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Chapter one: Introduction

Definitions of Research

The word research is composed of two syllabuses, re and search. The dictionary defines the

former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to

examine closely and carefully, to test and try or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a

careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to

establish facts or principles.

The Advanced Learners Dictionary of current English lays down the meaning of research as a

careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of

knowledge.

Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems

and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.

Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.

Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of propositions about the

presumed relationships about various phenomena.

Research is defined as a search for knowledge.

Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.

Research is an art of investigation.

Research is a movement from the known to the unknown.

Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested

solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching

conclusions; and last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the

formulating hypothesis.

Research is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to

extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in

the practice of an art.

Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its

advancement.

Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.

Research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding

solutions to a problem.

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Research refers to the systematic method consisting of enumerating the problem, formulating a

hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions

either in the form of solutions toward the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for

some theoretical formulation.

Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical method consisting of

enumerating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing

the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions toward the

concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

Characteristics of Research

From the above definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting, analyzing and

interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as a research, a process must have

certain characteristics as listed below:

Controlled

In exploring the causality relation to two variables, the study must be set in way that minimizes

the effects of other factors affecting relationship. In social science research, however, since

controlling is almost impossible, the effect of the other variable must be quantified rather.

Rigorous

One must be very careful (scrupulous) in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to

questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.

Valid and verifiable

This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can

be verified by you and others.

Empirical

This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information

collected from real life experiences or observations.

Critical

The methods employed and procedures used should be critically scrutinized. The process of

investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process adopted and the

procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

Objectives of Research

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into ( studies with this

object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

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To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (

studies with this objective are called descriptive research studies);

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with

something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies.

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as

hypothesis testing research studies).

Motivations in Research

What makes people to undertake research? The possible motives for doing research may be

either one or more of the following among others:

Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

Desire to face the challenges in solving the unresolved problems, i.e., concern over

practical problems initiates research;

Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

Desire to be of service to society;

Desire to get respectability.

Types of Research

There are different bases in classifying researches; however we will see only the most

common bases and these classifications which are relevant to our syllabus.

First, there are two broad classification of research that follows:

1. Research in physical sciences

2. Research in social sciences

Physical sciences deal with things, which can be put to laboratory tests under guided

conditions. These researches deal with physical phenomena upon which man has complete

control.

Researches in social sciences are based on human behavior, which is influenced by so many

factors, such as physical, social, temperamental, psychological and economic. We dwell for

some time on this category of research in the forthcoming subtopics as the whole handout is

about social sciences research methods.

Social Research

Social research is part of research, which studies human behavior on a part of society. Social

research is to find explanation to unexplained social phenomena, to clarify doubts and correct

the misconceived facts of social life.

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Social research can be defined as:

Systematic investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomena and surveys.

A systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to

extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the construction of a

theory or in the practice of an art.

A scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques aims to

discover new facts or verify and test old facts, analyze their sequences, interrelationships and

causal explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference,

develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid

study of human behavior and social life and thereby gain greater control overtime.

A study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned with improving his

understanding of social orders, groups, institutions and ethics.

A collection of methods and methodologies that researchers apply systematically to produce

scientifically based knowledge about the social world.

Characteristics of Social Research

From the above given definitions the following characteristics of social research may be drawn:

1. It deals with social phenomena. It studies the behavior of human beings as a member of a

society and their feelings, responses and attitudes under different circumstances. It

encompasses the study of social phenomena covering economic, political, social, educational,

administrative and related aspects of social life. The social research was born out to solve

social problems.

2. It aims at discovering of new facts. The scientific research techniques are applied to find out

truth reasoning or relationship of various kind of human behavior.

3. It is a scientific undertaking in which logical and systematized techniques are used. It also

develops new scientific tools and concepts which facilitate reliable and valid study of human

behavior.

4. It assists in the undertaking of evolution of new theories. Every research highlights some

broad principles, establishes some scientific truth and analysis their sequences,

interrelationships and causal explanations. This results in expansion of knowledge,

improvement in the understanding of the social phenomena and in the evolution of new

theories.

5. It requires deep knowledge and minute investigation of the topic concerned.

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6. It must be objective. Research should not take his own interest because any personal bias

vitiates the universality criterion of scientific proposition.

7. Experimentation is not possible in social researches. However, in some cases social research

takes the shelter of controlled experiments.

8. Inter-relationship between variables under study is must. Besides it, the variables of social

research study can not be measured correctly, only rough estimation of variables is possible.

9. It is dynamic in nature; therefore, what was true of past might not be true of present.

10. It is inter-related. Therefore, we can not draw water-tight compartments for each sector or we

cannot say whether it is purely political, economic, or sociological research.

11. It tells that the social events are also governed by the rules and regulations as physical events.

12. It is complementary to research in physical sciences and both branches of knowledge help

each other and are the way to progress.

Motivating factors of social Research

The following are four motivating factors:

1. Curiosity about unknown: Curiosity is an intrinsic trait of human mind and a compelling

drive in the exploration of mans surroundings. It is natural instinct in the makings. A man is

always curious about the unknown and mysterious objects that he notices around him and

tries to understand them in his own. The same curiosity drives social scientists to explore,

reveal and understand unknown factors behind the social phenomena.

2. Desire to understand the cause and effect Relationship of Social problems: The research

of cause and effect relationship has been more relentless than almost any other scientist effort

upon which human energies have been spent.

3. Appearance of New and unexpected Situations: In modern complex and dynamic world a

man is often faced with many acute and difficult problems. It is the duty of the social scientist

to find out their real cause and suggest solutions to such problems.

4. Desire to Discover New and Old Scientific Procedures: It concerns with the technique or

methods used in social research. Social scientists have been busy in devising and developing

new methods and techniques in place old ones for dealing with social problems.

Importance of Social Research

In general way, some of the directly practical benefits and theoretic implications of social

research may be listed as follows:

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1. Guides in social planning: Adequate social planning depends for its success on a

systematic knowledge of the social resources and liabilities, of the people and their

culture, of their similarities and differences, of organizations and operative controls of

their needs, hopes and problems, etc.

2. Provides knowledge to Control any social Phenomena: By affording first hand

knowledge about the organization and working of society and its institution, Social

research acts as a source of a power to control social phenomena. Furthermore, social

research has practical implications for formal and informal types of leadership, pattern of

influence and reform in different spheres of society.

3. Contributes to the betterment of social welfare.

4. Ascertain orders among facts.

5. Contributes for the advancement and improvement of social research techniques.

6. Provides solutions to social problems.

7. Contributes to the development of developing countries.

Problems/challenges in Social Researches

Following are the main difficulties faced by the researchers in the application of scientific

methods in social research:

1. Complexity of Social Data: The behavior of human beings or economic problems, a subject

of social research, are influenced by so many factors. Because of these factors a researcher is

generally confused.

2. Problems in Interpreting Relationship Between Cause and Effect: In case of social

phenomena the cause and effect are interdependent and one stimulates the other. It is very

difficult to establish cause and effect relationship in social sciences and to find as to what is

the cause and what is its effect?

3. Problems of Concepts

4. Dynamic Nature of Social Phenomena: Human society is constantly changing and

improving itself by past knowledge.

5. Problem of Maintaining Objectivity: Achieving an effective degree of objectivity in social

inquiry is very difficult task. Different findings on the same issue arise most often.

6. Unpredictability: Predictability is one of the most important characteristics of science.

Because of the complexity of social data and irregularity of social behavior, predicting is

challenging in social researches.

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7. Difficulty in the verification of the Inferences: Verification of the results obtained is

possible in physical sciences but in the case of social sciences it is much more difficult. The

events in social sciences are non-repetitive and social scientists are ill-equipped with their

tools to verify prediction.

8. Difficulty in The Use of Experiment Methods: It is not possible to put human beings to

laboratory tests. Even if it is done their responses would not be natural but subject to the

awareness of the artificial conditions.

9. Incapability of being Dealt Through Empirical Method: Exact sciences tend to become

increasingly quantitative in its units, measures and terminology while most of matter of social

sciences in qualitative and does not admit to quantitative statement. Direct quantification of

socio-economic variables is not possible; we can have only rough estimates. Data is more

reliable in physical sciences. Because data obtained in social research is always changing, as

some variables are changing in social sciences. Empirical method gives very accurate results

when experiment on social phenomena is repeatedly carried on. But in case of social sciences

repeated experimentation is is not possible. Empirical methods are methods of statistics

therefore, all problems, limitations, distrusts in statistical methods are also problems of social

research. For example problem of unbiased sampling, selection of data etc.

10. Problem of Inter-disciplinary Research: Social research in any field are interrelated,

therefore, we can not draw watertight compartments for each sector social sciences. We can

not say whether it is purely political research, economic research or purely sociological

research. But in case of physical sciences, it is possible to a very great extent to state whether

it is physical or chemical or biological problem. The main problem in interdisciplinary

research is that every branch of knowledge has its own line of approach and a methodology

suited for the purpose when these are tried to be fitted in a single frame, distortions are bound

to take place.

11. Less Finance: Social researchers get less finance than a researcher in physical sciences as a

result the rate of progress in social sciences research is less than that of the physical sciences

researches.

To sum up, social sciences are less precise in its findings than the natural sciences because it

deals with human society whose group as well as individual behaviour has always been more

diverse, full of more surprises and less predicate. Like natural sciences we do not have nice neat

equations that will yield answers to all situations.

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Research can also be classified from other three perspectives. However, these perspectives are

not mutually exclusive.

1. The application of the research study;

2. the objectives in undertaking the research ; and

3. The type of information sought.

Classification of research based on Application of the research study

If you examine a research endeavors from the perspective of its application, there are two broad

categories: pure research and applied research.

Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypothesis that are intellectually

challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or

in the future. Thus such work often involves the testing of hypothesis containing very abstract

and specialized concepts.

Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement

of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research

methodology.

The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of

knowledge of research methods.

In applied research the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of

research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a

situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that information gathered can be used in other ways-

such as for policy formulation, administration, and the enhancement of understanding of a

phenomenon.

Most of the researches in the social sciences are applied researches.

Classification of researches based on Objectives of the study

a) Descriptive Research

Includes surveys and fact finding enquires of different kinds.

Its major purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present

In social science and business research it is often called expost fact research. Researcher has

no control over the variables, he can only report what has happened or what is happening.

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Also includes attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they can not control the

variables. The methods used in descriptive researches are survey methods of all kinds,

including comparative and correlational methods.

b) Correlational Research

c) Explanatory Research

d) Exploratory Research

Classification of researches based on the type of information Sought

a) Quantitative Research

Is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

Is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

b) Qualitative Research

is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or

kind.

Pure Research

Applied

Research

Descriptive

Research

Correlational

Research

Explanatory

Research

Exploratory

Research

Quantitative

Research

Qualitative

Research

Types of Research

From the View point of

Application Objectives Type of information

sought

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is especially important in behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying

motives of human behavior.

E,g, Motivation research, attitude or opinion research, word association tests, sentence

completion etc.

Significance of Research

Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of

logical habits of thinking and organization.

Research becomes an important aid in solving operational problems. This due to the

increasingly complex nature of business and government . Furthermore, research is helpful

aid in economic policy.

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of

business and industry.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in

seeking answers to various social problems.

Research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure

particularly for those students of Masters or PhD.

Research may mean a source of livelihhod for those professionals in research methodology.

Research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights for philosophers and thinkers.

Research may mean the development of new styles and creative work to literary person.

Research may mean the generalization of new theories to analysts and intellectuals.

Research Methods and Methodology

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/ techniques that are used for

conduction of research.

Research methods/ techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in performing

research operation.

In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying

his research problem are termed as research methods.

Research methods can be put into the following three groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the data collection

of data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to

arrive at the required solution;

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2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing

relationships between the data and the unknowns;

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the

results obtained.

Research Methodology

-is a way to systematically solve the research problem.

-may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

-consists of the various steps generally adopted by a researcher in studying a research problem along

with the logics behind them

--involves determing which research methods/techniques are relevant and which are not, and what

would they mean or indicate.

-may differ from problem to problem.

-constitutes many dimensions and research methods is a part of it.

-has wider scope than research methods.

Decision of research methodology addresses the research methods to be used and the logic behind the

methods we use in the context of the research study and explain why we are using a particular

method and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either

by the research himself or by others.

\Research and scientific Methods

The two terms research and scientific methods are closely related.

Research, as already stated, can be termed as an inquiry in to the nature of , the reasons for, and the

consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally

controlled or recorded just as they occur.

On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they

may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific method.

In nutshell research methodology addresses:

why a research study has been undertaken how the research problem has been defined in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted why particular technique of analyzing data has been used

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Scientific method is a pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is

to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve this ideal by

experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and combination of these

three in varying proportions.

The research process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research

and the desired sequencing of these steps. These activities indeed overlap continuously rather

than following a strictly prescribed sequence.

A brief description of these activities is as follows:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research process. It is

like determination of the destination before undertaking a journey.

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those

which relate to relationships between variables.

Formulation of the problem means defining the problem precisely. In other words, a problem

defined is half solved. Formulation of problem is often more essential than its solution because

when the problem is formulated, an appropriate technique can be applied to generate

alternative solutions.

Formulation of a problem involves the following steps:

a) Statement of the problem in a general way

b) Understanding the nature of the problem

c) Surveying the available literature

d) Developing the idea through discussion

e) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

Importance of formulating a research problem

a) It determines the research destine. It indicates a way for the researcher. Without it a

clear and economical plan is impossible.

b) Research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and design of the

building is dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is well-designed and

strong, one can expect the building to be also. The research problem serves as the

foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated, one can expect a good study to

follow.

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c) The way you formulate your research problem determines almost every step that

follows: the type of study design that can be used; the type of sampling strategy that

can be employed; the research instrument that can be used; and the type of analysis

that can be undertaken.

d) The quality of the research report(output of the research undertakings) is dependent on

the quality of the problem formulation.

Considerations in selecting a research problem

When selecting a research problem/topic there is a number of considerations to keep in

mind. These considerations are:

a) Interest

b) Magnitude

c) Measurement of concepts

d) Level of expertise

e) Relevance

f) Availability of data

g) Ethical issues

2. Extensive Literature Review

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summery of it should be written down.

Reasons for Reviewing Literature

Literature review has three functions:

a) Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem

b) Improving the methodology

c) Broadening the researcher knowledge in the research area.

Procedures in reviewing the literature

Reviewing a literature is a continuous process. Often it begins before a specific research

problem has been formulated and continues until the report is finished.

There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:

a) Search for existing literature in your area of study

b) Review the literature selected

c) Develop a theoretical framework

d) Develop a conceptual framework.

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3. Development of Working Hypothesis

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis.

Working hypotheses is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or

empirical consequences. Hypotheses affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the

analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. Hypotheses

should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.

The role of hypotheses is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and keep him on

the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the

problem. It also indicates the type of data and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. Sometimes,

particularly in case of exploratory researches, we do not need hypotheses.

4. Preparing the Research Design

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to

prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research

would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as

possible yielding maximal information.

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collecting and analysis of data in a manner

that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the

blueprint for collection, measurement and analysis of data.

Research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to

research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or programme of the research. It

includes outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and their operational

implications to the final analysis of data.

Research design is defined as a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to be completed,

operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of interest to study, collecting

data to be used as a basis for testing hypothesis and analyzing the results.

The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal

expenditure of effort, time and money. Furthermore, research design explains how the researcher will

find answers to the research questions. It sets out the logic of the inquiry. But how all these can be

achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four

categories, viz.,

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a. Exploration

b. Description

c. Diagnosis

d. Experimentation.

When the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between

variables, the suitable design will be on that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data

collected and analyzed. When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that it is valid,

workable, and manageable.

The functions of a research design

The research design has two main functions. The first relates to the identification and/or development

of procedures and logistical arrangements required to undertake a study, and the second emphasizes

the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure their validity, objectivity, and accuracy.

A research design should include the following:

a) The study design per se and the logistical arrangements that you purpose to

undertake

b) The measurement procedures

c) The sampling strategy

d) The frame of analysis

e) Time frame

Selecting a study design

The study design is a part of the research design. It is the design of the study perse, whereas the

research design also includes other details related to the carrying out of the study.

The various designs have been classified by examining them from three different perspectives:

a) The number of contacts with the study population

b) The reference period of the study

c) The nature of the investigation.

The number of contacts

a) Cross-sectional study

b) Before-and- after study

c) Longitudinal studies

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Features of Good Research Design

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of

the following factors:

1. the means of obtaining information

2. the availability and skills of the researcher

3. the objective of the problem to be studied

4. The availability of time and money for the research work.

5. Determining Sampling Design:

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population.

A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a census inquiry.

Because of the difficulty, relative inaccuracy and biasness related to census study determine sample,

few elements from the population, becomes mandatory.

In such cases, the researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known

as the sample design.

In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected

for obtaining a sample from a given population.

Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.

With probability samples each element has unknown probability of being included in the sample but

in the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.

Probability samplings are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified

sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience

sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.

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Types of study design

Number of contacts Reference period Nature of

investigation

Experimental

Non experimental

Quasi experimental

Retrospective

prospective

Retro- prospective

One Two Three or more

Crossectional studies Before and after Longitudinal

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Define

Research

problem

Review

concepts and

theories

Review

previous

research

findings

Formulate

hypothesis

Design

Research

(including

sample design)

Collect data (

Execution)

Analyze data

(test

hypothesis if any)

Interpre

t and

report

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The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of

the inquiry and other related factors.

6. Collecting the data

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it

becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of

money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiments or through survey. If the researcher conducts

experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he

examines the truth contend in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any

one of the following ways:

a. Observation

b. Interview

c. Questionnaire

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting data taking in to consideration the

nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the

desired degree of accuracy.

7. Execution of the project

The researcher should see, during this phase, that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in

time.

8. Analysis of Data

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of

categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing

statistical inferences.

The unwieldy data should be condensed in to a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis.

9. Hypothesis Testing

After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated

earlier.

Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which

should be answered while testing hypotheses.

Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test may be applied.

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10. Generalization and Interpretation

If a hypotheses is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at

generalization, i.e., to build a theory.

As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.

If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of

some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off

new questions which inturn may lead to further researches.

11. Preparation of the Research Report or the thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him following the

appropriate formats and appropriate language.

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Chapter 2: Survey Research

2.1. Introduction

Webster defines a survey as the action of ascertaining facts regarding conditions or the condition of

something to provide exact information especially to persons responsible or interested and as a

systematic collection and analysis of data on some aspect of an area or group.

A survey, then, is much more than the mere compiling of data. The data must be analyzed, interpreted,

and evaluated. Only after this processing can data become information. The "exactness" of the

information is determined by the surveyor's methods. Unless he makes a systematic collection of data,

followed by a careful analysis and evaluation with predefined objectives, his collection of data cannot

become exact information.

A survey can be anything from a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-

depth interview.

In experiments, researchers place people in small group, test one or two hypotheses with a few

variables, control the timing of the treatment and the dependent variable, and control for alternative

explanations. By contrast , survey researchers sample many respondents who answer the same

questions, measure many variables, test multiple hypotheses, under infer temporal order from

questions about past behavior, experience or characteristics.

There are four different types of surveys that are: Questionnaires, Interviews, observations and

projective techniques.

2.2. A history of Survey Research

The modern survey can be traced back to ancient form of census. A census includes information on

characteristics of the entire population in a territory. It is based on what people tell officials or what

officials observe

2.3. Types of Survey5

2.3.1. The Questionnaire

One of the steps in preparing the survey research is developing the data collection instrument.

The most common means of collecting data are the interview and the questionnaire.

In the past, the interview has been the most popular data-collecting instrument.

Recently, the questionnaire has surpassed the interview in popularity, especially in the military.

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The Questionnaire: Pros and Cons

It is important to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the questionnaire as opposed to the

personal interview. This knowledge will allow you to maximize the strengths of the questionnaire

while minimizing its weaknesses.

The advantages of administering a questionnaire instead of conducting an interview are:

lower costs

better samples

standardization

respondent privacy (anonymity)

It is free from the bias of the interviewers, answers are in respondents own words

Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.

Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.

The primary advantage is lower cost, in time as well as money. Not having to train interviewers

eliminates a lengthy and expensive requirement of interviewing.

The questionnaire can be administered simultaneously to large groups whereas an interview requires

each individual to be questioned separately. This allows the questions to reach a given number of

respondents more efficiently than is possible with the interview. Finally, the cost of postage should be

less than that of travel or telephone expenses.

Since a typical questionnaire usually has a lower cost per respondent, it can reach more people within

a given budget (or time) limit. This can enhance the conduct of a larger and more representative

sample.

The questionnaire provides a standardized data-gathering procedure. Using a well- constructed

questionnaire can minimize the effects of potential human errors (for example, altering the pattern of

question asking, calling at inconvenient times, and biasing by explaining. The use of a questionnaire

also eliminates any bias introduced by the feelings of the respondents towards the interviewer (or vice

versa).

Although the point is debatable, most surveyors believe the respondent will answer a questionnaire

more frankly than he would answer an interviewer, because of a greater feeling of anonymity. The

respondent has no one to impress with his/her answers and need have no fear of anyone hearing them.

To maximize this feeling of privacy, it is important to guard, and emphasize, the respondent's

anonymity.

The primary disadvantages of the questionnaire are:

Non-returns,

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Misinterpretation, and

Validity problems.

It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.

The control over the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once

questionnaires have been dispatched.

This method is the slowest of all.

Non-returns are questionnaires or individual questions that are not answered by the people to whom

they were sent. The important point about these low response rates is not the reduced size of the

sample, which could easily be overcome by sending out more questionnaires, but the possibility of

bias. Non-response is not a random process; it has its own determinants, which vary from survey to

survey.

For example, you may be surveying to determine the attitude of a group about a new policy. Some of

those opposed to it might be afraid to speak out, and they might comprise the majority of the non-

returns. This would introduce non-random (or systematic) bias into your survey results, especially if

you found only a small number of the returns were in favor of the policy. Non-returns cannot be

overcome entirely. What we can do is try to minimize them. Techniques to accomplish this are

covered later in this chapter.

Misinterpretation occurs when the respondent does not understand either the survey instructions or

the survey questions. If respondents become confused, they will either give up on the survey

(becoming a nonreturn) or answer questions in terms of the way they understand it, but not necessarily

the way you meant it. Some view the latter problem as a more dangerous occurrence than merely

nonresponding. The questionnaire instructions and questions must be able to stand on their own and

must use terms that have commonly understood meanings throughout the population under study. If

novel terms must be used, be sure to define them so all respondents understand your meaning.

The third disadvantage of using a questionnaire is inability to check on the validity of the answer.

Did the person you wanted to survey give the questionnaire to a friend or complete it personally? Did

the individual respond indiscriminately? Did the respondent deliberately choose answers to mislead

the surveyor? Without observing the respondent's reactions (as would be the case with an interview)

while completing the questionnaire, you have no way of knowing the true answers to these questions.

The secret in preparing a survey questionnaire is to take advantage of the strengths of questionnaires

(lower costs, more representative samples, standardization, and privacy) while minimizing the number

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of nonreturns, misinterpretations, and validity problems. This is not always as easy as it sounds. But an

inventive surveyor can very often find legitimate ways of overcoming the disadvantages.

THE CONTENTS

The key to minimizing the disadvantages of the survey questionnaire lies in the construction of the

questionnaire itself.

A poorly developed questionnaire contains the seeds of its own destruction. Each of the three portions

of the questionnaire - the cover letter, the instructions, and the questions - must work together to

have a positive impact on the success of the survey.

The cover letter should explain to the respondent the purpose of the survey and motivate him to

reply truthfully and quickly. If possible, it should explain why the survey is important to him, how

he was chosen to participate, and who is sponsoring the survey (the higher the level of sponsorship

the better). Also the confidentiality of the results should be strongly stressed. A well written cover

letter can help minimize both nonreturn and validity problems. In support of the statement above

regarding level of sponsorship, the signature block on the letter should be as high level as you can

get commensurate with the topic being investigated. Another tip that seems to help improve response

rate is to identify the survey as official. In general, the more official the survey appears, the less

likely it is to be disregarded.

The cover letter should be followed by a clear set of instructions explaining how to complete the

survey and where to return it. If the respondents do not understand the mechanical procedures

necessary to respond to the questions, their answers will be meaningless. In case of mail

questionnaire, the instructions substitute for your presence, so you must anticipate any questions or

problems that may arise and attempt to prevent them from occurring. Remember anonymity! If you

do not want respondents to provide their names say so explicitly in the instructions. If you need

respondents' name included on the survey for tracking or analysis purposes, you will need to put a

Privacy Act Statement somewhere on the survey. The"Instructions" page is usually a good place for

this statement. It places it in a prominent place where all respondents will see it, but does not clutter

the instrument itself or the cover letter.

The third and final part of the questionnaire is the set of questions. Since the questions are the

means by which you are going to collect your data, they should be consistent with your survey

plan. They should not be ambiguous or encourage feelings of frustration or anger that will lead to

nonreturns or validity problems.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

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1. Based on the situation of survey

When most people think of questionnaires, they think of the mail survey.

There are many advantages to mail surveys.

a) They are relatively inexpensive to administer. You can send the exact same instrument

to a wide number of people.

b) They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own convenience.

But there are some disadvantages as well.

a) Response rates from mail surveys are often very low.

b) Mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for detailed written responses.

Self administered Questionnaires

A second type is the group administered questionnaire. A sample of respondents is brought

together and asked to respond to a structured sequence of questions. Traditionally, questionnaires were

administered in group settings for convenience. The researcher could give the questionnaire to those

who were present and be fairly sure that there would be a high response rate. If the respondents were

unclear about the meaning of a question they could ask for clarification. And, there were often

organizational settings where it was relatively easy to assemble the group (in a company or business,

for instance).

What's the difference between a group administered questionnaire and a group interview or focus

group? In the group administered questionnaire, each respondent is handed an instrument and asked to

complete it while in the room. Each respondent completes an instrument. In the group interview or

focus group, the interviewer facilitates the session. People work as a group, listening to each other's

comments and answering the questions. Someone takes notes for the entire group -- people don't

complete an interview individually.

A less familiar type of questionnaire is the household drop-off survey. In this approach, a

researcher goes to the respondent's home or business and hands the respondent the instrument. In some

cases, the respondent is asked to mail it back or the interview returns to pick it up. This approach

attempts to blend the advantages of the mail survey and the group administered questionnaire. Like the

mail survey, the respondent can work on the instrument in private, when it's convenient. Like the

group administered questionnaire, the interviewer makes personal contact with the respondent -- they

don't just send an impersonal survey instrument. And, the respondent can ask questions about the

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study and get clarification on what is to be done. Generally, this would be expected to increase the

percent of people who are willing to respond.

2. Types of Questionnaires Based on Level of Measurement

We can also classify questions in terms of their level of measurement. For instance, we might measure

occupation using a nominal question. Here, the number next to each response has no meaning except

as a placeholder for that response.

We might ask respondents to rank order their preferences for presidential candidates using an ordinal

question. We want the respondent to put a 1, 2, 3 or 4 next to the candidate, where 1 is the

respondent's first choice.

We can also construct survey questions that attempt to measure on an interval level. One of the most

common of these types is the traditional 1-to-5 rating (or 1-to-7, or 1-to-9, etc.). This is sometimes

referred to as a Likert response scale. Here, we see how we might ask an opinion question on a 1-to-5

bipolar scale (it's called bipolar because there is a neutral point and the two ends of the scale are at

opposite positions of the opinion):

Another interval question uses an approach called the semantic differential. Here, an object is

assessed by the respondent on a set of bipolar adjective pairs (using 5-point rating scale):

Finally, we can also get at interval measures by using what is called a cumulative or Guttman scale.

Here, the respondent checks each item with which they agree. The items themselves are constructed so

that they are cumulative -- if you agree to one, you probably agree to all of the ones above it in the list:

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3. Variable of structure or response format

The types of questionnaire vary widely. Questionnaires may be classified on a number of different

bases. The classification of questionnaires used here is based on the variablity of structure. It is how

you collect the answer from the respondent. Accordingly, we have:

structured/ standardized questionnaire

Unstructured/ non-structured questionnaire.

Structured questionnaires/response formats are those in which there are definite, concrete and

preordained questions with additional questions limited to those necessary to clarify inadequate

answers or to elicit more detailed responses. The questions are presented with exactly the same

wording, and in the same wording, and in the same order to all respondents.

Structured questions/formats help the respondent to respond more easily and help the researcher to

accumulate and summarize responses more efficiently. But, they can also constrain the respondent and

limit the researcher's ability to understand what the respondent really means. There are many different

structured response formats, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. We'll review the major ones

here.

a) Fill- In-The-Blank. One of the simplest response formats is a blank line. A blank line can be used

for a number of different response types.

b) Check The Answer. The respondent places a check next to the response(s). Sometimes, we supply

a box that the person can fill in with an 'X' (which is sort of a variation on the check mark. By

convention, we usually use the checkmark format when we want to allow the respondent to select

multiple items.

Whenever you use a checklist, you want to be sure that you ask the following questions:

Are all of the alternatives covered?

Is the list of reasonable length?

Is the wording impartial?

Is the form of the response easy, uniform?

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Sometimes you may not be sure that you have covered all of the possible responses in a checklist. If

that is the case, you should probably allow the respondent to write in any other options that may apply.

c) Circle The Answer. Sometimes the respondent is asked to circle an item to indicate their

response. Usually we are asking them to circle a number.

Advantages of structured Questionnaire

a. It is easier and quicker for respondents to answer.

b. The answers of different respondents are easier to compare.

c. Answers are easier to code and statistically analyze.

d. The response choices can clarify question meaning for respondents.

e. Respondents are more likely to answer sensitive questions.

f. There are fewer irrelevant or confused answers to questions.

g. Less articulate or less literate respondents are not at a disadvantage.

h. Replication is easier.

Disadvantages of structured Questionnaire

a. They can suggest ideas that the respondent would not otherwise have.

b. Respondents with no opinion or no knowledge can answer anyway.

c. Respondents can be frustrated because their desired answer is not a choice.

d. It is confusing if many response choices are offered.

e. Misinterpretation of a question can go unnoticed.

f. Distinction between respondent answers may be blurred.

g. Clerical mistakes or making the wrong response is possible.

h. They force respondents to give simplistic responses to complex issues.

i. They force people to make choices they would not make in the real world.

Unstructured questionnaires/ Response Formats while there are a wide variety of structured response

formats, there are relatively few unstructured ones. What is an unstructured response format?

Generally, it's written text. If the respondent writes down text as the response, you've got an

unstructured response format. These can vary from short comment boxes to the transcript of an

interview. In almost every short questionnaire, there are one or more short text field questions.

Advantages of unstructured questionnaires/response format

a. They permit an unlimited number of possible answers.

b. Respondents can answer in detail and can qualify and clarify responses.

c. Unanticipated findings can be discovered.

d. They permit adequate answers to complex issues.

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e. They permit creativity; self expression, and richness of detail.

f. They reveal a respondents logic, thinking process, and frame of reference.

Disadvantages of unstructured questionnaire/response format

a. Different respondents give different degrees of detail in answers.

b. Responses may be irrelevant or buried in useless detail.

c. Comparison and statistical analysis become very difficult.

d. Coding response is difficult.

e. Articulate and highly literate respondents have an advantage.

f. Questions may be to general for respondents who loss direction.

g. Responses are written verbatim, which is difficult for interviewers.

h. A great amount of respondent time, thought and effort is necessary.

i. Respondents can be intimidated by questions.

j. Answers take up a lot of space in the questionnaire.

Questionnaire Construction/ Wording Decision

Many researchers have investigated the complex art of question writing. From their experiences, they

offer valuable advice. Below are some helpful hints typical of those that appear most often in texts on

question construction.

1. Keep the language simple.

Analyze your audience and write on their level. It usually suggested that writing at the sixth grade

level may be appropriate.

Avoid the use of technical terms or jargon.

2. Keep the questions short.

Long questions tend to become ambiguous and confusing. A respondent, in trying to comprehend a

long question, may leave out a clause and thus change the meaning of the question.

3. Keep the number of questions to a minimum.

There is no commonly agreed on maximum number of questions that should be asked, but research

suggests higher return rates correlate highly with shorter surveys.

Ask only questions that will contribute to your survey.

Apply the So what? and Who cares? tests to each question.

Nice-to-know questions only add to the size of the questionnaire.

Do not leave out, however, questions that would yield necessary data simply because it will shorten

your survey. If the information is necessary, ask the question.

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4. Limit each question to one idea or concept.

A question consisting of more than one idea may confuse the respondent and lead to a meaningless

answer.

Consider this question: Are you in favor of raising pay and lowering benefits? What would a yes (or

no) answer mean?

5. Do not ask leading questions.

These questions are worded in a manner that suggests an answer. Some respondents may give the

answer you are looking for whether or not they think it is right. Such questions can alienate the

respondent and may open your questionnaire to criticism.

A properly worded question gives no clue as to which answer you may believe to be the correct one.

6. Use subjective terms such as good, fair, and bad sparingly/economically, if at all.

These terms mean different things to different people. One person's fair may be another person's

bad. How much is often and how little is seldom?

7. Allow for all possible answers.

Respondents who cannot find their answer among your list will be forced to give an invalid reply or,

possibly, become frustrated and refuse to complete the survey.

Wording the question to reduce the number of possible answers is the first step.

Avoid dichotomous (two-answer) questions (except for obvious demographic questions such as

gender).

If you cannot avoid them, add a third option, such as no opinion, don't know, or other. These may

not get the answers you need but they will minimize the number of invalid responses. A great number

of don't know answers to a question in a fact-finding survey can be a useful piece of information.

But a majority of other answers may mean you have a poor question, and perhaps should be cautious

when analyzing the results.

8. Avoid emotional or morally charged questions and too direct questions

There are times when asking a question too directly may be too threatening or disturbing for

respondents. The respondent may feel your survey is getting a bit too personal!

For instance, consider a study where you want to discuss battlefield experiences with former soldiers

who experienced trauma. Examine the following three question options:

How did you feel about being in the war?

How well did the equipment hold up in the field?

How well were new recruits trained?

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The first question may be too direct. For this population it may elicit powerful negative emotions

based on their recollections. The second question is a less direct one. It asks about equipment in the

field, but, for this population, may also lead the discussion toward more difficult issues to discuss

directly. The last question is probably the least direct and least threatening. If you are doing a study

where the respondents may experience high levels of stress because of the questions you ask, you

should reconsider the ethics of doing the study.

9. Understand the should-would question.

Usually respondents answer should questions from a social or moral point of view while answering

would questions in terms of personal preference.

10. Formulate your questions and answers to obtain exact information and to minimize

confusion.

The survey author has to always be on the lookout for questions that could be misunderstood or

confusing. Some terms are just to vague to be useful. For instance, if you ask a question about the

"mass media," what do you mean? The newspapers? Radio? Television? How old are you? mean on

your last or your nearest birthday? Does What is your (military) grade? mean permanent or

temporary grade? As of what date?

By including instructions like Answer all questions as of (a certain date), you can alleviate many

such conflicts.

11. Include a few questions that can serve as checks on the accuracy and consistency of the

answers as a whole.

Have some questions that are worded differently, but are soliciting the same information, in different

parts of the questionnaire.

These questions should be designed to identify the respondents who are just marking answers

randomly or who are trying to game the survey (giving answers they think you want to hear).

If you find a respondent who answers these questions differently, you have reason to doubt the

validity of their entire set of responses. For this reason, you may decide to exclude their response

sheet(s) from the analysis.

12. Organize the pattern of the questions appropriately:

Place demographic questions at the end of the questionnaire.

Have your opening questions arouse interest.

Ask easier questions first.

To minimize conditioning, have general questions precede specific ones.

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Group similar questions together.

If you must use personal or emotional questions, place them at the end of the questionnaire.

Thank the respondent at the beginning for allowing you to conduct your study

Keep your survey as short as possible -- only include what is absolutely necessary

Be sensitive to the needs of the respondent

Be alert for any sign that the respondent is uncomfortable

Thank the respondent at the end for participating

Assure the respondent that you will send a copy of the final results.

Note: The next two hints apply to the entire questionnaire including the cover letter, instructions, and

question.

13. Pretest (pilot test) the questionnaire.

This is the most important step in preparing your questionnaire.

The purpose of the pretest is to see just how well your cover letter motivates your respondents and

how clear your instructions, questions, and answers are.

You should choose a small group of people (from three to ten should be sufficient) you feel are

representative of the group you plan to survey.

After explaining the purpose of the pretest, let them read and answer the questions without

interruption. When they are through, ask them to critique the cover letter, instructions, and each of the

questions and answers. Don't be satisfied with learning only what confused or alienated them.

Question them to make sure that what they thought something meant was really what you intended it

to mean.

Use the above 12 hints as a checklist, and go through them with your pilot test group to get their

reactions on how well the questionnaire satisfies these points. Finally, redo any parts of the

questionnaire that are weak.

14. Have your questionnaire neatly produced on quality paper.

A professional looking product will increase your return rate. But always remember the adage You

can't make a silk purse out of a sow's ear.

A poorly designed survey that contains poorly written questions will yield useless data regardless of

how pretty it looks.

15. Be realistic in assuming about the respondents

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Sometimes we don't stop to consider how a question will appear from the respondent's point-of-view.

We don't think about the assumptions behind our questions. For instance, if you ask what social class

someone's in, you assume that they know what social class is and that they think of themselves as

being in one. In this kind of case, you may need to use a filter question first to determine whether

either of these assumptions is true.

16. Finally, make your survey interesting!

Question Placement

One of the most difficult tasks facing the survey designer involves the ordering of questions. Which

topics should be introduced early in the survey and which later? If you leave your most important

questions until the end, you may find that your respondents are too tired to give them the kind of

attention you would like. If you introduce them too early, they may not yet be ready to address the

topic, especially if it is a difficult or disturbing one. Whenever you think about question placement,

consider the following questions:

Is the answer influenced by prior questions?

Does question come too early or too late to arouse interest?

Does the question receive sufficient attention?

The Opening Questions

The opening few questions should, in general, be easy to answer. You might start with some simple

descriptive questions that will get the respondent rolling. You should never begin your survey with

sensitive or threatening questions.

Sensitive Questions

Before asking difficult and uncomfortable subjects, you should attempt to develop some trust or

rapport with the respondent. Often, preceding the sensitive questions with some easier warm-up ones

will help. But, you have to make sure that the sensitive material does not come up abruptly or appear

unconnected with the rest of the survey. It is often helpful to have a transition sentence between

sections of your instrument to give the respondent some idea of the kinds of questions that are coming.

For instance, you might lead into a section on personal material with the transition: In this next

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section of the survey, we'd like to ask you about your personal relationships. Remember, we do not

want you to answer any questions if you are uncomfortable doing so.

Bias and How to Combat It

Surveyors must be aware of ways the surveys might become biased and of the available means for

combating bias.

The main sources of bias in a questionnaire are:

a non-representative sample

leading questions

question misinterpretation

untruthful answers

Surveyors can expose themselves to possible non-representative sample bias in two ways.

The first is to actually choose a non-representative sample. This bias can be eliminated

by careful choice of the sample.

The second way is to have a large number of non-returns.

The nonreturn bias (also called non-respondent bias) can affect both the sample survey and the

complete survey. The bias stems from the fact that the returned questionnaires are not necessarily

evenly distributed throughout the sample. The opinions or attitudes expressed by those who returned

the survey may or may not represent the attitudes or opinions of those who did not return the survey. It

is impossible to determine which is true since the non-respondents remain an unknown quantity.

The following are techniques used to get people to reply to surveys.

1. Use follow-up letters.

These letters are sent to the nonrespondents after a period of a couple of weeks asking them again to

fill out and return the questionnaire. The content of this letter is similar to that of the cover letter.

If you are conducting a volunteer survey, you should anticipate the need for following up with non-

respondents and code the survey in some unobtrusive way to tell who has and who has not yet

responded. If you don't do that, but still need to get in touch with nonrespondents, consider placing ads

in local papers or base bulletins, announcements at commander's call, or notices posted in public

places. If at all possible, provide a fresh copy of the survey with the follow- up letter. This often

increases return rate over simply sending out a letter alone.

2. Use high-level sponsorship.

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This hint was mentioned in an earlier section. People tend to reply to surveys sponsored by

organizations they know or respect. Effort spent in doing this will result in a higher percentage of

returns. If possible, use the letterhead of the sponsor on your cover letter.

3. Make your questionnaire attractive, simple to fill out, and easy to read.

A professional product usually gets professional results.

4. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.

You are asking for a person's time, so make your request as small as possible.

5. Use your cover letter to motivate the person to return the questionnaire.

One form of motivation is to have the letter signed by an individual known to be respected by the

target audience for your questionnaire. In addition, make sure the individual will be perceived by the

audience as having a vested interest in the information needed.

6. Use inducements to encourage a reply.

These can range from a small amount of money attached to the survey to an enclosed stamped

envelope. A promise to report the results to each respondent can be helpful. If you do promise a report,

be sure to send it.

Proper use of these techniques can lower the nonreturn rate to acceptable levels. Keep in mind, though,

that no matter what you do, there will always be non-respondents to your surveys. Make sure the effort

and resources you spend are in proportion with the return you expect to get.

The second source of bias is misinterpretations of questions. We have seen that these can be limited

by clear instructions, well-constructed questions, and through judicious pilot testing of the survey.

Biased questions can also be eliminated by constructing the questions properly and by using a pilot

test.

Finally, internal checks and a good motivational cover letter can control bias introduced by untruthful

answers.

Although bias cannot be eliminated totally, proper construction of the questionnaire, a well-chosen

sample, follow- up letters, and inducements can help control it.

SUMMARY

The questionnaire is the means for collecting your survey data. It should be designed with your data

collection plan in mind. Each of its three parts should take advantage of the strengths of questionnaires

while minimizing their weaknesses. Each of the different kinds of questions is useful for eliciting

different types of data, but each should be constructed carefully with well- developed construction

guidelines in mind. Properly constructed questions and well-followed survey procedures will allow

36

you to obtain the data needed to check your hypothesis and, at the same time, minimize the chance that

one of the many types of bias will invalidate your survey results.

2.3.2. Schedules

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with

little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being

filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.

These enumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them the questions from the

proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in

the proforma.

In certain situations schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in

recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules.

Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which

any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or

concept of difficult terms.

This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to

fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. The enumerators should

be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained

to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the

schedule.

Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross-examination in order to find

out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hard working, and should have patience and

perseverance.

This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquires and can lead to fairly reliable

results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by

governmental agencies or by some big organizations. Population census all over the world is

conducted through this method.

This method is suitable where finance and trained enumerators are available to cover a wide field and

where some significance is attached to the accuracy of the results obtained.

Advantages

It can be adopted even in those cases where informants are illiterates.

It eliminates to a great extent the problem of non-response

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The enumerator can explain the significance of the inquiry and the questions in the questionnaire

personally to the informants and thus ensuring collection of accurate and reliable information.

Limitations

The enumerator might be biased one and may not enter the answers given by the respondents

truthfully. He may twist or suppress the information provided by the informant.

Where there are many enumerators, they may interpret various terms in the questionnaire

according to their own understanding of the terms. The interpretation may be quite

unintentional.

The bias might be arising due to the state of mind of the informant or the environment in which

he is placed.

This method is some what costly and time consuming since it requires a large number of

enumerators who are paid persons.

Difference between questionnaires and Schedules

Both questionnaire and schedule are used method of collecting data in research surveys. There is

much resemblance in the nature of these two and this fact has made many people to remark that from

a particular point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same. But from technical point of

view there is a difference between the two. The important points of difference are as under:

1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a

covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is

generally filled out by the research worker or the numerator, who can interpret questions when

necessary.

2. Questionnaire is relatively economical

3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire.

4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the

identity of the respondent is known.

5. The questionnaire method is likely to be slow than schedule.

6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method, but in case of

schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.

7. Questionnaire method is only used when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of

schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.

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8. Wider and more representative sample coverage is possible in case of questionnaire method,

whereas in schedule there is usual remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively

wider area.

9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively high in case of questionnaire

method than in case of schedule.

10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in

case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators,

11. Along with schedules observation method can be used but such thing is not possible in case of

questionnaire method.

2.3.3. Interviews

Interviews are among the most challenging and rewarding forms of data collection technique. They

require a personal sensitivity and adaptability as well as the ability to stay within the bounds of the

designed protocol. Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires and

schedules.

Types of Interviews

1. Face-to Face Interviews/ personal Interviews

In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the respondent. Unlike with mail

surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow-up questions. And, interviews are

generally easier for the respondent, especially if what is sought is opinions or impressions.

Advantages of Personal Interviews

a. It has the highest response rates.

b. Quick response can be attained.

c. Personal contacts are involved

d. Follow up questions can be asked.

e. It permits the longest questionnaire.

f. Higher flexibility

g. Interviewers can observe the surroundings and can use nonverbal communication and

visual aids.

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h. The interviewer can control who answers the questions.

i. All types of questions can be asked including complex questions using illustrations and

extensive probes.

Disadvantages of Personal Interviews

a. Interviews can be very time consuming

b. Interviews are resource intensive or very expensive as training, travel, supervision cost are

added.

c. Interviewer bias is greatest.

d. The interviewers wording, tone of voice, appearance may matter.

2. Telephone interview

Another type of interview is called telephone interview. It is a popular survey method. Most of the

major public opinion polls that are reported were based on telephone interviews.

Advantages

a. Telephone interviews enable a researcher to gather information rapidly.

b. They allow for some personal contact between the interviewer and the respondent.

c. They allow the interviewer to ask follow-up questions.

d. They are cheaper than the personal interview.

e. No field staff is required.

f. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

Disadvantages

a. Many people don't have publicly-listed telephone numbers. Some don't have telephones.

b. People often don't like the intrusion of a call to their homes.

c. Telephone interviews have to be relatively short or people will feel imposed upon.

d. Noise may interrupt the process.

e. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.

f. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various

questions.

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The process of conducting the interview

1. Preparation

1.1. Knowing the Role of the Interviewer and Preparing on it

The interviewer is really the "jack-of-all-trades" in survey research. The interviewer's role is complex

and multifaceted. It includes the following tasks:

a) Locate and enlist cooperation of respondents

b) Motivate respondents to do good job

c) Clarify any confusion/concerns

d) Observe quality of responses

e) Conduct a good interview

1.2. Training the Interviewers

One of the most important aspects of any interview study is the training of the interviewers

themselves. In many ways the interviewers are your measures, and the quality of the results is totally

in their hands. Even in small studies involving only a single researcher-interviewer, it is important to

organize in detail and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study.

Here are some of the major topics that should be included in interviewer training:

a) Describe the entire study

b) State who is sponsor of research

c) Teach enough about survey research

d) Explain the sampling logic and process

e) Explain interviewer bias

f) "Walk through" the interview

g) Explain respondent selection procedures

h) reading maps

i) identifying households

j) identify respondents

k) Rehearse interview

l) Explain supervision

m) Explain scheduling

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1.3. Make ready The Interviewer's Kit

2. Conducting the Interview

So all the preparation is complete, the training done, the interviewers ready to proceed, their "kits" in

hand. It's finally time to do an actual interview. Each interview is unique, like a small work of art (and

sometimes the art may not be very good). Every interview includes some common components.

There's the opening, where the interviewer gains entry and establishes the rapport and tone for what

follows. There's the middle game, the heart of the process, that consists of the protocol of questions

and the improvisations of the probe. And finally, there's the endgame, the wrap-up, where the

interviewer and respondent establish a sense of closure. Whether it's a two-minute phone interview or

a personal interview that spans hours, the interview is a bit of theater, a mini-drama that involves real

lives in real time.

2.1. Opening Remarks

In many ways, the interviewer has the same initial problem that a salesperson has. You have to get the

respondent's attention initially for a long enough period that you can sell them on the idea of

participating in the study. Many of the remarks here assume an interview that is being conducted at a

respondent's residence. But the analogies to other interview contexts should be straightforward.

Gaining entry

The first thing the interviewer must do is gain entry. Several factors can enhance the prospects.

Probably the most important factor is your initial appearance. The interviewer needs to dress

professionally and in a manner that will be comfortable to the respondent. In some contexts a business

suit and briefcase may be appropriate. In others, it may intimidate. The way the interviewer appears

initially to the respondent has to communicate some simple messages -- that you're trustworthy,

honest, and non-threatening. Cultivating a manner of professional confidence, the sense that the

respondent has nothing to worry about because you know what you're doing -- is a difficult skill to

teach and an indispensable skill for achieving initial entry.

Doorstep technique

You're standing on the doorstep and someone has opened the door, even if only halfway. You need to

smile. You need to be brief. State why you are there and suggest what you would like the respondent

to do. Don't ask -- suggest what you want. Instead of saying "May I come in to do an interview?", you

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might try a more imperative approach like " I'd like to take a few minutes of your time to interview

you for a very important study."

Introduction

If you've gotten this far without having the door slammed in your face, chances are you will be able to

get an interview. Without waiting for the respondent to ask questions, you should move to introducing

yourself. You should have this part of the process memorized so you can deliver the essential

information in 20-30 seconds at most. State your name and the name of the organization you represent.

Show your identification badge and the letter that introduces you. You want to have as legitimate an

appearance as possible. If you have a three-ring binder