ANCIENT HISTORY

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION INTRODUCTION:

Charles Masson > 1826-38 first described the ruins of harappa - significance was not realized

1857 - British authorities used harappan bricks in the construction of East Indian railway line connecting karachi and lahore

1912 - harappan seals with then unknown symbols were discovered by J Fleet >> triggered an excavation campaign under Sir John Marshall in 1921/22 > RESULT - discovery of a hitherto unknown civilization by Dayaram Sahani

1931 - much of the Mohenjodaro was excavated, but minor campaigns continued > Mortimer Wheeler in 1950

Partition of British India in 1947 > area of IVC was divided b/n Pakistan and India

PRE-HARAPPAN AND HARAPPAN CULTURES - DATES AND FEATURES:

4 IMPORTANT PHASES OF EVOLUTION 4000 BC - 1800 BC >>

neolithic Baluchistan and Indus plains Mehrgarh and Killi Ghul Mohammad pastoralism with limited cultivation & seasonal occupation emergence of permanent villages - wheat, barley, dates, cotton,

sheep, goat - mud houses, pottery, crafts 2900 BC - 2500 BC >>

early harappan period more settlements in hills and plains Largest number of villages Use of copper, wheel and plough (PCW)

Neolithic Plains Mehrgarh Pastoralism Villages

Extraordinary pottery forms > beginning of many regional traditions

Rural to urban life Amri and Kot diji Granary, defensive walls & long distance trade (GDT) Uniformity in pottery tradition Origins of motifs - pipal, humped bulls, cobras, horned deity

2500 BC - 2000 BC >>

Mature harappan period Large cities Uniform types of bricks, weights, seals, beads and pottery Planned township Long distance trade Kalibangan

2000 BC onwards >>

Late harappan period Many harappan sites abandoned Continuation of harappan crafts and pottery tradition Village cultures of punjab, sutlej - jamuna divide Gujarat imbibes the harappan crafts and pottery tradition

Mature Cities Uniform Township Trade Kalibangan

Late Sites abandonedCrafts and Pottery Village culturesGujarat Lothal

lothal

Bronze Age people had built up great civilizations and made significant contributions

M - Mesopotamian > tigris and euphrates E - Eyptian > nile C - chinese > hwang ho H - harappan > indus Mesopotamian Civilization:

tigris and euphrates - modern Iraq Rivers flood > deposit silt > fertile Increased food production abundant agricultural produce > growth of a number of crafts

persons - smiths, potters masons, weavers and carpenters Barter system Carts, wagons, boats and ships - transport and communication script - collection of symbols and pictures > drew wedge-like lines

> Cuneiform script

Rivers Food productionAgricultural produceBarter systemTranspot Script AdministratioRuling classOthers

earliest cities - small states > own administration ruling class -priests, kings and aristocrats Others - merchants, ordinary people and the slaves worshipped many gods and goddesses like sky, sun, moon,

fertility Each city had its own patron god or goddess

Egyptian Civilization:

Nile > fertile land Egyptian kings were called Pharaohs ministers and officers - administered the land and collected taxes Priests- high and honorable position in society Temples were dedicated to a particular god in each town or city ancient Egyptian script - Hieroglyphics Traders and merchants - business both on land and water

skilled workers > stone-cutters and carpenters knowledge of weights and measures built the great monuments – Pyramids believed in afterlife, they preserved the dead bodies - mummies pyramids were built as tombs to keep the mummified bodies of th

dead kings. Chinese Civilization:

Hwang ho First rulers - Shangs > built first cities - contributed art and culture Craftspersons - bronze workers > great experts in their fields Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Zhous, who built strong

forts and walled towns to defend themselves from invaders later phase of the Zhou rule iron was introduced ending the

Bronze Age in China In 221 BC, the Chin rulers came to power - use of common

language, common laws and common weights and measures throughout their empire > built the famous Great Wall of China

After Chins, Han dynasty came to power, who ruled till AD 220 > Chinese traders had contact with the West through the famous Silk Route, crossing Central Asia and Persia

Worship of ancestors, nature and spirits very common Confucius > system of right behavior- greatly influenced Chinese

society and Government

emphasis on good moral character, respect to elders and loyalty to the family and obedience to the laws of the State Harappan civilization:

Nomenclature of IVC:

Indus valley civilization - flourished along the indus and ghaggar - hakra

Harappan civilization - john marshall after the first discovered site harappa

Saraswati civilization - john marshall after the first discovered site harappa

70000 - 50000 BCE - FIRST HUMANS migrated to India IVC - first known civilization in india Period: 2500 -1750 BC Area - 1.3 million sq.km Population - around 5 million Most concentration of settlements - ghaggar-hakra river system Harappa > largest no. of sites Mixed race - A2M2 - austroloid, alpinoid, mediterranean,

mongoloid Most from mediterranean race 6 out of 250 sites are cities

Discovery:

Harappa - 1921 - dayaram sahani > m.s.wats > mortimer wheeler (HD)

Mohenjodaro - r.d.banarjee – 1922 (MB) UNESCO world heritage sites Chanhudaro - 1931 – majumdar (CM) Kalibangan - 1961-69 - B.B.lal and B.K.Thaper

Town planning

Grid system Western side >> fortified citadel - public buildings Eastern side >> lower town - house of commoners

Burnt brick Drainage system Streets - 30 ft Buildings - 1) residential houses 2) larger buildings 3) public

buildings Economy:

Agriculture Wheat and barley Rice - lothal and rangpur Indigo - rojdi in gujarat Well irrigation - aladinho in sindh Animal rearing First to use silver and cotton Ignorant of use of iron Internal trade - south india, UP, maharashtra , bihar Foreign trade - mesopotomia and egypt Transportation - bullock carts, boats Barter system - exchange of goods without use of money

Seals:

AgricultureWheat Rice Indigo Well irrigation Animal rearingFirst to use Ignorant Trade - IF Transportation Barter system

Made of steatite Square - animal and inscription Rectangular - inscription only Used to stamp bags containing goods that were sent from one

place to another After bag was closed layer of wet clay was applied - sealing > if it

is intact - goods reached safely Ownership Animal most encountered - humpless bull Script and language:

Pictographic Birds, fishes, varieties of human form Fish - most represented in pictographs Signboard inscription bearing 10 pictographs - dholavira

Political conditions:

Steatite Square Rectangular Stamp bags Sealing Ownership Sealing Humpless bull

PictographicFish dholavira

No clear cut evidence Well planned cities & excellent drainage system - municipal govt Fortified citadel - monarchial form of govt Religion:

Mother goddess Male deity - pashupati shiva Female sex organs - yoni worship Pipal tree and animals - pigeon, humpless bulls Believed in ghosts and evil forces Yoga and meditation Worshipped fertility symbols - round stones, pierced stones

Terracotta figurines:

municipal monarchial evidence

Mother goddess Shiva Yoni worship Pipal tree, animals Ghosts Yoga Fertility symbols

Made of baked clay Male and female figurines Pride of place - great humpless bulls New techniques in handicraft - camelian products, seal carving Metallurgy - copper, bronze, lead, tin

Images:

Metal and stone Metal - bronze image of nude dancing girl with right hand at hip Stone - steatite image of bearded man at mohenjodaro Pottery:

Baked clay Male and femaleHumpless bullsNew techniquesMetallurgy

Metal and stoneDancing girlBearded man

Use of potters wheel Glazed pottery - first of its kind in world Plain (red) and painted (red and black)

Weights and measures:

First doubling from 1,2,4,8 to 64 and then in decimal multiples of

16 Foot - 37.6 cm Cubit - 51.8 to 53.6

Burial practices:

3 forms (CPF)

Complete burials

Fractional burials

Post-cremation burials

Surkotada - pot burial

Potter’s wheel Glazed pottery Plain Painted

CPF

Surkotada

Harappa

Harappa - graves east-west axis Food:

Wheat, barley, dates, pork, beef, mutton, poultry Milk and vegetables

Dress and ornaments:

Cotton and wool Two types - one to cover upper and one to cover lower portions Ornaments - gold, silver, ivory and copper

Public buildings:

Fortified citadels Large pillared hall Great granary (3G) Great bath Public granary

Cotton Wool 2 types Ornaments

Citadels Pillared hall 3G

Household articles:

Vessels of copper, bronze, silver and painted pottery Glazed indus pottery Game of dice

Weapons:

Maces, axes, spears, bows, arrows Defensive weapons - unknown Preparation of weapons - copper, bronze and stone

Special features of some harappan sites: Harappa:

Vessels Pottery Dice

Defensive Preparation

First indus site to be discovered - dayaram sahani (HD) 2 rows of 6 granaries Largest no. of wheat grains Red sandstone tarso of nude male Burial practices - R 37, cemetry H type

Mohenjodaro:

Second site to be discovered - R.D.Banarjee (MB) Great granary (3G) Great bath Multi pillared assembly hall First street

Pasupati seal Bronze image of dancing girl with right hand on hip Steatite image of bearded man 3 cylindrical seals of mesopotamia Outbreak of malaria

Lothal:

s.r.rao Artificial dockyard World's first tidal port

Mini harappa Double burial Cultivation of rice Manchester of harappan civilization for its cotton (3C’s) Copper furnaces Chess game Fire altar

Chanhudaro:

Majumdar (CM) Indus city without citadel (CCC) Lancashire of india

Flooded more than once Largest number of copper settlements Lipstick Cat's fooprint

Kalibangan:

B.B.lal and k.ghosh Word - black bangles Earliest ploughed field Mixed cropping Cylindrical seal 7 fire altars Bones of animals

Surkotada

Joshi Bones of horse Pot burial

Dholavira:

r.s bhist Largest of all indus settlements Middle town – dam, reservoir, stadium 10 alphabet signboard Traces of dam Destroyed by earthquake Biggest state found in india Water reservoir Stadium

Banwali:

Barley grains

Oval shaped settlements Daimabad :

�మబ� ల� ��వ �� బ�� ంజ� �చ�ను

Dhavalikar Largest no. of bronze items Bronze chariot, rhino, elephant, bull

Kot diji:

��� ��� ల� గ�ర�� ���� మ�� �ధ��� య

Ghurey Largest no. of stone implements Destroyed by fire

Geographical extent :

Impact of IVC on present India: Indus valley civilization:

Drew much of its wealth from horticulture Main crop was cotton Believed to have followed an authoritarian or theocratic system of

govt Adopted hinduism after the arrival of nomads from central

europe Present India:

Main exports are precious stones, petroleum and petroleum based products, software, engg equipment, textiles

Shifted from social leanings to liberal policies and free market economy in 1991

Follows a democratic system of govt

Recent study on IVC: Confirmed that IVC declined due to climate change Scientists found evidence from meghalaya, oman and arabian sea

> abrupt weakening of summer monsoon affected NW India 4100 yrs ago

Resulting drought coincided with the beginning of decline of metropolis-building > climate change could be why many of its major cities were abandonedConclusion:

Indus valley people gave to this world its earliest cities, its town planning. Its architecture in stone and clay and showed their concern for health and sanitation

There is enough evidence to show that some of the early conceptions of hinduism are derived from this culture

On the whole, present civilization is a composite product resulting from a fusion of several cultures where the contribution is of utmost importance

THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION EARLY OR RIG VEDIC CIVILIZATION: INTRODUCTION:

The world of vedic india is largely through its religious texts, the vedas, which gave the period its name

The vedas recorded not only the religion of the vedic people, but also details of their lives that give us a look at their political, social and economic pattern.

Composed and transmitted orally, these texts consists of hymns; spells; myths and rituals.

Town planning Architecture Health and sanitation Hinduism Composite product

Original home and identity:

Word "Aryan" > high birth Theory of southern russia or eurasia > seems more plausible From this region they moved to diff parts of asia and europe Migrated to india through khyber pass Rapidly spread to the area known as the Sapta Sindhu Some part of Afghanistan > araiya or haraiya Main tribes > hitties, indo-aryans, iranians, kassites, mitannis

and greeks Boghaz koi inscriptions > peace treaty between hitties and

marayanni rulers of mittani >> names of vedic gods are mentioned - indra, mitra, nasatya , varuna Proves that central asia as their homeland Mingles with local people

Adopted agrarian way of life after settling down in small, organized communities

Reason behind rapid expansion of the aryans:

Chariot driven by horses Weapons made of good quality bronze Use of armour (varman) Use of destructive machine called "Purcharishnu"

Chariot

Weaponsarmour

Purcharishnu

Geographical extent:

Knowledge of indus valley according to rig veda Indus is the most mentioned river in rig veda Saraswati (Naditarna) considered as the holiest river Identified with ghaggar-hakra channel, but in rigvedic

description it seems to be avetan river "Haraxvati" Yamuna > thrice & ganga > once Samudra > collection of water and not sea Knowledge of himvat or snow mountains, dhawa (desert land)

and majuvant, from which aryans got soma Knowldege of eastern afghanistan, NWFP, east and west punjab

and haryana

indus valley Indus SaraswatiHaraxvatiYamuna ganga Samudra soma Knowldege

Sources:

Chief source - vedic literature in sanskrit Composed > 1500 - 500 BC Vedic literature - 4 vedas, vedangas, upavedas, darsanas and

sutra literature

The 4 vedas:

Veda - "vid" > to know or knowledge 4 vedas - rig, yajur, sama, adharva (RAYS) Belief of hindus - vedic literature composed by Apaursheyas Rishis heard them from the mouth of god - sruthi > handed over

from generation to generation Rigveda - oldest and most important each veda - 4 parts - samhita, brahmana, aranyaka, upanishads

Samhithas:

Texts for recitation Hymns, prayers, sacrificial formulas 1017 hymns in rik samhitha One mandala > purushasukta - sacrificial rituals Yajus samhitha - partly hymns and partly of prose passages -

performance of sacrifices Samaveda samhitha - 1063 verses > rik samhitha - sung at the

time of sacrifice Atharva samhitha - 731 hymns divided into 20 books Atharva veda > late recognition - excluded from the group -

deals with evil spirits , ghosts and formulas to control demons and spirits

Brahmanas: Explain the meaning of sacrifices and methods of performing

them Each of the 4 vedas had brahmanas attached to it

Aitreya and Kausitaki Brahmanas >> rig veda (RAK)

Tandya Maha Brahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmanas >> Samaveda: Thanda, Janimiya

Taittireya and Sathpatha Brahmanas >> Yajurveda: Sat on a Tie Gopatha Brahmanas >> Adharvaveda: Gopi

Aranyakas:

Forest texts for old people who resorted to forests and unable to perform sacrifices

Philosophical ideas discussion Simple ceremonies in place of complicated rituals Most imp Aranyakas - Aitreya and Taitreya

Upanishads:

Indian philosophy rooted Upanishad - secret instructions imparted as private settings by

the preceptor to the pupil Simply sitting near a guru to get confidential knowledge Deals with truth , self realization, self and absolute self

emancipation of man

Indian philosophy UpanishadguruDealTotalImp

Total - 108 Imp - isa, kena, katha, prasna, mundaka ("Satyameva jayathe"),

mandukya, chanyoga, brihadaranyaka, svetasvatara (Bhakti concept) and Maitrayani

Vedangas:

Total – 6 (SVNJKC) Closely connected with vedas known as vedangas or limbs of

veda Shiksha - phonetics, kalpa - ritual, vyakarana - grammar, nirukta

- etymology, chandas - metric, jyothisha - astronomy Help in reading and understanding the vedas

Upavedas:

Total – 4 (GADS) Ayurveda - medicine, Dhanurveda - warfare, Gandharva veda -

music, Shilpa veda - architecture

Total ConnectedReading &

understanding

Darsanas:

Total – 6 (msnV2y)

Nyaya – gautama న �����త�దు ��తం ���యం � ప���� ర�

Vaiseshika – kanada కన�ద �����ఖ���న ��ష

Yoga – patanjali

Sankhya – kapila

Purva mimansa – jaimini

Uttar mimansa - badarayana Darsanas - imp part of indian philosophy

Sutra literature:

Developed in the form of concise formulas Srauta > public rituals - big sacrifices grihya >domestic rules dharma > law and social practice Sulva > rules for measurements and building of altars and places

Political conditions:

Not homogeneous Divided into several tribes - anus, druhyus, yadus, purus,

bharatas, krivis, srinjayas Fought among themselves for supremacy The aryans came into conflict with DASAS (branch of early

aryans) and DASYUS (original inhabitants of India) The dasyus probably worshipped the phallus and did not

husband cattle for dairy products Rigveda mentions the defeat of Sambara (Dasyus) by a chief

called Divodasa of Bharata clan (Dasas) : Sambara vs Divodasa

Concise formulasSrautaGrihyaDharmaSulva

The term Dasyuhatya refers to the slaughter of the dasyus by the dasas

Aryan chief of the dasas - Trasadasyu Tribal chief - Rajan > centre of administrative machinery. The kings (Gopajanasya) position was hereditary He was the protector of tribe and cattle and not the ruler of

specific territory Popular mode of govt - monarchy King employed spies. Army included foot soldiers (Patti) and

warriors (Rathins). The army divided into Sardha, Vrata and Gana Several tribal assemblies called Vidhatha, Sabha, Samithi and

Gana are mentioned in the Rig veda >> exercised military and religious functions.

Women attended Vidatha and Sabha Doctrine of divinity was not associated with kingship Only one king, Purusukta has been described as Ardhaveda

(semi - divine) in Rigveda Important officers - purohita, senani, kulpati (head of the

family), vishpati, brajpati, gramini, sparsa (spy), dutta (messenger) In the Ratnahavimsi ceremony the king had to approach

dignitaries who lived in permanent dwellings The Dasraja War or Battle of ten kings:

In this battle, Sudas, the son of Divodas and the Bharata king of Tritsu family won over an alliance of 10 tribes (5 Aryans and 5 Non-Aryans) and killed their leader Purusukta

The battle was fought on the bank of Parushni (Ravi) river The battle broke out (VV PLAZA)due to a dispute between

Vasistha (priest of Bharathas) and Visvamitra (priest of the alliance) Economic life:

Predominantly pastoral Cow (Gau) was the most important animal >> mentioned 176

times in Rig veda Gomath referred to men prosperous with many cattles The terms of war were gavisthi or the search for cows Main occupation - cattle breeding Domesticated horse, sheep, goat, dog and ass Wild animals known - lion, elephant and bear Agriculture - secondary occupation Yava (barley) - chief food grain Cotton , rice and wheat > not mentioned in Rig Veda Practice of Shifting agriculture References regarding use of bulls to draw the plough (Sira),

sowing of seeds in the furrows (Sita), cutting of the corn withb the sickle (Datra) and the use of Sieve (Titau) as well as winnowing fan (Supra).

Cultivated fields (kshetra), fertile land (urvara), manure (karishu), wells (Aval / prupa), canal (kulya) were also known

Panis formed the great trading class >> condemned in several texts for their greed and hard heartedness

Ayas (copper and bronze) was the common metal in use and metal smelters were called "Karmar"

There were carpentars (Takshan) who made chariots (rathas) and boats (nau)

There were also goldsmiths (Hiranyakara), potters (kulala), barbers (vaptri), tanners (charmamna), physician (bhishaka) and chariot maker (rathakara)

Nishkas, hiranyapindas and manas >> recognized pieces of weights and value

Pottery - ochre coloured pottery (OCP) though black and red ware type was known

Taxation system >> not developed and Bali was a form of voluntary contribution to the king

Vedic Society:

Tribal society with kingship as the basis of social structure Man was identified with his tribe called Jana Jana was divided into Vis (group of villages) under Vispati, Vis

into grama (village) under Gramnani and Grama into kulas (family) into kulapa Jana > Vis > Grama > Kulas

Tribal society was broadly divided priests, warriors and people "Shudra" is first mentioned in 10th book (latest addition) of Rig

veda Non aryans consisted of Dasyus and Panis

NON ARYANS WERE GENERALLY REFERRED AS

Avrata

Not obeying the ordinances of the gods

Akratu or Ayajvan

Who performs no sacrifices

Mridhravachah Whose speech is indistinct

Anas Flat nosed

Sisnadevah Worsjipper of phallus emblems

Devapiyu Anti-vedic gods

Adevayu Indifferent to vedic gods

Slavery was existent as slave women were gifted to priests. Untouchability and concept of gotra was unknown

Position of women:

Rig vedic society was patriarchial > birth of daughters was not desired

Once born they were treated with kindness, education was not neglected

Child marriage was not practiced. Women can choose their husband.

Monogamy and Niyoga (variant of widow remarriage) was practiced

Women participated in religious ceremonies and tribal assemblies Religious pattern:

Personification of the forces of nature Vedic religion was Henotheism or Kathenotheism Predominance of male god Very few goddesses find mention Aim of worship was material gains Cult of domestic hearth prevalent Sacrifice was the pivot of vedic religion

Important references from vedic texts: Reference from Rig Veda:

Gayatri mantra Mention of the word varna Mention of the word sudras Four fold division of society (10th mandala) Purusha - sukta hymn (10th mandala) Origin of the universe (10th mandala) Battle of 10 kings (7th mandala) Ganga (10th mandala) Rajanya (10th mandala) Jain trithankara "Rishabhdeo and Neminath" Saraswathi as Saubhagyadayini

References from Atharva veda:

Mention of the word gotra Sabha and samithi as the twin daughter of prajapati Sabha as narishta Women's participation in samithi Reference of pashupati

References from Aitareya Brahmana:

Origin of kingship Sudras as the servant To be expelled at will and to be stain at will Ten forms of govt Kings as protector of brahmins

References from Satpatha Brahmana:

Elaborate description of "upanayana" Wife is half her husband and complete him Mention of eastern and western seas First reference to money lending

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