Chapter 12COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Discuss Piagets stage of concrete operational thought and apply Piagets theory to educationDescribe changes in information processing in middle and late childhoodCharacterize childrens intelligenceSummarize language development in middle and late childhoodExplain the development of achievement in children

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

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Concrete operational stage; ages 7-11Reversible mental actions applied to real, concrete objectsFocus on several characteristics at onceSeriation: Ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimensionTransitivity: Ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusionsCONCRETE OPERATIONAL THOUGHT

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His conclusions have been challenged:Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier/laterStages not unitary structures of thoughtSome can be trained to reason at higher stage Culture and education exert stronger influenceNeo-Piagetians: Developmentalists who have elaborated on Piagets theory, giving more emphasis to information processing, strategies, and precise cognitive steps

EVALUATING PIAGETS THEORY

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Teach children:Take constructivist approachFacilitate rather than direct learningConsider childs knowledge and level of thinkingUse ongoing assessmentPromote students intellectual healthTurn classroom into setting of exploration and discoveryAPPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION

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Applying Vygotskys ideasEncourage child to internalize and regulate self-talkProvide opportunities to learn in real-world settingsKamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP)Small group activities, ZPD emphasis, question-and-answer formatOutcomes are impressiveAPPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION

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Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhoodKnowledge and expertiseExpert: extensive knowledge in specific areaStrategies (aka: control processes) Deliberate mental actions to learn and retain informationMEMORY

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Strategies Mental imagery used by young childrenElaboration used by older childrenFuzzy trace theory: Two types of memory representations:Verbatim memory trace: precise detailsGist: central idea of informationMEMORY

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Critical thinkingThinking reflectively and productivelyEvaluate evidence, develop deep understandingSuccessful grades is not indicator of critical thinkerCreative thinkingThink in novel and unusual waysProduce unique solutionsIntelligence and creativity not the sameTHINKING

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Creative thinking and intelligenceConvergent thinking: Intelligence reflected on conventional tests; produce one correct answerDivergent thinking: Creativity; produce many answers for one questionTHINKING

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Strategies to increase creative thinkingEncourage brainstormingProvide stimulating environmentsDont overcontrol, build childs confidenceEncourage internal motivationGuide child to be persistent, delay gratificationEncourage taking intellectual risksIntroduce children to creative peopleCARING FOR CHILDREN

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Scientific thinkingReasoning to identify causal relationsNeed understanding of how things occurAnalyze before and after the effectReasoning of children differs from scientificScientists design experiments, hypothesesScientists separate evidence and theoryChild has many concepts incompatible with science and reality; not routinely taughtTHINKING

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Cognition about cognition Most focus on metamemoryChildren ages 5 to 6Familiar, related items easier to rememberGist of a story is easier to rememberFocus on knowledge about strategiesEffective planning aids problem solvingApplication of effective strategies is keyMETACOGNITION

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IntelligenceProblem-solving skills and ability to learn from everyday experiences that allow adaptationIndividual differences existVerbal ability and problem-solving skillsCan only be measured indirectlyIntelligence testsBinet tests (later Stanford-Binet Tests)INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ASSESSMENT

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FIGURE 12.3 - THE NORMAL CURVE AND STANFORD-BINET IQ SCORES

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The Wechsler ScalesWechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III (WISC-III)Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV Integrated (WISC-IV integrated) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ASSESSMENT

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Sternbergs Triarchic theory3 main forms; individual patterns varyAnalytic intelligenceCreative intelligencePractical intelligenceSome patterns favored conventional schoolingCreative patterns not always top-of-the-classTYPES OF INTELLIGENCE

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Gardners eight types of intelligence (a.k.a. frames of mind)VerbalMathematical Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic

Everyone has all to varying degreesTYPES OF INTELLIGENCE

MusicalInterpersonalIntrapersonalNaturalist

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Controversial viewsStimulated educators to think more about childrens competenciesMotivated new educational program development and assessmentSome critics say views go too farControversy exists: multiple vs. generalCultureConceptual differences exist; cultural values influence what is learned, rewardedEVALUATING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

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Influence of geneticsComparison of identical and fraternal twinsIdentical twins: reared together and apartEffects of environmental changeHeritability: variance due to geneticsControversial; not without flawsEnvironment affected by many factorsParenting, education, ongoing change in culture/society, personal experiencesINTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORES

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Environmental influencesFlynn Effect: IQ scores increasing rapidlyEmphasis on prevention, not remedialEarly interventionsHigh-quality child careMore focus on poor childrenContinue programs into adolescenceGaps between U.S. racial/ethnic groupsGap narrows in collegeINTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORES

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Creating Culture-Fair TestsTests free of cultural biasTwo types devisedItems known in all SES/ethnic backgroundsNo verbal questionsDifficulty in creatingTime limits may create biasLanguage differences/picture unfamiliarityIndividual differences of experiencesINTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORES

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Using intelligence testsEffectiveness depends on users skillsAvoid stereotyping and expectationsIQ is not sole indicator of competenceUse caution in interpreting overall IQ scoresExtremes of intelligenceMental retardation (organic, cultural-familial)Giftedness (IQ of 130 or more)INTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORES

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Characteristics of giftednessThree criteriaPrecocityMarching to their own drummerA passion to masterProduct of both heredity and environmentCurrently, controversy over definitionsNegative consequences for being giftedINTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORES

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Children gain new skills in schoolAlphabetic principle - Sounds of languageBegin to categorize vocabulary; mastery increases with ageLearn to use language in complex manner, producing connected discourseMetalinguistic awarenessKnowledge about languagePragmatics: culturally appropriate usesVOCABULARY, GRAMMAR, AND METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS

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READING Phonetics approachWhole-language approachInstruction should parallel childrens natural language learning; reading materials should be whole and meaningfulStresses phonetics and basic rules for translating symbols into sounds; early reading instruction should involve simplified materials

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Sensitive periods for language learning vary across different language systemsMay be easier for late learners like adultsAdults may learn faster than childrenChildrens final attainment level is higherU.S. behind in children using 2nd languageBilingualism has positive effect on childs cognitive functioning, reading abilitiesBILINGUALISM AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

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Extrinsic: External rewards, punishmentsIntrinsic: Internal desires, perceptionsEmphasizes self-determinationMotivation can be enhancedCreate engaging environmentsEncourage self-responsibilityExternal and intrinsic can operate togetherEXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

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Mastery motivation: Task-orientedFocus on learning strategies, process of achievementRemember, adapt what worked beforeHelpless orientation: Trapped by difficultyBlame difficulty on lack of abilityBecome anxious, failure becomes realityPerformance orientation: Focus on outcomes, goal is winningMASTERY MOTIVATION AND MINDSET

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Mindset: Cognitive view of ones selfFixed mindsetBelief that qualities are carved in stone and cannot changesimilar to helpless orientationGrowth mindsetBelief that qualities can change; efforts can improve performancesimilar to mastery orientation

MASTERY MOTIVATION AND MINDSET

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Belief that one can master situation and produce favorable outcomesCommon with mastery motivation and intrinsic motivationLinked to effort and persistencyCritical factor in achievementSelf-efficacy influences selection, choicesSELF- EFFICACY

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Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are:SpecificProximalChallenging Long-term and short-term are neededIt is important to: Monitor progressEvaluate outcomesGOAL SETTING, PLANNING, AND SELF-REGULATION

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Achievement affected by:Relationships with parents, peers, teachersChild-rearing practices are very importantHome activities/experiences importantPeers can have positive or negative effectTeachers roles can help/harm motivationSocial contexts of ethnicity and cultureMinority disadvantages or deficits?Distinct cultural differences have impactSOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND CONTEXTS

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