methods of research chapter 4. research at paradigm level

8/16/2019 Methods of Research Chapter 4. Research at Paradigm Level

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Prof. ir . Panchito M. Labay


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Based on Process orApproachQualitative Research—

relies on qualitative data or

descriptive data that cannot

be reduced to numericalterms.

Quantitative Research—relies primarily on

numerical data as the basis

of analysis.Mixed Method Research—

a process that involve the

mixing or combination of

the two approaches.

“We hate numbers andestimates, we like realities!”


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Aspect Aspect QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative

GeneralGeneralDescriptionDescription

acts have ob!ective reality.acts have ob!ective reality."acts are !ust around # ready to"acts are !ust around # ready tobe perceived by the researcher$be perceived by the researcher$

acts are social constructs.acts are social constructs."acts are constructed by the"acts are constructed by theresearcher$researcher$

%ariables &so'eti'es li'ited( are%ariables &so'eti'es li'ited( areidentified # relationships areidentified # relationships arederivedderived

%ariables are co'plex)%ariables are co'plex)inter*oven # difficult tointer*oven # difficult to'easure'easure

+tic &researcher is an ,outsider-+tic &researcher is an ,outsider-to have ob!ective results(to have ob!ective results(

+'ic &researcher is an ,insider-+'ic &researcher is an ,insider-*ith sub!ective results(*ith sub!ective results(

ProcessProcess o predicto predict o postdicto postdict

Deductive/be0ins *ithDeductive/be0ins *ith

hypotheses # theorieshypotheses # theories

1nductive/arrives at hypotheses1nductive/arrives at hypotheses

# theories# theories

2ee3s consensus2ee3s consensus 2ee3s pluralis') co'plexity2ee3s pluralis') co'plexity

Applies e'piricis'/scientificApplies e'piricis'/scientific'ethod throu0h experi'entation'ethod throu0h experi'entation

Applies a ,naturalistic- 'ode/asApplies a ,naturalistic- 'ode/asthe process 0oesthe process 0oes

Researcher-s roleResearcher-s role Detached # i'partialDetached # i'partial 1nvolved # partial1nvolved # partial4b!ective portrayal4b!ective portrayal 2ub!ective understandin02ub!ective understandin0


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AspectAspect QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative

ocusocus Narrow angle lens (deals withNarrow angle lens (deals withlimited variables, which in realitylimited variables, which in realitynot really occurring)not really occurring)

Wide & deep angle lens (dealsWide & deep angle lens (dealswith complex variables, whichwith complex variables, whichare naturalistic examining theare naturalistic examining thebreath & the depth of thebreath & the depth of thephenomenaphenomena

5ature of data5ature of data Variables, numericalVariables, numerical Words, images, meanings,Words, images, meanings,

categoriescategories

Methods of dataMethods of datacollectioncollection

Collect uantitative data based onCollect uantitative data based onmeasurementmeasurement

Collect ualitative data basedCollect ualitative data basedon in!depth interviews,on in!depth interviews,ethnography, field notes" #heethnography, field notes" #heresearcher is the primeresearcher is the primeinstrument"instrument"

DataData analysisanalysis $dentify statistical relationships$dentify statistical relationships %oo for patterns, themes and%oo for patterns, themes andholistic featuresholistic features

Results # finalResults # finalreportsreports

'tatistical report (correlations,'tatistical report (correlations,statistical significance, etc")"statistical significance, etc")"eneralised findingseneralised findings

Narrative report with contextualNarrative report with contextualdescriptive and directdescriptive and directuotations" articularisticuotations" articularistic

findingsfindings


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Quantitative Mixed Qualitative

Scientificmethod

Deductive or ‘top-down’. The

researcher testshypothesis & theorywith data

Deductive &inductive

Inductive or ‘bottom-up’.The researcher

generates newhypothesis & groundedtheory from collecteddata during thefieldwork

View ofhuman

behaviour

ehaviour is regular& predictable

ehaviour issomewhat

predictable

ehaviour is fluid!dynamic! situational!

conte"tual & personal

Researchobjectives

Description!e"planation &prediction

#ultiple ob$ectives %"ploration! description& discovery

Focus arrow angle lens!

testing specifichypothesis

#ulti-lens focus 'ide & deep angle lens

focus! e"amining thebreadth & depth ofphenomena to learnmore

Nature ofobserva-tion

(tudy behaviourunder controlledconditions

(tudy behaviourunder more thanone conte"t orcondition

(tudy behaviour innatural environments.(tudy the conte"t inwhich behaviour occurs


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Nature of

reality

)b$ective *different ob-

servers agree on what

is observed

+ommonsense

realism and

pragmatic view of

world *what works

is what is real &

true,

(ub$ective! personal &

socially constructed

Nature of

data

ariables #i"ture of variables!

images & words

'ords! images &

categories

Manner ofcollecting

data

uantitative based onmeasurement! scales!

ratings! etc.

#i"ture of/ualitative &

/uantitative

ualitative based on in-depth interviews!

participant-observation

approach! field notes!

narratives! etc. Theresearcher is the primary

instrument *data collector,.

ata

analysis

(tatistical relation

between variables

measured

#i"ture of

/ualitative &

/uantitative

0ook for forms! patterns!

themes & holistic features

Results 1eneralised findings +orroborated

findings may

generalise

2articularistic findings.

3epresent the 4insider’s

point of view5 or emic

Form of

final re!ort

(tatistical *reporting

the correlations!comparisons! etc. of

the statisticalsignificance of findings,

%clectic & pragmatic arrative with conte"tual

description


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Polit et. al.) &6778( at 'ethodolo0ical level9uantitative research is 0enerally associated *ith

the philosophical traditions of positivis' and

9ualitative research) 'ost co''only allied *ith

post/positivist and post/'odernist philosophies.


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heories

:ypotheses

4bservations;

Data

Patterns

D e d u c t i on

1 n d u c t i on

Post/'odernists

Qualitative Research

2y'bolic 1nteractionist

Positivists

Quantitative Research

e'inist

Mixed 'ethod

he Research


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Based on DisciplineMonodisciplinary esearch primarily based on the

discipline of the mainresearcher.

Multidisciplinary esearchteamof researchers are engaged ina particular problem butanalyses are along theirrespective line ofspecialisation.

1nterdisciplinary Research—tea'of researchers ; scientists thatsolved a particular proble' byinte0ratin0 or lin3in0 theirfindin0s holistically despitethe differences in their fieldsof speciali=ation—they co'e

up *ith a unified results.Participatory Researcha team of researchers involved the"wisdom# or knowledge of thelocal people, based from theidea that they are moreknowledgeable about theirarea than the "outsiders#.

$eeking the "wisdom# of the tribe people is the

emerging form of research known as "participatory

research.


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han3 you) because *e

have !ust finished >hapters

? # @

or the inte0ration of all concepts) 1*ant you to choose three ite's fro'

the activity you did in >hapter 6 and

discuss on ho* you *ill conduct

research on the' follo*in0 the

philosophies of positivis') post/

positivis') post/'odernis') fe'inis'

and sy'bolic interpretivis'.

1s it 0ettin0 tou0h 1 hope not

1 3no* that you *ill 'a3e it. 2o) pleasefor each selected ite' li'it your

discussions in C77 *ords) do it

substantially usin0 Arial 88 as your

font.

Good luc3 any*ay


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* help the researcher to refine

and specify his or herresearch point of vie* or

philosophical underpinnin0s* enable the researcher to

evaluate different 'ethodolo/

0ies and 'ethods to avoid

inappropriate use and

unnecessary *or3 by

identifyin0 the li'itations of

particular approaches at an

early sta0e* help the researcher to becreative and innovative in

either selection or adaptation

of 'ethods that *ere

previously outside his or her

experience.

%ts me when % was assigned to do a research work

in &ohn 'opkins (niversity with my (gandan

classmate.


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here are three 'a!or philoso/

phical schools that affect theconduct of doin0 researchE

P4211%12 &cornerstone of

traditional science(—stresses thatscience as "knowledge# is

ascertained by empiricalobservations ) experimentations. %t

has an ob*ectivist view that "facts# or

"realities# are not the results of

human cognition or thinking or

created in one#s mind. +hey are

external to the observer and areimposed on the observer#s

consciousness from without.

%t prefers measurement and

replicability and making generali

sations rather than specificobservations.


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1t follo*s the scientific 'ethodE

Proble'

heory

:ypothesis

+xperi'entationData 0atherin0

Provin0


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>hallen0es to the positivist ; scientific ;ob!ectivist vie*sE

8. ruth or reality is a social construct&sub!ectivis'() created by hu'an bein0s# the ob!ects of thou0ht are 'erely*ords &no'inalis'( produced by thelan0ua0e *e spea3 &a narrative)discourse) etc.(.

6. Realities are co'plex) *hich cannot bereduced to 'easurable ,si'plevariables- and therefore inappropriate toco'e up *ith 0eneral 0overnin0 theory.Lo0ocentris' is not true—there is nosuch absolute truth.

?. +xperi'ents conducted in laboratoriesare beco'in0 redundant) because onecannot really capture the essence of thenatural *orld. hou0h positivist is0uided by rationality) but rationalityitself is a product of social fabrications.

@. Positivis' is a he0e'onic idea thatsuppresses other for's of 3no*led0es.

$uperman is a creative social construct,

which presumed can be made in the

laboratories through the science of cloning

or genetics engineering!


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* scientific fraud is extre'ely

*idespread) even in 'ostindustrialised countries.

* biased and sub!ective nature of

scientists as hu'an bein0s

* 'aterial need for 0lory and honour)0ainin0 'ore 0rants and pressure to

publish outputs

* doin0 the experi'entation over and

over a0ain to 0et the ,desired- results

* the nature of so'e researchers that

there is ,no presti0e in re/doin0 other

researcher-s experi'ents. herefore

the ris3 of doin0 fraudulent *or3 is

very little.

History reveals that greatscientists like Ptolemy,Galileo, Newton, Daltonand Mendell all tamperedsome of their researchdata

!ource" !utherland, #$%$


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Post/positivist believes that pure

e'piricis') e.0.) derivin0 3no*led0eonly throu0h observation and

'easure'ent) is not enou0h. hus) post/

positivis' is built on the concept of

critical realism) that there is a real world

out there independent of our perception

of it.

1t posits that "data are not inherently

quantitative and cannot be bits and

pieces of almost anything $.

he metaphysical as being beyond thescope of science, it was increasingly

accepted by postpositivists that

althou0h a real *orld driven by natural

causes exists) it is i'possible for

hu'ans to truly perceive it *ith theiri' erfect sensor and 'ental ca acit .

-instein is not only a positivist but also

a postpositivist ) postmodernist


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he post/positivist approaches

assu'e that reality is multiple,sub*ective) and mentally

constructed by individuals. he

use of flexible and 'ultiple

'ethods is desirable as a *ay of

studyin0 a s'all sa'ple in depth

over ti'e that can establish

*arranted assertability as

opposed to absolute truth. he

researcher interacts *ith those

bein0 researched) and findin0s

are the outco'e of thisinteractive process *ith a focus

on

"ntipo# is a cultural practice during /enten

$eason, which is a good sub*ect for research

following the postpositivist mode of inquiry.


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Letourneau and Allen &8FFF( state that post/positivist

approaches ,0ive *ay- to both 9ualitative and

9uantitative 'ethods or trian0ulation 'ethods. his isdescribed as critical 'ultiplis' &Guba and Lincoln

8FF(. >ritical i'plies that) as in positivis') the need for

ri0our) precision) lo0ical reasonin0 and attention to

evidence is re9uired) but unli3e positivis') this is notconfined to *hat can be physically observed.

Multiplis' refers to the fact that research can 0enerally

be approached fro' several perspectives. Multiple

perspectives can be used to define research 0oals) tochoose research 9uestions) 'ethods and analyses) and

to interpret results &>oo3 8FC(.


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1t follo*s the inductive 'ethodE

Proble'

>ontextualisin01ntrospection

heoryield*or3 ;

Data 0atherin0


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P42/M4D+R512—questions the

belief in reason ) rationality of the positivist. %t argues that "reality# is a

social construct in the form of words

language, stories, narratives, discourses,

etc.

%t favours observation from the inside in

favour of "vision#, in which the researcher

and the observed are not clearly

distinguished. +hus, the researcher is the

"prime instrument#.

%t prefers an introspective, sub*ective

interpretation.

%t dissolves the boundaries between

disciplines, since "realities# can be drawn

from different angles 0relativism )

methodological pluralism1. 2reativity will

grow if this will not be put inside the"black box#.

3rokeback 4ountain speaks about reality!


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Questions to the post/'odernist

vie*sE

8. Rise of ,3no*led0e anarchy-) a

disorder *orld of explainin0 a

social) natural) physical) etc.

pheno'ena. Re!ects 'eta/ and

0rand narratives of the *orld andreinforces our sensitivity to

differences.

6. he rules of lo0ic are nothin0) but

all social construct that are

prescribed for *ays of thin3in0.?. 1t is a counter he0e'onic concept

to positivis' that de'ystifies the

rhetorical acceptance of 'odern

science.+he problem of traditional science in solving some of

our present problems gives rise to postpositivist and postmodernist points of view.


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2HMB4L1> 15+RA>14512

—follows the postmodernist

view#, both in theory and practice,but is more concerned on

explaining society in terms of its

overall structure.

%t believes that we are living in a

"semiotic world#, whereinsymbols and communication

0linguistic ) gestural1 are created

and given with "meanings# )

identities in all our daily

interactions with our

environments.

%t upholds the cause ) effect

analysis to describe social reality

from within, like in interpreting

the views, feelings and actions of

those involved in a givensituation or lifestyle.

We live in a world of words, languages, signs andstructures which we give them identities and meanings.


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+M1512—follows "tradi

tional science#, both intheory and practice but

should be fair to women.

%t is an emerging philoso

phical school guided by

feminist theory. %t is reallynot a method, but a

perspective that recog

nises diversity, open to

cross discipline, so as to

avoid the "marginalisation#

of women.

Women need not be confined only in

household chores, but must also a part

of social change


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he scientific ethos of research prevails

as of today and still survives due to

the follo*in0 idealsE

Iniversalis'. 1deas and bodies of

3no*led0e 'ust be evaluated on thebasis of 'erit that it established.

>o''unalis'. Jno*led0e is not

3no*led0e if it is not shared) because

the search for 3no*led0e is a hu'an

act for public use.23epticis'. 4ne-s *or3 'ust be

scrutini=ed and challen0ed. 2cientific

authority 'ust be appraised and

reappraised re0ularly.

+'piricis'. 4bservations of the natural

and social *orlds are based on facts

that can be apprehended by hu'an-s

senses.

1'partiality. 2cientists 'ust have a

sense of i'partiality and open/

'indedness.


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han3 you) because *e have !ust

finished >hapter ?

I4R MARJ+D A>1%1H

or the inte0ration of all concepts) please do the follo*in0 activitiesE

8. 1n the internet &***.0oo0le.co'( ) search for t*o published

research papers that applied the concepts of a positivist) a post/

'odernist or a fe'inist.

6. 1n no 'ore than C77 *ords describe their peculiarities.

Date of sub'issionE
http://www.google.com/http://www.google.com/

methods of research chapter 4. research at paradigm level

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