Chapter 2

Research Methods in Social Psychology

Chapter Outline

Characteristics of Empirical Research Research Methods Research in Diverse Populations Ethical Issues in Social Psychological

Research

Methodology

A set of procedures that guide the collection and analysis of data.

In a typical study:

1. Develop a research design.

2. Go in a laboratory or field setting and collect data.

3. Code and analyze the data to test hypotheses and arrive at conclusions about the behaviors or events under investigation.

Objectives of Research

Describe reality. Identify correlations between variables. Test causal hypotheses. Develop and test theories.

Research Hypotheses

A conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables.

Many social psychological studies begin with one or more hypotheses.

Noncausal hypotheses make statements about observed relations between variables.

Causal hypotheses relate two variables “X causes Y” or “Higher levels of X produce lower levels of Y”.

Causal Hypotheses

Always include an independent variable and a dependent variable.

An independent variable is any variable considered to cause or have an effect on some other variable(s).

A dependent variable is any variable caused by some other variable.

Extraneous Variable

Any variable that is not expressly included in the hypothesis but has a causal impact on the dependent variable.

Extraneous variables are widespread in social psychology because most dependent variables of interest have more than one cause.

Internal Validity

Variables that are free from contamination by extraneous variables.

Internal validity is a matter of degree; findings may have high or low internal validity.

Without internal validity, a study cannot provide clear, interpretable results.

External Validity

The extent to which a causal relationship, identified in a particular setting with a particular population, can be generalized to other populations, settings, or time periods.

External validity is important because the results of a study often have practical importance only if they generalize beyond the particular setting in which they appeared.

4 Main Research Methods

Surveys Naturalistic observation Archival research based on content analysis Experiments

Surveys

Collecting information by asking members of some population a set of questions and recording their responses.– Useful for identifying the average response

to a question, the distribution of responses within the population and how groups of respondents differ from one another.

Two Types of Surveys

In an interview survey, a person serves as an interviewer and records the answers from the respondents.

In a questionnaire survey, the questions appear on paper, and the respondents read and answer them at their own pace.

Response Rate

The percentage of people contacted who complete the survey.– An interview study can obtain response

rates of 75 to 80% or more.– Mailed questionnaires rarely attain more

than a 50% response rate.

Reliability

The extent to which an instrument produces the same results each time it is employed to measure a particular construct under given conditions.

Assessing Reliability: Test-retest Method

Investigator applies the measuring instrument to the same respondents on two different occasions, and compares the responses.– If the correlation between the responses is

high, the instrument has high reliability.– If the correlation is low, the instrument has

low reliability.

Assessing Reliability: Split-half Method

Example:– A scale of 20 questions to measure psychological

well-being is administered to respondents. – Randomly divide the questions into two groups of

10, calculate a score for each respondent on each group of 10, and compute a correlation between the scores.

– A high correlation provides confirmation that the scale is reliable.

Validity

An instrument has face validity if its content is similar to the behavior or process of interest.

An instrument has criterion validity if we can use it to predict respondents’ standing on some other variable of theoretical interest.

An instrument has construct validity if it provides a good measure of the theoretical concept being investigated by the research.

Survey Questions: Guidelines

1. The more precise and focused a question, the greater its reliability and validity.

2. Avoid jargon or specialized terminology unless you are interviewing specialists.

3. Questions of moderate length elicit more complete answers than very short ones.

4. Threatening questions requiring quantified answers are better asked by presenting a range of answers (1–5) than by asking a question requiring an exact number.

Single Items

The single-item scale consists of a direct positive or negative statement, and the respondent indicates whether they agree, disagree, or are unsure. – Takes minimum of time and space to

present and is easy to score.– They are general and detect only gross

differences in attitude.

Likert Scales

A technique based on summated ratings, provides information about how each person feels about the object of interest and how each respondent’s attitude compares with the attitudes of others.

The Sample

The set of all people whose attitudes are of interest to the researcher.– Simple random sample - researcher selects units

from the population so each unit has an equal probability of being included.

– Stratified sample - researcher divides the population into groups according to characteristics, selects a random sample of groups, and draws a sample of individuals within each group.

Field Study

Involves making observations about behavior as it occurs naturally in everyday settings.

Data are collected by one or more researchers who directly observe the activity of people and record information about it.

This method has been used to investigate many forms of social behavior in natural settings.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies

Strength: Allows researchers to study social activity in real-world settings.

Weaknesses:– Sensitivity to recording methods used. – Observations recorded after the fact are less

reliable than those recorded on the spot or those based on audio- or videotaping.

– Validity may depend on the identities the investigators project while making observations.

Archival Research

Acquisition and analysis (or re-analysis) of information collected previously by others.

Archival research usually costs less than alternative methods.

Content Analysis

Involves undertaking a systematic scrutiny of documents or messages to identify specific characteristics and make inferences based on their occurrence.

Steps in Content Analysis

1. Identify the unit to be studied—is it the word, the sentence, the paragraph, or the article?

2. Define the categories into which the units will be sorted.

3. Code the units in each document into the categories.

4. Look for relations within the categorized data.

Strengths of Archival Research

Comparatively low cost. By using existing information, an investigator

may complete a study more quickly. Investigator can test hypotheses about

phenomena that occur over extended periods of time.

Weaknesses of Archival Research Lack of control over the type and quality of

information. Creating a reliable and valid content analysis scheme

for use with records can be difficult.

Experiments

For a study to be a true experiment, it must have these characteristics:

1. Researcher must manipulate one or more of the independent variables that are hypothesized to have a causal impact on the dependent variable(s) of concern.

2. Researcher must assign participants randomly to the different levels of each of the independent variables.

Experiments: Controlling Factors

Experiments must control factors affecting dependent variable by:

1. Randomly assigning participants to treatments.

2. Holding constant known extraneous variables.

3. Incorporating extraneous variables in the design.

4. Measuring extraneous variables and including them in the data analysis as covariates of independent variables.

Strengths And Weaknesses Of Research Methods

MethodInternal Validity

External Validity

Investigator Control

Survey Moderate Moderate Moderate

Observational Study

Low Moderate Moderate

Archival Research Low Moderate Low

Laboratory Experiment

High Moderate High

Field Experiment Moderate High Moderate

Strengths And Weaknesses Of Research Methods

MethodIntrusiveness of Measures

Difficulty Ethical

Survey Moderate Moderate Few

Observational Study

Moderate Moderate Many

Archival Research Low Low Few

Laboratory Experiment

Moderate Moderate Some

Field Experiment Low High Some

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that allows the researcher to combine results from previous studies to determine what, collectively, they say.

Steps In Conducting a Meta-analysis

1. The researcher locates all previous studies on the question.

2. For each study, the investigator computes a statistic that measures:• The difference was between those who did and

did not interact with members of the group.• What the direction of the difference was (whether

those who had contact were more or less prejudiced).

Steps In Conducting a Meta-analysis

3. The researcher averages all the values of d over all the studies that were located. • This value tells what the direction of the

difference is in attitudes between those who do and do not have contact with the group and how large the difference is for all the studies combined.

Common Ethical Questions in Research Studies

1. Is it possible that participants might be harmed physically?

2. Does the study use any form of deception?

3. Does the study induce participants to engage in behavior that might threaten their self respect?

Common Ethical Questions in Research Studies

4. If the investigators make audio- or videotapes of the participants, will they obtain permission to use the tapes as data?

5. How will investigators preserve the confidentiality of participants?

6. Will the investigators tell potential participants in advance about the risks that their participation may entail?

Common Ethical Questions in Research Studies

7. Will participants have a chance to ask questions about the study before they consent?

8. Will the investigators inform the participants that they have the right to terminate their participation at any time?

9. At the end of the study, will investigators debrief the participants and tell them about the nature of the study and its procedures?

Informed Consent: Essential Elements

Researcher should explain of the purposes of the research and describe the procedures to be employed.

Investigators should inform participants about any foreseeable risks of participation.

Researchers should provide a description of any benefits to the participant or others.

Informed Consent

Investigators should provide information about which medical or psychological resources are available if participants are adversely affected by participation.

Researchers should offer to answer questions about the study whenever possible.

Researchers should inform potential participants that they have the right to terminate their participation at any time.