too often, teachersmove on and the knowledge and experience they haveacqu i red i s l o s t to the s e c to r. Document ing th i sknowledge would assist new teachers in this field, helpteachers to continue to improve their teaching skills,and provide support to teachers who work in isolation.Collecting this knowledge would also provide teachersin the adult literacy field with recognition for theirexpertise.

It was this hunger for knowledge that led me on a journeyto seek answers from my own teaching experiences, andfrom the knowledge held by teachers in the f ie ld .Through my workplace at Olympic Adult Education inMelbourne’s northern suburbs , I was success ful inobtaining funds from the Australian National TrainingAuthority (ANTA) to carry out a research project.

The aims of the research were:• to investigate what strategies and approaches work and

don’t work for low-level literacy learners, and how theydiffer to strategies for working with higher-levellearners

• to facilitate a process whereby teachers of low-levelliteracy adults were participant researchers, reflectingon their teaching practices and strategies

• to produce a report that provides practical strategiesand approaches that could be applied in the classroom

• to provide a foundation for developing resources, andcurriculum for low-level literacy students.

‘Low-level adult literacy’ students were defined as thoseundertaking the Certificate I of General Education forAdults (Introductory), or the Certificate I in English

Language Literacies (Foundation). ‘Strategies’ were definedas the processes or activities that are undertaken to assistin adult literacy learning. These were grouped differently—direct s trategies that include teaching and learningactivit ies , and indirect strategies that include roomarrangement, teacher traits and styles.

The term ‘innovative’ was included as an element of theresearch. Although a popular term in adult l i teracy,‘innovative’ is very loosely defined, conjuring differentimages for different individuals. It may be associated withcomputer technology, or i t may represent br ingingsomething new to an already existing approach. Some seeinnovation as some product or technique that is completelynew. Because of the complexity of researching such avariously defined term it was investigated, but omittedfrom the published research title.

Drawing on experienceHaving worked as a sessional teacher of low-level literacystudents for six years, I have trialled a variety of strategies,experiencing degrees of success and student retention withstrategies that appear to work. I was also curious aboutwhat other teachers do. Teachers have a wealth of ideasand information, and have developed many successfulstrategies acquired through their training, professionaldevelopment and experience. It is through their own trials,errors, and evaluation that they have developed successfulstrategies. They have discovered what works for adultlearners and what doesn’t.

The teacher experience has often lead to the formulationof new theories of practice. Knowles1 identified this whenexamining the Journal of Adult Education 1929–1948.Published articles described the ways in which teachersdeveloped strategies that deviated from the pedagogicalmodels of the time. As Knowles noted, there was no theoryto support their practices—‘They were simply beingpragmatic and following their intuitions’.2 Similarly, thisresearch attempted to document the experiences thatteachers have had with low-level literacy adult students.

Effective strategies for low-levelliteracy learnersby Natalie Nawrocki

Low-level literacy teachers develop a lot of expertise during their time in the field. The problem is that this

expertise is rarely passed on to other teachers in a systematic way. The author, with the help of an Australian

National Training Authority grant, looks at this problem while also investigating which strategies do or don’t

work for low-level literacy learners.


A steer ing committee was establ i shed and providedsupport, direction, expertise and editorial assistance to mein my role of researcher. The steering committee consistedof three practitioners with experience in adult literacyteaching, research and management. A reference groupwas a l so establ i shed, including those with researchexpertise.

Collecting dataResearch data was collected via surveys, a workshop at the2003 Austra l ian Counci l of Adult Literacy (ACAL)conference, group interviews and reflective journals. Thesurvey was designed to obtain information on the generalprofile of classes—the teacher profile, an overview of theapproaches teachers were taking, the teaching strategiesused and their perceived level of effectiveness, and whatteachers believed were the strategies that learners liked.The average number of teaching years in adult literacy ofsurvey respondents was seven. The profile provided ageneral overview of the students. Classes were generallylow in numbers, with an average of 13 students per class.

Overall, there were more women in classes than men, and38 per cent had learners who were mildly intellectuallydisabled, and 36 per cent of respondents’ students hadphysical disabilities. The 16–24 age range group waspresent in 82 per cent of the classes, with 70 per cent ofrespondents having students who were unemployed. Thesurvey provided teachers with the opportunity to reflecton the i r t e ach ing , and ex t ended an inv i t a t ion torespondents wishing to participate further in the research.Eleven teachers were selected, representing a diverse rangeof classes and settings of, and experience with, low-levelstudents to participate in a group interview, and then tokeep and provide a summary of a reflective journal. Theyreceived an honorarium acknowledging their expertise andthe value of their contributions.

The process of keeping reflective journals over an 8–10lesson period provided teachers with the opportunity tobe practitioner researchers analysing their teaching.

A journal is not merely a flow of impressions, it records

impr e s s i on s s e t i n a con t e x t o f d e s c r i p t i on s o f

circumstances, others, the self, motives, thoughts, and

feel ings. Taken fur ther, i t can be used as a tool for

analysis and introspection. It is a chronicle of events as

they happen, a dialogue with the facts (objective) and

inte rpre ta t ions ( sub jec t ive ) , and perhaps mos t im-

portant, it provides a basis for developing an awareness

of the difference between facts and interpretations. A

journal becomes a dialogue with oneself over time. Over

t ime , pa t t e rn s and r e l a t ionsh ip s emerge tha t were

previously isolated events ‘ just l ived’. Time provides

perspective and momentum, and enables deeper levels

of insight to take place. 3

Teachers were given information on keeping a reflectivejournal and an outline of what to include to ensureconsistency. The journal outline provided for a basic classprofile, what strategies teachers used, how and when thestrategies were used, why they used the strategy and whatwas the outcome of the strategy. Despite being given thesame framework, the summarised responses varied. Teachersprovided honest accounts of their experiences. Many foundit difficult to condense their findings into a 1000-wordsummary, but all found the experience a positive process.All were challenged by it and many found it beneficial fortheir practice.

The summaries contain useful insights into teaching low-level literacy students, and were inspirational in terms ofdetailing the thought and preparation that went intoeach class. What emerged was a strong sense of teacherconsideration of, and preparation for, individual studentneeds. The journals also illuminated the dedication anddetermination of the teachers and the high regard theyhave for their students. Flexibility of approach was themost successful strategy practised. This a l lowed forstudent input into the flow of the lesson, and learnersshowed positive outcomes, such as obvious enjoymentof the class. The teachers showed, through their journalentries, that they were willing to change the lesson planto accommodate the interests of the students , withenhanced motivation and enthusiasm as the result.

A variety of approachesOverall, the strategies used were as varied as the teachersthemselves . Nevertheless , there were some commonelements . Most preva lent was the teachers’ genera lappr oach wi th bu i ld ing s tudent s’ s e l f - e s t eem, andproviding a warm, friendly and positive atmosphere. Manyidentified using familiar, personal, everyday texts andrelevant topics for learners. Others used a learner-centredapproach or negotiated with students on content andprocesses, while other respondents provided enjoyable andfun activit ies to engage students. Some respondentsidentified specific learning theories that informed their

overall, there were morewomen in classes than

men, and 38 per cent hadlearners who were mildly

intellectually disabled


practice; for example, critical literacy theory, genre theory,and psycholinguistic reading theory. Other respondentsar t iculated their approaches phi losophica l ly, c i t ingflexibility and variety or adopting holistic or integratedapproaches to teaching and learning.

The sample also provided data on what specific strategiesteachers were using, and how they rated them in termsof perceived effectiveness. The most effective strategiesincluded discussion, reading aloud, pair work, com-prehension, question/answer activities, referential work,direct content explanation, cloze, brainstorming, gamesand excursions. Formal programs were identif ied byrespondents as a strategy that they were least likely touse. A number of respondents (36 per cent) in the studyoutlined a number of additional strategies and approachesthat they have found to be effective. These includedphonics, group composition, journal writing, narrativeth e r apy t e chn ique s , mode l l i ng and wa t ch ing T Vprograms.

Strategies that workUp to 87 per cent of respondents indicated that indirectstrategies assisted student learning. Room arrangement,a teacher’s style and personal traits were cited as three ofthe most-used indirect strategies that assisted in learning.The most effective teachers’ traits were having a sense ofhumour (56 percent) and flexibility (31 per cent). Othert ra i t s inc luded to l e rance , pa t i ence , f i rmnes s , pe r -ceptiveness, confidence in students’ ability, an under-standing of the barriers to learning, communicating agenuine interest in students and keeping teacher talk toa minimum. Other indirect strategies specified were theinclusion plenty of small breaks, a safe environment,praising students, encouraging students to listen to eachother, consistency, and presenting a variety of topics andideas.

The research also enabled teachers to reflect on the waysin which they have developed their teaching strategies.Participants outlined a number of processes:

• measuring student attendance• observation of students’ learning styles• student feedback (verbal and non-verbal)• professional development• collaboration with other teachers and colleagues• being aware of the students’ emotional state• life experience• professional reading.

It became apparent that respondents were not able toclear ly def ine whether the s trategies they were im-p lement ing were innovat ive . What d id emerge , a sevidenced in the reflective journals, were elements of

innovation and creat ivity whereby teachers adaptedstrategies to address the students’ needs and achievelearning. One teacher used modelling as a strategy. Anotherteacher used a role-play strategy creatively by drawing onthe expertise of others presenting a clowning workshop.The use of computers was also popular. One teacher usedGoogle image searches to engage students in vocabularyactivities. The fun use of games was much in evidence,and others responded to known issues; for example, non-attendance on excursions with lateral and creative solutions.Attention was given to the whole person with physicalactivity and aromatherapy documented as effective andcreative strategies used. Teachers were receptive to trialingnew strategies and approaches. They were willing to givethings a go.

It also became apparent that the approaches and strategiesused reflected the teachers’ preferences and educationalbeliefs. Student beliefs also impacted on the perceivedeffectiveness of the strategies used. These ideas were notexplored by this research project.

This research project has been an enriching experience forall of those involved. Maintaining a reflective journal was,in particular, a very effective process. Teachers have takentheir reflections back to the classroom, improving theirteaching practice. Learners have benefited from this as aconsequence. What i s evident i s that teachers havedeveloped a great level of expertise over the time theyhave been teaching low-level l i teracy students. Thisexpertise is seldom passed on to other teachers in anysystematic way. Sharing this knowledge and expertise willbenefit new teachers and learners alike. There is a betterchance that learners will experience success if teachers canmore readily utilise strategies that have been found to besuccessful.

Effective strategies• Phonics in context (THRASS is an option, but only

works for learners who like systems)• Matching cards (for example, words with pictures)

students like to manipulate objects• Visual cues, visually-based• Drawing• Develop relationships and rapport

one teacher used Googleimage searches to engage

students in vocabularyactivities


• Use student’s experiences• Use variety and a range of strategies• Promote motivation• Understand student’s culture• Use volunteers, give free choice of student• Promote confidence• Promote se l f - l ea rn ing , t each ing themse lves and

discovery• Journal writing• Fill-in responses, rather than writing• Experiential writing and reading• Directed learning with 100 common words• Be specific about outcomes• Active learning, and in context• Copying• Written news items• Auditory dissemination program• Structured reading programs• Real life material• Topics that interest students, and are relevant to their

lives• Flexibility• Practical hands-on activities• Individual program centring to learning styles, needs,

goals• Non-threatening environment• Large font that is readable• Rapport between teacher and students• Using the computer in the following ways:

– word processing– using computer graphics for the final version of

own story– speech balloons for text– PowerPoint– email– CAL (Computer Assisted Learning)– search engines.

Non-effective strategies• Having to manage lots of paper• Dense text• Anything that is too vague• The same thing for everyone• Rushing• School text books• Big classes• Anything directed at children• Lack of continuity of attendance• Making judgments about students• Large groups• Anything that reminds them of school• Inappropriate staff selection• Fancy fonts.

Natalie Nawrocki has worked as an adult literacy teachersince completing a post-graduate degree in TESOL andLiteracy at Victoria University six years ago. Prior to thatshe was a social worker and community worker for tenyears. Her previous work experiences include two otherresearch projects— a needs analysis for a NeighbourhoodHouse, and a research project into the health issues ofolder Greek women. Natalie is a sessional teacher in adultliteracy and ESL at Olympic Adult Education in WestHeidelberg.

References1 Knowles, M. (1987), ‘What is andragogy?’, in The modern

practice of adult education: From pedagog y to andragog y , New

Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.

2 ibid.

3 Holly, M. (1997), Keeping a professional journal , (2nd ed.),

Malvern, Victoria: Deakin University Press.


For more than 25 years, a number of longitudinalstudies have tracked the lives of young Australiansas they moved from school to work and post-

secondary study. Since 1995, these studies have beenmanaged jointly by the Australian Council for EducationalResearch (ACER) and the Commonwealth Department ofEducation, Science and Training (DEST) in a programcalled the Longitudinal Surveys of Austral ian Youth(LSAY). This article provides a brief description of LSAYand reports some findings, particularly as they relate toliteracy achievement in the transition from school.

What is LSAY?The current program of LSAY consolidated two earlierprograms of longitudinal surveys of young people—Youthin Transition (YIT) begun by ACER in 1978, and theAustralian Youth Survey (AYS) and its predecessor theAustralian Longitudinal Survey (ALS), conducted by theCommonwealth Government between 1984 and 1997.In 1995 , YIT and AYS wer e combined and LSAYcommenced with the introduction of a new cohort. Asecond LSAY cohort was added in 1998, and a third in2003. It is proposed that a new cohort will replace the1995 cohort in 2006. [see Table 1]

All three of the LSAY cohorts continue to be interviewed in2004. The 1995 cohort is a nationally representative sampleof young people who were enrolled in Year 9 in Australiansecondary schools in 1995. The 1998 cohort comprisesyoung people enrolled in Year 9 in 1998. The 2003 cohortis based on a sample of 15-year-olds who participated inthe OECD Programme for International Student Assess-ment (PISA). Each cohort is contacted annually for an updateon activities in work and study over the previous 12months. Between September 2003 and February 2004,more than 22,000 telephone interviews were completed.

The LSAY surveys provide descriptions of what youngAustralians are doing as they negotiate the transition fromschool, documenting changes as the group gets older andmaking comparisons to other groups when they were thesame age. To date, LSAY research has examined issues

relating to school achievement and completion, participationin employment and post-secondary education and training,and a number of aspects of wellbeing. Now, with the 2003cohort based on the international study of 40 countriesconducted by OECD PISA, it will be possible to compareAustralian transitions with transitions made by young peopleoverseas.

Why LSAY?The LSAY program arose out of recognition by successiveCommonwealth governments of the importance of thetransition from youth to adulthood. This transition wasespecially difficult between the late 1970s and the mid-1990s, when social, economic and technological changeswere profoundly affecting the Austral ian and worldeconomies. Unemployment had grown to levels higherthan those seen among the previous generation, and youngpeople were particularly disadvantaged.

15 up: early achievers and a bright futureby Sheldon Rothman

A successful involvement with further education, training and employment can be predicted through a student’s

performance in literacy and numeracy at secondary school level. The Longitudinal Surveys of Australian

Youth is a program that makes it possible to assess the influence of achievements in Year 9—combined with

the successful completion of Year 12—while tracking the progress of students as they move through the

education system to the workforce.

Table 1: The LSAY Cohorts, 1978 to 2004

Cohort First survey Last surveyname (year & age) (year & age)

YYYYYouth in outh in outh in outh in outh in TTTTTransition (Aransition (Aransition (Aransition (Aransition (ACER)CER)CER)CER)CER)C61 1978, age 17 (school data in 1975 at age 14) 1994, age 33C65 1981, age 16 (school data in 1975 at age 10) 1995, age 30C70 1985, age 15 (school data in 1980 at age 10) 1995, age 25C75 1989, age 14 2002, age 27

Australian Longitudinal Survey (Commonwealth)Australian Longitudinal Survey (Commonwealth)Australian Longitudinal Survey (Commonwealth)Australian Longitudinal Survey (Commonwealth)Australian Longitudinal Survey (Commonwealth)Waves 1 to 4 1984, ages 15–24 1987, ages 18–27

AAAAAustralian ustralian ustralian ustralian ustralian YYYYYouth South South South South Surururururvvvvvey (Commonwey (Commonwey (Commonwey (Commonwey (Commonwealth)ealth)ealth)ealth)ealth)Waves 1 to 9 1989, ages 16–19 1997, ages 19–27

(New sample of 16-year-olds added eachyear 1990–1994 (school data two yearsearlier at age 14 for the 16-year-olds added1991–1994)

Longitudinal SLongitudinal SLongitudinal SLongitudinal SLongitudinal Surururururvvvvveys of Aeys of Aeys of Aeys of Aeys of Australian ustralian ustralian ustralian ustralian YYYYYouth (Aouth (Aouth (Aouth (Aouth (ACER & CommonwCER & CommonwCER & CommonwCER & CommonwCER & Commonwealth)ealth)ealth)ealth)ealth)Y95 1995, average age 14 (Year 9 in school) Ongoing annual surveysY98 1998, average age 14 (Year 9 in school) Ongoing annual surveysY03 2003, age 15 (based on PISA sample) Ongoing annual surveys

Notes: All cohorts were surveyed annually from the first to the last yearshown, with the exception of the C61 cohort, which was not surveyed in1985 or 1988. The ALS surveys were managed by the Bureau of LabourMarket Research. The AYS surveys were managed by predecessors of DEST.


Between the middle of the 1980s and the late 1990s, theproportion of 15-to-19-year-olds in full-time employmentdropped from 32 per cent to 17 per cent, where it remainedin 2002. The number of young people in part-t imeemployment increased over the same period, with fewerpositions available in unskilled and semi-skilled occupations(Lamb et al., 2000). Secondary education was changing ona number of fronts as well, with the disappearance oftechnical schools, the removal of an intermediate certificatein most states and the increase in participation in seniorsecondary schooling.

Retention ratesThe main indicator of participation in Year 12 is theapparent retention rate. In 1982, the apparent retentionrate in all Australian schools was 36.3 per cent. Over thefollowing ten years, the rate more than doubled, growingto 77.1 per cent in 1992. The rate peaked in 1992, andhas remained above 72 per cent into the 2000s. In 2003,the apparent retention rate was 75.4 per cent, suggestingthat three out of every four young people who entered asecondary school in 1998 or 1999 enrolled in Year 12 in2003. While the apparent retention rate is often mistakenlyconsidered a Year 12 completion rate, it does rise and fallas the true completion rate rises and falls, and is a reasonableproxy for monitoring trends in the proportion of studentswho participate in senior secondary school education.

To account for the increased participation in seniorsecondary schooling and the demise of separate technicalsecondary schools, states developed programs for studentswho may not have previously considered study in Years11 and 12. Between 1990 and 2001, for example, therewere substantial increases in enrolments in vocational-oriented studies, particularly in computer studies andtechnical studies, and decreases in more traditional schoolsubjects such as the humanities, social sciences andbiological and physical sciences (Fullarton et al, 2003).School-based vocational education and training becamemore formalised, with better articulation for studentsundertaking VET in schools programs and recognition ofstandard levels for vocational qualifications.

Examining pathwaysLSAY has been designed to increase understanding of keytransitions and pathways in the lives of young people,particularly the transitions from compulsory schooling tothe labour market and further education and training. Theprogram examines the educational and occupationalpathways of various sub-groups of young people andidentifies the education and labour market activities andpathways that provide a smoother transition to employ-ment. One part icular area of interest has been therelationship between individual characteristics, social

background and school achievement, and how schoolachievement inf luences subsequent educat ional andoccupational outcomes. This research also identifies areaswhere policy interventions by both Commonwealth andstate governments can be effective.

The longitudinal data make a distinctive and significantcontribution to knowledge about post-school transitionprocesses and outcomes. Longitudinal data enable anexamination of the pathways followed by participants inthe program. The data also assist in our understanding ofchanges over time—between different cohorts—and howthese changes affect young people as they age. This isespecially important for understanding the impact of policyinitiatives on longer-term outcomes in the labour marketand in further education and training.

Research designThe focus on post-school transitions has led to certaindesign features in LSAY that distinguish it from otherlongitudinal studies. LSAY uses a two stage samplingprocedure. For the first stage, approximately 300 schoolsacross Australia have been selected proportional to size, withconsideration for state/territory and sector (governmentschools, Catholic schools and other non-governmentschools). As LSAY makes first contact with possible samplemembers while they are still at school, there are relativelylow costs of generating adequate sample numbers.

For the second stage, schools randomly select two Year 9classes—usually English—to provide a minimum of 35students per school. The aim is to yield a sample of 10,000young people to be interviewed in the second year (Year11 for those still at school). The school selection procedureswere similar for the 2003 cohort, with students selected ifthey were born between May 1,1984 and April 30,1985,regardless of the year level in which they were enrolled.Because LSAY samples are drawn from around 300 schools,researchers can also investigate the impact of school factorson outcomes.

Selected students in the 1995 and 1998 cohorts tookreading comprehension and mathematics tes t s , andcompleted a questionnaire that asked about their familybackground, their attitudes toward school and their

the main indicatorof participation

in Year 12 is the apparentretention rate


aspirations for work and further education. The readingand maths tests were based on tests used in the AustralianStudies of School Performance project in 1975, the sourcefor the f i r s t YIT cohorts , a l lowing compar i sons ofachievement in reading and mathematics over time. In thesecond year these LSAY cohorts were asked to completeand return a mail questionnaire. Since the third year cohortmembers have been contacted by telephone for a 20-minute interview. The 2003 cohort had participated inOECD PISA, and undertook more extensive assessmentsof their reading literacy, mathematical literacy, scientificliteracy and problem solving skills. They also completedquest ionnaires , providing information about familybackground , a t t i tude s and a sp i r a t ions . Fo l low-uptelephone interviews were conducted later in the schoolyear to ensure consistency with previous LSAY cohorts.

The importance of surveysAnnual surveys are necessary until young people reachtheir mid-twenties because of the rapidly changingeducation and labour market circumstances, and the highmobility of young adults. Annual contact with the sampleimproves data quality by reducing errors associated withextended recall, and regular contact with interviewersreduces the risk of attrition. The LSAY samples are relativelylarge, allowing the inclusion of various social backgroundfactors, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity andgeographic location, in the analyses. The large initial samplesizes allow for the effects of some attrition, retainingsufficient numbers to generate reliable estimates for varioussub-groups.

LSAY has a strong concentration on education-to-worklinkages, so the program collects extensive information oneducational and occupational aspirations, participation invocational education and training in school and afterward,and a wide variety of labour market outcomes—includingextent and duration of unemployment, occupationalstatus, hours of work, earnings, job satisfaction and jobmobility.

LSAY adds a new cohort of students at reasonable timeintervals to monitor relationships among key variables overtime, especially as governments implement new policiesaimed at young people. Earlier surveys enable the currentexperiences of young people, as they move througheducation into the labour market, to be compared withthose experienced by earlier cohorts of young Australians.

What has LSAY found? In this article the terms ‘literacy’and ‘numeracy’ are used when the discussion concerns thegreater skills; ‘reading comprehension’ and ‘mathematics’are used when the discussion concerns the achievementtests administered when cohort members were in Year 9.

Achievement in literacy (reading comprehension) andnumeracy (mathemat ics ) has been found to have asignificant influence on a number of outcomes. Even whensome o f the ana ly se s a re conducted us ing read ingcomprehension or mathematics scores alone, the analysesproduce similar findings regarding the importance ofachievement in Year 9.

This section reports briefly on some of these findings,looking first at the results of studies that concentrated onliteracy and numeracy achievement alone, then at the resultsof studies that concentrated on other outcomes and howthese outcomes were influenced by Year 9 achievement inliteracy and numeracy.

Achievement in Year 9In 1975 sample testing of 10-year-olds and 14-year-oldswas administered as part of the Australian Studies in SchoolPerformance. Five years later, samples of 10-year-olds and14-year-olds were again tested. In 1989, a new cohort inthe YIT program took tests of reading comprehension andmathematics achievement. These cohorts, when combinedwith the 1995 and 1998 LSAY cohorts, provide a series ofdata on reading comprehension and mathematics foryoung people generally at the same age or same point intheir school careers.

The major purpose of the Australian Studies in SchoolPerformance was the quantification of non-mastery amongAustralian school students. A mastery level ‘cut-off ’ wasagreed to by each state and territory and also applied in anLSAY report, which looked at three major groups: allstudents, 14-year-old students and 14-year-olds in Year9. Four smaller AYS cohorts were also included in thisana ly s i s . Be tween 1975 and 1995 the re was l i t t l edifference in the mean score on reading comprehensionamong the groups, and there was no statistical differencein the pe r centage ach i ev ing mas t e r y. The au thor sconc luded ‘tha t the re i s no subs t an t i a l change inperformance in reading comprehension over the last twodecades’.1

When the 1998 cohort is added to the analysis, again thereis little change in achievement in reading comprehensionover time, although there was a significant decrease in 1998

annual surveys arenecessary until youngpeople reach their mid-

twenties


among 14-year-olds in Year 9. Some of the significantdifference between 1975 and 1998 for this group could beattributed to changes in the age-grade structure of Australianschools, because in 1975 there was a higher percentage of14-year-olds in lower grades.2

The comparisons over time were limited by the explanatoryfactors that could be used across all cohorts, so a more recentanalysis used more of the data available in the 1995 and1998 cohorts to examine factors relating to the scores onthe reading comprehension and mathematics achievementtests. Socioeconomic status (SES), gender, ethnic/racialbackground, parents’ education and attitudes toward schoolwere significantly related to students’ literacy achievementin both cohorts, and schools influenced students’ literacyachievement through average SES levels and the positiveclimate fostered in the school.3

Later school achievement and post-schoolstudyIn 1999, the states and territories agreed to the NationalGoals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century. Goal 3.6states that all young people, regardless of sex, language,culture/ethnicity, rel igion, disabil i ty, socioeconomicbackground or geographic location, ‘have access to thehigh quality education necessary to enable the completionof school education to Year 12 or its vocational equivalentand that it provides clear and recognised pathways toemployment and further education and training’. As notedabove, however, only three-fourths of young people whoenter secondary school at Year 7 or 8 remain until Year 12.Some leave before Year 12 and take up apprenticeships ortraineeships.

Earlier achievement in literacy and numeracy influencedYIT cohort members’ participation in Year 12. Two-thirdsof the highest scoring young people born in 1961 hadcompleted Year 12 by 1980, compared to only 10 percent of those who scored in the lowest 25 per cent. Boththe high scorers and the low scorers increased their Year12 completion rates in the 1975 cohort; by 1994, 92 percent of the high scorers and 58 per cent of the low scorerscompleted Year 12.4 A later study, including the 1995cohort, came to a similar conclusion about the influence

of earlier achievement on Year 12 completion. The authorsfound that SES, gender, language background, geographiclocation and school sector had significant effects on schoolnon-completion, and that indigenous Australians were themost seriously disadvantaged group in terms of non-completion. They also found that ‘literacy and numeracyachievement has the strongest net effect on school non-completion’.5

Achievements and influencesAchievement in Year 9 also influences the choice of subjectsstudied in Year 12. Higher-achieving students were morelikely to enrol in mathematics, physical sciences andhumanities subjects, reflecting what many see as the moretraditional senior secondary school curriculum. Lower-achieving students were more likely to enrol in technologysubjects, including technical studies, computer studies andhome science subjects.6 There is a strong relationshipbetween achievement on the tests of reading comprehensionand mathematics in Year 9 and on the assessments fortertiary entrance. Scores on the achievement tests in Year 9had the strongest statistical influence on the universityentrance scores achieved three years later, and numeracyachievement had a s t ronger inf luence than l i teracyachievement.

Post-secondary study, for both Year 12 completers andthose who leave before Year 12, is an important avenuefor gaining work-related skills. Among the 1975 YITcohort, 84 per cent of those who had scored in the highest25 per cent on the combined achievement tests hadparticipated in some form of post-school education by age19, compared to 49 per cent of the lowest achievers. Forthe lowest achievers, the location of their study hadchanged between 1980 and 1994. In 1980, 12 per cento f the 1961 cohor t was enro l l ed in a TAFE non-apprenticeships program and 18 per cent were in anapprenticeship or traineeship. By 1994, 27 per cent ofthe lowest achievers were in TAFE non-apprenticeshipprograms and 17 per cent in an apprent iceship ortraineeship.

Participation in the labour forceUpon entering the labour force, achievement in literacyand numeracy continue to have an effect on employment.Young people with poor literacy and numeracy skills inthe AYS cohorts of the early 1990s were employed for lesst ime and they exper ienced longer s t re tches o f un-employment. This was particularly true for the males inthese cohorts, with numeracy having a greater effect ontheir unemployment than l iteracy did. Those youngpeople who had above-average achievement literacy andnumeracy scores experienced easier transitions into thelabour market.7

indigenous Australianswere the most

seriously disadvantagedgroup in terms ofnon-completion


Literacy and numeracy achievement continues to have aninfluence on employment outcomes through to age 33.While previous time unemployed is a strong predictor oflater time unemployed, school achievement still has a netef fect on the t ime one spends unemployed and theduration of individual employment spells. Achievementhas been shown to be a persistent influence at all agesabove the influence of Year 12 completion and academicqualifications.8

The relationship between literacy and numeracy achieve-ment in Year 9 and employment outcomes after schoolcontinued with the 1975 YIT cohort, based on theiremployment activities between 1996 and 2000, and the1995 LSAY cohort in 2000. For members of both cohorts,achievement levels were significant related to the timespent unemployed, with lower achievers unemployed forgreater periods.9 Among the 1975 cohort, the amount oftime spent in marginal employment activities was alsorelated to levels of achievement. Among the 1995 cohort,the occupational status and level of earnings in 2000 werealso significantly influenced by their scores on the readingcomprehension and mathematics tests taken in Year 9.

SummaryThe consolidation of longitudinal research programs from1995 onwards provided expanded opportunities for thestudy of the transit ion from school made by youngAustralians. One of the themes common throughout allthe cohorts is the importance of achievement in literacyand numeracy. There is a consistent pattern of associationbetween achievement in Year 9 and the completion of Year12, participation in further study and favourable labourmarket experiences.

The value of LSAY lies in its use of longitudinal data. It ispossible to assess the influence of literacy and numeracy

achievement on later outcomes. As a continuing programthat regularly renews its samples, LSAY offers continuedopportunities to study the transition from school to work,further study and adulthood.

Sheldon Rothman is a senior research fellow and directorof the LSAY project at the Austral ian Council forEducational Research. He previously taught English andremedial reading in secondary schools in country NewSouth Wales.

References1 Marks, G. & Ainley, J. (1997), Reading comprehension and

numeracy among junior secondary school students in Australia,

LSAY research report no. 3, Camberwell: ACER.

2 Rothman, S. (2002), Achievement in literacy and numeracy by

Australian 14 year-olds , 1975–1998 , LSAY research repor t

no. 29, Camberwell: ACER.

3 Rothman, S. & McMillan, J. (2003), Influences on achievement

in l i t e ra c y and numera c y , LSAY r e s e a r ch repor t no. 36 ,

Camberwell: ACER

4 Long, M., Carpenter, P. & Hayden, M. (1999). Participation

in education and training, 1980–1994 . LSAY research report


5 McMillan, J. & Marks, G. (2003). School leavers in Australia:

profiles and pathways, LSAY research report no. 31, Camberwell:

ACER.

6 Fullarton, S., Walker, M., Ainley, J. & Hillman, K. (2003),

Patterns of participation in year 12, LSAY research report no.

33, Camberwell: ACER.

7 Lamb, S. & McKenzie, P. (2001), Patterns of success and failure

in the transition from school to work in Australia, LSAY research

report no. 18, Camberwell: ACER.

8 Marks, G. & Fleming, N. (1998), Factors influencing youth

unemployment in Australia: 1980–1994, LSAY research report


9 Marks, G., Hillman, K. & Beavis, A. (2003), Dynamics of the

Australian youth labour market: the 1975 cohort, 1996–2000,

LSAY research report no. 34, Camberwell: ACER.

McMillan, J. & Marks, G. (2003), School leavers in Australia:

profiles and pathways, LSAY research report no. 31, Camberwell:

ACER.

school achievement stillhas a net effect on the time

one spends unemployed


Practical Matters

After teaching art and art-related subjects for tenyears it became clear to me that art had far more tooffer than simply being a matter of someone

learning to paint or draw. For some time I have beenthrowing around ideas about how art could be used as amedium to teach many things in adult education.

The ‘Artways’ course1, that I have taught for several years,is taught over 12 months and allows students to exploreand develop the field of contemporary art. I have beenfascinated by the way people expand within themselves,and often become active members of the communitythrough the confidence gained in doing this course. Peoplewho have been very timid and lacking in confidence, orstudents with mental illnesses and depression, have growninto stronger adults.

One of my students who had quite a severe mental illnessand was on strong medication came to my class and knewi t would be a cha l l enge . Once the o ther s tudent sunderstood the problem they really looked after andencouraged her. She had a very naive style of drawing andpainting, but it had a beautiful quality. You could see herart was very important to her. She really thrived throughout the year, and towards the end I encouraged her toapply to do a visual arts diploma at TAFE. This was ahuge step for her as she had been doing art courses for tenyears. She was accepted into the course and now has movedto the next step of developing her art.

Jane Thompson, an English adult education researcherand writer, discusses the English policy that arts andculture play a major part in lifelong learning:

We live in a political climate in which the government of

the day has made education and social exclusion two of

its principle concerns. As part of this agenda, it has

recognised that the arts and culture have an important

contribution to make, in ways that more formal education

and social policy approaches struggle to achieve. 2

Having read the book she inspired me to put some of the

ideas into practice. After a conversation with several peopleabout the idea of including some arts and culture topicsinto a program for general education for adults, a fewcolleagues and I met to discuss some ideas.

We discussed crossing the fields of boundaries within thearts and literacy. All the arts could play a part and encourageareas of participation in adult education, to link all abilities,all cultures and develop an understanding of each other’sdifferences.

The ACE Linkweb cluster funded by ACFE decided touse this idea as a project for the second half of 2003. Thebrief was to design learning materials for ESL and literacystudents, using art as a way to develop language andcommunication skills and explore themes, such as identity.The material was to link to the General Curriculum Optionof the Certificate General of Education for Adults.

ObjectivesThe course was developed for use as an educational tool.It would help the learner to record ideas and thoughts,co l l e c t in t e r e s t ing v i sua l image s , d i s cu s s them inconversation, and articulate them into text. It can be away for the student to explore links with artistic ideas andhow they connect to society and culture. It can also aiddeveloping personal ideas and concepts which can beexplored in many mediums.

These lessons were designed to engage learners in artsand cu l tu r e a s a way t o l e a rn and enhance th e i rknowledge of the English language and literacy skills,and also to develop and extend their thought processesand encourage critical thinking. It is a simple format forparticipants who might not have engaged in any arttheory or knowledge.

Some o f t h e ob j e c t i v e s we wan t ed t o mee t we r eacknowledging that people have different learning styles,and th a t u s ing v i su a l s and engag ing s tuden t s i nexperiential learning could be a new experience, allowingthem to learn in a different and non-traditional way.

Art, culture and lifelong learningPictures…every one tells a story, and they’re worth a thousand words to boot. It is no surprise, then, that art

and sculpture are seen as valuable tools for developing language and communication skills, and exploring

themes such as identity. As Ruth Woods writes, because art is visual, it ‘can evoke critical thinking and

debate’. So read on, and see for yourself.


Practical MattersIndividual objectives

• stimulate and expand their mental development• increased critical thinking—learn to question• enhanced knowledge of the arts• increase community participation.

Broader objectives• develop a teaching tool that can stand alone, with access

to many resources• acknowledge other learning styles• develop a greater understanding of other people and

cultures• engage learners in social activity through arts and

culture• build social capital and aids to stronger communities.

Lessons developedThe ideas for the lessons started to come together. Myproblem was I had far too much information and too manyideas. I had to cull them in order to complete the projectin six months. I decided to divide the lessons into twoparts—visual art, and culture.

After dividing the ideas into rough lessons I then metwith several ESL teachers to obtain feedback. The lessonswere adjusted and a couple of the teachers tried them outwith their respective classes.

Part one—Visual Art• analysing images• postcard images from the National Gallery of Victoria• art images from other countries• visit to the National Gallery of Victoria• photographing images• photography as a narrative• self portrait—celebrate me• things important to me• exploring public art in Melbourne• public art in Melbourne—PowerPoint presentation• a visit to Melbourne to view the public art.

Part Two—Culture• coming to Australia• your story—a visit to the immigration museum• the difference between Me and You—compare and

contrast of cultures• food culture• Universal Declaration on Human Rights• discussing the 30 points—available in most languages• drawing images around the Declaration of Human

Rights• ‘Guernica’—discussing a painting about war.

The lesson on the Universal Declaration on Human Rightswas developed because of the increased discussion on warin the classroom. I must admit I had never read all 30 pointsuntil I came across the Body Shop issue of Full Voice, whichwas available at their outlets. In the centre pages there werelisted the 30 points in a very creative format. This gave methe idea that this could be used with the students.

This was one of the lessons tried out shortly after the coursewas created. We very quickly realised the text was too difficult.Because it was written in 1948, the language was quitedifficult to interpret. However we found that on the UnitedNations web page the Universal Declaration of Human Rightswas available in 160 languages (www.un.org).

The lesson has now been changed to give students thetext in their language. They can read it in their ownlanguage, and come back to class the next week and discusssome of their chosen issues or simple points.

In 2004 the ACFE Linkweb cluster decided to continuewith the project and trial in detail some of the lessons withESL teachers and students. The teachers chose the lessonsthey thought would be interesting for their learners.

Public art in MelbourneThis lesson was developed by photographing the publicart sculpture around Melbourne. I was not able to access adigital camera, so I asked for the photos to be developedonto a CD as well as prints. I then copied the CD into thecomputer and created a PowerPoint presentation with theimages, inserting relevant questions onto the images. A setof teacher’s notes was also developed. This topic could lastfor three to four weeks if needed, otherwise the CDpresentation could be a stand-alone lesson.

During the first week I felt it was important that thestudents did not need to be computer literate to use this


Practical Mattersprogram. A copy of the CD was installed onto each computerin the classroom and the PowerPoint presentation was readyto be used. All the students had to do was press the ‘enter’key each time they needed to move to next image.

The s tudent s went through the program in pa i r s ,answering the questions which were aimed at provokingquestions and discussion. It was not the intention to haveright and wrong answers, only opinions. The students thendiscussed the images and questions with the whole groupand the ESL teacher.

Several words that came up in the conversation were usedon the slides. This enabled the meanings to be discussedand prompted me to include a glossary of words. Studentsalso spoke about sculpture on display in their countriesand what they might mean. The students brought upmany topics to discuss, including ‘could a large piece ofscu lpture on the f reeway be d i s t rac t ing and causeaccidents?’ (Especially when the sculpture was meant asan icon to protect the traveller!)

The second week was an evolving process from week one.We wanted time to organise a trip into Melbourne to viewthe artwork the students had seen on the presentation theweek before. Because so many questions were asked, theESL teacher (who had a background in art) and myselfbought numerous books on sculpture into class.

The artists were discussed as a group. Some of the artistsincluded Christo, who wrapped objects in fabric—includinga bridge in Paris. This stirred great debate about how hewould actually do this. Picasso—who made very naivesculptures in cardboard; and Chris Booth and AndyGoldsworthy, who are environmental sculptors and makeartworks from natural materials in the environment. Thestudents then choose a book on an artist to investigate. Theywere asked questions about the type of sculpture in the book:

• What materials did the artist use?• How was the sculpture made?• Where do the artists show their work?• How were they shown?• How long did it take to make the sculpture?• What might the sculpture show?

They then bought their findings to discuss with the class.During this class the students decided that they wantedto visit Melbourne’s public art, so it was organised to meetin Melbourne the following week.

The following week we met under the clocks at FlindersStreet Station in Melbourne. Students had bought their

lunch and we dropped their bags off at the cloakroom inthe gallery, so we didn’t have to carry them around thecity. We had already worked out our route. Seeing thesculptures in reality really engaged the students.

The sculpture that caused the most discussion was theaboriginal totem-type piece beside the Flinders Streetrail overpass. It had a white cross and a gun at the top.One student quickly understood what the artist wastrying to say. This was a highly successful day, and weconcluded that going on these excurs ions not onlyenab l ed the s tuden t s t o l e a rn abou t s cu lp tu r e inMelbourne but a lso enabled us to learn about eachother.

Sculptures visited

Artist Title of sculpture Location

1 Inge King Forward surge St Kilda Road,Next to the ArtsCentre.

2 Debra Halpern Ophelia Southbank

3 Inge King Shearwater Southbank

4 Unknown Description: Totem-type Opposite the Casino(well worth poles with Aboriginal Next to the railwaya visit) content line and the Yarra

River.

5 Bruce Armstrong Constellation Opposite the Casino& Geoffrey Bartlet Between the Yarra

River and therailway line.

6 Ron Robertson Vault (‘Yellow Peril’) Australian CentreSwann Contemporary Art.

7 Alison Weaver Three businessmen who Corner of Swanston& Paul Quinn brought their own lunch: Street & Bourke

Batman, Swanston & Hoddle. Street Mall.

8 Simon Perry The Public Purse Burke Street Mall.Elizabeth Street end.

‘Ophelia’, by Debra Halpern, is a large mosaic sculptureof a face. It was adopted by Melbourne Tourism as the‘Face of Melbourne’. However the students thought itwas a troubled and sad face to be adopted.

There is a sculpture by Henry Moore of a woman andchild in the garden of the National Gallery of Victoria.The woman i s l a rge and overs ized—Moore usua l lycreated his sculpture in this style. One student asked ifthis sculpture represented the Australian woman! Aninteresting observation! Another student said she hadnot really taken much notice of the sculptures aroundthe city but would now point them out to her childrenand ask them what they thought.


Practical MattersStudents make their own sculptureDuring the following week we discussed the excursionand spoke about the artwork we had seen. The plan wasfor the students to create their own piece of artwork—‘Sculpture made from found objects’. We discussed whatmaterials could be used, but basically there were no rules.This was a totally new concept for most students, and itwas the idea of the ESL teacher as she had an ar tbackground. I was actually a little sceptical because I wouldusually ask only art students to produce this type of work.I was amazed at how receptive the students were. Theyhad books to look for inspiration and came up with veryinteresting ideas. One student wrapped a milk carton increpe paper and inserted matches in the joins. Anothermade a life-size card sculpture of a person. She said shecouldn’t work on anything smaller because she was usedto working with patterns for dressmaking. Another studentmade a donkey from small sticks. It was very interesting tosee the results.

After this exercise we asked the students how they feltabout making art:

• They thought they had to go to college to make art.• They now discussed some of these ideas with their

children.• One student thought it was strange what we were

doing.

The observations I made quite surprised me compared toteaching the Artways course. The students in the ESLclasses were mainly Asian, with a few Europeans. TheArtways class that I taught consisted mainly of Australianstudents, and they were far more critical of contemporaryart. There would be comments such as ‘my child couldpaint that’ and ‘I don’t understand it, it’s rubbish’ and ‘Ionly like realist painting’. However the ESL students werequite different. They really explored these lessons anddiscussed them with great interest, and enjoyed makingthe art in the last lesson. The conclusion was that theywanted to make more objects in a craft area. The teacher Ihad collaborated with on this project said she would lookfurther into developing some lessons around craft andESL.

How the public art lessons link with theCGEA GCO

Public art in Melbourne

GCO for CGEA Lesson or activity

Collecting, analysing • Research sculptural art from books and theand organising internet.information. • Collect information, discuss with class and

document in a journal.• Photograph the sculpture, put into a journal

and write about the meaning to you.

Planning and • Organise an excursion to visit Melbourne’sorganising activities. public art sculpture.

Communicating ideas • Discuss the sculpture documented from theand information. excursion.

Working with others • Organise a trip to Melbourne with a group.and in teams. • Where are the sculptures?

• How do we get there?• How much will it cost?• How long will it take to see them?

Using mathematical ideas • Create a map and work out the route for theand techniques. excursion.

Solving problems. • Which trams will take us to the art pieces?

Using technology. • Using the internet to obtain informationabout the international public art pieces.

Identifying, analysing • Discuss the sculptures as a group after theand applying the visit to Melbourne.practices of culture. • Discuss the various styles and culture the

artist might have been influenced by.• Design a piece of sculpture for a particular

place, e.g. child’s playground, town hallsquare, a school, a university or sports centre.


Practical MattersSelf portraitThis lesson was influenced by one of the Jamie Olivercookbooks. There are images on one page that illustratepeople, places and objects that are significant to him. It isa wonderful collection of images—his old VW camper van,his mum and dad, an old pair of runners, a CD, his scooter,and much more.

I thought this would be a good idea for students to collecti t ems and photographs to u se in a co l l age wh ichrepresented aspects of their lives that they were happy toshare.

In this class, the students were asked to bring in fourobjects that were precious to them. The ESL teacher and Idid the same. There were amazing unplanned outcomesto this lesson. I had thought it would be interesting, butit was much more than that—I found it fascinating aseach of the students told the story of their precious objects.One Japanese student had brought in a diary that hermother-in-law had kept from when her son was born untilhe left home. She told us some of the stories in the journal.Another spoke about a photo of her grandchildren whoshe hadn’t seen for many years as they lived in Europe,and as she spoke her face lit up with pride and happinessto talk about them. She said she missed her family, andthe other students in her class had become her family andfriends. Many personal stories came into the conversations,and they were all happy to listen and ask questions abouteach other’s culture.

The ESL teacher commented that talking about each objectand explaining why it was important was enthralling forthe listeners—and I would say a great vehicle for thestoryteller to speak passionately about things close to theheart—and all of this was done in a second language. I’mactually not sure who was learning the most, the studentsor teachers. I couldn’t believe how much I had learnt andwhat a total delight it was being part of the class. I feltvery privileged.

After the discussion, the objects were placed on a sheet ofpaper and photographed. The images are being collated,and at the end of the year we are hoping to hold an artexhibition of art pieces created in the various classes.

Through working with these groups I have realised thegreat diversity and scope of learning we can all experiencein the classroom. When students can really explore theirown identity and share their culture with other students,it is a valuable experience for all involved.

Art can be used as an effective and powerful tool to learnmany things. It is visual, and can evoke critical thinkingand debate. The other thing we must not forget is thatusing art as a medium to teach can be seen as a mostenjoyable way to learn, and we want to encourage as muchlearning as possible. I hope you can use some of the ideasthat I’ve shared in this Practical Matters to create, engageand enjoy.

Ruth Woods has taught art and art-related subjects forover ten years. A former ACE organisation manager, she iscurrently in her final year of an Adult Learning andDevelopment degree at Monash University. She works as alearning communities project officer in a Victorian council.Ruth can be contacted at [email protected]

References1 Course in Further Education Art Studies, ACFE.

2 Thompson, J. (2002), Bread and roses: Arts, culture and life-

long learning , Leicester: NIACE.

Cartoon on page 22 by Moira Hanrahan.


A strategic point in time

The executive committee of the Australian Council for AdultLiteracy (ACAL) is developing an adult literacy and numeracystrategy relevant to the rapidly changing social and educationalclimate. Issues raised during the national ACAL forum,Beyond Training: Literacy and Social Policy, in Launcestonprompted the ACAL executive to form a strategy group toexamine and redevelop our strategic objectives.

The initial members of the group were Pauline O’Maley, JanHagston, Geraldine Castleton, Karen Dymke, Jana Sco-mazzon, Rosie Wickert and Jim Thompson. Each memberbrought a depth of experience and diverse expertise to thegroup. Rod McDonald, a highly regarded and well-connectedconsultant in the VET and adult education fields, wascontracted to work with the strategy group. Nationalinitiatives such as the ANTA round-table discussions for thenational strategy for VET, Shaping Our Future and theconsultation document, Diversity Management: Ideas forAction, provoked discussion of the integration of literacy andnumeracy into broader aspects of the community.

In developing ACAL policy and strategy, the work of theACAL strategy group has been influenced by the followingbroad social i ssues that have increasing currency inAustralian society:

• a greater emphasis on community capacity building—active citizenship and collaborative approaches tobuilding the nation’s social capital

• a growing awareness of the importance of health issues—including a focus on prevention and the needs of anaging population

• the significance of personal financial management—managing debt, planning for the future

• a continuing focus on the importance of education andcommunity, and involvement in promoting a pre-emptory approach to law and order

• the increasing reference to generic skills by business andindustry.

The group has met three times with the aim of clarifyinghow best ACAL might pursue its overall objectives in a

manner that is responsive to the broader social policydirections outlined above. The group has been consistentin its view that there is potential in exploring the notion ofextending the integrated approach characteristic of VETprograms to a broader community base. The case for anextended ‘built-in not bolted-on’ approach builds on thesuccess of the VET strategy initially started in the WorkplaceEnglish Language and Literacy (WELL) program. Thestrategy group believes that it can go far beyond thatcontext, and enable an overall approach leading to improvedliteracy and numeracy outcomes for individuals, com-munities, societies and the nation.

A researcher was commissioned to establish what evidenceexists in the Australian and overseas literature to supportthis view. The researcher found that although there is agrowing interest in cross-sectoral and integrated approaches,and that a number of programs have been developed, not agreat deal of attention has been paid to documenting theimpact of such programs. Of interest is recent work fromthe Centre for Popular Educat ion at Univers i ty ofTechnology Sydney (UTS) concerning the development oflearning outcome frameworks for various kinds of com-munity development activities. Despite the apparent lackof supportive documentation, the strategy group has keptto the view that the strategy outlined here is the directionthat ACAL should be proposing.

Outcomes of the ‘built-in not bolted-on’ approach couldinclude:

• more effective collaboration across sectors• greater connectedness with communities• greater responsiveness to needs of individuals (solutions-

oriented)• extended sense of possibilities by developing social

capital• greater collective and self-management• increased opportunities for learning engagement• multidisciplined approaches.

These outcomes are likely to be achieved though:• expanding and reworking the notion of what counts as

successful adult literacy and numeracy provision• shifting discourses away from teaching to literacy

Open ForumWe welcome your contributions to the articles featured in Fine Print. See the back cover for contact details.

In these times of disconcertingly rapid change, it is important that adult language, literacy and numeracy

providers and educators develop collaborative partnerships with businesses, community groups and local

governments. ACAL president Jim Thompson outlines what the organisation must do to get adult literacy

back on the agenda in this election year.


working as a community resource that works alongsideothers in many and varied ways

• a broader funding base.

Partnerships with national and state stakeholders in theadult literacy and numeracy field are integral to ACAL’swork. The following activities are planned for 2004 toresearch, develop and inform key components of thestrategy.

1. Research think tank—Sydney, ThursdayAugust 5At the same time as the development of ACAL’s futuredirections strategy and other national policy developmentsin adult literacy and numeracy, associate professor RosieWickert from the University of Technology Sydney (UTS)is undertaking a NCVER adult literacy research project.The project will explore the possibilities and constraints tosuccessful integrated partnership approaches to adult literacyand numeracy in community contexts. ACAL is conveninga small tightly focussed cross-sectoral workshop to explorepossible policy directions on the basis of the researchfindings. A small number of key strategic thinkers fromother sectors will be approached to participate alongsidekey thinkers in the education and training sectors. Theconsiderations from the workshop will be built into theensuing national forum.

2. National forum—Sydney, FridayAugust 6Shaping the future of adult literacy and numeracy inchanging policy environments: building on emergingpossibilities.

This working forum will incorporate, but not be limitedto, possibilities emerging from the ANTA strategy. It willalso consider the potential emerging from DEST’s adultlearning discussion paper, for example, as well as consideringthe possibilities and probabilities in party political policyplatforms that may emerge around the coming federalelection.

A highly-focused options paper, based on the outcomes ofthe forum and produced by an external consultant, will bepresented as a contribution to the further development ofany proposed national adult literacy and numeracy strategy,ACAL’s strategy and the ANTA strategy.

Building on the three strands of the ANTA strategy—workplace, community and individual—the forum will focuson the common concerns regarding adult literacy andnumeracy for policy and practice, and the unique featuresof each that must be considered in both policy and practice.These will include how:

• VET works for businesses—making businesses inter-nationally competitive

• VET works for people—giving Australia world-classskills and knowledge

• VET works for communities—building inclusive andsustainable communities.

By utilising strategic partnerships, ACAL will:• assist in the coordination of a national forum—A

Barometer of Policy and Practice—to discuss the latestresearch informing national strategy development withNCVER, DEST, and ANTA (Melbourne, September 9)

• assist VALBEC to convene the National Adult Literacyand Numeracy Conference—Four Seasons in One Day:Literacies in Changing Climates, (Melbourne, September10 and 11).

• continue its work on strategy development to provideleadership in the field.

• contribute to high-level reviews and consultations asappropriate. These include, but are not restricted to:

• the training package review• TAA LLN advanced diploma• NCVER student outcomes survey• NCVER adult literacy research program• ANTA national adult literacy innovative projects• Reading Writing Hotline national reference group• the federal minister’s literacy and numeracy awards• the Adult Learning in Australia Consultation paper.

The ACAL executive believes that we are at another strategicpoint in time for significant change in the adult language,literacy and numeracy field. Shaping Our Future promotesintegrated learning within communities, improved learningcultures, par tnerships, valuing of diversity, and localplanning and innovation as key underpinning elements ofits four objectives for VET in Australia from 2004–2010.

Opportunities must be provided for adult language, literacyand numeracy providers and educators to develop furthercollaborative partnerships with industries, businesses, localgovernment and community groups to help individuals andcommunities deal with a rapidly changing social environ-ment.

Jim Thompson is currently manager of the educationdevelopment unit at the multi-partner Peel Educationand TAFE Campus in WA. Originally a secondary andprimary school teacher, he has worked in a variety of adultliteracy and numeracy programs, contributed to andmanaged national projects, and established a state-widemoderation and professional development network ofadult literacy and numeracy lecturers and providers. Jimhas been a member of the ACAL executive since 2000and president since 2002.


Ten years of democracy: 30years of hard work

Project Literacy, South Africa’s largest and oldest Non-Government Organisation (NGO) working in the field ofAdult Basic Education and Training (ABET), has justcelebrated 30 years of hard work. South Africa celebrates10 years of democracy this year, and Project Literacy haswitnessed enormous changes in the field and the ways inwhich society views literacy and adult education. Currentstatistics suggest that just under a half (nearly 40 per cent)of adult South Africans are functionally illiterate. Of this40 per cent, some 3 million people have never receivedformal schooling at all.

This poses great challenges to South Africa in terms ofentrenching democratic practice, building a more pro-ductive workforce and building a resilient civil society.The South African economy desperately needs to createnew jobs as current unemployment levels stand at about40 per cent. In order to achieve this goal the countryrequires a more educated and more productive labour forcethat will attract internal and foreign investment.

Thirty years ago saw South Africa in a very different spaceto where we are today. The Afrikaner Nationalist regimewas entrenching apartheid in a way not seen previously. Astated policy was to offer black South Africans an inferiorand reduced educat ion. National i s t Pr ime MinisterVerwoerd’s infamous quote (which still reverberates today)was, ‘why teach the native things such as mathematics whichhe will never be able to use in real life?’ ‘Bantu education’therefore concentrated on subjects such as agriculture,African languages and biblical studies. The state did provideadult education which was identical to that offered toschool -going chi ldren. Clas se s were conducted byschoolteachers who taught children in the morning andadults in the evening. Adults used learner support materialand sat exams designed for children. Black adults weretaught largely by poorly educated black teachers.

Against this background of dodgy state provision, twooppositional groups saw an opportunity to offer adultssomething different. These two groups were identified as

white liberals or the political left incorporating whitecommunists and emerging black trade unionists. Whatunited them was their rejection of apartheid and a sharedbelief that something better could be offered to illiterateadults. Where they differed was in the liberals’ pursuit ofeducational excellence, and the left’s push for usingeducation as a means of political conscientisation (sic).The more literate the poor and oppressed, the more theywould be able to join the liberation movements andactively oppose apartheid.

Liberal groups were by far the larger and included ProjectLiteracy. Many had their roots in either the Catholic orAnglican Church. These groups used church property orchurch school property as a safe space to teach adults oftenliving as domestic workers or gardeners in white areas. TheGroup Areas Act of the time made it difficult for differentrace groups to meet after working hours. These centres werecharacterised by incredible volunteerism, where largelywhite educators gave freely of their time to educate poorand illiterate black South Africans. It was a remarkablemeeting of the white middle class with the black workingclass. ‘Madams’ met their maids in a very different place!Many of these agencies used the books provided by theDepartment of Education dealing with black education.Management of these centres and the teaching staff werealmost entirely white. What they did differently was toprovide a supportive environment with real concern, andthey achieved better results than the centres run by thestate. What they soon began to realise was that the teachingcould be more effect ive, more innovative and moreproductive if different materials and curricula were used.

Meanwhile the left concentrated on the writing of shortcourses and language programs that used politics as avehicle for learning. Whilst many good materials wereproduced, it is interesting to note that most learnerspreferred a learning program that was educationallygrounded rather than taking its ‘syllabus’ from Marx.Programs offered by the left tended to be poorly organisedand attracted fewer numbers of learners. It was a case ofliteracy for self-improvement versus literacy for liberation.Self-interest won the day!

When apartheid was at its peak South African non-profitorganisations received more donor funding than any other

Foreign CorrespondenceLike a tireless explorer, literacy has trod a long pathway through South Africa. And while apartheid has gone,

there remains the challenge of reaching the 40 per cent functionally illiterate adults. Andrew Miller’s

backgrounding of literacy in South Africa highlights the question, What of the Future?


in the world. Literacy and ABET was attractive to foreigndonors as the lack of schooling for black South Africans wasa very visible side effect of apartheid. Investment in thisarea was an investment in a new South Africa, whicheveryone agreed had to come. Some 50 agencies, includingquite famous organisations such as SACHED, EnglishLearning Project (ELP), Use Speak and Write English(USWE), and Project Literacy received massive injectionsof donor funding. This funding—primarily from theEuropean Union through the Victims of Apartheid Fund—was adminis tered by the South Afr ican Counci l ofChurches, Nordic countries and even USAID. At this timeSouth Africa produced some of the best adult learningmaterial in the world. Massive funding enabled research,testing, professional production and publishing. Fundingeven enabled the production of adult newspapers forlearners. Most agencies, including Project Literacy, producedalternative materials to those provided by the state, andwork began on an alternative examination system whichwould be suited to the unique needs of adults. It wasgenerally accepted that making adults write exams basedon a curricula for children was not only insulting, but alsodid not create the active citizen/worker the country needed.

In the final years of the apartheid regime, provision bythe non-profit sector in its entirety almost equaled that ofthe state. Industry, especial ly the important miningindustry, had begun to of fer ABET tra in ing to i t sworkforce in order to l ift skil ls and remain globallycompetitive. The push by business for a more productiveworkforce which would be globally competitive is animportant influence on what the new South Africa hasdesigned and implemented.

Change comes with a big bangIf one looks at the past ten years, the amount of the changein the field has been enormous, but not all of it has beenpositive.

• After extens ive co l laborat ion betw een indust ry,organised labour and the education department, SouthAfrican embraced the National Qualifications Frame-work (NQF). Drawing heavily on models from Australiaand New Zealand it produced what some have called a‘Jungle Jim’ of possibilities. Importantly, the SouthAfrican model has a sub-field of pre-qualifications thatrecognise ABET as a distinct learning experience on itsown. So we have an NQF 1 Level, which is preceded byfour levels of adult learning. This was a real attempt torecognise the uniqueness of the South African situation,and the need to formalise the provision of ABETaccording to a set of nat ional ly recognised unitstandards.

• What the NQF and the South African QualificationsAuthority (SAQA) did for ABET was to lift it out of

the church hall and into the mainstream. Almostovernight national standards, accreditat ion, unitstandards and formal examinations became the norm.What this has achieved is the lifting of ABET fromobscurity to a course of learning which is taken seriouslyby all role players. Importantly, it began to link anABET qualification into industry-based training. Forthe f i r s t t ime an ABET qual i f icat ion could, forexample, provide access to a blasting certificate on themines. This was literacy for jobs, not socialisation.

• The Independent Examinations Board (IEB) workedwith stakeholders and invested heavily in trialing examsdesigned for adults . One of the hangovers f romapartheid mentioned earlier was that adults sat examsdesigned for children. The IEB based its exams on theunit standards registered with SAQA, and on theprinciples of lifelong learning. Today, providers canchoose between the widely accepted exams of the IEB,adul t exams now se t by the s ta te and port fo l ioassessments favoured by the University of South Africa.All three forms of assessment are underwritten byUMALUSI (the South African Certification Body).This is a far cry from the dark days of apartheid andthe Bantu education exams designed for children.

• The advent of a democratic order saw tremendouschanges in the funding patterns of foreign donors. Itwas important and normal practice for foreign donorsto support governments, and not civil society. Thepeculiar South African story had made this not possible.NGOs were faced with two stark realities: adapt to thechanging scenario, professionalise and tender for work,or shut down. Many could not cross the Rubicon andeither chose to close or were eventually forced to closeon the point of bankruptcy. All left-leaning agencieshave now closed as, to some extent, their work hadbeen done. Liberal agencies which focused more ondelivery have fared a little better.

• The state was faced with the tremendous challenge oftransforming its adult education centres into outcomes-based learning sites which met national criteria, whilstagencies such as Project Literacy moved into the


position of service delivery (materials, teacher training)as opposed to direct delivery. Without massive donorfunding, actual provision by non-profit organisationsbecame an impossibi l ity. The state has moved toupgrade educators, purchase materials from agenciessuch as Project Literacy, forbid daytime teachers fromteaching adults ‘later on in the day’ and to bring stateprovision in line with the demands of the NQF. Oneof the new South African ironies is that the apartheidstate and the homelands serviced more adult learnersthan the new democratic state. Downsizing, rightsizing,cuts on public ex-penditure and the government’seconomic policy known as GEAR, have taken their tollon public service.

• The Department of Labour manages Sector andEducation Authorities (SETAs) which have demarcatedthe economy and replaced old-style apprenticeships withnew-style learnerships. Many of the learners waiting togo on a learnership need ABET skills first. ProjectLiteracy has been especially successful at winningcontracts with SETAs to provide this service. Moniesallocated for ABET through the Department of Labourfar outweigh money voted for ABET through theEducation Ministry.

ChallengesThe challenge that remains is that the totally illiterate havenot been reached success ful ly. The government hasattempted to do so through the National Literacy Initiative(SANLI), but numbers reached remain small and thefollow-through is sporadic. This program has also beenconducted outside of the NQF and moves literacy back to‘church hall’ provision.

How does literacy aid poverty alleviation?Literate people may learn to read, but they can’t eat theBible. The challenge for non-profit providers and the state

remains how to effectively link skills literacy and povertya l l ev i a t ion . In a country wi th such h igh l eve l s o funemployment, the challenge remains to show illiteratepeople that improved literacy levels will result in animproved standard of living.

Who will fund literacy for the sake of literacy?We all know the arguments that improved literacy levelsenable citizens to engage better with the apparatus of thestate (access child support grants and other social welfarebenefits), that literate parents are better parents, and thatliterate mothers keep girl children in school longer thanilliterate mothers. Literate rural people are able to accessbetter health care, and in the case of HIV/AIDS, monitorand take anti-retroviral drugs with confidence. This kindof ABET does not necessarily fit in with the demands ofthe economy or the promise of jobs. It provides a fineargument for the continuation of donor funding in acountry still sharply divided into two worlds—one withskyscrapers and the biggest stock exchange in the southernhemisphere, the other where safe and running waterremains a dream.

How do NGOs such as Project Literacy surviveon government contracts and still provide acritical voice which challenges and questions?‘You can’t bite the hand that feeds you’, said one seniorbureaucrat.

We have moved a long way—as a country and as anorganisation, but serious challenges still remain. ProjectLiteracy has the staff, the vision and the governancestructures to meet the challenge of change and to expanddelivery. As an organisation we are bigger, stronger andbetter equipped to serve South Africa than ever before.Whilst significant numbers of South Africans remain shutout of the mainstream, we have a job to do which we facewith determination, a tried strategy and vigour.

Andrew Miller is the chief executive officer of ProjectLiteracy, the largest non-profit provider of adult basiceducation and training in South Africa. His specialinterests lie in building strong civil society organisations,the link between education and poverty alleviation, andcapacity building of rural poor communities to accessrights and take charge of their lives.

email: [email protected]: www.projectliteracy.org.za


Sustaining adult literacy: alook at international trends

What does literacy mean in today’s world, with its rapidlychanging technology and new landscapes in education andthe workplace? To answer these questions, the NationalCentre for Vocational Education and Training (NCVER)funded a suite of research projects in 2003. One of theseprojects investigated international literacy policies, trendsand init iat ives with a focus on the implications forAustralia. The report, Building Sustainable Adult LiteracyProvision: A Review of International Trends in AdultLiteracy Policy and Programs’, will shortly be publishedby NCVER.

This article provides a brief overview of the methodology,some of the key messages drawn from the research, and asummary of the features of adult literacy policy provisionin countries that are featured in the study. The full reportincludes a chapter describing adult literacy policy andprovision in each country and Australia, and provides acritical insight into how Australia might continue torebuild its adult literacy policy and provision. It features acomprehensive reference section.

The scope of the studyThe countries selected by NCVER for the study wereCanada, the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand, the UnitedKingdom and the United States of America. The researchwas confined to a desk study. It includes an analysis of thesignificant research and policy statements by internationalinstitutions such as the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), theInternational Labour Organisation (ILO) and the Organ-isation for Economic and Cultural Development (OECD).It also covered descriptions and analysis of the adult literacypolicy initiatives, frameworks and program provisionincluding investment levels and outcomes, an analysis ofthe extent to which ‘new literacies’ are being addressed inother countries and Australia and a discussion of theimplications of international trends for Australia.

The study is limited to programs funded by governmentsor their agencies, either in part or fully, or subject to

statistical and other reporting requirements. In mostcountr ies this provis ion occurs in post-compulsoryeducation sectors—variously described as adult education,higher education, community education, vocationaleducation and training and/or further education.

The framing of the project brief around conceptions ofadult literacy raised the dilemma about how to treat adultnumeracy, adult second language or the overarchingconcept of adult learning and education. While recognis-ing adult numeracy and adult English as a second languageas discrete fields of education practice, the treatment ofthese educational areas within government policies tendsto include, or not distinguish, between them. Throughoutthe report the term adult literacy is generally inclusive ofadult numeracy and English as a second language. Thestudy used Lankshear’s four categories of literacy—thelingering basics, the new basics, the elite literacies andfore ign l anguage l i t e racy to de sc r ibe the range o fapproaches in each country.1

International perspectivesInternational organisations, from their varying perspectives,are sending a strong message supporting the systematic andexplicit inclusion of adult literacy provision throughreformed education systems supporting lifelong learning.The United Nations has called for a renewed vision ofliteracy that goes beyond the limited view of literacy thatdominated in the past, and has adopted a view of newliteracies that develops the ‘ability to locate, evaluate andeffectively use information in multiple manners’.

The UN Decade of Literacy calls on all national govern-ments to respond to its action plan. The internationalcomparative research undertaken by the Organisation forEconomic and Cultural Development, particularly theInternational Adult Literacy Surveys, has provided thequantitative data and an assessment of the impact ofliteracy to promote policy development. These surveysshowed that most OECD countries have 45 per cent to55 per cent of their adult populations performing at levelstha t compromise the i r ab i l i ty to proces s eve rydayinformation and participate in the labour market andeducation. The studies by the International LabourOrganisation have contributed to a review of humanresource development in the light of massive changes in

Policy UpdateHow does Australia look when international adult literacy policies and provisions are compared? Could we do

better, or can we sit back and say, ‘She’ll be right, mate’? With this question in mind, Rosa McKenna and

Lynne Fitzpatrick look at a National Centre for Vocational Education and Training (NCVER) project that

examines international policies and trends, paying particular attention to the implications for Australia.


the labour market and technological change emphasisinga system of lifelong learning, the importance of humancapital and the multiple contexts for learning usingconstructivist rather than transmission pedagogies.

A l l count r i e s have been g rapp l ing w i th chang ingdefinitions of literacy to cover the emerging literacypractices of new technologies, multicultural societies, thechanging nature of work and expanding modes of delivery.Most countries have innovative curriculum and assessmentframeworks for their adult literacy provision, capturingnew literacies and adapted to the social purposes for whichadults use literacy. However, these frameworks are notalways mandated. Countries like the UK, Ireland and NewZealand are including the new basics in basic skills levelsof national qualifications standards, while Australia hasbuilt literacy into the industry standards in its qual-ifications framework. In the US the emphasis in policyremains on the lingering basics with additional skills usingICT being added to that repertoire. In most countries theteaching of the l ingering basics coexists with movestowards the new basics as the capacity to know about anduse new technologies and pedagogies becomes available.

Despite the recognition of its importance, adult literacyremains a marginalised and relatively under-funded areaof education. Most countries have recognised the need tobuild the capacity of their systems to meet adult literacyneeds. They all have aging workforces characterised bycasualised employment and poor access to appropriatequalifications and professional development to meet theexpanding contexts of delivery.

Despite the lack of financial data, most countries claim tohave increased expenditure.

All the countries in the study, with the exception ofAustralia, have or are planning a discrete adult literacypolicy or strategy to address identified education needsand to guide increased investment. Most are developingadult education frameworks within the context of post-compulsory education systems with the exception of theUS, where the recent policy realigns adult literacy withschool literacy standards.

Key messages from the researchThe countries in this desk study—Australia, Canada,Ireland, New Zealand, the UK and the US—have a similardistribution of literacy performance among their adultpopulation according to the International Adult LiteracySurvey conducted between 1994 and 1998.

Significant proportions of adults in these countries,between 45 per cent and 55 per cent, perform at the two

lowest levels of the prose scale of the IALS, indicating thatmany adults will have difficulty performing everydayliteracy tasks, or in taking advantage of opportunities toparticipate in further education and the labour market.

Most of these adults are already in the labour market, andmany will remain there for the next 20 years, so thatinterventions to improve literacy need to be targeted atthe post-compulsory education system. Needs analysis andparticipation studies in the countries studied have yieldedimportant information about the extent of unmet needsand ways to tailor provision to meet adult needs andlifestyle.

Understandings of literacy and literacy pedagogy havechanged over the last decade. Literacy requirements willcont inue to expand to inc lude p rogre s s i ve u se o ftechnological means of communication and a largervolume of information. The pedagogical trends are towardsa provision contextualised to adult experience. The sitesand contexts for learning need to fit adult purposes andbe available through all life stages, which implies that anongoing and lifelong strategy for literacy development inpost-compulsory education is necessary.

International organisations such as the United Nations, theOrganisation for Economic and Cultural Development andthe International Labour Organisation all recommend thedevelopment of a strong system of adult basic education aspart of a country’s education and training system.

In a l l comparable countr ies , adult l i teracy remainsmarginalised and under-resourced, lacking the capacity todeliver programs to meet estimated needs. However, allother countries have developed, or are in the process ofdeveloping, national policies and strategies. The UK hasdeveloped the most comprehensive policy and provisionwhile federations like Australia, Canada and the US needto engage the cooperation of the states, territories andprovinces and key stakeholders to successfully implementstrategies.

Features of a national adult literacy policy—recommendedby international organisations and gleaned from theexperience of countries in the study—appear to be anational leadership structure, national research and referralprograms, flexible funding and diverse delivery models,nationally consistent reporting and quality assurancesystems, and teacher supply and maintenance.

The Australian post-compulsory education system alreadyhas many of these features in place, and policies affectingthe delivery of adult literacy have been ‘built in’. To ensurethat the benefits of adult literacy are available to those


that need it to fulfil personal opportunities, and alsocontribute to Australia’s economic and social development,adult literacy goals and targets need to be established andmonitored.

An action planAustralia has a mechanism for national adult literacy policydevelopment through the Australian National TrainingAuthority strategic planning process, Shaping the Future.This strategy was endorsed in late 2003. The twelve aspectsof this strategy should be used to facilitate an action plan toidentify needs, to set participation rates and achievementsfor target groups, to build a capacity to deliver diversifiedprograms, systematically collect data and monitor qualityof delivery, in an approach to be negotiated by those with astake in the system in 2004.

A successful strategy for raising awareness about the impactof poor literacy and policy development has been the conductof national summits or forums. The Australian NationalTraining Authority and the Department of Education,Training and Science should demonstrate national leadershipby engaging key stakeholders in these issues.

The UK, New Zealand and Ireland all feature similarqualification frameworks to Australia. These countries haveidentified levels of the national qualifications systems inwhich ‘basic’ or ‘foundation’ skills are developed. Australianeeds to develop a similar mechanism so that adult literacyneeds can be identified, and provision tracked within thenational system.

Australia and Canada both have excellent records in fundingnational innovative projects. Both countries could learnfrom strategies in UK, Ireland and New Zealand aboutsupporting the take-up and sustaining new forms ofprovision. Australia has a most successful workplace literacyprogram, and has had success in ‘building in’ literacy withvocat iona l educat ion and t ra in ing . Innovat ions inintergenerational health and financial literacies have beensuccessfully developed in other countries and are worthy ofconsideration in Australia.

As funding has increased for adult l i teracy, so haveaccountability measures. Most countries have engaged indeve lop ing adu l t -or i ented f r ameworks fo r gu id ingcurriculum and assessment and evaluation or qualityassurance systems regulating provision. Most countrieshave, or are developing, a single gateway on the Internetfor information about adult literacy provision, resourcesand research.

Most countries in the study have identified a lack ofcapacity or a skilled workforce as a major difficulty in

meeting the need for an effective adult literacy provision.Development of qualif ications within national qual-ifications frameworks, and the provision of professionaldevelopment to up-skil l existing workforce and newrecruits, are essential features of policies in the UK, Ireland,Australia and New Zealand.

Features of policy and provisionCanadaOf the countries in the study, Canada, because of its sizeand the nature of its governance, is the most fragmentedin terms of national adult literacy policy and provision.Canadians are currently in the process of developing anational strategy and dealing with the challenge of gainingsupport from provincial governments in a pan-Canadianaccord on adult literacy.

Some of the best features of the current Canadian provisionare:

• The National Literacy Secretariat, (http://www.nald.ca/nls/aboutnls/about.htm), located within the Departmentfor Human Resource Development, provides nationalleadership with a substantial budget for infrastructureand national projects. This funding is frequently usedin partnership with provincial governments and localproviders.

• The Movement fo r Canad ian L i t e r acy, (www.literacy.ca/), is a strong national provider advocacyorganisation.

• NALD, the National Adult Literacy Database (http://www.nald.ca/), which provides a database of provision,research and resources using a thesaurus developed foradult literacy, and including ICT literacy resources.

• CONNECT (http://www.nald.ca/connect/about.htm),features innovative provision, particularly participatorycommunity-based approaches, online provision andresources, health literacy and new culturally sensitiveliteracy initiatives for aboriginal communities.

• The Essential Skills Framework (http://www15.hrdc-drhc . g c . ca / ) , s imi l a r to EFF (US) and the NRS(Australia), describes the enabling skills adults need toperform. These skills have been directly linked tooccupational standards, and assessments are beingdeveloped.

IrelandIreland is relatively small in size and population comparedto other countries in the study. Nevertheless, it has rapidlyexpanded funding and learning options to meet the manyneeds of adult learners.

The be s t f e a tu re s o f deve lopment s in I r e l and a r erepresented by the National Adult Literacy Agency, NALA,(http : / /www.nala . i e / ) , which plays a cr i t ica l ro le in


advocacy and l iaison with government agencies andprofessional and resource development. NALA also hasprocesses for expanding provision through a cycle ofresearch and awareness raising, evaluates pilot projects anddeve lops guide l ines for prov i s ion and profes s iona ldevelopment.

The agency is behind the development of special istmodules for staff training and certification with WaterfordInstitute of Technology as a national qualification. It alsoprovides an assessment framework that describes literacydevelopment within the national qualifications structure(http://www.nala.ie/training/index.tmpl? sec=3).

New ZealandAdult literacy in New Zealand has until recently beenmarginalised and factionalised. The process of policydeve lopment has brought s takeholder s together tocooperate in capacity building.

The New Zealand government has established a unitwithin the Tert iar y Educat ion Commiss ion, ht tp : / /www1 . t e c . g o v t . n z / e du ca t i on_and_ t r a in in g / l i t e r a c y /literacy.htm .

Also, there is the More than Words adult literacy strategyat http:/ /www.tki.org.nz/r/ literacy_numeracy/clarifying/adult/morethanwords.pdf.

The Government has commenced building the capacityof the system certifying practitioners’ qualifications, andis building an assessment framework linked to the NewZealand Qualifications Framework. Increased fundingallows the delivery of an expanded range of provision,including programs such as vocational and family literacyprograms tailored to the needs of Maori and Pasifikacommunities.

A recent innovation is the establishment of a new adultl i teracy portal for research and information , ht tp: / /www.nzliteracyportal.org.nz .

The UKSince the Moser report in 1999, the UK has developed acomprehensive system of adult literacy. The Skills for Lifestrategy is a whole-of-government approach, setting targetsfor specific populations to improve basic skills. A basicskills strategy unit is responsible for its implementation.

The UK features the most comprehensive and well-resourced system. It features a learning infrastructure thatincludes standards within the national qualificationsframework, a national curriculum, screening and initialassessments, a range of delivery sites and contexts, resources

and assessment linked to the standards and standards andprofessional development for staff (http://www.dfes.gov.uk/readwriteplus/).

The public sector initiative is unique amongst the countriesstudied. All government portfolios, as part of humanresource planning, have to identify and provide adultliteracy support where needed, utilising funded stafft r a in ing o r s tudy en t i t l ement s , ( h t tp : / /www.ba s i c -skills.co.uk/site/page.php? cms=1&p=1181&product=563).

Initiatives in the UK are being supported by research andevaluation. The Pathfinder projects have evaluated aspectsof the ‘learning infrastructure’ and other variables indelivery such as time, mode and funding incentives, and aconsortium of universities have formed the national Centrefor Adult Literacy and Numeracy (http : / /www.nrdc .org.uk). Adult literacy is considered part of social inclusionpolicies (http://www.cesi.org.uk/).

The USThe US has had a national system of adult educationprovision since federal funds were legislated in 1964.Federal funding, with agreement with state governors,shapes the range of provision. The most recent legislation,The Adult Basic and Literacy Education Act, continuesthe trends of ‘No Child Left Behind’, outlining reformsto the American education system (http://www.ed.gov/policy/adulted/leg/aeblueprint2.doc). Unlike other countriesin the study, the US is turning away from frameworks like‘Equipped for the Future’, which describes skills neededby adults, and is returning to alignment with school basicskills outcomes.

Features of adult literacy in the US include:• a long tradition of intergenerational or family literacy

programs suppor t ed by bo th gove rnment andphilanthropic organisations

• the utilisation of the IALS data to identify and describethe disparate needs of the three challenge groups orpopulat ions wi th spec i f ic l i t e racy needs (ht tp : / /www.gse.harvard.edu/~ncsall/research/occas.htm)

• the roles of the National Institute for Literacy inproviding a national focus and infrastructure throughLINCS, and nat ional research centres providingcollaborative and basic research (http://www.nifl.gov/)

• the Equipped for the Future f ramework (ht tp : / /www.ni f l . gov / l inc s / co l l e c t ion s / e f f / e f f .h tml ) , whichprovides a robust curriculum and linguistic model forplanning and assessing adult literacy.

Events in the US have recently undermined the role ofNIFL in providing national leadership in ‘adult’ literacy,funding cuts are being anticipated, and there is a spirited


debate about the use of scientific research-based methodsof instruction and standardised assessment systems asconditions of funding.

AustraliaAustral ia had a col laborative national adult l i teracystrategy operating between 1991 and 1996 through theimplementation of the Australian Language and LiteracyPolicy. Since then funding has decreased, provision hasdecl ined and col laborat ive nat ional s t ructures havefragmented. The post-compulsory education system hasbeen reformed, for example, registering a broad spectrumof service providers, introducing a national qualificationsframework, a quality framework and flexible forms ofassessment and delivery. Adult literacy is being rebuiltinto these structures.

Some features of adult literacy in Australia

The Workplace English Language and Literacy programhas operated for over a decade and provides workplaceprograms for workers vulnerable in the labour market. Itpioneered a successful funding model as well as deliverymodels.

Adult literacy is ‘built-in’ to the vocational education andtraining system, the infrastructure of the National TrainingFramework, and a range of accredited curricula that useframeworks for developing and assessing linguistic andnumeracy skills which can be applied in contexts of thelearner’s or provider’s choosing.

In the process of rebuilding its adult literacy provision,Australia needs to respond to the UN Decade of Literacyplan of action by articulating its policy initiatives andcommitting to ongoing participation in the internationalsurveys, the Adult Literacy and Lifeskills (ALL) survey, asa means to monitor performance.

Shaping the Future: The National Strategy for VocationalEduca t ion and Tra in ing 2004–2010 , p r ov ide s theopportunity to articulate an action plan to service theneeds of business, individuals and communities—flexiblyand inclusively. The strategy will also build the capabilityof practitioners and the capacity of training organisationsto improve the quality, access, and responsiveness of adultliteracy provision.

Some of the tasks facing policy makers in this rebuildingprocess are:

• researching the dropout rates and the decl ine inparticipation in accredited adult literacy courses

• investigating the impact and effectiveness of the built-in model with vocational education

• utilising needs analysis research to target adult learners• r e - e s t ab l i sh ing consu l t a t i ve s t ruc ture s be tween

governments and stakeholders• linking the recognition processes available through the

VET system to value informal learning• investigating flexible models of funding similar to

WELL, to expand contexts of provision• taking innovations into established programs• building the capacity of practitioners and providers to

deliver adult literacy in an expanding range of contexts.

Rosa McKenna and Lynne Fitzpatrick are directors ofCommunication in Education and Training Pty Ltd. Bothhave worked in the adult literacy field for many years.Currently they are working on developing a resource oncontextualised teaching and learning in vocationaleducation and training, and an NCVER project to identifyand describe the literacy practices developed using anintegrated training approach.

Reference1 Lonsdale, M & McCurry, D, (forthcoming), Literacy in the

new millennium: A discussion paper, NCVER.


Michael, tell us about your professional journey since 1996

I’ve had a wonderful journey since ’96. Starting out as anESL teacher with his eyes on overseas travel , I wasastounded to find myself working in the local adulteducation sector. I feel that I’ve learned so much that’simpacted on the rest of my life—not only about teachingand learning , but a l so about technology, re search,publishing, music and working with groups of learnersand colleagues. The adult literacy field is an exciting fieldto work in because it is still very new, and embraces allmanner of perspectives from Hallidayan linguistics tocultural theory, and visual literacies too.

How is it that you have chosen to stay working in the

ACE sector?

I really enjoy working in the ACE sector! I find there is alevel of freedom and enthusiasm, as well as a sense ofstruggling with the odds. It amazes me that our sector isso h idden, though—many people don’t rea l i s e thepowerful impact that a local community learning centrecan have on the marginalised lives of people who wouldn’tdream of going somewhere as mainstream as a TAFE.

Why would anyone stay in a sector where more than 60per cent of the employees have 12 weeks compulsoryunpaid annual leave? Where employers want to give theiremployees better conditions, but just can’t afford it? Wherewages have barely shifted in ten years, but accountabilityhas risen ten-fold? I don’t know how our Ministers cansleep at night. They seem to be happy to leave the ACEsector in its history of volunteerism. The virulent anti-worker policies coming out of Canberra appear to havestrengthened our state government’s ability to appearreasonable while they move further from their roots towardcorporate appeasement, don’t they?

I am extremely fortunate compared to many of mycolleagues, in that I have a contract position. This isn’t

really fair, but I’m very grateful for my good fortune,blessed that technology has been flavour of the month forthe last few years.

What do you like about working in an organisation such

as PRACE?

PRACE is a wonderful environment, largely because of theastonishing leadership qualities of the manager—and alsobecause of the brilliant educators at PRACE who’ve workedin many other places, and who constantly remind us howlucky we are to have a good leader. I find it soothes my soulto work in a place that is close to the local community, hasa positive impact, and allows people to be innovative. Inmy experience, a small organisation pays more attention toits staff, and has to work hard to retain them.

The interesting thing for a technical person like me is thatI get to build such a wide-ranging set of skills—frompublishing on paper and on the web, to the basics of graphicdesign, research, online facilitation, running a web server—all within the contexts of language and literacy learning.

Tell us about the development of At the Beach

Part of me is surprised that people are still interested inthis project—it’s become a bit of an obsession with me,because I’m also researching the whole experience as myMasters study.

Originally our manager gave us—Anne Dunn, ChrisMalakar and myself—time to spend developing resourcesin order to learn about how to put things online. What aluxury—time to spend working with col leagues andbuilding materials!

We originally intended to build a site that could standalone, that students could use without too much supportfrom teachers, that would be fun, stimulating and containuseful information. Our basic model was ‘pictures + text

Beside the WhiteboardMichael Chalk has taught adult literacy for over eight years. He last appeared in Beside the Whiteboard in

autumn, 1996. Since then Michael has continued to teach ESL and literacy, and now works primarily in the

area of technology-based learning.

Michael is the flexible learning coordinator at Preston Reservoir Adult Community Education (PRACE), and

has worked on such projects as the Flexible Learning Leaders’ program in 2003 and LearnScope professional

development projects. He was a member of the VALBEC general committee and the Fine Print editorial group

for several years, but recently retired from this position in order to finish his Masters in Education.

Perhaps the best known of Michael’s projects is ‘At the Beach’—one of the first online learning opportunities

for adult literacy students. He talks to Sarah Deasey from Fine Print about Chalk on the whiteboard


+ activities that give the learner some feedback’. The funnything about a theme-based lesson is that an individualteacher probably won’t use it very often—so making thesite a publicly shared resource was a good idea. Even ifwe’re not using it, someone else can!

Since we started the project, people’s ideas about goodonline learning have changed. Now the field is moving inthe directions of collaborative problem solving, game-playing, role-play and teamwork. The ideas around sociallyinteractive learning started to make a much bigger impacton online learning in the last couple of years. Howeverour beach site really hasn’t encouraged group learning—that has been left up to individual teachers. So now we’vetried to build in a basic level of social interaction, butthere’s a long way to go.

Since we refurbished and slowly migrated the site during2003, it’s been very interesting to learn that visitors arrivefrom all around the world. In April, people from over 30countries visited the site! Now, how can we encourage allthose people to meet and develop their language skillstogether?

It would be great in the future to find better ways toinvolve the teachers and learners who visit the site. I’dlove to find a way to bring more people into the project,so that learners could share their stories and opinions, andteachers could share any relevant activities. I’d also love tofind a way to fund our time to develop more resources,and even s t a r t on a new theme too ! (ht tp : / / b each .prace.vic.edu.au)

What are your definitions of flexible learning and online

learning?

I take a flexible approach to both of these terms. Theyboth fit into the ‘jargon’ category, along with e-learning,e-communication, blended learning, central digital objectrepositories, and so forth.

Flexible learningThere appears to be a strong feeling in Australian adulteducation sectors that flexible learning is really aboutincreasing options for teaching and learning, making surethat the needs of learners are central to planning and delivery(The word ‘delivery’ does imply that you can have yourlearning delivered just like the milk and the mail, doesn’t it?).Flexible learning can draw on a whole range of technologicaltools to ensure that learners’ needs are catered for.

Online learningOnline learning is frequently used to describe what goeson in corporate web-based environments where teacherscan publish resources, and stimulate group discussion. I

often expand the term in my own mind to read any kindof exploration of screen-based literacies, but I’d probablybe alone on that one.

Blended learningBlended learning is actually a useful term, because itdescribes what goes on in most adult literacy classrooms—screen-based resources being used alongside paper-basedresources, in face-to-face settings. The term allows us toimagine more sui table s i tuat ions for adul t l i te racylearning—using whatever tools are at hand to improveopportunities for the learners.

I still think one of the best models for an adult literacyclassroom was one from Sussex Street NeighbourhoodHouse, when they put two classes and two teacherstogether in a very big room. At one end of the room therewere tables for project and group work, at the other endwere the computers for when people needed them.

I like other terms such as technology-enhanced learning,networked learning, or screen-based resources—or ‘adultlearning via whatever resources you can find at the time’.

I read a comment recently about an adult learner who haddiscovered the most amazing technological tool for herflexible learning—an object she could take with herwherever she went. Made out of recycled vegetable matter,she could instantly access any part of the text using anavigation device called an index. This incredible tool canbe accessed using advanced search technologies at a centralorganising location.

Yes, our learners still need to get the basics of borrowingbooks from the library!

The more resources a person can access, the more flexiblethey are. If somebody can use the library catalogue, andborrow a book in their own time outside of class wherethey couldn’t before, then they’ve improved their abilityto learn flexibly.

What are the conditions for successful online learning?

Much the same as the conditions for successful face-to-face learning—a balance between suitable resources,stimulating yet achievable activities and social interaction.And a teacher who is aware of the learners’ goals and needs,who can engage the learners’ attention and fire theircuriosity, and who has the skills to successfully managefruitful discussion.

The differences between face-to-face and networkedlearning lie in the way resources are presented, and thekind of facilitation skills demanded of the teacher.


What are the benefits of online learning for the adult

literacy student? Are there limitations?

I would not rush an adult literacy student, or teacher, intoonline learning as it is usually understood. There are somany barriers to overcome—the basic fear of technology,the need to develop basic skills with desktop softwaressuch as word processors, layout software, and image editors.

If we expand online learning to include any use of screen-,web- or CD-based resources then there are plenty ofbenefits. Consider the potential of an adult l iteracyclassroom with access to an array of resources. I think agreat model could be a room with data projector and justa few computers—enough to ensure access to all theresources for research and publishing, but not so muchthat the machines distract people from other possibilitiessuch as col laborative face-to-face learning, printingresources from the web and working on a table.

To move away from the individual-in-a-lab syndrome, touse the machines to build communication and collaborationbetween your group and another. Learning thrives in a socialenvironment, doesn’t it?

The amazing thing is that literacy itself has been shiftingfor the educators in the last few years. Advertisers and themedia have learned so much about tapping into theaudiovisual cues that drive our desires. Wouldn’t it bewonderful if we had the kind of budget that advertisingdepartments have, and the time to make similar explorations.

There are limitations. If you are ever enrolling an adultliteracy learner in an online course, make sure there are avariety of resources to suit many learning styles, that socialsettings will be there to support the learner, that the peoplerunning the course are clear about how quickly they’llrespond to emails, and that there’s a good help desk fortechnical troubles.

Tell us about your work as a flexible learning leader (FLL)

In 2003 I was so lucky to receive one of these FLLprofessional development scholarships. What an op-portunity! You get to meet people from all around thenation, and also plenty of time to develop the skills youneed.

I used this time to redevelop the beach site. Some of ourreviews had mentioned that the original site was difficult

to navigate, so I spent time learning a new programminglanguage in order to build a better navigation system. Wea l so wanted more v i sua l in format ion to s t imula tediscussion, so we put in a photo gallery that is now themost popular part of the site.

Open Source, the free software revolution that has beensweeping the world, was a major focus of my research. Ilearned a lot about how a web server works, and the hugerange of free web applications that could be useful for literacylearning; for example, blogging tools, concept mapping,diagram-builders, and learning management systems.

Is online learning delivering the new forms of learning

that were promised?

Oh dear, did you believe the hype? I think in the earlydays some people were eager to throw out the baby, thebathwater and the whole bathroom. Now, most realise thatwhile technology can help, what really matters is the idealof the educational organisation that can use technology torespond rapidly and effectively to the needs of learnersand teachers.

I th ink there remains t remendous hope for use fu lapplications of technology within adult learning environ-ments. For example, there is current research into the useof online voice tools that could make it easier for literacygroups to meet and interact from different locations1.Interestingly, one of the most interesting projects in recentyears looks at how to use email for learning through games2.A simple use of technology, which can help people gaincommand over the number one networked communicationtool.

However, 2004 is the end of the five-year funding cyclefor the Australian Flexible Learning Framework, so now isthe time to speak with any CEOs you know from ANTA ifyou’d like professional development to continue in 2005.

Thanks Michael, good luck with the Masters and all the

fabulous work at PRACE!

NotesFor more information about Michael’s FLL journey, visit http://

prace.vic.edu.au/flex

1 Michael Coghlan’s work at http://users.chariot.net.au/~michaelc/

fll/blog.htm

2 Thiagi’s work at http://www.thiagi.com/email.html

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