acknowledgments978-0-387-48576-8/1.pdf · cidian ” di wu ban de shou ci [adding new ones and...

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Acknowledgments

This book owes a great deal to many people. We would like especially to thank the following individuals for their input.

First, the empirical findings obtained from the qualitative research approaches have complemented the lack of reliable critical information needed to write a book like this. We would like first to extend our gratitude to the scholars who accepted an invitation to give key informant interviews and/or who came to speak at the special focus seminar. They include: Prof. Zhou Youguang (RIAL, consultant of SCLW), Prof. Hu Mingyang (Renmin University of China, former Vice-president of All-China Associa-tion of Chinese Linguistics), Dr. Guo Longsheng (researcher at RIAL), Prof. Wang Jun (RIAL, consultant of SCLW), Prof. Li Yuming (Director of RIAL and Department of Language and Information Management of MOE), Prof. Chen Zhangtai (RIAL, consultant of SCLW, President of All-China Association of Applied Linguistics), Prof. Su Peicheng (Beijing University, President of Association of Chinese Language Modernization). Prof. Yin Bingyong (RIAL), Prof. Fei Jinchang (RIAL), Prof. Dong Kun (Vice-director of Linguistics Research Institution, China Academy of Social Sciences), Prof. Fu Yonghe (RIAL), Prof. Feng Zhiwei (Chinese Information Processing scientist at RIAL), Prof. Lu Chuan (Chinese Information Processing scientist at RIAL), and Prof. Wu Tieping (Beijing Teachers’ University). These scholars are all well-recognized authorities in Chinese language planning and their willingness to share their insights and experience has made a unique contribution to this book. Of course, we take full responsibility for any inaccuracies or misinterpretations that may have occurred.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks also go to the following individuals who offered their valuable assistance at various stages of doing the research and writing of this book: Mr. Rudolf Salzlechner and my colleagues at Nanyang Techno-logical University (Miss Wang Yimin, Mr. Goh Hock Huan, Mr. Zhao Chunsheng, Ms. Wendy Toh and Ms. Joan Gan) for proofreading some draft chapters of the book; Mr. Zhang Dongbo (Carnegie Mellon Univer-sity) for helping us create all the self-created hanzi characters in this text; Ms. Bryde Dodd (Instructional Designer at University of Sydney) for her technical support in the online survey; Ms. Zhao Yanhui (the Principal of the Northeast Normal University’s Affiliated Primary School), Ms. Wang Jing (China Central TV and Radio University), Mr. Shao Honghua (editor of Unity Newspaper), and Mr. He Dingmeng (the chief-editor of Planting and Raising Magazine) for their help in collecting Chinese handwritten materials; Prof. Michael Walsh (University of Sydney), Prof. Chen Ping (University of Queensland), Prof. John Rohsenow (University of Illinois), Dr. George Zhao (University of Toronto), and Prof. Liu Haitao (Media and Communication University of China) for their comments on various parts of the text and/or help in document and information access. Our thanks also go to Simon Ager, Ellie Crysta, and Imre Galambos for permitting us to use their illustrations in this book. We’d also like to thank a number of anonymous referees for their valuable comments on this book and related materials. These comments have helped us clarify our thinking on a number of issues.

To undertake this kind of research outside China relies heavily on Chinese resources. Therefore, we greatly appreciate the excellent library support offered by the Fisher Library of the University of Sydney. We also would like to extend our thanks to all the quoted scholars and sincerely hope that our translations have not seriously distorted their views. In this book, the translations, unless otherwise noted, have been done by the first author, including the translations of names in the references to pinyin when the original Chinese titles were given characters. However, due to the acute lack of unified standards for Romanizing names for Chinese living outside Mainland China, the Romanization of names can be quite hapha-zard and unsystematic. It is very common that the same Chinese surname has three or four variant Romanized forms. Therefore, in this book, these authors’ names were written in pinyin when their original transliteration could not be located. We apologize for not being able to use an individual’s own preferred Romanized form.

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Appendix

APPENDIX A: THE FIRST SCHEME OF SIMPLIFIED CHARACTERS (1935)

Appendix

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Appendix

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Appendix

336

APPENDIX B: THE SECOND SCHEME OF SIMPLIFIED CHARACTERS (1977)

337

Appendix

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Appendix

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Appendix

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Appendix

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Appendix 342

APPENDIX C: TABLE OF MOST USED CHINESE CHARACTERS

(《现代汉语常用字表》)

一乙

二十丁厂七卜人入八九几儿了力乃又

三于干亏士工土才寸下大丈与万上小口巾山千乞川亿个勺久凡及夕丸么广亡门义之尸弓己已子卫也女飞刃习叉马乡

丰王井开夫天无元专云扎艺木五支厅不太犬区历尤友匹车巨牙屯比互切瓦止少日中冈贝内水见午牛手毛气升长仁什片仆化仇币仍仅斤爪反介父从今凶分乏公仓月氏勿欠风丹乌凤勾文六方火为斗忆订计户认心尺引丑巴孔队办以允予劝双书幻

玉刊示末未击打巧正扑扒功扔去甘世古节本术可丙左厉右石布龙平灭轧东卡北占业旧帅归且旦目叶甲申叮电号田由史只央兄叼叫另叨叹四生失禾丘付仗代仙们仪白仔他斥瓜乎丛令用甩印乐句匆册犯外处冬鸟务包饥主市立闪兰半汁汇头汉宁穴它讨写让礼训必议讯记永司尼民出辽奶奴加召皮边发孕圣对台矛纠母幼丝

式刑动扛寺吉扣考托老执巩圾扩扫地扬场耳共芒亚芝朽朴机权过臣再协西压厌在有百存而页匠夸夺灰达列死成夹轨邪划迈毕至此贞师尘尖劣光当早吐吓虫曲团同吊吃因吸吗屿帆岁回岂刚则肉网年朱先丢舌竹迁乔伟传乒乓休伍伏优伐延件任伤价份华仰仿伙伪自血向似后行舟全会杀合兆企众爷伞创肌朵杂危旬旨负各名多争色壮冲冰庄庆亦刘齐交次衣产决充妄闭问闯羊并关米灯州汗污江池汤忙

第一部分常用字（2500 字）按笔画顺序排列

Part 1 Most Used Characters (2500) By Stroke Order

一画

二画

三画

四画

五画

六画

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Appendix

兴宇守宅字安讲军许论农讽设访寻那迅尽导异孙阵阳收阶阴防奸如妇好她妈戏羽观欢买红纤级约纪弛巡

寿弄麦形进戒吞远违运扶抚坛技坏扰拒找批扯址走抄坝贡功赤折抓扮抢孝均抛投坟抗坑坊抖护壳志扭块声把报却劫芽花芹芬苍芳严芦劳克苏杆杠杜材村杏极李杨求更束豆两丽医辰励否还歼来连步坚旱盯呈时吴助县里呆园旷围呀吨足邮男困吵串员听吩吹呜吧吼别岗帐财针钉告我乱利秃秀私每兵估体何但伸作伯伶佣低你住位伴身皂佛近彻役返余希坐谷妥含邻岔肝肚肠龟免狂犹角删条卵岛迎饭饮系言冻状亩况床库疗应冷这序辛弃冶忘闲间闷判灶灿弟汪沙汽沃泛沟没沈沉忧快完宋宏牢究穷灾良证启评补初社识诉珍词译君灵即层尿尾迟局改张忌际陆阿陈阻附妙妖妨努忍劲鸡驱纯纱纳纲驳纵纷纸纹纺驴纽

奉玩环武青责现表规抹拢拔拣担坦押抽拐拖拍者顶拆拥抵拘势抱垃拉拦拌幸招坡披拨择抬其取苦若茂苹苗英范直茄茎茅林枝杯柜析板松枪构杰述枕丧或画卧事刺枣雨卖矿码厕奔奇奋欧垄妻轰顷转斩轮软到非叔肯齿些虎虏肾贤尚旺具果味昆国昌畅明易昂典固忠咐呼鸣咏呢岸岩帖罗帜岭凯败贩购图钓制知垂牧物乖刮秆和季委佳侍供使例版侄侦侧凭侨佩货依的迫质欣征往爬彼径所舍金命斧爸采受乳贪念贫肤肺肢肿胀朋股肥服胁周昏鱼兔狐忽狗备饰饱饲变京享店夜庙府底剂郊废净盲放刻育闸闹郑劵卷单炒炊炕炎炉沫浅法泄河沾泪油泊沿泡注泻泳泥沸波泼泽治怖性怕怜怪学宝宗定宜审宙官空帘实试郎诗肩房诚衬衫视话诞询该详建肃录隶居届刷屈弦承孟孤陕降限妹姑姐姓始驾参艰线练组细驶织终驻驼绍经贯

奏春帮珍玻毒型挂封持项垮挎城挠政赴赵挡挺括拴拾挑指垫挣挤拼挖按挥挪某甚革荐巷带草茧茶荒茫荡荣故胡南药标枯柄栋相查柏柳柱柿栏树要咸威歪研砖厘厚砌吹面耐耍牵

344

七画

八画

九画

Appendix

残殃轻鸦皆背战点临览坚省削尝是盼眨哄显哑冒映星昨畏趴胃贵界虹虾蚁思蚂虽品咽骂哗咱响哈咬咳哪炭峡罚贱贴骨钞钟钢钥钩卸缸拜看矩怎牲选适秒香种秋科重复竿段便俩贷顺修保促侮俭俗俘信皇泉鬼侵追俊盾待律很须叙剑逃食盆胆胜胞胖脉勉狭狮独狡狱狠贸怨急饶蚀饺饼弯将奖哀亭亮度迹庭疮疯疫疤姿亲音帝施闻阀阁差养美姜叛送类迷前首逆总炼炸炮烂剃洁洪洒浇浊洞测洗活派洽染济洋州浑浓津恒恢恰恼恨举觉宣室宫宪突穿窃客冠语扁袄祖神祝误诱说诵垦退既屋昼费陡眉孩除险院娃姥姨姻娇怒架贺盈勇怠柔垒绑绒结绕骄绘给络骆绝绞统

耕耗艳泰珠班素蚕顽盏匪捞栽捕振载赶起盐捎捏埋捉捆捐损都哲逝捡换挽热恐壶挨耻耽恭莲莫荷获晋恶真框桂档桐株桥桃格校核样根索哥速逗粟配翅辱唇夏础破原套逐烈殊顾轿较顿毙致柴桌虑监紧党晒眠晓鸭晃晌晕蚊哨哭恩唤啊唉罢峰圆贼贿钱钳钻铁铃铅缺氧特牺造乘敌秤租积秧秩称秘透笔笑笋债借值倚倾倒倘俱倡候俯倍倦健臭射躬息徒俆舰舱般航途拿爹爱颂翁脆脂胸胳脏胶脑狸狼逢留皱饿恋桨浆衰高席准座脊症病疾疼疲效离唐资凉站剖竞部旁旅蓄阅羞瓶拳粉料益兼烤烘烦烧烛烟递涛浙涝酒涉消浩海涂浴浮流润浪浸涨烫涌悟悄悔悦害宽家宵宴宾窄容宰案请朗诸读扇袜袖袍被祥课谁调冤谅谈谊剥恳展剧屑弱陵陶陷陪娱娘通能难预桑绢绣验继

球理捧堵描域掩捷排掉堆推掀授教掏掠培接控探据掘职基著勒黄萌萝菌菜萄菊萍菠营械梦梢梅检梳梯桶救副票戚爽聋袭盛雪辅辆虚雀堂常匙晨睁眯眼悬野啦晚啄距跃略蛇累唱患唯崖崭崇圈铜铲银甜梨犁移笨笼笛符第敏做袋悠偿偶偷您售停偏假得衔盘船斜盒鸽悉欲彩领脚脖脸脱象够猜猪猎猫猛馅馆凑减毫麻痒痕廊康庸鹿盗章竟商族旋望率着盖粘粗粒断剪兽清添淋淹渠渐混渔淘液淡深婆梁渗情惜惭悼惧惕惊惨惯寇寄宿窑密谋慌祸迷逮敢屠弹随蛋隆隐婚婶颈绩绪续骑绳维绵绸绿

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Appendix

琴斑替款堪搭塔越趁趋超提堤博揭喜插揪搜煮援裁搁搂搅握揉斯期欺联散惹葬葛董葡敬葱落朝辜葵棒棋植森椅椒棵棍棉棚棕惠惑逼厨厦硬确雁殖裂雄暂雅辈悲紫辉敞赏拿晴暑量喷晶喇遇喊景践跌跑遗蛙蛛蜓喝喂喘喉

幅帽赌赔黑铸铺链销锁锄锅锈锋锐短智毯鹅剩稍程稀税筐等筑策筛筒答筋筝傲傅牌堡集焦傍储奥街惩御循艇舒畨释禽腊脾腔鲁猾猴然馋装蛮就痛童阔善羡普粪尊道曾焰港湖渣湿温渴滑湾渡游滋溉愤慌惰愧愉慨割寒富窜窝窗遍裕裤裙谢谣谦属屡强粥疏隔隙絮嫂登缎编骗缘

瑞魂肆摄摸填搏塌鼓摆携搬摇搞塘摊蒜勤鹊蓝墓幕蓬蓄蒙蒸献禁楚想槐榆楼概赖酬感碍碑碎碰碗碌雷零雾雹输督龄鉴睛睡睬鄙愚暖盟歇暗照跨跳跪路跟遣娥蜂嗓置罪罩错锡锣锤锦键锯矮辞稠愁筹签简毁舅鼠催傻像躲微愈遥腰腥腹腾腿触解酱痰廉新韵意粮数煎塑慈煤煌满漠源滤滥滔溪溜滚滨粱滩慎誉塞谨福群殿辟障嫌嫁叠缝缠

静碧璃墙撇嘉摧截誓境摘摔聚蔽慕暮蔑模榴榜榨歌遭酷酿酸磁愿需弊裳颗嗽蜻蜡蝇蜘赚锹锻舞稳算箩管僚鼻魄貌膜膊膀鲜疑馒裹敲豪膏遮腐瘦辣竭端旗精歉熄熔潦漂漫滴演漏慢寨赛察蜜谱嫩翠熊凳骤缩

慧撕撒趣趟撑播撞撤增聪鞋蕉蔬横槽樱橡飘醋醉震霉瞒题暴瞎影踢踏踩踪蝶蝴嘱墨镇靠稻黎稿稼箱箭篇僵躺僻德艘膝膛熟摩颜毅糊遵潜潮懂额慰劈

操燕薯薪薄颠橘整融醒餐嘴蹄器赠默镜赞篮邀衡膨雕磨凝辨辩糖糕燃澡激懒壁避缴

戴擦鞠藏霜霞瞧蹈螺穗繁辫赢糟糠燥臂翼骤

鞭覆蹦镰翻鹰

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十六画

十七画

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Appendix

警攀蹲颤瓣爆疆

壤耀躁嚼嚷籍魔灌

蠢霸露

囊

罐

匕

丐歹戈夭仑讥冗邓

艾夯凸卢叭叽皿凹囚矢乍尔冯玄

邦迂邢芋芍吏夷吁吕吆屹廷迄臼仲伦伊胁旭匈凫妆亥汛讳讶讹讼诀弛阱驮驯纫

玖玛韧抠扼汞扳抡坎坞抑拟抒芙芜苇芥芯芭杖杉巫杈甫匣轩卤肖吱吠呕呐吟呛吻吭邑囤吮岖牡佑佃伺囱肛肘甸狈鸠彤灸刨庇吝庐闰兑灼沐沛汰沥沦汹沧沪忱诅诈罕屁坠妓姊妒纬

玫卦坷坯拓坪坤拄拧拂拙拇拗莱昔苛苦苟苞茁苔枉枢枚枫杭郁矾奈奄殴歧卓昙哎咕呵咙呻咒咆咖帕账贬贮氛秉岳侠侥侣侈卑刽刹肴觅忿瓮肮肪狞庞疟疙疚卒氓炬沽沮泣泞泌沼怔怯宠宛衩祈诡帚屉弧弥陋陌函姆虱叁绅驹绊绎

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十九画

二十画

二十一画

二十二画

二十三画

第二部分次常用字（1000 字）按笔画顺序排列

Part 2 Less Used Characters (1000) By Stroke Order

二画

四画

五画

六画

七画

八画

Appendix

契贰玷玲珊拭拷拱挟垢垛拯荆茸茬荚茵茴荞荠荤荧荔栈柑栅柠枷勃柬砂泵砚鸥轴韭虐昧盹咧昵昭盅勋哆咪哟幽钙钝钠钦钧钮毡氢秕俏俄俐侯徊衍胚胧胎狰饵峦奕咨飒闺闽籽娄烁炫洼柒涎洛恃恍恬恤宦诫诬祠诲屏屎逊陨姚娜蚤骇

耘耙秦匿埂捂捍袁捌挫挚捣捅埃耿聂荸莽莱莉莹莺梆栖桦栓桅桩贾酌砸砰砾殉逞哮唠哺剔蚌蚜畔蚣蚪蚓哩圃鸯唁哼唆峭唧峻赂赃钾铆氨秫笆俺赁倔殷耸舀豺豹颁胯胰脐脓逛卿鸵鸳馁凌凄衷郭斋疹紊瓷羔烙浦涡涣涤涧涕涩悍悯窍诺诽袒谆崇恕娩骏

琐麸琉琅措捺捶赦埠捻掐掂掖掷掸掺勘聊娶菱菲萎菩萤乾萧萨菇彬梗梧梭曹酝酗厢硅硕奢盔匾颅彪眶晤曼晦冕啡畦趾啃蛆蚯蛉蛀唬啰唾啤啥啸崎逻崔崩婴赊铐铛铝铡铣铭矫秸秽笙笤偎傀躯兜衅徘徙舶舷舵敛翎脯逸凰猖祭烹庶庵痊阎阐眷焊焕鸿涯淑淌淮淆渊淫淳淤淀涮涵惦悴惋寂窒谍谐裆袱祷谒谓谚尉堕隅婉颇绰绷综绽巢

琳琢琼揍堰揩揽揖彭揣搀搓壹搔葫募蒋蒂韩棱椰焚椎棺榔椭粟棘酣酥硝硫颊雳翘凿棠晰鼎喳遏晾畴跋跛蛔蜒蛤鹊喻啼喧嵌赋赎赐锉锌甥掰氮氯黍筏牍粤逾腌腋腕猩猬惫敦痘痢痪竣翔奠遂焙滞湘渤渺溃溅湃愕惶寓窑窘雇谤犀隘媒媚婿缅缆缔缕骚

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348

九画

十画

十一画

十二画

十三画

十四画

Appendix

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藕藤瞻嚣鳍癞瀑襟璧戳

攒孽蘑藻鳖蹭蹬簸簿蟹靡癖羹

鬓攘蠕巍鳞糯譬

霹躏髓

蘸镶瓤

矗

349

十五画

十六画

十七画

十八画

十九画

二十画

二十一画

二十二画

二十四画

APPENDIX D: THE LANGUAGE LAW OF 2001

The Law of the National Commonly Used Language and Script of the PRC

CONTENTS:

Section 1: General Principles Section 2: Applications of the Law of the National Commonly Used

Language and Script Section 3: Administration and Supervision Section 4: Note

Section 1: General Principles

Article 1: In accordance with the Constitution, this law is formulated in order to promote the regularization and standardization of the national commonly used language and script, as well as its healthy development, to cause the nation’s commonly used language and script to become even more widely used in society, and to accelerate economic and cultural exchange between various nationalities and regions, Article 2: The national commonly used language and script referred to in this law are Putonghua and standard Chinese characters.

Article 3: The state will promote Putonghua and employ standard Chinese characters.

Article 4: Citizens have the right to study and to use the national commonly used language and script. The state will supply the necessary conditions for citizens to study and use the national commonly used language and script. The People’s government offices and other depart-ments at the various local levels shall adopt measures to popularize Putonghua and to put standard Chinese characters into practice.

Article 5: The use of the national commonly used language and script shall be beneficial to maintaining the national sovereignty and the dignity,

(Rohsenow 2004: 41-43)

(Passed by the eighteenth meeting of the Standing Committee of the Ninth Session of the National Peoples Congress on October 31, 2000)

350

be beneficial to national integrity and unity and be beneficial to the growth of socialist material and spiritual civilization.

Article 6: The state will issue regulations and standards for the national commonly used language and script, administer the use of the national commonly used language and script in society, support teaching and scientific research of the national commonly used language and script, and promote the regularization, enrichment and development of the national commonly used language and script.

Article 7: The state will encourage and reward organizations and indivi-duals who make outstanding contributions to the cause of the national commonly used language and script.

Article 8: The various nationalities all have the freedom to use and develop their own languages and scripts. The use of the ethnic minorities’ languages and scripts will follow the regulations [set] in the Constitution, the Law of Regional Autonomy for Minority Nationalities and other national laws.

Section 2: Applications of the Law of the National Commonly Used Language and Script

Article 9: The state takes Putonghua and standard [simplified] Chinese characters as the language and script for public use. The law also provides for regulated exceptions.

Article 10: Schools and other educational organizations will take Puton-ghua and standard Chinese characters as the basic language and characters to be used in teaching and study. The law also provides for regulated exceptions. Schools and other educational organizations will teach Putonghua and standard Chinese characters using a Chinese language curriculum. The Chinese language materials used shall meet the regula-tions and standards for the national commonly used language and script.

Article 11: Publications in Chinese shall meet the regulations and standards for the national commonly used language and script. Foreign languages and scripts used in Chinese publications shall employ the national commonly

351Appendix

used language and script to make the necessary notations.

Article 12: Radio and television stations will take Putonghua as the basic language of broadcasting. Those who wish to use foreign languages to broadcast must have the approval of the Office of Radio and Television Broadcasting of the State Council. Article 13: The public service industry will employ standard Chinese characters as the basic script to be used in public service. When needed for public service, signs, advertisements, announcements, and trade brand logos, etc. which use foreign language scripts as well as Chinese, shall use standard Chinese characters. The use of Putonghua as the language of service in the public service industry is encouraged. Article 14: The national commonly used language and script shall be used as the basic language and script in the following situations:

(1) The language and script used in radio, film and television; (2) The script to be used in all publicly used facilities; (3) The script on signs and advertisements; (4) The names of for profit and non-profit organizations; (5) The wrappings and instructions of all products sold domestically.

Article 15: The national commonly used language and script used in all information processing and information technology products shall meet the regulations and standards for the national commonly used language and script.

Article 16: Under the relevant regulations of this section, dialects may be used in the following situations:

(1) When really necessary to carry out public business by national level government personnel;

(2) Language used in broadcasting approved by the Office of Radio

(3) When needed for use in artistic forms such as stage, film and television;

(4) When necessary in publications, teaching, and research.

Article 17: Under the relevant regulations of this section, [old style] complex characters and variant characters are permitted to be used in the following situations:

352 Appendix

and Television Broadcasting of the State Council;

(1) On historical relics and sites; (2) Variant characters in personal names; (3) Artistic works such as calligraphy, seal carving, etc. (4) Handwritten characters on inscriptions and signs; (5) When needed for use in publications, teaching and research; (6) Under special conditions approved by offices of the State Council.

Article 18: The national commonly used language and script will employ the Scheme for Chinese Phonetic Writing (Hanyu Pinyin Fang’an) as the instrument for spelling and sound annotation. The Scheme for Chinese Phonetic Writing is the uniform standard for the spelling in the Latin alphabet of Chinese personal names, place names, and literature and docu-ments in Chinese, and is to be used in places where Chinese characters are inconvenient or impossible to use. Elementary education shall use the Scheme for Chinese Phonetic Writing [Hanyu pinyin] in teaching. Article 19: In all positions in which Putonghua is the working language, those personnel should possess the ability to speak Putonghua. The level of Putonghua of broadcasters, program hosts, and film, television and stage actors as their working language should conform to different stan-dard levels as fixed by the state; those who have not yet met the standard levels set by the state should undertake training at the appropriate level.

Section 3: Administration and Supervision

Article 21: Planning, assistance, administration and supervision of work on the national commonly used language and script is the responsibility of the Offices of Language and Script Work of the State Council. The ministries and offices of the State Council will administer the use of the national commonly used language and script through their own [admini-strative] system. Article 22: Local language and script work offices and other related offices will administer and supervise the use of the national commonly used language and script within their own administrative areas. Article 23: The commerce departments of People’s governments above the level of county will carry out the administration and supervision of the

353Appendix

Article 20: Chinese language teaching for foreigners shall teach Putong-hua and standard Chinese characters.

use and use of language and script in commercial names, product names, and advertisements according to the law. Article 24: The language and script work office of the State Council will issue standards for the [Proficiency] Grading System for [Spoken] Putonghua [Putonghua Shuiping Ceshi Dengji Biaozhun]. Article 25: The translations of such proper nouns as foreign personal names, place names, etc. into the national commonly used language and script will be systematically examined and approved by the language and script office of the State Council or other relevant offices. Article 26: Citizens may make criticisms of and suggestions to those who violate the regulations of Section 2 of this law and who do not use language and script according to the regulations and standards of the national commonly used language and script. For those who violate the relevant sections of Section 2 of this law in terms of the use of language by [broadcast, teaching and government] personnel [as specified] in Section 2 of Article 19, the work units concerned shall carry out criticism and education of those personnel directly responsible; those who refuse to make corrections will be dealt with by the units concerned. Those who violate the relevant regulations of Section 2 of this law concerning the use of [proper] script in urban public facilities, signs and advertisements will be ordered to make corrections by the relevant administrative offices; those who refuse to make corrections will be warned and officially urged to make timely corrections. Article 27: Those who violate the regulations of this law, interfering with others’ study and use of the national commonly used language and script, will be ordered to make timely corrections and given warnings by the relevant administrative offices.

Section 4: Note Article 28: This law will take effect on January 1, 2001.

(This unofficial translation is by J. S. Rohsenow, with supplementary information added [thus])

354 Appendix

APPENDIX E: IDENTIFICATION OF PERSONAL NAMES

1. businessperson, chair of Hong Kong Industry Association. Ann was the vice-chairman of Chinese People’s Consultancy. The inventor of Ann, T. K. Chinese character writing machine and the author of Cracking the Chinese Puzzles (five volumes), Chinese Character is the Fifth Invention of China, the 21st Century, Is the Chinese Character Century, Chinese Character is the Root of Chinese Cultural Heritage.

2. Xiamen University. The posts he has held include: vice-president of All-China Association of Linguistic, the president of China Applied Linguistics Association, vice-director of the Linguistic Institute, China Academy of Social Science, vice-chief editor of Chinese Linguistics, director of RIAL, and vice-director of SCLW.

3.

Circle, President of Academy of Science. Studied in Japan. 4.

CCP in 1935. Graduate of Qinghua University. He was one of the political secretaries of Mao Zedong from 1945. Vice minister of Propaganda Department of the Centre of CCP and the editor of Collected Works of Mao Zedong from 1950 to 1966. His political life was limited by his poor heath after 1961, but he became the chief theorist of CCP after Mao’s death and chairman of Secretariat of CCP Centre and the president of China Academy of Social Science, the director of Xinhua News Agency.

5. following the May Fourth movement. Influential in promoting the use of vernacular script to replace classical Chinese. Disciple of John Dewey under whom he studied at Columbia University. President of Beijing University, Kuomintung government’s ambassador to America. Attacked by the Communists for his liberal views.

6. Guangming Ribao (Guangming Daily) 1919–1957. Director of the CLR. Active in foreign affairs. Pioneer of Romanization Movement in the 1930s and the 1940s.

Ann, T. K. (安子介, 1917-2000): Shanghai native Hong Kong

Chen Zhangtai (陈章太, 1932-): Linguistic Professor, graduated from

Guo Moruo (郭沫若, 1892-1978): Writer, politician (country’s Vice-Premier), chairman of the All-China Federation of Literacy and Art

Hu Qiaomu (胡乔木, 1912-1992): Born in Jiansu Province. He joined

Hu Shi (胡适, 1891-1962): Leading intellectual in the decades

Hu Yuzhi (胡愈之, 1897-): Writer and Journalist. Editor in chief of

355

7.

director of the Department of Language and Information, Education Ministry since 2000 and the Director of RIAL since 2001.

8. Foreign Language Department of the National South-eastern Univer-

director of CLR, the president of All-China Association of Linguistic

Social Science. Lü was the author of numerous influential works on linguistics.

9. revolutionary. Educator of several generations of sinologist and linguists in USSR He misinterpreted Marxism and advocated the creation of a ‘new Russian language’. His theories on linguistic kinship dominated Soviet Union linguistics for nearly 30 year until they were criticized by Stalin in Marxism and Linguistics in the 1950s.

west Provisional University. Academic positions he has held include: vice chief-editor of Chinese Ethnic Languages, the chief-editor of Script Reform, Language Construction, vice-president of Beijing Linguistics Association, the president of Association of Chinese Language Modernization. He was the vice-director of CLR and SCLW

linguist. Professor of the Department of Literature and Language, Beijing University. Wang was the vice-director of CLR and the honorary president of All China Association of Linguistics, author of numerous works on linguistics. PhD in experimental phonology,

from Beijing Normal University (BNU). He was vice-president of

Democracy Progress Party, he has been Vice-chairman of the Stan-ding Committee of the People’s Congress Conference since 1998. Xu was the Director of SCLW between 1994 and 1997.

356 Appendix

from Zhengzhou University and the Normal University of Central

Lü Shuxiang (吕叔湘, 1904-1998): Linguist. He graduated from

Marr, Nikolai Y. (马尔, 1864-1934): Russian linguist, philologist and

12. Xu Jialu (许嘉璐, 1937-): Chinese Linguistics Professor. Graduated

Li Yuming (李宇明, 1955-): Chinese Linguistics professor, graduated

and the director of Institute of Linguistics, China Academy of

sity in 1926 and studied at Oxford University in 1936-1937. The vice-

from 1984-1990.

studied in France in 1927-1932.

11. Wang Li (王力, 1901-1986): Pseudonym of Wang Liaoyi. Writer and

BNU (1987-1994), Chairman of the National Central Committee of

10. Wang Jun (王均, 1922-): Linguistics professor, graduated from South-

China (NUCC), vice-president of NUCC (1998-2000). He has been the

classics and especially for his Shuowen jiezi (《说文解字》), a collection with explanations of all the characters then found in Chinese literature. It is the oldest known Chinese dictionary and is the basis for all etymological research.

14. Yuan Xiaoyuan (袁晓圆): Professional diplomat, the founder and the

nization (1980) (later changed to Beijing International Association of Chinese Character Studies and Yuan Xiaoyuan Research Institute of Language, Culture and Science). Yuan gave up her American citizenship and settled in Beijing in 1985.

researcher. Member of the CLR. Author of Wenzi Gaige Gailun (An Introduction to Chinese Character Reform, 1961) and a large number of works on Chinese LP. Zhou is also a well-known essayist. Zhou is the graduate from the University of St. John (Shanghai), and he worked in the banking sector in New York and London and was an economics professor before he formally became a LP professional at the request of the Government.

357Appendix

15. Zhou Youguang (周有光, 1905-): Most prolific Chinese reform

13. Xu Shen (许慎, 58？-147): Famous for his study of the Confucian

president of the Research Association of Chinese Character Moder-

They argue if this standardization does not succeed, namely, the standards

problematic. In the following discussion, a brief introduction is given to China’s official commitment to the integration of the existing encoding standards into the future international standard, i.e., Unicode. While this issue may appear too technical, a description of it may help readers who want to gain some background knowledge of Chinese standardization issues as it clears up the confusion over why so many national standards

10646-1/Unicode 2.1 in 1993, the Chinese government has given strong support to the combined efforts of the ISO/IEC and the Unicode Consor-tium. The new Chinese National Standard – GB 13000.1 is compatible with ISO 10646-1/Unicode 2.1. Whenever the ISO and the Unicode Consortium have changed or revised their common standard, GB 13000.1 subsequently adopted these changes. However, the coding mechanism used for ISO 10646.1 was totally different from the one used in the older

Chinese market, all computers that used the GB 2312-80 standard would be paralyzed. To accommodate all additional hanzi characters specified in GB 13000.1 that are not included in GB 2312-80, a new specification, known as GBK, was introduced to bridge the standards. GBK defines 23,940 code points, containing 21,886 characters, and provides mapping to the code points of Unicode 2.1. It is an extension of GB 2312-80, and its fundamental function is to leave all characters and codes as defined in GB 2312-80 intact, but to position all additional characters in ISO10646/GB 13000.1 around that standard – these characters are what are so-called the 20,902 East Asian Ideograms. Although it adopted the 20,902 characters wholesale as well as the codification principles of a two-byte mechanism, as an extension of GB 2312-80, the code points for each individual char-acter are compatible with this existing national standard, but not identical to those in ISO10646.1. Thus, code and character compatibility was guaranteed between GBK and GB 2312-80, and at the same time, the complete Unicode unified character set in Unicode 2.1 was made available in China. GBK covers whole characters encoded in these two character sets, and is not only much bigger than GB 2312-80, but also goes beyond

APPENDIX F: CHARACTER CODING SET – MOVING TOWARDS INTERNATIONALIZATION

Chinese computer experts and LPers are strong believers in Unicode.

According to Gu Xiaofeng (2000: 23-25), since the release of ISO

cannot be integrated into Unicode, then the productive future for hanzi is

GB 2312-80, which meant that if the ISO was made the standard in the

have been promulgated in China over the last two decades.

358

the character repertoire of ISO 10646. Therefore, at the time when GBK was defined, other characters not available in Unicode 2.1 were added.

The introduction of GBK increased the number of characters available on computer from 6,763 specified in CB 2312-80 to the 20,902 in ISO 10646.1. These characters were conveniently positioned on the favorite and much eyed Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) in the Unicode. It also ensured that the software, encoded by the BG 2312-80 standard before GBK, operated as it had done previously without any disruption. However, as it is fully backward compatible with GB 2312-80, it missed the opportunity to be compatible with the Big5 coding system. Gu (2000: 26) has pointed out that these 20,902 hanzi characters, also known as CJK sinographs, include various forms of Chinese characters. Therefore, with the gradual introduction of GBK in more software, the abolished complex and variant forms of characters will effectively be legalized, which could inevitably pose a grave threat to current official language policy. Indeed, the first author’s personal observation is that over years of use, although there has not been an overwhelming emergence of illicit characters on the mainland, compared with the more universal situation prior to the release of GBK, the number of long prohibited unofficial characters has been increasing.

In another development, the government decided to create a new

known as GB 18030-2000 – to prepare for international information communication in the future. Although linked to the indigenous national standard by GBK, ISO10646.1/GB 13000.1 itself was not compatible with

fully adopted by the Chinese IT industry. However, with the rapid spread of computer use in all spheres of modern Chinese society, and especially considering the urgent demand from communication, population adminis-tration, banking systems and geographical data processing, there is a growing need to have a larger set of encoded Chinese hanzi. The new GB 18030-2000 standard had to be backward compatible with ISO10646.1/GB 13000 and with GB 2312-80 so as to update existing systems and ensure the effective use of programmed information resources.

In October 1998, the relevant authorities organized a preparation committee consisting of research institutes, major Chinese computer manu-facturers and China-based international software companies, to look into the feasibility of making such a standard. On March 17, 2000, the Ministry of Information Industry and the former State Bureau of Technological Quality Supervision jointly issued a new national encoding standard for

359Appendix

the Chinese software that internalized GB 2312-80 as their regular encod-ing standard, and it will be a long time before ISO10646.1/GB 13000.1 is

national standard for large character sets – an extension of GB 2312-80 –

27,484 hanzi, GB 18030-2000. Because it is the most fundamental encoding standard after CB 2312-80, it will define the country’s computer system for an infinite period in the future. The government automatically suspended the application of GBK with the formal release of GB-18030-2000. The new standard has some tough conformity requirements. It is illegal to sell products in China that do not conform to this standard, and failing to embrace official standards will incur a penalty. Specifically, all computer products manufactured during the interim period between March 17, 2000 and August 31, 2001, had to observe the new standard. Any products not in conformity with the standard must take remedial measures approved by the National Commission of Information Technology Stan-dardization otherwise they will be treated as illegal, non-standard products. All information products made after the deadline are required to go through detailed standard testing criteria, formulated and implemented by the Testing Centre of Standard Conformity for Information Processing Products, which is affiliated with the Research Institute of Electronic Indus-trial Standards under the Ministry of Information Technology Industry (Lin 2004).

Therefore, GB 18030-2000 was created as an update of GBK for Unicode 3.0 with an extension that covers all of Unicode. It was described as compatible, open for extension and future orientated, maintaining full compatibility of GB-encoded text with GBK and GB 2312-80. The look-up table it uses to go from GB 18030-2000 to Unicode is backward compatible with the look-up table from GB 2312-80 to Unicode. Another important feature of GB 18030-2000 is that, as is the case for Unicode, it does not concern itself with graphic forms of the code and only assigns encoding numbers to the glyphs. This flexible measure leaves room for font typographers to add graphic details to the code position, when in the future, the standardization is completed, and the consensus on the charac-ters’ graphic form is reached among hanzi-using societies.

GB 18030-2000 has 1.6 million valid byte sequences, but there are only 1.1 million code points in Unicode, so there are about 500,000 byte sequences in GB 18030-2000 that are currently unassigned. It provides the ultimate resolution for problems caused by the lack of character forms and code points, thus providing a unified encoding platform for a possibly larger Chinese character set, including the future archaic characters as

360 Appendix

discussed in Section 3.2, Chapter 4.

Notes

PROLOGUE

1. This Prologue provides a brief introduction to the historical origins and development of hanzi and a description of their basic characteristics. While this section provides some essential background for those not familiar with hanzi, it is an area of study in its own right (see e.g., Boltz 1994, Qiu 2000, DeFrancis 1984b and Wieger 1965) and we only briefly summarize some key aspects here.

2. The discovery of jiaguwen was a matter of serendipity rather than an archaeological find, so versions differ about the circumstances surrounding the first discovery. One recounting (Wong 1990: 59) indicates that a scholar, Liu Yau, visiting his sick friend Wang in Anyang, Henan, and saw on the prescription for the medical brew to cure his friend, an item called ‘Dragon Bones’. Liu was curious and bought some pieces for closer examination. To his great surprise, he found that some of these bones bore what looked to him like an incised primitive inscription. In his excitement, he went on a wild spending spree, buying up all the ‘Dragon Bones’ he could lay his hands on. Back in his study, he looked closely at every piece for the faintest incision, and what he saw was indeed the work of humans. He had stumbled upon a discovery that shook the scholastic world of his time, and opened a new vista for research into the study of an ancient script.

3. A baffling classic, titled ‘Book of Changes’ (《易经》), was devoted to this Yinyang Bagua system and thus laid the philosophical foundation for the Chinese classical mindset.

4. The name is a bit misleading as it was not originally associated with seals. People did have this style of character engraved on their seals for its artistic beauty, but this occurred much later historically, after the seal script had come into being. The use of seal style on seals/stamps (exactly as it occurs in Western counterpart forms) is still a very common practice today. Another explanation is that zhuan (seal) means ‘to pull or

361

stretch long’, and seal characters are characterized by elongated strokes (Yin and Rohsenow 1997: 33).

5. Some scholars (e.g., Wang and Zou 1999: 68) argue that the 1950s’ simplification did not cause any change to the style and shape of hanzi. This is true to a great extent, as the simplification change is in quantity rather than quality.

6. Although the shapes are placed in chronicle order, in actual use the scripts overlap. Thus, the purpose of this diagram is not to show an evolution consequence, but to illustrate some representative and distinct shapes that have historically exited.

7. DeFrancis (1984b: 92) holds that ‘radical’ is a ‘quite misleading’ term, and he suggests it be called ‘significs’. Later on (1989: 279) he further introduces ‘key’ and ‘determina-tive’ to refer to this semantic element in hanzi. Other terms, such as side components, primary elements, can also be found in some books.

8. The number of characters listed in the dictionary is an important parameter to measure the size of a dictionary. This is because, in ancient times, dictionaries used the character as the entry, instead of the word as is done today. A dictionary was called Zidian, literally meaning ‘book of characters’.

9. Kangxi Dictionary: One of the most popular Chinese dictionaries, compiled by Zhang Yushu and his associates, under the patronage of Great Emperor Kang Xi in 1716. With 49,174 entries (characters), it was designated to be the most authoritative and exhaustive dictionary available at that time.

10. For example, Mao ordered the simplifiers in the 1950s to make bold use of handwriting/calligraphic style to formulate their simplification scheme. Many of the characters included in Taiwan’s Official List of Standard Handwritten Characters (1982) are the same as, or similar, to the mainland’s simplified characters (Zhang et al. 1997). Examining the origin of simplified characters is the first step in understanding how today’s simplified characters are historically derived from various forms of handwriting.

CHAPTER 1

1. Chinese historians begin their study of ‘modern China’ in 1840, with the start of the opium war. This year is seen as a turning point in Chinese history. After the war, China was gradually reduced to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. At the same time, a series of self-strengthening movements, combined with the necessary adoption of Western technology and educational methods, marked the rise of modern China. The movement, in which language reform was seen as an integral part, subsequently developed into a cultural revolution, eventually coming to its peak in 1919. For this very reason, ‘Modern China’, as a cultural term, customarily refers to the time after the second decade of the 20th century. Therefore, ‘Modern China’, as used in this volume, is not the same as the chronological term used by Chinese historians.

2. Prior to the last century, two written forms existed in China: Wenyan (文言) Chinese, an archaic stylized usage, practiced by elite Chinese intellectuals, and Baihua (白话), literally meaning ‘plain language’, the written medium based on vernacular speech for common people. In the early 20th century, China went through a period of transition from dynastic to modern history, marked by constant reforming and revolutionary movements. Concurrent with simplification and Romanization were efforts to establish

Notes 362

Notes

a vernacular written form that achieved dramatic success during the New Culture Movement culminating in 1919, and won massive support from the majority of the population. Vernacularization is one of the most significant changes both in Chinese linguistic as well as cultural life. It marked the end of a 3000 year tradition separating written and oral language, although Wenyan did not completely die out until the founding of the PRC in 1949.

3. According to Han Dynasty law, a person above 17 years was sentenced to imprisonment or death if a wrong character was found in his memorial to the Emperor (Sun 1991).

Khitan in northern China that used a Chinese hanzi-derived writing system, imposed capital punishment on people who took books out of the country, making it extremely difficult for scholars to study Khitan (Xixia in Chinese) characters (Nie 1998).

4. Qian’s eight methods are: 1) Only an outline of the original character remains, with deletion of the extra components: 壽寿 (shou, longevity); 2) Adoption of the existing cursive handwritten characters to replace those that are not only the most used, but also the most complex ones: 書书 (shu, book); 3) To represent the whole character by one part of its components. This is to use a portion of the original character to represent the original form: 號号 (hao, number); 4) To replace complex parts with simple parts: 觀观 (guan, to look for); 5) To adopt its ancient form, which is simpler: 禮礼 (li, ritual); 6) To use the phonetic principle by regulating the phonetic compound: 鄕乡 (xiang, hometown); 7) To create a new one as a substitution,

methodologies in public to simplify characters throughout history, such as to substitute the complex part of characters by a simpler phonetic compound: 竈/竃灶 (zao, cooking stove); 8) Replacement of the character with a homophonous one: 幾几 (ji, tea table).

5. A Romanization advocacy organization composed of some distinguished linguists, sponsored by the former government.

6. Except for the CCSR, which was reorganized as the State Commission of Language

abolished when their replacement groups came into being. 7. From May 1956 Mao called, with increasing vigor, for intellectuals to express their

opinions more freely and asked them to criticize the cadres and the Party constructively under the slogan ‘Let a hundred flowers bloom together; let a hundred schools of thought contend’ (百花齐放百家争鸣 ). However, when in May 1957 some intellectuals began to take him at his word, and there followed a torrent of criticism of the Party’s policies, calling for greater intellectual freedom, even democracy, Mao and other leaders were shocked at the response and crushed the critics with the Anti-Rightist campaign, which was the biggest disaster to befall China’s intellectuals before the

8. Much of the research shows little academic independence and is heavily politically charged. Wang Xuewen, a prolific LP writer and researcher, is typical of those doing this kind of research. For instance, his Comprehensive Critique of the Communist Bandits’ Simplified Characters 1974 is imbued with political jargon and accusations.

9. Hung is a Cambridge educated mathematician. He used to teach mathematics at Hong Kong University and is now a philosophy professor at Waikato University, New Zealand. Hung has been an enthusiastic overseas observer of Chinese script reform and his name is well-known among overseas Chinese scholars/expatriates for his series

,

( )

363

Similar laws were applied in other dynasties. Liao (916-1125), a regime founded by

Work at the NCLW, held from January 6-13, 1986, all other organizations were

based on the established principles. Established principles refer to the well-accepted

Cultural Revolution (Ji 2004: 75-76).

of articles, titled ‘Cursing My Ancestors’ (Ma Zuzong – 骂祖宗), in which he is extremely critical of the shortcomings of the Chinese language and its characters, and vigorously spreads his radical views about reforming the Chinese language and writing system. He has devised a number of Chinese alphabeticization and input schemes.

10. It was assumed that because of political and personal sensibilities, a great deal of valuable information would be known by these key figures in Chinese LP history. To get reliable information from this primary source, two rounds of key informant inter-views and a personal seminar were conducted in Beijing in July 2001 and July 2002 respectively. Sixteen LP professionals, policy makers and researchers were interviewed or invited to speak in our personal seminar. Unpublished information, gained in this unique set of face-to-face conversations, was substantial and valuable. Some of the insights and data contributed would otherwise not have come to light or have been available to the authors. This empirical information is cited as ‘personal communi-

technique – personal communication – as a method to access information has been very commonly practiced by researchers studying Chinese LP (e.g., Rohsenow 1986, 1996, 2001, Lehmann 1975, Barnes 1977).

11. The four members of the ‘Gang of Four’ were Wang Hongwen, Zhang Chunqiao, Jiang Qing (Mao’s wife) and Yao Wenyuan. They were the perpetrators and beneficiaries of the Cultural Revolution. By the end of the Cultural Revolution they had ascended to key positions in the central government, but were suddenly ousted from power in a bloodless coup, plotted by Deng Xiaoping in October 1976.

12. He was the commander-in-chief of China’s army, the PLA, and the constitutional successor of Mao Zedong, but he fell out of favor with Mao in the middle of the Cultural Revolution. He died when his plane crashed in Mongolia, on an aborted flight to the Soviet Union.

13. In September 1974, the State Planning Commission approved the application made jointly by the previous 4th Machinery Ministry (a national defense organization), China Science Academy, State Publication Bureau, and Chinese Xinhua News Agency to launch a research scheme abbreviated as ‘748 Project’. The project was a statistical program of research on hanzi’s coverage in modern texts. Xinhua News Agency’s Printing Plant was commissioned as the organizer (because at that time, the working class had to be the leader). The organizer recruited over 1000 people from nine institutions, including students in middle schools and the workers from other printing plants in the Beijing area, to do the statistics manually. 2.160 million characters (tokens) from four categories of publications (science and technology, literary works, political theories and news/journalism) were analyzed. After two years, 6374 character types were tabulated by frequency. This forms the database for the national standard code set

14. Ni Zhifu, born in Shanghai in 1933, was the vice-chairman of the Great People’s Congress, the president of the All-Nation Workers’ Union, and was later elected to the Politburo by the 11th CCP Congress in August 1977.

15. Liu’s position was only second to Mao when the GLSC was introduced in 1964. Framed by the Mao-cult, along with Deng Xiaoping, as the foremost ‘Capitalist Roader’ and Revisionist within the Party, he was later physically persecuted and put to death during the Cultural Revolution.

Notes 364

ment. Given the situation just discussed, this type of qualitative data collection cation’ throughout this book, and contributors’ names can be found in the Acknowledge-

for information exchange GB 2312-80 (Su 1994: 29-30).

Notes 16. When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966, to convert ‘bad elements’ from their

‘wrongs’, all academic members of the CCSR, criticized as being ‘scholar tyrants’, and ‘counter-revolutionary authorities’ in academic fields, were sent to the countryside as part of a brainwashing campaign, and were not allowed to return until the mid-1970s.

17. For example, 籃 (lán, basket) was simplified as 篮 in the TSC. In the SSS, three homophonous characters: 篮 (lán, basket), 蓝 (lán, blue) and 兰 (lán, orchid) were merged as one: 兰. At the same time, this also meant that the former two were abolished.

CHAPTER 2

1. After half a century of practical use, there are some individual studies that can offer a number of valuable insights in assessing the outcome of the simplification. Some overseas researchers have studied the simplified characters one by one, from an all-

immediate adoption’, ‘acceptable’, ‘propose to re-simplify’. In a research project, aimed at assisting traditional hanzi users to effectively use simplified characters and to achieve a breakthrough in the written communication barrier across the Strait, Tsang (1996: 33;

postpone their learning of these characters until future modifications are completed.

by examining their historical development and analyzing their convenience in current use; then 22 new simplified forms were suggested.

the ‘plain English’ movement, and various documents in a variety of jurisdictions are required to be written in simple English. However, good communication is not synony-mous with simplicity, and critics argue that simplification can lead to texts which are actually less precise, thereby putting the burden of comprehension back on the user (see Kaplan and Baldauf 1997: 75).

3. For details of how representation efficiency is calculated, one may refer to Zhou (1986a:

4. But it has been argued that as Wang (王) is a very common Chinese surname, ‘Wang’ inside Guo (囯) can also be interpreted as representing ‘People’, instead of King (Ye

was Zhou Enlai who personally changed 囯 to 国. More details about the debate on how to simplify this heavily culturally and politically enmeshed character from the TSC

5. Recently, for the first time, the appropriateness of homophonic replacement for some geographical names has been questioned by Li Yuming (2004c: 66).

6. Interestingly, the illegal character for the Chinese Premier’s given name is a legal character in Taiwan. 鎔 has official status in the Table of Standardized Shapes for Hanzi, promulgated by the Taiwan authorities in 1982.

7. The changing of names is a very sensitive issue worldwide and is often linked to the issue of human rights. Neustupný (1983), for example, discusses this in the context of a Japanese law enacted shortly after WWII, which specified that ‘common and easy’

365

97-107) listed 459 characters in a table, titled ‘Hard to Recognize and Hard to Learn

round aspect, grouping them into various tables by their acceptance; such as ‘ready for

141-151) or Shi (1991).

Interestingly, Tsang (25-31) does a case study of 22 characters selected from the TSC

1995: 10-11). According to Lin Yanzhi (1996: 4), the former Party head of SCLW, it

2. In parallel with this argument, stylistic and lexical simplification has been advocated by

can be found in Xia (2004: 273-274) and Gao (2002: 258).

Simplified Characters,’ and suggests that people from traditional character regions

characters must be used for the names of children. Fu and Kataoka (1997) discuss the issue of naming in relation to Hong Kong.

8. One of the more significant cases is that of Ye Gongchao, the standing member of the CCSR and the person (director) who was in charge of the Section for Hanzi Optimi-zation. Ye was very upset about his family name being merged into the simplified Ye (叶, leaf). He was so unhappy about it that he refused to be addressed by the new form of Ye (葉) and said with a touch of bitter irony: “I’m surnamed Ye (葉), not Ye (叶). If you want to take your step-father’s surname [a very strong insulting expression in Chinese], it’s your own business and nothing to do with me” (Chia 1992: 351). When 葉 as a surname was simplified as 叶 by applying homophonous substitution, it was so controversial that it had to be ultimately determined by Premier Zhou Enlai (Gao 2002: 131).

9. An ethnic group of over four million people, living in the mountainous southwest region of China.

10. The province just across the Taiwan Strait and one of the most vulnerable areas in China to typhoons.

11. On April 26, 1993, in order to examine the implementation of the ‘Regulation on Character Use in Publications’, jointly issued by the Media and Publication Department and SCLW, the two authorities organized an investigation into the character use in fourteen central and local newspapers, published on February 4, and 526 characters were found to be against the regulations. The worst case was one local evening newspaper, in which 1,173 unofficial characters were found during that month (Fei 1997: 560).

12. The authors carried out a small scale investigation in July 2001, in two Chinese cities, Beijing and Changchun, the provincial capital of Jilin province in northeastern China, to assess social attitudes towards simplified characters, especially those that were adopted in the SSS and subsequently banned by the authorities. Another aim was to get first-hand data about the public preference for character use, in a situation which is independent from official influence and external pressure. Handwritten materials were collected from four categories of character users, representative of various strata in today’s Chinese society: a) Farmers (3,517 magazine subscription forms from readers); b) Adult students from China TV and Radio University (60 students’ assignments); c) Intellectuals educated in traditional characters (50 readers’ letters); and d) Primary school teachers (115 teachers’ annual working reports).

13. This bi-monthly journal, despite strong resistance from a number of influential scholars, was appraised as being a ‘First Class Linguistics Journal’ by the official media and press department, and continues to be published today (in 2006).

14. This claim of linguistic superiority is hardly unique. At one time or another, advocates of various languages have preached a version of this nationalistic self-centeredness. For example, according to Rudbeck, a President of the University of Uppsala during the 17th century, “Swedes were direct descendants from the first humans in the Bible. Swedish was also said to be closely related to Hebrew or even the first language of the human race, and the first literal language of the world” (Winsa 2005: 297). Schiffman (1996: 59), whose main thesis in his book is that “if language policy is not deeply rooted in linguistic culture, it is not going to fit the needs of its speakers very well”, provides a number of other examples of this phenomenon.

15. The Three Loves Campaign: Love our country, love our people and love our Party.

Notes 366

4. The number was increased to 1,945 in the Table of Common Characters issued in 1981 (He 2001: 131).

5. Some researchers do provide some statistics (e.g., Ding 1990:14, Wang 2002: 66), but these are all based on brief surveys.

6. For details of the Analects and Classics Recitation Campaign that has been sweeping the whole country over the last decade or so, see Zhang Limin (2001).

7. The following incident was cited by Zhu Xuefan, the former minister of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (Fu 2002: personal communication): A lady, named Xia Xiaoyu, was loudly called ‘thief Xia’ in her working place, because a telegram addressed to her, in official characters, was written as ‘Xia Xiaotou’ (夏小偷＝petty thief) instead of Xia Xiaoyu. 媮 is read as Yu, which means delightfulness when used in a female name. Most of the time, though, it is pronounced as ‘tou’ and means ‘to steal’. During the 1950s, when the women’s liberation movement was one of the most important concerns in communist propaganda, a number of characters with female compounds (女), that were seen as anti-female discrimination, were simplified, or cancelled. Hence, only the human compound (亻) was kept as a standard one, while the one with the woman compound was eliminated as yiti zi. But for Xia Xiaoyu, this decision meant that in its printed form the one distinguishing character in her first name disappeared.

8. Out of 428 characters in the book, Characters That Are Easily Mispronounced

instance, among four characters, 歼 (jian), 忏 (chan), 纤 (xian), 迁 (qian), with the phonetic compound 千 (qian), only one is pronounced as ‘qian’. 破绽 (pozhan-poding), 屹立 (yili-qili) and 停滞 (tingzhi-tingdai) are some other typical examples of mispronounced characters that frequently come to people’s attention.

9. As the individual character’s pronunciation can only be determined in a word, the majority of which are in modern Chinese disyllabic or polysyllabic, yiti zi is known most of the time as yiti ci (heterophonic words).

10. Qing was a regional government established in 1616. Its rule was confined to the Northeast area, inhabited by the Manchuri ethnic population beyond the Great Wall. The Manchuri Qing breached the Great Wall and took Beijing in 1644.

11. Contrary to classical Chinese, modern Chinese language is dominated by polysyllabic words. If a word is monosyllabic, then the character equals the word. Exceptions are a few newly created characters, especially coined for scientific metric terms (measuring units). For instance, (nautical mile) is a ONE character word, but is read disyllabic ‘hai li’. These words had been cancelled in a 1960s standardization measure, but are still very popular both inside and outside Mainland China.

12. In an account of his personal experience in China, Mair (1991: 1) observed that it might take hours to locate a friend’s name in the housing office of apartment complex in Beijing.

13. Most radicals are independent single component characters or the derived forms of these characters, e.g.,忄 is from 心 (xin, heart),刂 is from 刀 (dao, knife), 扌 is from 手 (shou, hand). There are many radicals that are not characters in their own right, meaning that they are used exclusively as radicals, e.g., 灬 (hot), 冫(cold) and 疒 (ill).

14. The Official Guidelines for Handwritten Characters was published by the Taiwan LPP authority in 1976; the Japanese educational administration has tried to impose

Notes 368

(Beijing: People’s Press), over half (246) are semantic-phonetic characters. For

Notes

stringent standards on students’ handwriting behavior, but stopped after confronting strong resistance (He 2001: 135).

15. The Chinese language does not make a distinction between STANDARDIZED and STANDARD characters, both are biaozhun in Chinese, but they are not equivalent. It is anticipated that a number of the characters standardized in the future CTSC will not

hanzi and variant forms – but in this table they are STANDARDIZED CHAR-ACTERS.

16. After the Conference on Character Standardization, held in Shanghai from 21 to 22

Conference on Issues of Character Simplification from 22 to 23 June, 2002, and Yantai (Shandong Province) Conference on the Graphic Shape of Printed Characters

deal with the difficulties that were arising in making the CTSC. 17. More examples are: Is whale 鲸 (鱼 = fish) a kind of fish? Should ‘bat’ 蝙蝠 (虫

= worm or insect) be categorized as a kind of insect? For proud 骄 (马 = horse); what is the relationship between a horse and proud or pride? For bridge 桥 (木 = wood); bridges are not necessarily made of wood. How can laughing 笑 (竹 = bamboo) be related to bamboo? Wooden cups 杯 (木 = wood) are rarities today (Research Team of Chinese Department 1974).

18. Many linguists and scientists have been input scheme designers, e.g., Zhou Youguang (1999: 232), Liu Yongquan (1997: 394), Qian Weichang (Zhang 1997: 73), Zhang Pu (1997: 74), but they all eventually discontinued or gave up the promotion of their schemes.

CHAPTER 5

1. In this volume, sociolinguistic dimensions or factors/conditions are alternatively used with non-linguistic, extra-linguistic or external factors, when referring to the impact of social change while discussing hanzi development.

2. To illustrate the fact that characters are indispensable for understanding Chinese text, Y. R. Chao has playfully written a well-known passage using over forty characters, each pronounced by using only the one phonetic word ‘shi’. It makes no sense to the ear, reading ‘shi’ aloud more than 40 times, but makes an interesting story when read silently in Chinese characters. Another similar play with the syllable ‘xi’, created by Chao, was cited in DeFrancis (1984b: 192).

3. “Every evening, the whole country would see two wrong spellings for Xinwen Lianbo (‘News Across the Country’, the most-viewed TV program in China) in one second”, Zhou (2002: personal communication) complained. It is estimated that the correct rate of pinyin spelling in publications is around 85 percent (Li and Fang 2004: 139).

4. E.g., ‘wen’ (warm) is rarely used as monosyllable, and is almost always used in concatenation with another syllable, such as ‘wennuan’ (warm), or ‘tiwen/wendu’ (temperature).

369

from 22-23 August 2002. The purpose of the last three conferences was to exclusively

December 2001, the Conference on Variant Forms of Characters was held in Jinggang

be STANDARD CHARACTERS for public use in Mainland China – e.g., traditional

Shan (Jianxi Province) from 16-17 May 2002, followed by the Hefei (Anhui Province)

5. In archaic Chinese, monosyllabic words were dominant. The overwhelming majority (over 90 percent) of modern words are polysyllabic. Classical texts should be dealt with by using discipline-oriented input software.

6. Research done by a Canadian agency (International Development Research Centre

engineers and 20,000 science and technology institutions, China has the capacity not only to undertake ventures in big science but also to develop a strong tradition of strategic research that is closely linked to China’s short-term technological develop-ment. China is the only country with the potential to compete with the USA and the EU on all fronts of science and technology before the middle of this century.

7. For instance, in the best-selling computer input program New Pinyin Scheme, one cannot find the word ‘have/has (得)’ or ‘dislike (恶)’ by their correct pronunciation ‘dei’ and ‘wu’. Lin (2003: 306) gives more examples of the same problem with some other input schemes. They are represented by pronunciations corresponding to other

strata). When one fails to get the correct character, a very time-consuming process often ensues to guess or to try out all other possible pronunciations.

8. According to the World Almanac and Book of Fact-2004 (1996), China has a literacy rate of 86 percent; according to the China Statistical Yearbook-2004 (2004: 109), the illiteracy and semi-illiteracy rate of those aged 15 or above is 10.95 percent of the total population.

9. This can be substantiated by the following data (if the yiti zi factors can be disregarded): 3,500 characters are included in the Table of Most Used Characters (Mainland, 1, 1988), The Standard Forms Table of Most Used Characters has 4,808

has 7,445 mapped code points, while Big 5, its equivalent in Taiwan, has 13,053 mapped code points. The official General Character Encoding Set for Information Interchange (3, 1986) also includes 13,053 characters, almost double the size of the character set used on the Mainland.

10. This artificial ‘elected’ standard, which is without basis in living speech, is a motley assemblage of sounds from different dialects, “nearer to Nanjing but far from Beijing, different from all dialects, not living on lips of any person in China” according to Zhou Youguang (2001b: 10). The result is, as was jokingly put by Chao, the linguist who made the recording of the standard pronunciation, “in 13 years, I am the only person who has ever spoken this kind of national language, which was intended for the whole population of 400 or 500 or even 600 million people” (Fei 1997: 39). In 1924, controversy over the issue was eventually subdued by the emergence of the New National Pronunciation, advocated by some predominant linguists such as Li Jinxi, adopting the Beijing dialect as the exclusive standard speech for the whole country.

11. The first comprehensive study on the Mainland of this issue was carried out by Fei Jichang (1993: 42). According to this research, in 4,786 comparable characters, 1,941 characters (41 percent) are totally the same in shape, and 1,864 characters (39 percent) are slightly different. The 975 different ones that have the potential to cause a barrier in written communication cover 20 percent of the total if the contextual factors are disregarded.

12. Since the pro-independence DPP (Democracy Progress Party) took power from the Kuomintung in 1996, there has been a growing interest to stress or even exaggerate the linguistic differences between the two polities across the Strait, with the unconcealed

Notes 370

1997: 20-21, 45, 109) indicates, that with more than four million scientists and

characters (Taiwan, 9, 1982); the standard encoding sets for computers, GB 2312-80,

meanings (which are used by some people with little education or in certain social

Notes

aim of developing the local dialect as a replacement for Guoyu (Mandarin). The first step was to officially reject the widely expected use of pinyin as the official

oriented scheme designed by some Taiwanese linguists. Pinyin was only allowed to be used in public places in Taipei for international convenience.

to unify the writing system. 14. The reports about discussions at ministerial level to reduce pinyin teaching in primary

schools nationwide caused a great panic among the LP professionals. “We are worried about the possibility of pinyin’s gradual phasing out from the compulsory education. We wrote to the Ministry, we also wrote to the Guangming Daily and Education Daily, to point out the potential harmful result of reducing teaching hours in schools and to appeal for support from the public. These two papers dared not publish it, but finally we managed to have it published in China’s Youth Daily and the proposal was withdrawn” (Wang 2002: personal communication; Chinese Youth Daily, May 2, 2000).

15. For example, according to one random sample survey conducted in Beijing, out of 58 higher institutions, 25 (52%) universities and institutions use traditional hanzi to write their name; 43 out of 51 (84%) restaurants/hotels use traditional hanzi for their brand names (Zhang and Xia 2001: 263).

16. The figures from the following Google.com search of Chinese Party and state leaders’ tici (Sun 2003) show the tremendously negative impact these most visible and ever-present tici can have on the public conception of standard hanzi: by 2003 Jiang Zemin has written 33,800 pieces, Mao Zedong 22,800, Deng Xiaoping 19,400 and Li Peng 11,800.

17. After his failure to do it in his capacity as a LP official, Wang had to turn to the commerce administration authority. “I was told that it would cost the store one million RMB, but they had to do it, because of its influence. No tourists from the provinces leave Beijing without a visit to Wangfujing Department Store”. It is calculated that the cost of a name change is very high. For instance, for some nationally important banks it would be in the tens of millions of Chinese RMB (Li 1992: 29). It was reported that to implement the Directive on the Management of Character Use in Publications of July 1992, which was issued by the SCLW in conjunction with the National Department of Media and the Press, campaigns were launched in some regions, for a period, to wipe out the traditional forms of characters from the signboards and Bian’e (inscribed boards above or on the two sides of a door) (Liu 1992: 19). The reason for the failure of this campaign was more because of their historical significance than the financial affordability.

18. This was first implicitly revealed in written form in the Instructions on Using Language Standards, compiled by the editing team of Standard Modern Chinese Dictionary, published by Shanghai Cishu Chubanshe in 2002. (see also Fei and Xu

19. Hu Qiaomu (Editing Team: 294) revealed that due to Mao Zedong’s ‘suggestion’, the character Yi (夷) for Yi nationality, had to be changed into 彝, because 夷 was used in classical Chinese to imply a chauvinist sentiment. But 彝 is a rather rare character, not used in modern life, and few people know how to write it. “Now we cannot change it back, lest it will attract criticism [because of the possible confusion it may cause]”, Hu said.

371

13. Huang Peirong (1992: 93-96) deals at great length with this in his four-step proposal

transliteration system in 2002, and adopt Tongyong Pinyin, a much disputed dialect-

2005: 33-34.)

20. For details concerning the discrepancies in Mao’s directives, readers are referred to DeFrancis (1984b: 295). A succinct review of Soviet/Stalin’s influence on Mao’s thinking about Chinese Romanization can be found in Rohsenow (2004: 39).

21. The Law of National General Language and Script, People’s Republic of China, was passed on 31st October 2000 and came into force from the first of January 2001. An unofficial translation of this law is available in Appendix D.

22. Chen explained to the Soviet experts, “From the international revolutionary point, the

in the South East Asian region, where Latin-based scripts are used.” (Feng 2001:

when he studied in France and became Mayor of Shanghai, vice-premier and foreign minister of the PRC.

23. Some of these influences did become reality. The Chinese government designed six New Script minority languages using the Cyrillic alphabet. But, except the one for Mongolian, which was cancelled in 1958, none of the others were promoted (Nie

24. According to Duan (1990: 2), ‘East’ was originally a reference to the other ethnic groups living within the Soviet Empire at that time. It has nothing to do with China or any other ‘Eastern’ countries.

25. According to the account by Zhu Bangfu (2000), one of the pioneers of hanzi computerization, at the end of the 1970s, in order to get support from the industry, he visited almost all computer companies in Taiwan and was given the same negative response everywhere: they cannot afford the risk of investing money in something that is impossible. In addition, he was told hanzi is a kind of antique relic that will be

public sector at a time when the defense force was in desperate need of developing an automatic communication system. His research team was employed with the full

26. Chinese Central TV (CCTV.com 2004) reported statistical data on 5 December 2003

for the use of hanzi technology. Given the huge consuming capacity (the current number is at 200 million sets) and 30 percent growth rate, the payment for hanzi input technology, owned by foreign companies, reaches as much as 700 million RMB every year.

CHAPTER 6

1. That is, for air traffic control, for use with international shipping (Seaspeak – Strevens and Weeks, 1985), for police forces (Policespeak – Johnson, 1994) or for the English Channel tunnel.

2. The original sentence first appeared in Sun Mian’s Preface for Qieyun (Sound Spelling) in the Qing dynasty. Qieyun, written by Lu Fayan during the Sui Dynasty

resolving contentious issues when a language standard has to be made. ‘A Few Peers’

Notes 372

personal communication.) Chen Yi (1900-1972), a Sichuan native, joined the CCP

Soviet Union is in charge of East Europe, and China gets more involved in the affairs

1998: 227-228).

abandoned very soon in the computer age. After repeated failures, he turned to the

(581-618), was used as the governmental standard of pronunciation in the Tang

support of the National Defense Academy.

meant that Chinese companies had to pay seven US cents more per mobile phone set

Dynasty (618-907). Since then the saying has become a proverbial reference in

that the long dependency on foreign technology for inputting hanzi on mobile phones

Notes

Association was the name of a linguists’ salon composed of some renowned linguists in the 1920s, including Chao, Liu Bannong and Qian Xuantong. They were the key members of the Preparatory Commission of Unified National Language Promotion, who were appointed by the then government to standardize the National Language. “We, a few peers, do it and it is fixed” was their principle when they were caught up amidst endless debates and felt helpless to agree upon some issues.

3. The rising superstars that have occupied Chinese screens for the past decade are Nā They

these four top entertainers’ surnames correctly, according to standard pronunciation – that is the one found in the Modern Chinese Dictionary, the de facto official standard. If one asks any ordinary Chinese to pronounce their names, they would call them Nà

teachers, perhaps even the pop stars themselves are not aware that the pronunciation of their surnames is non-standard (Liu 2003)!

4. Modest changes have been introduced in schools and administrations since 1996 (Coulmas, 1998; Stillemunkes, 2000).

5. In Japan, the government decreed a Supplementary Table of Characters for Name Giving in 1951 with 92 characters, increased to 166 in October 1981. But the law was challenged and questions concerning individual rights were raised in a court case

in the legislature in the 1980s (Tse 1983: 16). 6. This is not the first attempt to standardize the names that components are called. The

issue was put to the public through the launch of a nationwide discussion from September 1965 to April 1966 by Script Reform, the affiliated monthly journal under the CCSR and Script Reform, the bi-weekly specialist section of Guangming Daily. The discussion was basically confined to a circle of specialists, notwithstanding that the initial purpose of the discussion was to seek popular component names to facilitate teaching and learning hanzi for regular education, and to eliminate illiteracy. The whole event was conducted in quite an appropriate manner: special sections were vacated and an editorial with seven suggestions and two guiding principles was written to formally kick off the discussion. In order to avoid influencing the discussion, Script Reform discontinued the publication of the Table of Calling Names of Chinese Char-acter Components (draft) for a period of over 6 months. Eventually, 19 papers were published on the topic, but the uncompleted discussion came to a sudden halt when the Cultural Revolution broke out on May 16, 1966 (Fei 1980).

7. The fieldwork involved in doing the research for this book gave the first author the rare opportunity of getting extensively acquainted with the consultative members in SCLW. The author had a strong feeling that the SCLW does not have a system in place to guarantee that all legislative regulations are arrived at consensually by its members. What members complained about most was that they were only approached or consulted shortly before a LP program was carried out. Take the National Standard for Numeral Use in Publications as an example. It had evoked an outcry on its publication as the Standard was the work of only two scholars. More ironically, some members of a previous SCLW did not know that their membership in this organization already had been terminated! This failure to confront change directly is evidenced in some other features of the organization.

hardly any of their fans nor the TV and radio announcers across the country pronounce all are the most talked about names in China in the 2000s, but in public life

373

）.

Yīng, Níng Jìng, Zàng Ti nshuò and Wéi Wéi. Except for a few linguists and language ā

唯Yīng (那英), Nīng Jì ng （宁静）, Zāng Tiānshuò （

(Neustupný, 1983). A similar proposal from the Taiwan IT industry failed to be passed

藏天朔）and Wéi Wéi （韦

8. In Chinese society, the handling of interpersonal relationships is given more attention than in some other countries. The sensitivity and complexity of this can be seen from the frequent use of pseudonyms when discussing disputable topics. Examples of this

1990s’ debate, as well as for papers discussing the SSS in Chinese Linguistics in 1978. 9. The Academie Française was established by the French First Minister, Cardinal de

Richelieu, in 1634 and incorporated in 1635, and has existed, except for an interruption during the era of the French revolution, to the present day. Its original purpose was to maintain standards of literary taste and to establish a literary language (see Cooper 1989).

10. Yuan Xiaoyuan International Language Modernization Research Forum has been in operation for two decades. Chinese Character Culture, its institutional journal, was in

has frequently published unorthodox views and disputed papers that openly challenge the official policy. The Common Script Association was established in Shanghai in December 1997 by Zhou Shenghong, a retired Chinese language teacher, and Huang Zuohong, an entrepreneur from Taiwan. It has organized seven international symposia,

proceedings published from each symposium. It is one of the most active non-governmental associations in this area and it also runs a Chinese Script Research Information Library located at the same venue in Shanghai, besides its own website

Chinese Script Reform (http://www.wengai.com), with the aim of promoting ‘One Language, Two Scripts’, was founded in 1979 by a group of enthusiastic Chinese language reform scholars and interested students based in New York. Its current sponsor is Apollo Wu, a retired translator at the UN. Through 2006, eighteen issues of its journal Language and Information have been published. It also maintains an online language reform forum (http://www.hpwwzm.com/YuiceYuXsoxva/YuiceYu Xsoxva 02.asp).

11. Many websites that we have come across in searching for material on language reform provide a glimpse on how vibrant non-governmental LP activities are. Pan Defu works through his own website (http://www.yywzw.com/pan/pan-03d-002.htm) to publicize his books and papers, critiquing orthodox theories about hanzi reform and challenging

maintained website specializing in input systems; Su Chengzhong (http://hzdt.xiloo. com/wgyy01.htm) focuses on exploring a common script for all languages; Zhang Shizhao founded an online Hanzi Research Institute (http://www.chancezoo.com/) to

CHAPTER 7

1. Chen Yuan, a famous Chinese encyclopedist and former director of SCLW from 1987 to 1989, said that he created these two phrases and spread them in Lu Xun’s name (Li 1992: 14). Nevertheless, “to sacrifice ourselves for hanzi, or to sacrifice hanzi for

Notes 374

can be found in articles published on Chinese Character Culture during the 1980-

promote the idea of a ‘Chineseized Computer’. A number of non-governmental organ-

http://www.yywzw.com/ and http://www.china-language.gov.cn/webbbs/index.asp. izations, forums and online journals/magazines on Chinese LP can be found at

the government’s LPP; Shen Kecheng (http://hzdt.xiloo.com) produces a well-

the forefront of the battle that sparked the polemic of Hanzi Culture in the 1990s, and

(http://hzdt.xiloo.com/stw.htm). The American Association for the Promotion of

aimed at unifying hanzi across the Taiwan Strait, with refereed conference

Notes

ourselves”, and similar phrases, can be found throughout Lu Xun’s eight articles,

2. In China, the policy of ‘walking on two legs’ was first put forward by Mao Dun, Chinese novelist and then Minister of Cultural Affairs in the early 1960s (DeFrancis 1984b: 8). The notion of digraphia was raised in a sinographic IT context at the International Symposium on East Asian Information Processing, held at the University of Pennsylvania in October, 1990 (Mair 1991: 7).

3. Initiated by Professor Peng Zerun, some books and web pages have been published in an interword text (spaced by words rather than hanzi) on an experimental basis over the past few years. For more details, see http://www.yywzw.com/jt/zerun/.

4. A large-scale experiment, “Phonetically Annotate Character Recognition to Promote Earlier Reading and Writing”, has been ongoing in Mainland China since 1982. In this innovative pedagogical program, primary school children (and adult illiterates) are taught to read and write standard Mandarin Chinese, using the pinyin alphabet in addition to Chinese characters for the first two years of their education. Under this experiment, beginners are encouraged to use pinyin where they have found their reading and writing development being hampered by their hanzi limitations. More than two million children across the country are involved, and the result shows that the language skills of the majority of participants are greatly improved; for most of the students who were taught with the more traditional method in the standard curriculum, pinyin is just taught and used for the first two months as a phonetic notational device, purely for a pronunciation purposes. For details, see Rohsenow (1996, 2001) and Su (2001a).

5. The ‘thousand’, in the cited statistics, was misprinted as ‘hundred’ in the documents. 6. For example, some characters, printed in their traditional forms in two currently

popular computer-typed textbooks and published by prestigious and influential

Company, 1997), and Chinese for Today (Hong Kong: Commercial Press Hong Kong, 1998, also simplified), bewilder overseas Chinese learners.

7. and the Ideographic Rapporteur Group (IRG, after 1993). Member nations also include Vietnam, although it was not invited as an initial party. IRG advises the Unicode Consortium on Han character additions to the repertoire of the Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646-1 character set standards, and on Han unification.

8. For example, as Cheong (1999) has noted, a person from Hong Kong would be quite displeased to see characters appear in a Japanese font style, although there are many Japanese books sold in original packaging in Hong Kong.

9. In Japan by shape, or ideographic components; in Korea by sounds, or phonetic representation and in China, the prototypical GB 2312-80 was indexed half by sound for a more frequently used character and half by shape for rarely used characters, which made recognition by pronunciation difficult for most people.

375

collected by Language Reform Press (1974: 36-38; 39-41).

They are the Chinese/Japanese/Korean Joint Research Group (CJK-JRG, 1990-1993)

publishers, namely Integrated Chinese (simplified version, Boston: Cheng and Tsui

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407

Content Index

748 Project, 59, 60, 364 All China Character Preservation

Congress, 33 alphabetic language (s), 130, 132, 163,

294, 316 alphabetic script (s), 12, 115, 289, 294,

392 alphabetic writing system, 42, 289 Ann T.K./T. K. Ann, 99, 102, 355 archaic-style language, 221 Artifical Intelligence (AI), xi, 84, 114,

115, 118, 196, 198, 199, 202, 207, 235, 293, 294, 303, 310

automatic conversion, xviii, 265, 307 automatic information processing, 145,

180 automatic recognition, 145 automatic standardization, 283 bamboo slip(s), 26, 187 Big5, 129, 131, 132, 359 black market, 95 bottom-up, 80, 269 bronze inscription (jinwen), 2, 3, 297 bushou, 13 Cangjie, 2, 16, 25, 55 centripetal forces, 189 centrism, 283 Chang-effect, 71, 75, 80, 81

character input, 73, 106, 114, 122, 137, 168

Chen Yi/Chen, 241, 372 Chiang Kaishek/Chiang, 38, 215, 226 Chinese calligraphy, 2, 8, 19, 229, 381 Chinese Character Cultural Faction

(CCCF), xi, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 223, 227

Chinese character processing software, 115

Chinese Communist Party (CCP), xi, 37, 41, 42, 44, 52, 53, 54, 69, 72, 88, 101, 102, 228, 230, 232, 233, 237, 238, 246, 263, 279, 355, 364, 372

Chinese computer (s), xvii, 106, 116, 128, 132, 249, 293, 294, 298, 313, 358, 359, 392, 406

Chinese computerization, xvii, 106, 128, 249, 294, 298

Chinese culture, 25, 33, 34, 49, 82, 188, 229, 237, 246, 327, 378, 403

Chinese economy, xiii, 205 Chinese entropy, 97, 105, 403 Chinese information processing, xi, 73,

106, 111, 114, 207, 293, 329, 382, 391, 312, 404

Chinese intellectuals, 113, 224, 236, 362 Chinese language authorities, 139, 250

408 Content Index

chongma, xvii, 111, 112, 115, 119, 120, 126, 194, 196

Civil Service Examinations, 34 CJK sinography/character/script, 142,

309, 316 classical Chinese, 34, 83, 96, 150,

clerical script (lishu), 3, 7, 8, 12, 276, 297, 300

clinical treatment, xvii, 71, 174 code set (s), 126, 144, 186, 257, 262,

264, 279, 364, 390 Cold War, 239, 240, 246 collectivism, 253 Commission of Chinese Script Reform

(CCSR), xi, 35, 46, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 102, 146, 154, 161, 166, 170, 258, 259, 278, 302, 306, 307, 363, 365, 366, 373

common script, xviii, 134, 216, 285, 308, 313, 374, 393, 398, 402

Communist propaganda, 51, 368 Comprehensive Table of Standardized

Characters (CTSC), xi, xvi, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180, 182,183, 184, 185, 219, 264, 265, 279, 369

computer technology, 20, 111, 113, 127, 168, 194, 294, 327, 389

computerized hanzi, 111, 294 Confucian classics, 357 Confucianism, 26, 220, 246 consensual model/decision, 250, 283 conservatism, 40, 210, 301, 326 Corpus of Whole Chinese Character

(CWCC), xi, xvi, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189

corpus planning, 35, 138, 267, 268, 322, 379, 384, 387

corpus-based/corpus method (s), 118, 196, 198, 199, 201

cultural heritage, 32, 36, 84, 87, 100, 106, 143, 155, 185, 189, 223, 312, 325, 355, 387

Cultural Revolution, 29, 47, 51, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 65, 66, 68, 69, 89, 92, 93, 103, 104, 105, 116, 151, 154, 220, 237, 253, 325, 362, 363, 364, 365, 373

cyberspace, xix, 186, 262, 264, 287, 295, 313, 321, 323

Cyrillic letters/script/alphabet, 241, 275, 372

Dai Jitao/Dai, 31, 33, 226 Daoism, 187 data bank, 122, 196 Deng Xiaoping/Deng, 66, 235, 238, 267,

364, 371 deregulation, 282, 285 dialectal characters, 140, 185, 204, 213,

320 digitalization, 112, 240, 252, 316, 404 digraphic writing system, 293 dirigisme, 284, 395 East Asia/Asians, 49, 98, 100, 112, 135,

186, 246, 304, 313, 314, 315, 316, 318, 319, 358, 367, 372, 375, 385, 392, 394, 395, 400

East Asian ideographs, 186 Education Ministry/Ministry of

Education, 40, 43, 74, 152, 158, 234, 238, 279, 281, 290, 306, 356, 383

ethnic minorities/groups/population, 89, 140, 149, 185, 187, 274, 280, 292, 351, 368, 372

evolution, 3, 6, 9, 11, 67, 84, 204, 210, 296, 297, 303, 312, 315, 322, 323, 324, 326, 327, 328, 362, 377, 387, 399, 400

First Simplification Scheme (FSS), xi, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 49, 67, 227, 324

First Simplification, xi, 24, 28 First Table of Verified Variant Forms

(FTVVF), xi, 46, 87, 89, 161, 162, 229, 258, 385

folk hanzi, 186, 187, 388 font style (s), 19, 158, 317, 321, 375 Four Fixations, xvi, 73, 138, 139, 175,

246, 249 function-specific multilayered standards

model, 265 Gang of Four, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 66,

69, 364 GB 13000.1, 14, 129, 141, 171, 219,

262, 263, 358, 359

151,178, 294, 323, 355, 368, 371, 389

Content Index 409 GB 2312-80, xi, 12, 186, 262, 358, 359,

General List of Print Font of Chinese Characters (GLPFCC), xi, 46, 54, 146

General List of Simplified Characters (GLSC), xi, 46, 51, 80, 230, 231, 277, 304, 308, 364

geographical names, 88, 145, 149, 152, 259, 365

Germany, 211, 240, 271, 276, 367, 378, 394

globalization, 222, 240, 243, 252, 400, 402

Gou-phenomenon, 71, 75, 82, 84, 85, 87, 89

grass style characters (caoshu), 18, 45, 297

great seal script (dazhuan), 6 Guangming Daily, 55, 56, 62, 75, 154,

299, 355, 371 Han Ja, 367 Han Unification, 314, 315, 316, 317,

321, 375, 381 handwriting standard, 305 hanzi computerization, 112, 116, 137,

193, 207, 372 hanzi culture debate, 104, 217, 223, 237 hanzi processing, 125, 199, 244, 308 hanzi simplification, 18, 24, 30, 47, 71,

75, 101, 111, 299, 305, 325, 383, 389, 396, 399, 403

Hebrew, 201, 366 heterophonic character (yidu zi), 164 Hindi, 195, 289 Hokkien, 320 homophones/homophony, 10, 80, 115,

119, 198, 199 homophonous character (s)/word (s), 10,

120, 123, 177, 194, 197, 198, 229, 308, 309, 365

homophonous substitution/ replacement, 79, 154, 161, 308, 366

homophonous syllables, 194, 196, 198, 292

Hong Kong, 31, 92, 95, 96, 103, 131, 141, 205, 213, 214, 217, 219, 239, 240, 243, 310, 355, 363, 366, 375,

377, 385, 387, 390, 391, 392, 396, 397, 399

Hu Qiaomu/Hu, 44, 75, 86, 88, 102, 158, 184, 226, 231, 232, 235, 236, 278, 299, 355, 371, 383, 386

Hu Yuzhi/Hu, 60 ideographic input, 79, 120, 122, 206 ideographic system (s), 97, 100, 188 ideographic-based script (s), 82, 372 image planning, 269, 270, 322, 377 imperialism, 243, 318 India, 26, 239 individualism, 146, 251 Information Retevial (IR), xi, 114, 168 information technology, xi, xxi, 73, 352,

403 intellectualization, 66, 385 interdisciplinary cooperation, 234 international (standard) keyboard, 117,

123, 126, 194 international environment, 239, 245 international standard(s), 112, 117, 123,

126, 129, 142, 181, 185, 194, 207, 252, 262, 314, 318, 319, 321

intervention, 6, 23, 31, 41, 104, 174, 189, 201, 218, 223, 225, 226, 232, 235, 236, 253, 280, 281, 283, 308

ISO standards, 263 IT expert (s), xvii, 79, 218, 235, 263,

314 IT industry, 115, 123, 124, 144, 174,

181, 182, 196, 199, 201, 203, 206, 207, 208, 234, 238, 243, 245, 262, 274, 289, 293, 321, 359, 373

IT-oriented standard (s), 182, 190, 256, 260, 261, 263, 280

Japan, 18, 29, 37, 151, 152, 153, 186, 225, 239, 304, 313, 314, 315, 318, 319, 320, 355, 373, 375, 381, 387, 398, 399

Japanese, 37, 65, 83, 86, 87, 91, 140, 141, 151, 178, 206, 275, 276, 290, 293, 295, 309, 315, 318, 319, 320, 365, 367, 368, 375, 382, 392, 397, 398

Jiang Qing/Jiang, 58, 364 Jiang Zemin/Jiang, 104, 217, 223, 228,

237, 238, 371, 397

360, 364, 375

410 Content Index

June Fourth Movement, 221, 237 Kana, 87, 275, 290 Kanji, 276, 318, 367 Keizo Obuchi, 225 Korea, 142, 166, 186, 209, 225, 239,

314, 375, 393, 399 Korean, 140, 141, 180, 205, 291, 309,

315, 367, 375, 389, 397 Kuomintung, 36, 37, 216, 355, 370 language (management) administration,

41, 141, 203, 230 language authorities/authority, 139, 171,

175, 213, 250 language maintenance, 191, 379 language market, 96 language-in-education, 270, 281, 322,

378 Latin (-based) script, 128, 372 Latin alphabet/letter, 35, 42, 179, 233,

241, 275, 294, 303, 353 Latinization, 41, 42, 241, 291, 402 Lee Kuan Yew, 225 Li Peng, 371 Li Si, 25 Lin Biao, 55, 62 lingua franca, xv, 166 literary characters, 149, 150, 151, 152 Liu Shaoqi/Liu, 55 logographic script (s), 292, 295, 322 LP authorities, 92, 152, 170, 184, 186,

274, 311 LP workers, 43, 50, 72, 253, 263, 274,

276, 279 luanma, xvii, 111, 112, 129, 130, 131,

132, 133, 134 Mainland China, 37, 46, 50, 91, 93, 94,

102, 125, 131, 142, 169, 216, 217, 228, 260, 264, 278, 280, 314, 320, 330, 368

Mainlander(s), 131 Mao Zedong/Mao, 20, 35, 42, 55, 148,

226, 232, 275, 298, 355, 364, 371 Maoist, 101 Marr, 53, 54, 356 Marxism, 54, 84, 225, 237 Marxist, 52, 221 mass line, 55, 83, 92, 164, 306 mass-accessible script, 208

May Fourth Movement, 32, 107, 220, 355

Microsoft, 119, 120, 127, 130, 244, 245, 303, 309

Ming Dynasty, 27, 28, 30 Ministry of Culture, 161, 170 Ministry of Information Industry, 142,

150, 359, 360 minority language (s), 372, 392 model style characters (kaiti/kaishu), 8,

19, 20 Mongolian, 187, 263, 372 monosyllables, 92 morphemic script, 147 Morse, 113 multidimensional model, 226 multi-level model, 167 multi-standard model, 250, 254, 256,

289, 299 National Conference on Language Work

(NCLW), xi, xvi, 64, 71, 235, 238, 282

National Digital Archives Program, 188 National Standard Pronunciation, 213 national standard, 68, 123, 126, 144,

203, 216, 219, 230, 264, 318 nationalism, 8, 36, 101, 104, 107, 109,

155, 191, 245, 246 natural language processing, 114, 120,

196, 199 Northern Mandarin, 166 obsolete characters, 88, 140, 146, 264 official characters, 213, 229, 259, 368 Opitical Character Recognition (OCR),

xi, 21, 118 oracle bone script (jiaoguwen), 2, 3, 4,

5, 185, 188, 297 overseas Chinese, 46, 47, 48, 80, 85, 95,

96, 101, 102, 126, 128, 134, 165, 184, 205, 240, 309, 310, 363, 365, 375

paradigms, 266 Party propaganda, 104, 223, 237 Party propagandists, 101 People’s Republic of China (PRC), xi,

xiii, xv, 8, 41, 42, 54, 72, 85, 92, 102, 109, 142, 220, 230, 232, 263, 292, 363, 372

Content Index 411 personal names, 84, 149, 152, 175, 276,

353, 354, 355 phonetic compound, 10, 12, 13, 14, 45,

88, 163, 178, 179, 302, 363, 367, 368 phonetic script (s), 289, 296 phonetic symbol (s), 226, 290 phonetic/phonetics-based input, xvii phoneticization, 10, 12, 72, 93, 232, 268,

279, 288, 292, 295, 296, 299 phonetics-based schemes, 194 pinyin orthography, 198, 241, 298 pinyin scheme, 233, 241, 277, 278, 295,

370 pinyin-based methods, 125 pluricentric language, 188, 239, 240 pluricentric model, xviii, 256, 263, 266,

299 pluricentric script, 313 polyphonic character, 163 prestige planning, 270, 271, 284 printing industry, 18, 39, 146, 162 pronunciation standard, 165, 213, 282, public media, 103, 183 public opinion (s), 183, 212, 271, 274,

275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 306 public participation, 183 public space, 228, 229 public support, 275 purism, xvi, 28, 32, 33, 35, 36, 220, 326 putonghua popularization/promotion,

73, 166, 167, 180, 195, 203, 213 Qian Weichang, 243 Qian Xuantong/Qian, 30, 40, 45, 226,

302 Qian Xuesen, 202, 234, 243 Qin Dynasty/government, 7, 25, 82, 297,

313 Qin Empire, 7, 25, 300 Qin Shihuang, 25 Qing Dynasty/period, 27, 140, 297 rarely used character (s) (RC), 20, 89,

120, 122, 143, 145, 148, 153, 175, 221, 222

reformers, 36, 66, 72, 81, 89, 93, 96, 98, 103, 104, 106, 107, 177, 210, 217, 302, 314

regulator, 283

Republic of China, xi, xv, xvi, 30, 31, 32, 41, 86, 367

Research Institute of Applied Linguistics (RIAL), xi, 74, 167, 170

revolution, xv, xix, 47, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 87, 89, 92, 93, 103, 104, 105, 107, 116, 151, 154, 180, 220, 237, 241, 253, 296, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328

revolutionary change, 52, 214, 326 rights, 150, 208, 266, 268, 279, 281, 320 Romanization history, 233 Romanization movement, 288, 292, 296,

327 Romanization, xvi, xviii, 30, 37, 43, 46,

49, 53, 72, 73, 102, 109, 122, 180, 216, 233, 267, 275, 283, 287, 288, 289, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 299, 324, 325, 326, 327

Romanized script, 240 running style characters (xingshu), 17,

20 Russian, 211, 241 script modernization, 46, 109, 227 script standardization, 25, 26, 204, 222,

script worship, 238, 254, 255 seal script (zhuanshu), 3, 6, 7, 8, 17, 25,

300 Second Simplification Scheme (SSS)/

Second Scheme, xviii, 55, 60, 62, 66, 67, 94, 273, 299, 300, 325

self-evident script, 53, 99, 166, 245 semantic compound, 13, 14, 85, 159,

160, 161, 177, 367 semantic-phonetic characters, 6, 10, 13,

80, 162, 163, 169, 178, 179, 180 semantics, 118, 199 Shanghai Times, 275 Singapore, ix, 47, 131, 216, 225, 305 small seal script (xiaozhuan), 6, 7, 8, 25,

300 socialist ideology, 324 socialist, 52, 53, 83, 204, 221, 242, 324,

351 socio-cultural factors, 292 socio-cultural settings/context, 253

412 Content Index

Song Dynasty/period, 27, 88, 158, 296 Southeast Asia, 246, 304 Soviet, 53, 211, 241, 246, 356 specialty characters, 149, 152, 302 speech recognition (SR), xi, 124, 194,

203 spiritual life, 33, 253 square script (kaishu), 3, 8, 9, 18, 19, 41 Stalin, 241, 356 standard pronunciation, 121, 126, 165,

167, 195, 202, 213 standardization process, 138, 283 State Bureau of Technology

Supervision, 142, 262, 263, 305, 353, 359

State Commission of Language Work (SCLW), xi, 14, 74

State Council, 46, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 63, 72, 91, 149, 228, 232, 258, 259, 277, 279, 280, 352, 353, 354

Sui Dynasty/period, 8, 26, 372 superstructure, 52, 53, 59, 224, 237, 260 Swahili, 225 Table of Simplified Characters (TSC),

xi, xviii, 24, 39, 45, 265, 277 taboo (s), 87, 88, 305 Taiwan, 31, 36, 37, 47, 65, 85, 90, 92,

95, 96, 103, 131, 141, 142, 165, 183, 184, 188, 189, 195, 205, 211, 212, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 228, 239, 240, 242, 243, 260, 305, 310, 313, 314, 319, 320

Tang Dynasty/period, 27, 188 Tanzania, 225 text automation, 294 Thailand, 389 Three Developing Phases Theory, 296,

298 Three Representation (Theory), 237, 238 tici, 227, 228, 229 Times New Roman, 18 tokenism, 274 top-down interfence, 41 top-down model, 269 top-down nature, 182 top-down policy, 41 top-down structure, 283 top-down tradition, 212

traditional culture, 83, 93, 101, 155, 188, 211, 216, 221, 222, 223, 224, 237, 328

traditional heritage, 36, 90, 93, 104, 106, 151, 155, 188, 211, 222, 224, 227, 245, 295, 319

traditional script, 292 traditional treasures, 17 traditionalism, 36, 101, 107 traditionalist (s), 221, 245, 252 Turkey, 225, 239, 276 two-way model, 270 typesetting, 18, 20, 60, 231, 298 Unicode Consortium, 142, 186, 218,

314, 315, 318 Unicode, 128, 131, 134, 135, 142, 143,

162, 185, 186, 187, 188, 214, 218, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 359, 360

United Nations, 97 unofficial characters, 91, 176, 359 urbanization, 191, 204 Uygur, 187, 263 variant form(s) (yiti zi), xi, 17, 28, 30,

46, 83, 87, 88, 89, 91, 140, 146, 147, 150, 159, 160, 161, 162, 176, 184, 258, 262, 264, 300, 308, 359, 367

vernacular Chinese, 294 Vernacularization Movement, 58, 151,

323 Vietnam, 239, 375 Wang Yunwu, 113 Western powers, 30, 220, 327 Westernization, 107 word processing, 106, 114, 127, 167,

196, 214 Wu Yuzhang/Wu, 42, 43 Xiandai Hanyu Cidian (Modern Chinese

Dictionary), 165 Xinhua News Agency, 60, 355 Xinhua Zidian (Xinhua Chinese

Character Dictionary), 171 Xinjiang, 187 Xu Dejiang, 102 Xu Shen/Xu, 7, 169, 357 Yuan Dynasty, 39, 302 Yuan Xiaoyuan, 101, 237, 285, 357 Zhang Chunqiao/Zhang, 57, 58, 60

Content Index 413 Zhang Zhigong, 234 Zhao Ziyang/Zhao, 88 Zhonghua Zihai (Ocean of Chinese

character), 140

Zhou Dynasty/period, 6 Zhou Enlai/Zhou/primier Zhou, 43, 58,

226, 233, 236, 274, Zhu Rongji/Zhu, 229, 230, 235

Author Index

Ager, S., 3, 11 Ammon, U., 191 Ann, T.K., 102 Anwar, K., 225 Ao, X.P., 144 Baker, C., 276 Bakken, B., 100 Baldauf, R. B. Jr., 45, 50, 85, 191, 225,

232, 240, 246, 267, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276, 281, 322, 323

Ball, R., 66, 271 Bambose, A., 283 Bao, M.W., 116, 145, 302 Barme, G.R., 101 Barnes, D., 167, 212, 227, 241, 364 Bates, M., 199 Bem, D.J., 284 Blachford, D.Y.R., 57, 230 Bluesea, 132 Boeschoten, H., 276 Boltz, W.G., 361 Bourhis, R.Y., 228 Canagarajah, A.S., 271, 323 CCTV.Com., 372 Chao, Y.R., 87, 178, 179, 216, 369, 370,

373 Chen, A.B., 159, 379

Chen, E. S-h., 100 Chen, M.G., 182 Chen, M.J., 85 Chen, M.Y., 289 Chen, P., 41, 90, 146, 174, 179, 241,

292, 299, 302 Chen, S.C., 205 Chen, W.Z., 103 Chen, Y,C., 79, 241 Chen, Y.S., 65, 87 Chen, Z.T., 278 Cheng, C.C., 46, 66, 307, 367, 375 Cheng, R., 138 Cheong, O., 317, 375 Chia, S.Y., 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 83, 278,

366 Chiang, G.K., 33, 38, 41, 55, 57, 215,

226, 236, 296 Chiang, Y., 5, 17 Chinese Youth Daily, 371 Chu, M., 120

Cobarrubias, J., 2 Collective Editors, 102 Cook, R.S., 314, 315, 317, 320 Cooper, R.L., 2, 30, 35, 191, 226, 268,

270, 283, 374

415

Ager, D., 37, 204, 225, 269, 271, 330

Clyne, M.G., 37, 240, 276

Coulmas, F., 84, 98, 100, 253, 254, 272, 301, 373

Crystal, D., 4, 189 Dai, J., 31, 33, 132, 226 Dai, Y., 31 Das Gupta, J., 191, 198, 218, 251, 268,

271 De Silva, K.M., 195 DeFrancis, J., 10, 17, 41, 45, 55, 57, 59,

86, 97, 99, 107, 109, 151, 178, 210, 227, 233, 237, 241, 242, 282, 284, 289, 361, 362, 369, 372, 375

Deng, C.Q., 156 Ding, C., 89 Ding, F.H., 368

Dogançay-Aktuna, S., 174 Du, Z.J., 31, 37 Duan, S.N., 43, 212, 372 Ducke, I., 285 Eastman, C.M., 66, 240 Editing Team, 77, 86, 88, 184, 232, 236,

371 Editors, 162 Education Office, 217, 227, 258 Fan, K.Y., 180, 231, 237, 293, 302 Fang, S.Z., 18, 369 Fei, J.C., 31, 43, 58, 63, 64, 89, 149,

157, 172, 178, 182, 216, 219, 265, 278, 299, 302, 329, 366, 370, 371, 373

Feng, S.Z., 216 Feng, W.J., 126, 207 Feng, Z.W., 105, 207 Ferguson, C.A., 26, 47, 85, 86, 251, 255,

256, 268, 271, 275 Fishman, J.A., 33, 34, 191, 268, 282 Fu, K.H., 366, 368 Fu, Y.H., 18, 329 Galambos, I., 5, 330 Gao, G.S., 80, 161, 168, 171, 179, 219,

231, 304, 365, 366 Gao, J.C., 89 Gao, M.C.F., 10 Geerts, G., 66, 210, 271, 272 Gelb, I.J., 11, 180

Gong, J.Z., 182, 223

Gonzalez, A., 66 Gottlieb, N., 206 Goundry, N., 310, 317, 318, 320 Gregersen, E.A., 272 Grin, F., 191 Gu, X.F., 16, 120, 172, 173, 359 Guo, M.R., 54 Guo, X.W., 308 Guo, Y.J., 97, 103, 246 Haarmann, H., 269, 270 Halpern, J., 309, 310 Han, J.T., 367 Hannas, W.C., 76, 115, 121, 310 Haugen, E., 137, 270, 272 He, Q.X., 65, 83, 87, 152, 276, 318, 330 He, Y.L., 83 Hook, B., 1, 35 Hsieh, C-c., 65, 188, 189, 320 Hu, S., 177 Hu, S.B., 34, 102, 184, 210, 226, 230,

231, 232, 235, 236, 278, 299, Huang, D.C., 218

Huang, P.R., 47, 81, 88, 176, 184, 212, 228, 371

Huang, Y.Z., 189 Hung, H-c., 65, 188 Ingram, D.E., 191 International Development Research

Centre, 370 Jackson, R., 11, 61 Jernudd, B.H., 32, 191, 198, 218, 251,

326 Ji, F.Y., 220, 237, 363 Jin, G.T., 19, 89, 304 Johnson, E., 372 Jordan, D.K., 140, 313, 320 Journalist, 60, 232, 355 Kan, J.Z., 147 Kaplan, R.B., 45, 50, 85, 191, 225, 232,

240, 246, 267, 270, 271, 273, 274, 276, 322, 365

Kataoka, S., 366 Kerman, j., 309, 310 Keyes, C.F., 195 Kim, C-W., 52, 225 Krzak, M., 98 Kwong, J., 53

416 Author Index

Ding, X.Q., 102, 145, 172

Geng, Z.S., 26, 28, 39, 87

Huang, K.D., 65, 188

Landau, J., 225 Landry, R., 228 Language Reform Press, 56, 375 Lehmann, W.P., 57, 284, 364 Leng, Y.L., 16, 84 Lewis, E.G., 281 Li, C.X., 182 Li, J.G., 15 Li, J.Q., 204 Li, J.X., 58 Li, L.Q., 300 Li, M.S., 54, 102, 103, 374 Li, Y.M., 143, 175, 178, 186, 221, 234,

243, 273, 365 Li, Y.Y., 86 Li, Z.H., 38 Lim, B.C., 305 Lin, L.L., 205 Lin, N., 142, 360 Lin, Y., 189 Lin, Y.F., 370 Lin, Y.Z., 201, 231, 365 Liu, A.P.L., 56, 277 Liu, C.Y., 373 Liu, M.C., 86 Liu, Q.E., 371 Liu, Q.L., 182 Liu, S.Z., 302 Liu, Y.Q., 65, 235, 369 Lu, B.F., 43, 83, 85, 89, 144, 153, 194,

285, 288, 294, 295, 303, 329 Luan, L., 227 Lunde, K., 140, 142, 315 Lü, G.X., 16, 43, 285 Lü, S.X., 294 Ma, Q.Z., 34, 42, 81, 122, 235, 364 Maata, S.K., 191 Mair, V.H., 116, 117, 121, 206, 367,

368, 375 Mao, Z.D., 148, 226, 228, 232, 275, 298 Meyer, D., 214, 316, 317 Mi, A.L., 244, 245 Milsky, C., 54, 227 Moon, H -h., 225, 282 Moore, H., 26, 191 Neustupný, J.V., 270, 365, 373 Ni, Y.Y., 43, 60, 85, 309, 364 Nie, H.Y., 209, 363, 372

Ohlendorf, H., 272 Orleans, L.A., 295 Ouyang, Z.S., 80 Pan, D.F., 282, 296, 374 Peng, H., 34, 36, 105, 211, 371, 375 Qi, C.T., 177 Qiu, X.G., 161, 179, 361 Rahman, T., 95 Reley, J., 83 Research Team of Chinese Department,

369 Research Team of Computer,

Information Processing, 16 Rohsenow, J.S., 6, 30, 58, 59, 60, 64,

113, 121, 163, 164, 294, 330 Rubin, J., 270, 276 Sailard, C., 255 Sakamura, K., 319 Schiffman, H.F., 33, 95, 191, 271, 275,

281, 283, 326, 366 SCLW, 74, 102, 158, 159, 164, 170,

171, 185, 201, 231, 232, 238, 258, 261, 262, 263, 278, 279, 280, 281, 284, 308

Searle, S.J., 318, 319 Seybolt, P.J., 33, 41, 55, 57, 236, 296 Shapiro, M.J., 32, 326 She, K.C., 83, 367 Shen, J., 75, 90, 308 Shepherd, J., 225 Shi, F., 237 Shi, Y.W., 80, 174 Shi, Z.Y., 92 Shidner, T., 207 Shohamy, E., 228, 229 Shuy, R.W., 191 Sommer, B.A., 191 Stillemunkes, C., 373 Strevens, P., 372 Su, P.C., 67, 80, 83, 86, 89, 105, 107,

146, 150, 154, 155, 178, 221, 222, 253, 282, 285, 289, 292, 294, 298, 302, 329, 364, 375

Sun, J.X., 363 Sun, W.J., 228, 371 T’sou, B.K.Y., 11, 61 Tang, L., 8, 9, 16, 26, 27, 83, 179, 188,

372

Author Index 417

Tao, L., 306 Taylor, I., 33, 222 Taylor, M., 33, 222 The Office of Standard, 91, 227, 258,

307 Thomas, G., 30, 211, 252 Tompson, P.M., 125 Topping, S., 315 Totten, G.O., 209 Tsang, Y-h., 45, 47, 365 Tsao, F-f., 195, 211 Tse, J.K.-p., 373 Turley, J., 303 Twine, N., 151 Twitchett, D., 1, 35 Unger, J.M., 84, 97, 293, 295, 318 US Embassy, 263 Wada, E., 316, 319 Wan, Y.X., 91, 181 Wang, B.X., 367 Wang, F.Y., 10, 38, 147, 183, 189, 219,

301, 304, 368, 371 Wang, H.Y., 178 Wang, J., 42, 44, 48, 159, 213, 234, 277,

278 Wang, J.S., 214, 241 Wang, L., 40, 179 Wang, N., 5, 7, 230, 265, 300 Wang, S.Y., 122 Wang, T.K., 27, 152, 175, 180, 204,

205, 210, 240, 258, 264, 265, 282 Wang, X.W., 31, 241 Wang, Y.W., 88, 144, 265, 278, 368 Weeks, F., 280, 372 Weischedel, R.M., 199 Whiteley, W.H., 276 Wieger, L., 361 Winsa, B., 366 Wong, Y.K., 25, 33, 89, 361 Wood, J.D., 225 Woon, W.L., 11 Wright, S., 119, 189, 250 Wu, C.A., 16, 87, 89, 150 Wu, W.C., 222 Wu., Y.S., 120, 145, 172, 173 Wu, Y.Z., 44, 54 Xi, B.X., 267 Xia, Z.H., 83, 104, 146, 187, 365, 368,

371

Xie, T.W., 27, 194 Xin, Bao., 145, 368 Xu, C.A., 81, 178, 181 Xu, C.M., 178 Xu, D.J., 237 Xu, J.L., 85, 143, 199, 243, 356 Xu, L.L., 265, 371 Xu, S.C., 140 Yan, Y.M., 16, 86

Yang, H.Q., 179, 299 Yang, R.L., 146 Yao, D.H., 31, 166 Yao, Y.P., 203, 204, 243 Ye, L.S., 35, 197, 233, 275, 365 Yin, B.Y., 6, 30, 87, 113, 158, 163, 164,

329, 362 Yu, G.Y., 239 Yu, J., 231 Yu, J.E., 226, 282 Yu, X.L., 209 Yuan, X.Y., 101, 237, 285, 357 Zeng, X.C., 80, 104, 105 Zhang, F.P., 244, 245 Zhang, J.Q., 84, 244 Zhang, L.M., 368 Zhang, L.Q., 98 Zhang, P., 117, 122, 156, 180, 199, 369 Zhang, S.Y., 34, 136, 148, 156, 186,

204, 235, 312 Zhang, W.B., 158 Zhang, X.T., 60 Zhang, Y.J., 102, 362 Zhang,Y.M., 122, 126 Zhang, Z.C., 320 Zhang, Z.G., 34 Zhang, Z.R., 101 Zhao, S.H., 66, 67, 87, 97, 156, 172,

180, 185, 189, 289, 324 Zhao, F.F., 180 Zhao, W.Z., 85 Zheng, L.X., 2, 61, 154, 306 Zheng, Y.L., 306 Zhou,Y.G., 30, 31, 39, 50, 65, 66, 67,

68, 80, 89, 117, 125, 140, 144, 145, 146, 147, 155, 178, 180, 195, 197,

418 Author Index

205, 209, 220, 222, 240, 241, 256, 277, 278, 282, 300, 314, 357

Zhu, B.F., 372

Yang G., 150

Zou, X.L., 5, 7, 362

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