a psychometric evaluation of an achievement motivation
TRANSCRIPT
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A PSYCHOMETRIC EVALUATION OF AN·
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE (PMV)
by
ERICA LEVER
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
(COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY)
in the
FACULTY OF ARTS
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR F.P. HUGO
CO-SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR J.D. VAN WYK
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indebted to the following people who have contributed to the
completion of this study. In particular, I wish to thank:
Professor Franscois Hugo, my Supervisor, for his invaluable interest
and friendly guidance in the field of academic achievement.
Professor Deon van Wyk, my Co-supervisor, for his statistical
guidance, and his willingness to accommodate me in his busy schedule.
The Department for Higher Education at the Rand Afrikaans Universi ty
for their co-operation.
Heleen Heydenrych, for her assistance in translation.
My brother, Selwyn, for his invaluable and much appreciated
statistical guidance and for ensuring the grammatical correctness of
the text.
Jennifer Lewis for her expert typing and endless patience.
My parents, sister, Rene, and brothers, Selwyn and Jeffrey, for their
love and constant encouragement.
Gavin Hartley, for his love, humour, kindness and support.
PAGE iii
I dedicate this work to
G-d for sparing
my life.
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I N D E X
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PREDICTION STUDIES
CHAPTER 2 : OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN A UNIVERSITY SETTING.
2.2.1 Study habi ts and atti tudes
2.2.2 Intelligence
2.2.3 Achievement motivation
2.2.4 Personality factors
2.2.5 Anxiety
2.2.6 Adjustment
2.3 DEFINITIONS OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
2.4 THEORIES OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
a) Introduction
b) Main concepts
2.4.1 Murray
2.4.1.1 Introduction
2.4.1.2 The concept of the need
a) Characteristics of human needs
b) Types of human needs
c) Motives
2.4.1.3 A brief evaluation of Murray's work
2.4.2 McClelland: The affective-arousal model
2.4.2.1 Introduction
2.4.2.2 The concept of the cue
2.4.2.3 Affect as a basis for motives
PAGE iv
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2.4.2.4 Antecedent conditions for affective arousal16
a) The pleasure-pain principle
b) The discrepancy hypothesis
c) The discrepancy-persistencehypothesis
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2.4.2.5 Discrepancies from adaptation level (AL) 18
2.4.2.6 The acquisition of motives 18
2.4.2:7 The achievement motive 18
2.4.2.8 Measurement of nAch (need forachieveme~t) by the TAT 20
INDEX (corrt )
2.4.3 Atkinson
2.4.3.1 Introduction: Main concepts
2.4.3.2 Motives to achieve success (Ms)
PAGE vPAGE
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a) Introduction 22
b) The tendency to achieve success (Ts) 22
c) The probability of success 23
d) The incentive value of success (Is) 23
2.4.3.3 The motive to avoid failure 24
a) Introduction 24
b) The tendency to avoid failure (Taf) 24
2.4.3.4 Resultant achievement motivation (Tr) 25
2.4.3.5 Critique and conclusion 26
2.4~3.6 Elaborations of Atkinson's Theory 28
a) Perceived instrumentality 28
b) Inertial tendency (Tg) 29
c) The motive to avoid success (M-s) 30
2.4.4 A cognitive approach to achievement motivationtheory : A general overview 31
2.4.4.1 The perceived causes of success andfailure 33
2.4.4.2 Antecedents of causal ascription 34
2.4.4.3 The consequences of causal ascription 35
a) Causal ascriptions and goalexpectancy 35
b) Causal ascriptions and effectivereactions 36
2.4.4.4 A brief evaluation of Weiner'scognitive approach
2.4.5 Hermans 37
2.4.5.1 Introduction 37
2.4.5.2 Characteristics of negative failure-anxious individuals 37
2.4.5.3 Characteristics of positive failure-anxious individuals 38
2.4.5.4 Conclusion and critique 38
CHAPTER 3 : EMPIRICAL RESEARCH FINDINGS 40
3.1 INTRODUCTION: CHAPTER OUTLINE 40
3.2 RESEARCH ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN A UNIVERSITY SETTING 40
3.2.1 Intelligence
3.2.2 Study habits and attitudes
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jvi .•...
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INDEX (cont )
3.2.3 Personality factors
3.2.4 Anxiety
3.2.5 Adjustment
3.2.6 Achievement motivation
3.3 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION CURRENT RESEARCH
3.3.1 McClelland
3.3.2 Atkinson
a) Risk preference
b) The incentive value of success
c) Task performance efficiency
d) Persistence level
e) Educational implications of Atkinson's theory
f) Extensions of Atkinson's theory
i) Contingent pathways
ii) Inertial tendencies . ,
iii) Motive to avoid success (M-s)
3.3.3 Hermans
3.4 PROPOSITIONS
PAGE vi
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CHAPTER 4 : RESEARCH DESIGN 55
4.1 HYPOTHESES 55
4.2 SUBJECTS 56
4.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 58
4.3.1 The Achievement Motivation Questionnaire 58
4.3.2 The New South African Group Test 59
4.3.3 Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes 59
4.3.4 The Personal, Home Social and Formal Relations
Questionnaire 59
4.3.5 The IPAT Anxiety Scale 60
4.3.6 The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire 60
4.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 60
4.4.1 Goal of the study 60
4.4.1.1 Experimental procedure 60
Ivii .....
INDEX (cont )
CHAPTER 5 : STATISTICAL RESULTS
5.1 RELIABILITY (item analysis)
5.2 VALIDITY
5.2.1 Bravais Pearson correlation coefficients
5.2.2 Simple Regression Analysis
5.2.3 t Tests
PAGE vii
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\ CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS
OF THE STUDY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 68
6.1 INTRODUCTION 68
6.2 ITEM ANALYSIS 68
6.3 BRAVAIS PEARSON CORRELATIONS 68
6.3.1 Achievement motivation and academic achievement: 68
6.3.2 Achievement motivation and intelligence 69
6.3.3 Achievement motivation and study orientation 69
6.3.4 Achievement motivation and personality 69
6.3.5 Achievement motivation and intrapersonal
adjustment 70
6.3.6 Achievement motivation and anxiety 70
6.3.7 Academic achievement and intelligence 70
6.4 THE PREDICTION OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ON THE BASIS OF
IQ SCORE 70
6.5 A COMPARISON OF UNDER-ACHIEVERS VERSUS OVER-ACHIEVERS
ON ANXIETY & STUDY ORIENTATION 70
6.5.1 Anxiety 71
6.5.2 Study orientation 71
6.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 71
CHAPTER 7 : SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
7.1 SUMMARY
7.2 CONCLUSION
74
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jvi:i i. ....
TABLE A
TABLE B
TABLE C
TABLE D
TABLE E
TABLE F
TABLE G
LIST OF TABLES
A general overview of the attributional
interpretation of expectancy-value theory
Weiner et al (1972) two-dimensional
taxonomy of causal ascription
Frequency Distribution for Sex
Frequency Distribution for Faculty
Pearson Correlation Coefficients between
Achievement Motivation and Academic
Achievement, Intelligence, Study
Orientation and Personality Factors
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
between Academic Achievement and
Intelligence
The significance of differences in
means of over-achievers versus under
achievers on anxiety and study
orientation
PAGE viii
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/ix .....
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o P S 0 M MIN G
. PAGE ix
Onderprestasie in Suid Afrikaanse universi tei te is 'n verskynsel wat
ernstige afmetings aanneem en huidige navorsing in hierdie verband
toon aan dat dit verrykende implikasies tot gevolg het. Daar bestaan
gevolglik 'n dringende behoefte aan 'n instrument waarvolgens die
potensHHe onderpresteerder betyds geidentifiseer kan word. By die
Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit is dit verpligtend dat alle eerstejaar
studente 'n reeks diagnostiese psigometriese toetse voor die aanvang
van die akademiese studiejaar afle. Een van hierdie psigometriese
toetse is die PMV (prestasiemotiveringsvraelys). Aangesien die
betroubaarheid en geldigheid van die PMV tot op hede nog onbekend is,
was die doel van hierdie studie om dit te bereken.
Verskillende teoriee van prestasiemotivering is bespreek, insluitend,
Murray (1938), McClelland (1976) se affektiewe opwekkingsmodel, Weiner
(1974) se kognitiewe benadering tot motivering en laastens, die teorie
van Hermans, Bergen & Eijssen (1982).
Hierna volg die statistiese bewerkinge van die studie. Die eksperi
mentele groep het ui t 1729 blanke, Afrikaanssprekende, voorgraadse
eerstejaarstudente wat in 1985 geregistreer het, bestaan. Ander
meetinstrumente wat in hierdie navorsing gebruik is, is onder andere,
die nuwe Suid Afrikaanse Groepstoets (NGAG), die Opname van Studie
gewoontesen Houdings (OSGH), die 16 PF, die Persoonlike Huislike,
Sosiale en Formele Verhoudingsvraelys (PHSF) en die Ipat Angsskaal.
Die betroubaardheid van die PMV is deur middel van 'n item analise
bepaal (NP-50 program). Bravais Pearson korrelasiekoeffisiente. 'n
Eenvoudige regressieanalise en t-toetse is gebruik om die geldigheid
van die vraelys te bereken.
Statisties beduidende resultate is verkry in al drie die bewerkinge.
Die resul tate wat verkry is met behulp van die eenvoudige regressie
analise, maak die voorspelling van akademiese prestasie op grond van 'n
verkree intelligensiekwosient moontlik, asook die identifiseering van
oor- en onder-presteerders. Resultate wat verkry is met behulp van die
t-toetse, het aangetoon dat daar 120 oorpresterders en 287 onderpres
teerders was. Hierdie twee groepe proefpersone se gemiddelde tellings
ten opsigte van die Ipat angsskaal, en die OSGH is met mekaar
vergelyk, waar volgens daar TI beduidende verskil ten opsigte van slegs
die OSGH tellings gevind is.
Ix .....
OPSOMMING (verv . )
PAGE x
Verder, word beperkinge en leemtes in hierdie navorsingstudie bespreek
en sluit onder andere in dat n uitgesoekte studentegroep gebruik is,
en waar die resultate nie veralgemeen kan word na die algemene
populasie nie. 'n Verdere leemte is die fei t dat daar nie vanuit nontwikkelingsperspektief gekyk is na die verskynsel van motivering en
prestasie by studente nie. Lae motivering van die proefpersone om die
diagnostiese toetse te vol tooi het ook daartoe bygedra dat die data
wat verkry is, waarskynlik onsuiwer was. Aanbevelings met betrekking
tot verdere navorsing is gedoen en behels onder andere datdaar in die
voorspelling van akademiese prestasie n nie-linieere benadering tot
prestasiemotivering gevolg word.
CHAPTER 1.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of under-achievement in first year students assumes
staggering proportions.
Research by Marais (1980) proves that under-achievement is a serious and
perturbing phenomenon. Research was completed at the Rand Afrikaans
University (R.A.U.) and results showed that:
146 of the 377 students who failed had an intelligence quotient of at
least 120. Forty of these students had an intelligence quotient of 130
and higher.
the department which yielded the highest failure rate was the Natural
Sciences Department, where 43,4% were male failure students and 59,3%
were female students. The above students were intellectually gifted,
with an intelligence quotient of 130 and higher.
Marais (1981) identified 86 intellectually gifted students. Of these 86
students, 25 discontinued or failed their studies. Thirteen students did not
return to the uni versi ty. The mean IQ for those that had failed was 141. At
this time, these failures meant a financial loss for the university and a
loss of potential manpower for South Africa.
The conclusion to be drawn from these studies is that academic failure has
immense financial implications. Furthermore, in view of the economic
situation in South Africa today, academic failure has even greater financial
impact for the university, the individual and the state.
The concern for the failure and under-achievement in fi~st year students is
reflected in the words of Koornhof (1978, in Marais, 1980): "The high rate of
failure among university undergraduates, particularly first years, remains a
constant source of concern to the state, the universities and the students
themselves." (p. 3)
From the above, it is evident that it is important to be able to predict
academic achievement.
/2 .....
PAGE 2
1.2 PREDICTION STUDIES
In the past, various attempts have been made to predict academic
achievement. Intelligence and aptitude were amongst the most popular of
predictors. The reason for this is that these variables could explain
maximum variance in school achievement. According to the literature,
(Schoeman, 1982), intelligence and aptitude could only explain between 20%
and 36% of the variance in academic achievement.
Because intelligence and aptitude were not considered adequate predictors of
variance in academic achievement, researchers began investigating the role of
non-intellectual factors, as predictors of academic achievement.
A study researching the role of non-intellectual factors in academic
achievement was completed by Engelbrecht (1974). This study revealed that
factors such as anxiety, introversion/extroversion and study orientation
played an important role in the examination achievement of girls with above
average intellect. Engelbrecht (1974) maintains that we should not dismiss
intellectual factors as predictors of academic achievement, but that we
should bear in mind the important role that non-intellectual factors play inthis regard.
Schoeman (1982) has. summed up the role that intellectual and non-intellectual
factors play in academic achievement in the following manner. He claims that
non-intellectual factors, together with cognitive variables are only capable
of explaining between 45% and 50% of variance in academic achievement. In
other words, these percentages are seen as the "cei1ing" for prediction
studies. "Hierdie persentasies word as 'n soort "plafon" vir voorspell ings
studies gesien." (p.l).
According to Schoeman (1982), it appears that the creation of homogenous
subgroups is the most promising approach in an attempt to explain academic
achievement.
These prediction studies can all be said to have one conclusion, reflected in
the words of Schoeman (1982):
/3 .....
PAGE 3
"Aangesien die voorspelling van akademiese prestasie deur die jare
al hoe belangriker geword het en vandag 'n absolute noodsaaklikheid
is, moet daar gesoek word na 'n model of prosedure wat 'n groter
persentasie van die variansie in akademiese prestasie kan ver-kl aar ;"
(p , 3).
The important point is that if one is able to explain variance in academic
achievement, one is able to predict academic achievement. Schoeman (1982)
claims that if this ideal can be reached, it would result in effective
counselling in schools and universities. The ideal would be to identify
a test/measurement that would be able to differentiate between over- and
under-achievers. Such a test has been constructed by Vi Ljoen (1983), but
the reliability and validity of the test have to date; remained unknown
in the university setting. This, therefore, is the goal of the present
research.
/4 .....
-.CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
PAGE 4
2.1. INTRODUCTION
There are many factors which play a role in the prediction of academic
achievement at the tertiary level and since academic achievement is a
concept of such entirety, a limited number of factors have been delineated
for this study. They include study habits and attitudes, intelligence,
achievement motivation, personality variables, adjustment and anxiety. The
above factors will be discussed and following this, are the theories of
achievement motivation.
2.2 ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN A UNIVERSITY SETTING
As mentioned above, there are a number of factors which influence academic
achievement and it is these factors which have been utilised in conducting a
prediction study of academic achievement at the tertiary level. It is
important for this study that one consider its general outline to be academic
achievement, with achievement motivation as one aspect of this very broad
field. Furthermore, one should also bear in mind that to see academic
achievement and achievement motivation as distinct entities is impossible
because when one considers an achievement motivated student, there is usually
the implication of an above average achievement score, since achievement
motivation and academic achievement are positively correlated. One should
also bear in mind that the student is in constant interaction with the
broader environmental system at all times and that this exerts a
considerable influence on the student. A study researching this interaction
effect has been completed by Hugo (1984). The point to be made here is that
one cannot be naive about the complexity of the cone ept of achievement
motivation and one must be aware of the complex inter-dependency of the many
variables associated with academic achievement.
2.2.1 Study habits and attitudes
From, the literature, it is evident that study habits and attitudes play
a substantial role in academic achievement (O'Connor-, Chassie & Walter,
1980). It seems logical that there is a posi tive correlation between
academic achievement and study habits, because the SSHA (Survey of Study
Habi ts and Attitudes) is capable of predicting academic achievement
(Holtzman & Brown, 1953, Dobson, 1979).
More specifically, research completed by Zarb (l981) , indicates that
effective study habits are significantly posi tively . correlated with
achievement motivation. This implies that the more motivated a student
is, the more attention he/she will pay to study habits and usually, more
effective study habits and attitudes result in increased academic
performance./5 .....
PAGE 5
It appears that, in general, effective study habits and attitudes are
posi tively correlated with achievement motivation as well as academic
achievement. A positive cycle is established because positive motiva
tion, together with effective study habits and attitudes in turn result
in increased academic performance, which in turn, motivates the student
and so the cycle repeats itself.
2.2.2 Intelligence
In the past, theorists have attempted to predict academic achievement
with the help of intelligence quotient scores and on this ~atter, there
are still contradictory opinions because there is debate whether IQ is
capable of predicting academic achievement or not. On one hand, some
theorists claim there is a positive correlation between IQ scores and
academic achievement (Sinha, 1966; Dhaliwal & Sharma, 1976), and
consequently, these theorists claim that IQ is a good predictor of
academic achievement. On the other hand, there are theorists who claim
that IQ is not a good predictor of academic achievement and that there.;;-
is not necessarily a positive correlation between IQ and academic
achievement (Ryle & Lungi, (1968); Garbers & Faurie 1972) . Whether or
not IQ is a good predictor of academic achievement is still debatable,
and the issue remains unresolved, perhaps due to the multi-faceted and
complex nature of intelligence itself.
Taking achievement motivation into consideration, it has been found by
Hundal and Jerath (1972) that nAch (need for achievement) was
significantly positively correlated with verbal and non-verbal measures
of intelligence. In other words, students with high~r intelligence tend
to be more achievement motivated than students with lower intelligence.
Perhaps this can be explained by the idea that students with higher IQs
are aware that they have the ability to achieve academically and
therefore are more motivated to attempt academic success.
/6 .....
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2.2.3
PAGE 6
Achievement motivation
The theory on the effect of achievement motivation on academic achieve
ment indicates that nAch as measured by the TAT or pencil-and-paper
tests, is associated with higher grades. It is clear that the student
who is motivated to do well, will achieve higher academic grades than
the student who is not motivated to achieve academically. From the
literature, it is evident that there is a positive correlation between
achievement motivation and academic achievement (Shivarathnamma, 1981,;
Youngblood, Stuart & Martin, 1982,; Romine & Crowell, 1981; Grobe &
Lotta, 1981 j Uguroglu & Walberg, 1979). In general then, the
literature reveals that the more highly achievement motivated a student
is, the higher will be his/her academic achievement. . .
A different perspective is held by Lens & de VoIder (1980), who found an
inverted U-shaped relationship between achievement motivation and
academic .achievement. They hypothesize that the student reaches a point
where he/she is over-motivated and consequently, there is a decrea~e in
academic achievement. This research is still in keeping with the general
idea that achievement motivation and academic achievement are positively
correlated.
2.2.4 Personality factors
The literature reveals that certain personality factors are associated
with student under-achievement (Saenger-Ceha, 1970). It also appears
that there are diverse opinions as to whether there is correlation
between personality factors and academic achievement as well as
achievement motivation. Saenger-Ceha (1970) maintains that factors such
as dependency, lack of self control and lack bf persistence are
associated with academic under-achievement. Other factors associated
wi th academic under-achievement include lack of autonomy; flexibility
and lack of aggression (Lavin, 1965) The literature reveals that
extroverts tend to achieve less academically than introverts.(Entwistle/
1972 ; Goh & Moore, 1978).
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PAGE 7
On the other hand, there is conflicting literature which suggests that
there is no significant correlation between academic achievement and
personality variables (Saenger-Ceha, 1970). This perspective is comple
tely contradictory to McClelland's Taf (tendency to avoid failure) and
Ts (tendency to achi eve success) persons and Hermans I pos i tive and
negative failure-anxious individuals. The literature on the effect of
neuroticism on academic achievement is contradictory. On one hand, some
theorists claim that there is a negative relationship between
neurotocism and academic achievement (Saenger-Ceha) 1970).Contradictory
views are held by other theorists. They claim that neuroticism and
academic achievement are positively related (Wankowki & Cox, 1973; Ryle
1968). Perhaps the reason for contradictory views is due to the fact
that neuroticism (if seen as a specific aspect of anxiety), has both
facilitating and debilitating aspects. In addition, the literature also
suggests a positive and significant correlation between: introversion
and achievement motivation (Entwistle, 1972; Goh & Moore 1978).
More specifically, there appears tci be a negative correlation between
neuroticism and achievement motivation (Hafeez & Shantamani, 1972). In
other words, those students who are less anxious and neurotic will tend
to be more motivated to achieve academically.
2.2.5 Anxiety
Sarason & Mandler (1952) maintain that when a stimulus situation
contains elements which specifically arouse test anxiety. This i~crease
in anxiety drive will lead to decreased performance in individuals who
have test irrelevant (incompatible/interfering) anxiety responses in
their response repertory. For individuals without such response
repertories, these stimulus elements wi11 rai se their gener-al drive
level and will resul t in improved performance. Thi s dual approach to
anxiety is comparable to that of Hermans, Bergen;; Eijssen (1982) who
differentiated between pos Lt i ve and negative failure anxiety, as well as
Alpert and Haber's (1960) concepts of facilitating and debilitating
anxiety.
/8 .....
PAGE 8
From the literature, it is clear that most theorists have not yet
differentiated between positive and negative failure anxiety or
debilitating and facilitating anxiety. Most theorists claim that there
is a negative correlation between anxiety (in general) and academic
achievement. In other words, those students who are less anxious, tend
to do better academically (Lynne, '1977 i Kanekar, ,1976 ).
More specifically, anxiety is said to correlate positively with
achievement motivation (Gissrau, 1976). It appears that anxiety is
facili tative when required for motivation, but in excess can play a
debilitative role in academic achievement.
2.2.6 Adjustment
From the literature, there is no doubt and it is evident" that academic
under-achievement is associated with overall lack of adjustment
(Saenger-Ceha, 1970)
LncLuded : under the heading of adjustment is that of the self concept.
Literature on the influence of self concept shows that students who see
themselves positively, having a good self concept, tend to be academic
achievers, whereas, students with a low self concept tend to be
under-achievers (Purkey, 1970 FarIs, ~967; Tuel & Wursten 196= ;
Bailey, 1971 and Lynne, 1977). Zarb. (1981) maintains that it is
more specifically academic self concept which is positively related to
academic achievement, whereas general self concept is not necessarily
correlated with academic achievement.
The literature on the relationship between achievement motivation and
self concept indicates that achievement motivation and self'concept are
significantly and positively correlated (Srivastava, 1979)
/9 .....
PAGE 9
2.3. DEFINITIONS OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
Heckhausen (1967), has defined achievement motivation as follows:- "The
striving to increase, or keep as high as possible, one's own capability in all
activities in which a standard of excellence is thought to apply and where the
execution of such activites can, therefore, succeed er- fail." (p . 5).
In a similar line of thought, McClelland (1958, in Weiner, 1972) describes
achievement motivation as: "the pursuit of an achievement goal, where an
achievement goal is regarded as success in competition with some standard of
excellence" (p , 110).
Yet another definition of achievement motivation has been proposed by Atkinson,
(1964) who maintains that the concept of achievement motivation attempts to
account for:
"the determinants of direction, magnitude and persistence of behaviour in a
limited domain of human activites. It applies only when an individual knows
that his performance will be evaluated (by himself and others) in terms of
some standard of excellence, and that the consequences of his action will
be either a favourable evaluation (success) or an unfavourable evaluation
(failure)" (p , 240).
The following definition of achievement motivation, as proposed by Winterbottom
(1958, in Atkinson, 1964) demonstrates that achievement motivation is a multi
faceted concept in that it highlights another facet of achievement motivation,
which has not yet been covered by previous definitions, namely, the issue of
pride. Winterbottom (1958), maintains that: "the disposition called the
achievement motive might be conceived as a capacity for taking pride in an
accomplishment when success at one or another activity:is achieved." (p . 241).
/10 .....
PAGE 10
With all the above definitions of achievement motivation in mind. the author
of this thesis has defined achievement motivation in her own terms. The
achievement motive is seen as a motive to maintain one's own level of capa
bility and to compete (with others or with oneself). once a personal goal has
been set. with a subjective. internal standard of excellence in mind. It
applies only when the individual is aware of an evaluation of performance
(which may be positive or negative) and the consequences thereof (success or
failure) •\
~·4. THEORIES OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
a) Introduction
Historically. the theory of achievement motivation began with the works of
Lewin. Tolman & Freud, whose theories revolved essentially around the drive
and the instinct. Following this. there developed theories centering around
the need. as proposed by Murray. (1938. in Weiner. 1972). The concept of the
need for achievement was elaborated upon by McClelland. (1955) and Atkinson.
(1964). Lastly. Hermans. Bergen & Eijssen (1982) elaborated further by adding
the dimension of anxiety to the concept of achievement motivation. This
section is a theoretical and historical overview of the above theories of
achievement motivation from 1938 and the works of Murray to 1982 and the
works of Hermans et ale
b) Main concepts
Murray is an eclectic motivation theorist in that his views are an
integration of the works of earlier theorists such as Freud,' Lewin and
Tolman. Works on achi evement motivation rather than motivation in general
began with the works of Murray. He is essentially a need theorist. for he
viewed needs as the core of goal-directed behaviour. :Thus. Murray's main
concept is that of the need.
The need to achieve was then elaborated upon by McClelland, (1955) for whom
motives are the most important concept. The essence of McClelland's theory is
that the achievement motive is learned through persistent repeti tive
affective associations between stimulus situation and behavioural patterns.
/11. ....
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McClelland and Atkinson, began working concurrently on the concept of the
need for achievement. Atkinson concentrated on the role of individual
differences for an understanding of motivational processes, maintaining that
the person, the environment and human experience are the determinants of
behaviour. These two theories became partially linked and known as the
McClelland-Atkinson model of achievement motivation (Weiner, 1972).
The last theorist to be discussed is Hermans, et. a1. (l982) whose theory
revolves around the dimension of anxiety as it relates to achievement
motivation.
2.4.1 Murray
2.4.1.1 Introduction
Murray's theory of achievement motivation began as a theory of
personality - as an attempt to explain individual differences.
Historically, Murray's theory stems from the works of a theorist
by the name of McDougall, (1908, in Weiner, 1972) who conceptua
lised the individual as a bundle of instincts, otherwise known as
goal-directed dispositions. Murray, (1938, in Weiner, 1972)
parted with McDougall's ideas that one's needs were instinctive.
He argued that a better understanding of the individual could be
attained through description of one in terms of the effects one
generally strove to bring about, rather than in terms of one ' s
generalised habits/traits, which revealed little of one's
personal aims and goals.
Since Murray's theory of achievement motivation is rooted in
personality theory, it is logical that his theory revolves
around human individual differences, since it is these very
specific aspects of the individual which can be grouped together
to form one's personal i ty. In other words, Murray saw human
behaviour and one's needs as part of one's total personality.
"According to Murray, the behaviour of an individual person
reveals rhythms of rest and activity. These cycles of behaviour
are interwoven in a dense network of total behaviour, whi ch
Murray refers to as the lexicon of behaviour. The goal of this
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behaviour is to take the organism from some prior state into some
consequent state. "That is, a motivating force carries the organism away
from a prior or inihating condi tion into a state like satiation in
which the force disappears." (Bolles, ,1975:, p , 81). These trends
(discussed above) which are apparent in one's general behaviour are due
to drives and needs which operate homeostatically .•
2.4.1.2 The concept of the need
Needs are the core of goal-directed behaviour and it is the
environment which determines whether they will be expressed.
Murray (1938, in Weiner, 1972) defines a need as: "an organic
potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under given
conditions" (p , 170). Given the definition of a heed, it is
important to be aware of the fact that needs are
homeostatic. Needs are considered homeostatic in the sense that
the achievement of a demotivated state is only possible when a
goal has been achieved and the need is dispelled, resulting in
the re-establishment of an equilibrium. Needs, in Murray's system
may be physiological in origin but usually they are aroused by
particular events in the environment that offer certain threats
or promises to the individual. These stimulus actions upon the
individual are what Murray calls "presses". In essence then , it
is the environmental "press acting in conjunction with a need
which determines whether a need will be expressed in order to
reach a goal." (p . 173) •.
a) The characteristics of human needs
As mentioned above, Murray maintains that needs may be related to
physiological disturbances, as in the case of hunger, thirst and
sex. These types of needs, Murray refers to as viscerogenic
needs. Needs which are not crucial for the long-term adaptation
of the organism, but are important in understanding human
behaviour, Murray refers to as psychogenic needs. These are the
individual's psychological needs, . of which Murray has 1 isted
about 30. Al though psychogenic needs are not biological, Murray
maintains that they may be innate.
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Psychogenic needs are usually exhibited in overt action when
they are aroused and it is this type of behaviour which forms
the basis of the individual's daily schedule. These are termed
mani fest!obj ecti fied needs. However, some needs are unexpressed
in overt action and these are termed latent needs!subjectified
needs. This distinction is s i gnd f'Lcant; for Murray, because it
is important for him to take note of those needs which are
repeatedly expressed and those which are frustrated (unexpres
sed). Frustration of a need may lead to inhibition of a need
or to a re-striving. This is most important in understanding
the expression/lack of expression of the achievement need.
Manifest and latent needs may also be conscious or unconscious.
By conscious, Murray means that the need is immediately retros
pective, otherwise known as introspective awareness. In other
words, whatever a subject can report upon, is considered
conscious and everything else is considered unconscious. Both
:conscious and unconscious needs may be either subjectified
(unexpressed) or objectified (expressed).
b) Types of human needs
Murray has listed about 30 psychogenic needs which are either
expressed (objectified) or remain latent (subjectified) in each
indivi dual. These range from needs associated with inanimate
objects (for example, the need for acquisition) to needs asso
ciated with affection between people (for example, the need
for affiliation). The most important group of needs for this
study. are these relating to ambi tion. The need for ambition
consists of a broad need known as the need for superiority,
which is composed of two interrelated needs known as the need
for achievement and the need for recognition. The need for
achievement has been defined as: (in McClelland, 1955), "The
need to overcome obstacles, to exercise power,to strive to
do something difficult as well and as quickly as possible" (p.
64) •
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The need for achievement is usually fused wi th complementary
needs, like needs involving the defence of norms, and/or the
avoidance of humiliation. These complementary needs include the
need for inviolacy - (the need for self respect and pride and to
preserve one's 'good name') and the need for counter-action - (to
overcome defeat by restricting and retal iating, and to defend
one's honour in action).
c) Motives
Murray maintains that a motive is comprised of a number of
needs. These needs become a characteristic of the individual and
therefore appear in varying situations. In oth~r words, (in
Bolles, 1967) "The assumption underlying the assessment of
motives is that if an individual is characterised by a few
salient needs, then these needs should keep reappearing in a
number of different contexts" (p . 83) . In essence, motives
(comprised of needs), once created, affect all behaviour until it
is satisfied and a new equilibrium established.
2.4.1.3 A brief evaluation of Murray's work
Murray's theory has loopholes in the sense that man is not
. always provided with practical ways of implementing his theory
and as a result, his theory does not provide a whole approach to
understanding human behaviour. For example, it is unknown how
different individuals come to react differently. to environ
mental presses, or why failure causes need abasement in one and
need for achievement in another. This point is made clearer by
the f'o l Low i ng quote (in Bolles ,1975 ) ::. "Even though Murray
tells us that such differences constitute the basic source of
difference between individual personalities, he provides no
analytical tools for explaining them" (p . 84).
For the author of thi s thesis, the most redeeming feature of
Murray's works is that he took account of the fact that a large
number of energy systems operate and interact in any individual.
It is evident that he did not see the need for achievement as
simply a unitary drive.
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2.4.2 McClelland - The affective arousal model
2.4.2.1 Introduction
There are certain stimuli which involve discrepancies between
expectation and perception (L, e. that which one expects to get
and that which one believes one is getting). These are the
sources of primary, unlearned affect. For McClelland, motives are
based on affective arousal and all motives are learned by pairing
cues with affective states.
2.4.2.2 The concept of the cue
Cues which are paired with these affective states become capable
of general ising a state derived from the original affective
si tuation. To give an example, this means that if a buzzer is
associated with eating a cube of sugar, the buzzer will in time
be capable of evoking a motive involving positive affective
change. In other words, the buzzer becomes capable of eliciting
pos i tive affect even though the sugar is not present. The cue
which is present will then serve as a motive, for example, the
buzzer will serve as a motive in the absence of the sugar cube. A
cue is said to have increased motivating power if it has been
associated with a change in affect.
2.4.2.3 Affect as a basis for motives
McClelland has used affect as a basis for:'. motives because it
provides the concept of motivation with some kind of limited
base. Stated otherwise (McClelland, 1955): "It seems apparent
that the motive concept will be useful only if it has some kind
of limited base. If all associations are motivating, there seems
no particular reason to introduce the concept of motivation to
apply to a particular subclass of association" (p. 30).
In other terms, the concept of matiyes would be meaningless
without discriminative associations.
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Furthermore. McClelland claims that affective states are
important in controlling behaviour. in the sense that the
pleasure-pain or pleasurable/unpleasurable affect is easy to
manipulate in the laboratory. Pain and pleasure are considered
the very core of those antecedent conditions necessary for
affective arousal. This concept will be dealt with in more detail
below.
2.4.2.4 Antecedent conditions for affective arousal
The task of identifying antecedent conditions which produce
affective arousal is important. for if one knows them. one is in
a position. according to the theory. of knowing how to create a
motive. McClelland hypothesized that a motive could be created by
arousal at a sensory level and subsequent persistent
discrepancies from it.
a) The pleasure-pain principle and the discrepancy hypothesis
In essence. McClelland sees affective arousal as a consequence of
a sensory stimulus and the perception thereof by the
individual. In McClelland's words. he puts it as follows: (in
McClelland. Atkinson. Clark and Lowell. 1976) "Affective
arousal is the innate consequence of certain sensory or
perceptual events" (p . 43). McClelland hypothesized that this was
probably the basic mechanism which gives rise to sensory
pleasantness (for example, sweetness) and unpleasantness (for
example. bitterness) at a more complex perceptual level.
Posi tive affect is experienced if, for the individual.
discrepancies from one's adaptation level - :(one's usual level of
sensory expectation) are small. Similarly, negative affect is
experienced if discrepancies from one's adaptation level (abbre
viated as AL) are large. In other words, the size of the
discrepancy between the stimulus (or perception) and the
adaptation level (or expectation) is what is considered
important if viewed on a simple pleasantness - unpleasantness
curve. This is known as the discrepancy hypothesis. One should
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also bear in mind that there are natural adaptation levels for
various sensory receptors. This is essential to the discrepancy
motive mentioned above because some stimuli give rise naturally
to pleasantness and others to unpleasantness. For example, sugar
appears to give rise to pleasurable sensations across the
entire range of stimulus intensity. According to the theory, it
is apparent that a discrepancy from the natural adaptation level
(AL), large enough to produce unpleasantness is impossible. If
the stimulus is bitter, the picture is quite different, in the
sense that nearly all intensities of stimulus concentration
give rise to negative affect. It makes sense that a discrepancy
between the stimulus (perception) and the adaptation level
(expectation) must exist for a length of time before a
pleasant/unpleasant (hedonic) response occurs.
c) The discrepancy-persistence hypothesis
In McClelland's words, the hypothesis can be stated as follows:
(in McClelland, v et al . , 1976): "A discrepancy between
adaptation level and a sensation or event must persist for a
finite length of time before it gives rise to an hedonic
response" (p , 46).
The rationale behind this hypothesis is that sensations such as
taste, smell and pain give rise to affective responses mor-e
quickly than do sensations such as sight or hearing. A possible
explanation would be that there occurs :-a "receptor lag",
otherwise known as an "At lag". Thi s means that the first group
of sensations may change rather slowly, so that the discrepancy
caused by a new stimulus must last a bit longer in order for the
individual to experience pleasantness/unpleasantness (collec
tively called a hedonic response). McClelland maintains that
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an increase in stimulus intensity becomes the basis for a motive
only if it represents a large enough discrepancy from the
adaptation level (AL) to produce positive or negative affect.
2.4.2.5 Discrepancies from adaptation level
For McClelland, it is vi tally important that one bears in. mindI
that it is not the intensity of the stimulus per se whi oh is
important" but the disCrebncy from the adaptation level (AL).
He also maintains that changes in AL, with attendant hedonic
responses (pleasantness/unpleasantness) may be artificially
induced (e vg , chemically/neurologically). Further~ore,I
McClelland is of the opinion that events can also differ; from
expectations on a variety of dimensions.
2.4.2.6 The acquisition of motives
By McClelland's definition, a motive is formed by pairing cues
(stimuli) with affective arousal and as discussed, affect is
the result of certain discrepancies between expectations and
perceptions. For example, if a monkey had to see a de-tached
plaster head (cue), this would produce negative affect, which,
in turn, would cause fear (affective arousal). Fear, in turn,
elicits an avoidance motive. In other words, cues (stimuli)
result in affective arousal, which, in turn, are the bas i s for
motives and more specifically, for this thesis, attention will
be paid to the achievement motive.
2.4.2.7 The achievement motive
a) The development of the achievement motive
i
One of McClelland I s cardinal hypotheses is that the achievement
motive develops out of growing expectations. The expectations
are buil t out of universal experi ences wi th probl em solving;
such as walking, talking and reading. The child gradually ~earns
that these tasks can be done quickly and efficiently or cl~msily
and slowly. In other words, the· child develops his/her own
framework of self evaluation. The child learns what to expect
/1 C! ......J •••••
from him/herself once
been established.
this')
f~ework
PAGE 19
of self evaluation: has,
Similarly, when a child receives a toy car for the first time,I
his expectations are virtually non existent and he can derive
little or no positive/negative affect from manipulating it until
such expectations are developed. If, while playing with a toy
for the first time, his expectations are confirmed, he. will
derive pleasure from the toy. If, however, there are too' many
non confirmations of his expectancies, (if the toy is too
complex), he will not derive pleasure from the toy. If one takes
this example to its logical conclusion, the reason why an adult
does not play with toys is because his expectations become
certainties, confirmation becomes 100% and the ad~lt gets bbred.
In other words, discrepancies from certainty are no longer
sufficient to yield pleasure. In this respect, McClelland is
known as an optimal level theorist, in the sense that poad t.i ve
affect is aroused when stimulation is moderately discrepant
from the AL or from what the person expects. On the other hand,
negative affect results from a large discrepancy in these
factors.
McClelland maintains that as far as the achievement motive is
concerned, there are limits placed on the individual by his
intelligence. For example, the possibilities of a toy will never
be exhausted as far as a moron is concerned, because the
possibil i ties are never certain enough for him/her to be bored
over trying them out. Thus, one would expect some kind of
correlation between the mastery level involved in nAch (need
for achievement) for a given individual and one's intelligence.
There are also limits placed on the development of nAch by the
negative affect which results from too large discrepancies
between expectations and events. For example, if a child's
expectations of a toy are not confirmed at' all, (either the
toy is too simplistic or too complex), the result is negative
affect, and cues associated with these activi t i es evoke
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avoidance motives. To develop the achievement approach motive,
parents should provide opportunities for their children, which
are just beyond the child's present knowledge. In summary, for
the development of the achievement motive, it is necessary that
the individual must have a certain level of intelligence and the
discrepancies between expectations and events must provide for an
achievement motivated approach. It is also necessary that the
individual develops some framework of sel f' evaluation. For the
development of stronger achievement motives, children need some
structuring of performance standards,()~9me demands by their
parents and surrounding culture. In McClelland's words, this
process can be stated as follows: "The child must begin to
perceive performance in terms of standards of excellence so
that discrepancies of various sorts from this perceptual frame of
reference (adaptation 1 evel ) can produce posi tive or negative
affect. II (p. 79). (McClelland, 1955, p , 79)
2.4.2.8 Measurement of nAch by the TAT
For some people, a situation in which one's performance can be
evaluated causes negative affect and as a result, withdrawal and
subsequent avoidance responses occur. The person will, as a
resul t, not be motivated to enter such a situation. For other
people, such a situation causes positive affect. For them, an
evaluation of performance leads to an approach response and as a
resul t, this individual will be motivated to enter into such a
si tuation again. McClelland felt that the TAT would be able to
detect such individual differences.
McClelland chose the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed
by Henry Murray, to assess individual dif:ferences in the motive
to enter an achievement situation. Murray called this motive the
"need to achieve", and it has become abbr-ev iated as nAch.
Murray had constructed the TAT to measure "psychogenic" needs
/21 .....
PAGE·21
Vof the personality. Subjects were asked to write stories about
pictures shown to them. Each picture was so ambiguous that it did
not suggest one dominant theme. Instead, the theme of the story
was generated by the subject's personality. In other words, the
TAT is a projective test in the sense that the subject
pr9jected his/her own needs into the story. Murray believed that
the subject's needs could be accurately assessed by careful
examination of the story told in response to an ambiguous TAT
picture.
There has been considerable disenchantment with the validity of
the nAch score. Klinger (1966) concluded that nAch scores do not
consti tute an adequate measure of motivation. Similarly,
Entwistle (1972) maintains that the internal consistency
(homogeneity reliability) of the TAT is an abysmal 0,35 and
test/retest reliability is low.
2.4.3 Atkinson
2.4.3.1 Introduction: Main concepts
Achievement related behaviour is conceptualised as resultant of a
conflict situation, in which the two. conflicting behaviours .ar-e
the motivation for success (Ms) and the motive to avoid failure
(Maf). These two motives have been discussed separately in
theory, but in real ity , all peopl e have both motives to some
extent. The difference between the motive to achieve success (ll:s)
and the motive to avoid failure is called "resultant
achievement motivation". This conflict is resolved when the
individual takes a decision to act in a certain way (for
example, to approach an achievement related task)/or some
resolution is achieved. The above then, is in essence, the core
of Atkinson's theory, which will be discussed in detail.
Following this, elaborations to his theory will be discussed.
These include concepts such as perceived instrumentality (PI),
Inertial Tendency (Tg) and the motive to avoid success (M-s).
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Another of Atkinson's main premises is that the individual is
constantly active. The important issue for Atkinson is not the
cause of an initiation of activity or the cessation of activity,
but the cause of a change in activity. In his own words, he has
stated it as follows: "The psychology of motivation should be
primarily concerned with the problem of change in on-going
activi ty ." (Atkinson, 1964, p , 301).
\ 2.4.3.2 Motive to achieve success (Ms)
a) Introduction
Atkinson claims that the motivation to enter a particular
achievement situation is what is termed the tendency to achieve
success, abbreviated as Ts. This motivation is determined by
three factors, namely, the strength of a person's motive to
achieve success, known as Ms. Secondly, it is also comprised of
~he probability the person believes that he/she will success on a
particular task, which is called "probability of success", (Ps),
and thirdly, the incentive value of success (Is) on that
particular task (that which is derived from entering an
achievement related situation).
These three factors combine multiplicatively to determine the
strength of motivation to enter an achievement situation/the
tendency to achieve success (Ts). That is, the tendency to
achieve success (Ts) is equal to the motive to achieve success
(Ms), multiplied by the probability of success (Ps); multiplied
by the incentive value of success (Ts): Ts ~ Ms x Ps x Is. These
factors have been reviewed in more detail below.
:.
b) The tendency to achieve success (Ts)
In order to calculate Ts, (the motivation to enter a particular
achievement situation), one must first know something about that
individual's personali ty - namely, the strength of thi s indivi
dual's motive to achieve success (Ms). Because this motive
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is a personality characteristic, it is ~ranssituational, meaning
that the individual carries it with him/her from one situation to
another. It is viewed by Atkinson as a movi tation to enter a
specific achievement situation, as opposed to Ms, which is a
motive that, as a personality characteristic, is relevant to all
achievement situations that an individual may enter. Ts motiva
tion, therefore, has three components, one of which is Ms (the
motivation to achieve success).
c) The probability of success (Ps)
Unlike Ms (the motive to achieve success), Ps (the probability of
success) is very different and changes in every situation. Ps is
the individual's subjective probability of success in a given
situation. In other words, it is the individual's own perception
of his/her chances of success in a particular situation. It is
assessed anew each time the individual faces an achievement
situation and hereafter there occurs continual reassessmen~ once
the individual has entered an achievement situation.
d) The incentive value of success (Is)
The incentive value of success is that concession derived by an
individual from an achievement related situation. If a task is
very easy, the incentive value of success will be low, but if a
task is very difficult, the incentive value is said to be high.
The reason for an achievement task having low incentive value
(easy task) is due to a high probabil ity of success (Ps ) , It
follows therefore; that Is and Ps are i nver-se Iy proportional,
because the easier a task, the greater the chances of. success and
the lower the incentive value.
With the above theory in mind, Atkinson postulated that people
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who have the motive to achieve success will tend to prefer tasks
of intermediate difficulty, where there is a 50% probability of
success (that is Ps = 0,5). In other words, high nAch
individuals experience highest incentive value of success (Is),
at a Ps of 0,5. Atkinson maintains that it is at this point that
an individual would be most efficient. If the individual is most
motivated at this stage, persistence level is also at its
maximum. This is what has become known as Atkinson's risk
preference theory, or level of aspiration theory.
When people with high Ms perceive an achievement situation, they
perceive the possibil i ty of attaining a success. They have a
motivation to approach such a situation, because it holds out the
possibili ty of successful accomplishment. On th'€! other hand,
there are individuals who view an achievement situation quite
differently - for them, it holds out the possibility of failure,
shame and humiliation. As a result, entering an achievement
:situation elicits anxiety and fear of failure in some people.
They are said to be high in the motive to avoid failure. (Mar),
and since an achievement situation can be failed, they tend to
avoid them.
2.4.3.3 The motive to avoid failure
a) Introduction
Just as Ms (the motive to achieve success) produces Ts (the
tendency to approach success), so does Maf (motive to avoid
failure) produce Taf (tendency to avoid failure). Taf inhibits Ts
because it inhibits an individual's entrance into an
achievement situation. Taf also acts to inhibit performance once
a person has entered an achievement situation (Atkinson, 1964).
b) The tendency to avoid failure (Taf)
The tendency to avoid failure (Taf) has three determinants.
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2.4.3.4
PAGE 25
The first is the individual's Maf (motive to avoid failure),
while the second is the person's estimate of the probability of
failing (Pf) and the third component is the incentive value of
failure (If) (what failure means to the individual). The tendency
to avoid failure is equal to the motive to avoid failure,
multiplied by the probability of failure, multiplied by the
incentive value of failure. That is: Taf = Maf x Pf x If.
In general, the motive to avoid failure (Mar) produces some
tendency to avoid any achievement situation, regardless of the
probabili ty of failure (Pf). However, Atkinson claims that a
sttuat i on ' in which there is a 50% probabil i ty of failure (Pf =
0,5) is the most anxiety provoking for a Maf person.
Furthermore, the higher a person's Maf is, the more that
person's dislike for situations in which Pf = 0,5. This will
surpass his/her dislike for situations in which Pf is some other
number. Usually these individuals select tasks with a very high
pr-obab i Li ty of failure (because failing at an extremely
difficult task is not humiliating) or a very easy task (where the
probabili ty of failure is low). Consequently, high Maf people
can escape some of their anxiety by choosing very difficult or
very easy tasks.
Resultant achievement motivation (Tr)
Since a person has both an Ms and Maf, every achievement
situation will elicit some Ts and some Taf. How the individual
approaches any given achievement situation depends on which
tendency is greater, Ts or Taf. In addition, the strength of this
moti ve toward or away from an achievement situation depends on
the amount by which the greater t.endency. exceeds the smaller
tendency. This is the very essence of the concept of resul tant
motivation. In other words, the resultant achievement motivation
(Tr) or the net tendency to approach an achievement situation is
equal to the magnitude of the tendency to approach the situation
minus the magnitude of the tendency to avoid it: Tr = Ts - Taf.
In equation form, resultant motivation is represented as follows
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Tr = (Ms x Ps x Is) + (Maf x If x -Pf) (Atkinson, (1964).
The more that Ms exceeds Maf, the more a person prefers
intermediate-difficul ty tasks, where the probability of success
is 50% (Ps = 0,5) (Atkinson, 1964).
Regardless of task difficulty, people in whom Maf exceeds Ms
have negative intrins ic (internal) motivation toward an
achievement situation. Therefore, they will not enter a
si tuation unless there is enough positive extrinsic (external)
motivation (such as money or status), to overcome their negative
intrinsic motivation. The equation Tr = Ts + Taf predicts only
intrinsic motivation - the tendency to approach an achievement
si tuation, independent of any "extra added incentives". Thus,
the total resultant motivation is represented in equation form
as follows: Tr (resultant motivation) = Ts (tendency to achieve
success) + Taf (tendency to avoid failure) + Text (motivation
due to external factors), or Tr = Ts + Taf + Text.
2.4.3.5 Critique and conclusion
One very severe limitation to Atkinson's theory is that it is
a stimulus bound theory of motivation - it encourages us to
think of the immediate stimulus situation as the cause of
arousal of a tendency to act in a certain way. This "cause and
effect" manner of looking at motivation is very simplistic
because it dismisses the cybernetic feedback cycles which are
characteristic of virtually all behaviour (Weiner, 1972).
The impl ication is that without any stimulus to set things in
motion, one would have no motivating tendencies. This approach
is analogous to the stimulus-response (S-R) approach of early
behaviourists. The author of this thesis maintains that
cognitive factors are important mediating variables and
therefore warrant discussion. The cognitive approach will be
presented in the next section.
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Atkinson realised that to view the immediate environmental
stimulus as the cause of a response was inadequate. It therefore
becomes necessary to view the particular S-R event as an
incident within a goal-directed trend of behaviour, the episode
having a beginning (a state of motivation), a middle (goal
striving activity) and an end (attainment of goal, and cessation
of striving). The anticipated goal is also seen as one of the
determinants of the response. This approach is also partially
inadequate because it assumes that what the subject is doing
immediately before the episode is responsible for the initiation
of the entire episode. It also assumes that what the subject does
immediately after the episode has no influence on behaviour of- .
the individual during the episode.
Atkinson maintains that the difficulty lies in a failure to
appreciate what it means to acknowledge that a living organism is
constantly active - that is, an individual's behaviour is always
seen as an expression of the then dominant tendency - even when
the individual is asleep or resting. Resting (inhibi tion of
a response) and sleeping are seen as "motivated" activity.
Atkinson maintains that we should look at the motivation of
an individual as a continuously rolling ball.
Another criticism against Atkinson's theory is that he assumes
that Maf ;> Ms individuals are very anxious, due to the
possibility of failure and consequent humiliation. He has
neglected the fact that Ms > Maf individuals may well enter an
achievement situation and whilst still in it, experience anxiety
due to the possiblity of failure and consequent humiliation.
The author of this thesis maintains that"- this is especially
relevant to the university student, whose symptom is expressed
examination anxiety.
Conclusion
Atkinson maintains that an adequate psychology of motivation
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will one day provide for an integration of the two disciplines
of scientific psychology: the one concerned with individual
differences in personality, and the other, concerned with basic
processes.
2.4.3.6 Elaborations of Atkinson's theory
The theory of achievement motivation has been elaborated upon
during the last decade and most of these elaborations consist
in altering the original equation so that it will remain
applicable under varying
elaborations have been
conditions. Three
included, namely,
essential
perceivedi
instrumentality (Raynor, 1970), inertial tendency (Weiner,
success (Horner, 1972 ) .limited research on these
included because new! and!
1965) and the motive to avoid
Al though as yet there is still
elaborations, they have been
e controversial ideas are critical to the dynamic growth of anyi
field in psychology.
a) Perceived instrumentality refers to the perceived usefu~ness,
of a task in achieving a goaL For example, a course in organic
chemistry is vi tal if one' 5 goal is to become a chemist; but
irrelevant if one I s goal is to become a personnel manager.
Achievement motivation theory predicts that Ms, Maf and Ps ~ould,
be identical and therefore, motivation should be Lderrt Lc a I in
both situations. Raynor (1970) recognised this weakness in
Atkinson's theory and proposed an elaboration of it to take
(incentive
,into account the importance of an achievement activity in lone's
Ichemi st , aslong-range goals. Therefore, for the potential
he/she ponders the Ps (probability of success) and Is
value of success) for the first time, the Ps and Is of all
subsequent biochemistry courses are important. Each new: stepI
is thus contingent on successful compl etion of the prior !step.
This is termed a multistep contingent pathway of which the
opposi te is called a one-step path. All biochemistry courses
are said to be instrumental in achieving the final goal.
/29 .....
PAGE 29
For the Ms :> Maf individual, Tr (resultant achievement
motivation) will always be greater in a multistep contingent path
than in a one-step path. The prediction for the Maf person
is exactly the opposite in the sense that when such an individual
perceives a task as being instrumental in attaining access to
several other achievement tasks, his motivation decreases.
Consequently, a contingent path is more threatening to the Maf'>
Ms individual than a non-contingent path.
Even though a contingent path is more threatening to a Maf::::::'
Ms individual, a contingent path may have some external extrinsic
reward associated with its successful completion. This extrinsic
reward may be so great as to overcome one I s negat.ive intrinsic
motivation, thereby falsifying the prediction that Maf > Ms
individuals prefer a non-contingent path.
'Raynor (1970) believes that this elaboration of achievement
theory is important because it allows for the analysis of real
life situations not treated adequately by the original
McClelland/Atkinson model. Perhaps the results 'found by Atkinson
and McClelland were confounded by the fact that in the
laboratory, perceived instrumentality is zero, for the subject
perceives the task not to be instrumental in any way to one's
'future plans. It is when the subject undertakes tasks cr'uc i.a I to
his future goals that the theory of perceived instrumentality
makes accurate predictions.
b) Inertial tendency (Tg). The persistence of an unfulfilled wish
is a phenomenon which can be traced back to the works of Freud in
the late 19th century. More recently, a car~ful, analysis of it
was done by Lewin (1951) and his students, who termed it the
Zeigarnik effect. Greater recall of ,unfinished tasks is the core
of the Zeigarnik effect. More recently, Weiner (1965) has
extended this theory to the field of achievement motivation.
/30 .....
PAGE 30
Weiner proposed that success completes the tendency to attain
an achievement related goal, whereas failure allows the
tendency to continue uncompleted. Consequently, if someone fails
. at a task, the resultant tendency will persist following that
failure and will add to the motivation for that task when it
is attempted again. As a result, every time a task is failed,
two adjustments must be made to the resultant-tendency formula:
firstly, Ps (probability of success) is lowered as the
individual realises that the task is more difficult than
initially anticipated. Secondly, in terms of what has been
discussed above, all the motivation of the previous unsuccessful
attempts are added to the resultant tendency f?r the present
trial •. The motivation remaining from an unsuccessful trial and
its resultant added motivation on the following trial is what
is called inertial tendency, abbreviated as Tg. Weiner maintains
that when Tg is taken into account, the formula for resultant
tendency is as follows:
Tr = (Ms x Ps x Is) + (Maf x If x -Pf) + Tg
In other words, resultant motivation is the motivation to
achieve success added to the motivation to avoid failure plus
inertial tendency .
. Bearing the Weiner's inertial-tendency elaboration in mind,
he predicted that Maf > Ms individuals do more poorly: as the
number of failures increase because the individual faces the
negative inertial tendency of the prior unsuccessful attempt
plus the negative tendency (Mar) of the present trial.
Consequently, as the number of failures increase, so the
negative motivation increases. Similarly, :Ms :> Maf individuals
should show an increase in motivation following failure because
of the added motivation of previous unsuccessful attempts
(inertial tendency) plus their motivation to succeed (Ms).
c) The motive to avoid success (M-s). Most studies derived from
the theory of achievement motivation have been carried out on
/31 ....•
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male samples only and those studies which have utilised female
subjects, have yielded results which are different and
inconsistent to those for males (Sarason & Smith,1971). It
appears that the concepts of Ms and Maf are insufficient to
explain achievement related behaviour in women.
This deficiency in achievement motivation theory prompted Horner
(1968, in Horner, 1972) to postulate a theory of motivation to
avoid success, (abbreviated as M-s). Horner views the motive to
avoid success as a latent, stable personality characteristic that
is established early in one's development, specifically during
development of the female's sex role identity. : Horner (1968),
has defined the motive to avoid success as "a predisposition to
become anxious in achievement-orientated situations that are
inherently competitive and therefore are not "feminine" (p. 216).
Horner's rationale is that women, more than men, are soCialised
to value social relationships and affiliation, and a
competitive situation creates a conflict that threatens her sex
role identity. As a result, the resultant-tendency equation for
women woul d be al tered as follows to accommodate the motive to
avoid success:
Tr = ()Ms x Ps x Is» + «Maf x If x -Pf») - M-s.
This concept proposes that females have a conflict between
motivation to succeed and sex role identity, to the extent that
one's sex role identity may inhibit achievement related
pursuits. As a result, the resultant-tendency equation would be
altered as follows to accommodate the motive to avoid success:
Tr = «(Ms x Ps x Is») + ((Maf + Pf + If) - M-s.
In other words, resultant achievement motiVation is equal to the
motive to achieve success plus the motive to avoid failure minus
the motive to avoid success.
2.4.4 An attributional interpretation of expectancy-value theory
A cognitive approach to achievement motivation theory
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TABLE A
A general overview o~ the attributional interpretation
o~ expectancy-value theory.
ANTECEDENTS
OF CAUSAL
ASCRIPTION
CAUSAL ASCRIPTION CONSEQUENCES
(What influences
perception
of the reasons
~or success and
f'af Lure )
specific cues
belief systems
individual
predispositions
(The perceived reasons (The consequences'
for success and failure) of perceived success/
ability failure)
- effort - performance
- task difficulty behaviour
- luck
Weiner (1974) maintains that all individuals perceive the causes of
success' and failure in different ways. This is a subjective judgement
process and technically is known as causal ascription of success and
failure. The perceived reasons for success and failure include ability,
effort, task difficulty and luck, as well as less common'ascriptions
like mood, fatigue and illness (antecedents). Those factors which
influence one's perception of the reasons for success and failure
include specific cues such as past history, sot'ial norms and task
diffi culty. In addi tion to specific cues, cogni tive structures, such as
belief systems (causal schemata) and individual disposition also playa
role. Weiner believes that these cognitive processes and structures have
been neglected by expectancy-value theorists ..
How one perceives the causes of success and failure will determine what
goal one sets out to achieve (for example, I have the necessary ability
to achieve an honours degree in Sociology), and what emotional reactions
will occur if this goal is reached (pride) or whether it is not
(humiliation). Consequently, causal ascriptions influence goal anticipa~
tions and affective (emotional) consequences of success and failure.
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PAGE 33
Thus, causal ascriptions f'orm a- very basic for performance behaviour.
These are known as the consequences of causal ascription.
2.4.4.1 The perceived causes of success and failure (causal ascription)
Weiner (1974) postulates that individuals utilise four elements
in the process of causal ascription to interpret and predict an
achievement-related event. The four elements are ability, effort,
task difficulty and luck. This means that, in attempting to
explain a prior success or failure of an achievement related
task, one assesses one's own ability level, the amount of effort
that is required, the difficulty of the task and the magnitude
and direction of one I s experienced luck. These are the four
causal sources of any achievement-related task. Similarly,
future expectations of success and failure will depend on
previous experience with achievement outcomes.
Weiner, Heckhausan, Meyer and Cook (1972) have placed the causes
of success and failure within a two-dimensional taxonomy.
Ability and effort are properties internal to the person, while
task difficulty and luck are external factors. This is known as
the internal-external dimension. In addition, ability and task
difficulty are relatively stable factors, (known as invariable
factors), whereas luck and effort are ever-changing factors
(variable). The diagram below indicates this 2 x 2 ; classifica
tion scheme.
TABLE B
Weiner et al (1972) two-dimensional
taxonomy of causal ascription.
Internal
Stable ability
Unstable effort
External
task difficulty
luck
As shown in this table, ability is an internal, stable cause;
effort is an internal unstable cause; task difficulty is
external and stable and luck is external and unstable.
/34 .• ~ ..
PAGE 34
2.4.~.2 Antecedents of causal ascription
Weiner maintains that those factors that influence one t s
perception of the reasons for success and failure in~lude
specific cues, belief systems and individual predispositions~
Specific cues
I
The main antecedent cues for causal judgements are said to be
specific information including one's past outcome history,
social norms, task difficulty and luck.
iIf the individual has a past history of succ~ss, then : this
individual will tend to enter an achievement related task in
a positive manner, whereas if past history is one of failure,
one will be inclined to expect failure at an achievement related
task. Repeated success or failure indicates whether' the
individual "can" or "cannot".
Outcome information, together with social norms is often used
to infer one's ability level. For example, if one succeeds at
a task where all others fail, then one is likely to be perceived
as very able. Task difficulty is often inferred from the
prevailing social norm as well as from specific task
characteristics (for example, steepness of a mount.afn )", Weiner
(1974) has found that the greater the percentage of others
succeeding at a task, the more likely that a given success will
be ascribed to the ease of the task. Similarly, the greater
the percentage of others failing at a task, the more likely
that a given failure will be attributed. to the difficulty of
the task. Finally, luck is perceived as an apparent lack of
personal control over the outcome of a task. For example , the
number rolled on a die will be ascribed to chance, but the
repeated appearance of the same number suggests personal control
over the outcome a~d would produce ascriptions to ability.
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PAGE 35
In addition to specific cues, Weiner (1974) maintains that
causal schemata (known as belief systems) also influences the
judgement process. Kelley (1972) has defined a causal schemata as
one's belief system about the relationship between an observed
event (for example, graduation) and the perceived causes of that
event (for example, hard work and ability).
Bearing the above in mind, it is natural that there are
individual differences in causal preferences. Some individuals
readily explain success to luck, while others are inclined to
attribute it to ability or hard work. The determinants of causal
ascription can, therefore, be attributed to ~any factors.
Usually, individuals combine and synthesize all the above
information and thereby reach r eI iable causal judgements (Frieze
and Weiner, (1971».
2.4.4.3 The consequences of causal ascription
The perceived reasons for success and failure (causal
ascription) does influence the individual's future goal
expectancy as well as how that individual feels as a result of
having succeeded or failed. Thus, causal ascription will
influence how the individual performs in an achievement related
task because one will have set a goal which is in keep i.ng with
what one expects to achieve as well as one's feelings about one's
chances of success/failure considering prior experiences.
a) Causal ascriptions and goal expectancy
Thus, one can say that the perceived reasons for success and
fail ure do have an effect on future goal attainment. That is,
causal ascription has direct bearing on one's goal expectancy.
For example, following success, expectancy generally rises while
after failure, it usually drops. Thus, after success or failure,
there occurs what is called an expectancy shift.
/36 ..•..
PAGE 36
b) Causal ascriptions and affective reactions
The perceived reasons for success and failure also influence how
the individual will feel once success or failure occurs. This is
Weiner's concept of causal ascription and affective reactions.
Weiner (1974) maintains that pride and shame are maximised when
achievement outcomes are ascribed internally and minimised when
success and failure are attributed to external causes. Thus,
success attributed to high ability or hard work is expected to
produce more pride than success that is due to luck or an easy
task. Similarly, failure perceived as due to low ability or ~ack!
of effort is expected to result in greater shame than failure
that is attributed to a difficult task or bad luck. In sum,
Weiner puts it as follows (in Weiner, 1974): "locus of
causali ty influences the affective consequences of
; achievement behaviours" ( 61)p. .
2.4.4.4 A brief evaluation of Weiner's cognitive approach
It is Weiner's basic argument that the high and low need
achievement individuals differ significantly in that the high
nAch person is more likely to attribute success to his own
efforts. This would, in turn, be more likely to lead to
achievement behaviour in the future and so the cycle would
repeat itself. The author of this thesis maintains that Weiner's
approach takes into account the cybernetic feedback system and
that this is one of the few theories which has ·this redeeming
feature. On the other hand, one must also be aware that this
approach is incapable of explaining achievement behaviour on its
own. Furthermore, one should also never view theories of.moti vation as a static body of 1 i t.er-a tur-e , but as a constantly
changing, dynamic framework which is by no means a complete or
perfect system.
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\
PAGE 37
2.4.5 Hermans
2.4.5.1 Introduction
Hermans, Bergen & Eijssen (1982) have not proposed a theory of
achievement motivation, but their ideas on anxiety (angst) have
been presented here because they represent a refinement and
extension of McClelland's Ts and Taf persons.
Hermans et. al. (1982) maintain that failure anxiety is a normal
characteristic of human existence. They also maintain that the
tendency to avoid failure (Taf) can be divided into positive
failure anxiety (positiewe faalangs) and negative failure
anxiety (negatiewe faalangs). Positive failure anxiety enables
the individual to function optimally in a stressful situation,
whereas negative failure anxiety inhibits the individual's
;optimalfunctioning in a stressful situation. Furthermore, the
individual's feelings of being unsure in a stressful situation
and the subsequent decrease in achievement is another aspect of
negative failure anxiety, whereas the existence of a
stressful situation and the accompanying increase in achievement
is known as positive failure anxiety. Positive failure anxiety,
according to Hermans et. al., is synonomous with responsibility
(verantwoordelikheid) and such individuals are said to over
achieve and are known as motivated, whereas negative' failure
anxiety individuals are known as under-achievers.
2.4.5~2 Characteristics of negative failure-anxious individuals
Whether in fact negative failure-anxiety becomes expressed,
depends on the personality structure of the individual. Such a
person, according to Hermans et. al., has a need for preciseness
in the sense that one's work must be divided into small steps.
This seems to be in keeping with Atkinson's concept of the non
contingent pathway, in the sense that the individual copes
inadequately with behaviour which has no observable structure in
sight. In addition, a failure anxious person is said to be
/38 .....
PAGE 38
dependent on others for continual feedback on how one is coping
with the task. Another characteristic of failure-anxious
individuals is that they have a need for warm personal relations
especially a warm and informal work climate. They are said to
function at their worst in a cold and formal work climate. In
addi tion, such an individual usually has a large discrepancy
between self concept (the way in which one sees oneself) and
ideal concept (the way in which one would like to see oneself).
Lastly, these individuals have a need for positive expectations
about their work from others. This ties in with what has been
said above, in the sense that any feelings of doubt result in
decreased performance. The individual which Hermans calls a
negative failure-anxious individual, is similar to the Taf
person described by McClelland, but, we should bear in mind that
the individual described above is no less intelligent than the Ts
or the positive failure-anxious individual.
2.4.5.3 Characteristics of positive failure-anxious individuals
As opposed to the negative failure-anxious individual, these
people are independent, ·do not need constant feedback regarding
progress and work best in a cold and formal work climate.
Usually, there is little discrepancy be tween self-concept and
ideal self-concept, and thus, positive failure anxious indivi
duals are said to be continually striving for progress.
Furthermore, these individuals are said to have a future directed
time perspective and are task orientated.
2.4.5.4 Conclusion and critique
Hermans e t , al . have provided more insight into McClelland's Ts
and Taf individual in the sense that per-sonal Lty variables as
they interact with such a disposition are the key factors to the
expression of success or failure. On the other hand, the author
of this thesis maintains that Hermans et. al. have differentiated
their concepts of negative and positive failure-
/39 .....
PAGE 39
anxiety too rigidly and simplistically. Take for example the
positive failure-anxious individual, who takes responsibility
for his/her tasks and who is achievement orientated but who
does need constant feedback on progress or who works best in
a warm work climate. At this point, it would be useful to
mention Alpert and Haber's (1960) concepts of facilitating and
debilitating anxiety (in van Rooyen, 1983). The point to be
made here is that the positive failure-anxious .individual may
have subtle elements of debilitating anxiety and similarly,
the negative failure-anxious individual may have accompanying
elements of facilitating anxiety.
/L10• • • • •
CHAPTER 3 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH FINDINGS
PAGE 40
3.1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER OUTLINE
The research presented in Chapter 3 is essentially that which is availabl~ on
the theory discussed in Chapter 2. Firstly, the research which is available
on the achievement motivation theorists has been discussed and following
\ this, research on academic achievement within a university context has been
dealt with. With the theory and research in mind, central ideas have geen
extracted and these have been presented as hypotheses in the follo~ing
chapter.
3.2 RESEARCH ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN A UNIVERSITY SETTING
As mentioned before, there are many factors which influence academic
achievement and for the purpose of this study, the research on the
following variables has been
atti tudes, personality factors,
tion.
2.1 Intelligence
included: intelligence, study habits 'and
adjustment, anxiety and achievement mot1va-
The research on the effect of intelligence on academic achievement
centres around whether IQ is capable of differentiating between high and
low achieving students and secondly, whether IQ is a good predictor of
academic achievement.
Some researchers have found a significant positive correlation between
IQ and academic achievement, while others have found contradictory
results to these. Savage (1962) found that h i gh achieving medical
students could not be differentiated from low achieving students on the
basis of intelligence test scores. Similar results have been found by
Roe (1953) and MacKinnon (1962). Similarly, it was concluded in a study
by Pentony & Loftus (1970) that students with high intell igence test
scores are not necessarily those who achieved the highest academically.
Identical results have been found by Anderson (1960) and Hudson {1964).
From the results above, it appears that 1Q and academic achievement are
not necessarily positively correlated and as a result, 1Q is not always
a good predictor of academic achievement.
/41 .....
PAGE 41
On the other hand, research completed by Sinha (1966) yielded results
contradictory to the above. This researcher found that high intelligence
scores were significantly positively related to academic achievement and
that IQ is capable of differentiating between high and low achievers.
Similar results have been documented by Eno (1978). This researcher
found that crystalised intelligence was significantly positively
correlated with acadamic achievement. From the research above, it seems
that IQ is positively correlated with academic achievement and as a
result, IQ is a good predictor of academic achievement.
Botha (1971) has come to the conclusion that IQ is capable of
explaining only a small percentage of variance in university academic
achievement. From the research above, it appears that IQ alone is
incapable of differentiating between high and low achievers. As a
resul t, whether IQ is capable of predicting academic achievement is
still debatable.
More specifically, research on the effect of IQ on achievement
motivation indicates that nAch was signi ficantly positively cor-r-el at.ed
with verbal and non-verbal measures of intelligence (Hundal and Jerath,
1972). Thus, it appears that it is the more intelligent student who is
more motivated.
3.2.2 Study habits and attitudes
The literature in Chapter 2 demonstrates that most research centres
around the correlation between academic achievement and study habits and
attitudes. However, there is still some diversion of opinion.
There are various researchers who have conclud~d that there is a
posi tive correlation between academic achievement and study habi ts and
attitudes. These include Wankowski & Cox 1973, Bednar & Weinberg 1970,
Bruwer, 1973, Blumberg, 1969; and Enge 1brecht, 1974. Hol tzman & Brown
(1953) have also found a posi tive correlation between study habits and
attitudes and academic achievement. On the other hand
. /42 .•...
\
PAGE 42
other researchers have a different perspective. They have found that
there is not necessarily a positive correlation between good grades and
study habits and attitudes. Goldfried and D'Zurilla (1973) maintain that
they did not find a positive correlation between academic achievement
(good grades) and study habits and attitudes. They maintain that good
grades are not always a direct consequence of effective study habits.
Similar results have been found by Glock, Ahmann & Smith (1958).
In general, it appears that the majority of research points to a
positive correlation between academic achievement and study habits and
attitudes. However, one must bear in mind that there are differing and
diverse perspectives, because academic achievement is a function of many
factors.
More specifically, research also indicates that effective study habits
are significantly positively correlated with achievement motivation. It
seems logical that the more motivated a student is, the more
attention he/she will pay to effective study habits. Empirical evidence
documenting this has been completed by Zarb (1981) and Wal~erg &Uguroglu (1979).
From the research above,' it appears that empirical evidence points to a
posi tive correlation between academic achievement· and study habits and
attitudes as well as achievement motivation and study habits and
attitudes.
3.2.3 Personality factors
Research on the influence of personality factors: on academic
achievement have concentrated largely on the distinction between
introversion - extroversion and neuroticism and" other miscellaneous
personality factors will be discussed.
/43 .....
PAGE 43
It is clear that extroverts tend to do less well academically at the
university level (Furneaux, 1962; Entwistle, 1972; Banks & Finlayson,
1973; Gotz & Gotz, 1973 Shadbolt, 1978; Entwistle, 1972; Seddan, 1975;
Mann & Rizzo, 1972; Orpen, 1976; Goh & Moore, 1978). Entwistle, (1972)
found that extroverts, particularly stable extroverts, were superior to
introverts up until the age of 14 but that introverts tend to achieve
higher academically than extroverts beyond this age.
An interesting perspective has been added by Entwistle & Brennan (1971)
who have used cluster analysis to compare similarities between people.
These researchers identified twelve personality clusters which were
associated with high and low achievement. Interestingly,
personali ty variables like optimism and dependence usually associated
with academic under-achievement, if combined with factors associated
with academic achievement, like openmindedness and introversion, could
resul t in academic achievement. Similarly, Middleton & Guthrie (1'959)
showed that college success may be achieved in a variety of ways by a
variety'of personality types.
Other personality factors associated with academic achievement are a
tendency to be serious, hardworking and consistent (Romine & Crowell,
1981. Jones (1955) and Lavin (1965) have concluded that flexibility is
associated with academic achievement. Vaughn (1968) found that academic
achievers tend to be persistent, have a deep emotional commitment to
education and are flexible, whereas Wankowski and Cox (1973) maintain
that the academic achiever is independent. In addition, O'Shea (1970)
claims that the academic achiever is hardworking, has a phlegmatic
temperament, is independent, self controlled, sensitive, compliant and
has ego strength.
The research on neuroticism is contradictory. Wi Lson (1973, in Weiner,
1974) found that students who performed well at university were likely
to score high on neuroticism and motivation and s1 ight1y lower on
extroversion than students who were under-achieving. Results contradic-, l
tory to these were found by Wankowski and Cox (1973) and Ry1e (1968).
/44 .....
PAGE 44
These. researchers found that neurotic students tend to achieve less
academically than non-neurotic students. Saenger-Ceha (1970) has offered
an explanation for these contradictory findings on neuroticism. This
researcher claims that certain types of neurotic traits drive the
individual to supreme efforts, while other types inhibit his/her
performance. The explanation is compatible with the theory presented by
Hermans et. al. (1982), who claim that positive failure-anxiety may
drive the student to over-achieve, whereas negative failure-anxiety may
result in under-achievement.
3.2.4 Anxiety
The theory on the effect of anxiety on academic achievement is in a
state of flux, due to the fact that anxiety has been differentiated into
different components by Hermans et. al. (1982), and Barling & Beattie
(1982). Research on the effect of anxiety on academic achievement in
essence shows that anxiety and academic achievement are negatively
related~ In other words, the more anxious the individual, the less well
he/she achieves academically (Grooms & Endler, 1960; Stevenson &. Iscoe
1956; Harlston 1962; Sinick 1956; Endler 1964; Buchin 1966; Sarason &
Mandler 1952; Bernstein 1958; Heald 1970; Russell & Sarason 1965;
Runkel 1959; Engelbrecht 1974 and Marais 1981). In a similar line of
research (Farber & Spence, (1955, in Beard 1980) found that a high
anxiety level facilitates the learning of a simple task, but that it has
the opposite effect when the task is complex.
3.2.5 Adjustment
In this section, the research on adjustment has been .r-evi ewed and
included under the heading of adjustment is that of the self concept.
The research indicates that adjustment is positively correlated with
academic achievement (Jensen 1958; Berger & Sutker 1956; Hoyt & Norman
1954; Yeomons & Lundin 1957 and Burgess 1956).
/45 .....
\
PAGE 45
In a similar vein, there appears to be a positive correlation between
positive self concept and academic achievement (FarIs, 1967; Purkey
1970; Tuel & Wursten 1965; Bad Ley 1971 and Engelbrecht 1973). The above
research seems to lend support to the theory that a posi tive self
concept and more specifically, a positive academic self concept is
positively correlated with academic achievement.
3.2.6 Achievement motivation
The theory on the effect of achievement motivation on academic
achievement reveals that there is a positive correlation between these
variables. In other words, students who are most motivated, tend to
achieve more academically than unmotivated students. A posi ti ve
correlation between achievement motivation and academic achievement has
been found in the following studies: (Wankowski & Cox 1973; Walberg &
Uguroglu 1979; Entwistle, Entwistle & Cowell 1971; Heckhausen 1967;
McClelland, Atkinson, Clark & Lowell 1976; Cattell, Sealy & Sweeney
1966; Danesino & Layman 1969; Green & Farquhar 1965; Bendig 1958 and
Morgan 1952). Another perspective has been added by Botha (1971), who
has shown that highly motivated subjects may have a greater fear of
failure than unmotivated students and that this may detract from
achievement. This may explain a possible negative relationship between
achievement motivation and academic achievement. Hence, it makes good
sense that Malan (1978) and Schoeman (1976) conclude that the
relationship between achievement motivation and academic achievement is
a complex one and warn against over-simpl ification of its. study. In a
similar line of thought, van Dyk (1978) also maintains that achievement
motivation is a difficult variable to measure due to its complexity.
/46 .....
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
3.3.1 McClelland
CURRENT RESEARCH
PAGE 46
The research on McClelland's work centres around his theories that the
achievement motive is learned and secondly, that achievement motives
have an effect on society.
A number of studies have investigated McClelland I s theory that' the
achievement motive is learned. McClelland and Friedman (1952) found a
significant positive correlation between independence training and nAch
(need for achievement) in children. Similar results were obtained by
McClelland, Rindlisbacher and de Charms (1955). They add that the sex
and educational level of the parents were significantly related to
the age of expected independence training - the highly educated,
especially mothers, expected independence at an early age. In a sim~lar;
line of research, additional perspective is added by Winterbottom (l~68,
in Beard, 1980) who concluded that the mothers of the high and low nAch
boys did not differ in the number of demands for independence, but that
the mothers of high nAch boys made these demands earlier tha,n the
mothers of low nAch boys.
McClelland maintained that if the concept of achievement motivation is
to be useful, it must be clearly measurable.
The first task in devising a method of measuring motivation was to vary
the intensity of a human motive and to measure its effects on
imagination or fantasy. Just as Hull (1943) had experimentally
manipulated drive states in animals, McClelland began by experimentally
manipulating the strength of food motivation in humans. He obtained TAT
stories from gr-oups of navy men who differed in the number of hours
during which they had gone without food. This experiment showed that,
different degrees of hunger were reflected in different amounts of food
imagery in the TAT stories. In other words, fantasy TAT stories could be
used to measure the strength of motivation (Atkinson & McClelland,
1948) .
/47 .....
PAGE 47
McClelland then used the same strategy to study achievement motivation.
The intensity of achievement motivation was varied by giving different
instructions to groups of individuals just before they wrote their TAT
stories. One group was told that people who did well on the fantasy test
were creative, intelligent leaders. The specific kinds of thought which
were present in the achievement group TAT's became the operational
definition of achievement motivation (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark &
Lowell, 1976).
Subsequent research with this measure of achievement motivation
indicated that individuals with high nAch showed certain consistent
patterns of behaviour:
1. High nAch individuals preferred situations in which they had
personel responsibility for the outcomes of events rather than
situations, like gambling, where events were determined by
chance (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark & Lowell, 1953).
2. They chose goals for themselves that were realistic but
challenging as opposed to goals that were either too easy or too
risky (McClelland 1955; Atkinson & Litwin, 1960).
3. They sought situations where they could obtain immediate
concrete feedbacks to determine how well they were doing (Moss &
Kagan, 1961).
These findings, corroborated by other research in such diverse areas as
child-rearing and management, began to indicate that high
achievement motivation was a key factor in the successful strivings for
excellence which characterise the entrepreneur. Achievement
motivation also appeared to influence task-oriented behaviour. This has
been researched by Lowell (1952, in Arkes & Garske, 1977), who assigned
subjects to two experimental groups depending upori" whether they scored
high or low in achieve .•ierrt motivation as reflected in six imaginary
stori es tol d by the subj ects. The groups were then given the task of
/48 .....
\
PAGE 48
unscrambl ing and rearranging letters into meaningful words. The group
that scored high in achievement motivation performed at a significantly
higher level on this task than the group that scored low in achievement
motivation.
One of the most intriguing applications of TAT measures has been the
scoring of U.S. Presidents' nAch in their inaugural addresses (Donley &
Winter (1970, in Arkes & Garske, 1977). According to these researchers,
presidents who were high in both power and achievement motives tended to
be strong and active. Such presidents included John Kennedy, Lyndon
Johnson and Franklin Roosevelt. Presidents who were high in achievement
motivation but low in power, tried to bring about great accomplishments
but lack the political skills to accomplish their goals; -an example is
Herbert Hoover. Presidents who were higher in achievement motivation
than in power preferred taking moderate risks. It appeared that a
constant shift in cabinet personnel eroded their performance. Low
achievement orientated presidents, such as Eisenhower, did not attempt
any major accomplishment. Based on this scoring, Winter (1976),
predicted that Reagan's manner of governing would be most simil ar to
that displayed by Franklin Roosevelt, in the sense that his pattern of
motivation more closely resembl es Roosevel t ' s than it. does that of any
other president.
3.3.2 Atkinso.n
Various concepts of Atkinson's theory have been investigated. The
concepts that will be discussed include Atkinson's theory of risk
preferences, the incentive value of success, task performance
ef~iciency, persistence levels, and the educational implications of his
theory. Furthermore, elaborations of Atkinson's' theory have been
discussed. These include Raynor's concept of contingent pathways,
Weiner's concept of inertial tendency and Horner's concepts of motive to
avoid success.
/49 .....
PAGE 49
a) Risk preferences
Atkinson's achievement theory has received its strongest support in the
area of risk preferences. According to the literature, Atkinson
postulated that people who have the motive to achieve success will tend
to prefer intermediate-difficulty tasks. This has been
demonstrated by research completed by McClelland (1955) who showed that
high nAch boys preferred tasks of intermediate difficulty. Similar
results were obtained by Atkinson & Litwin (1960) in a study involving
male college students. Similarly, research completed by Mahone (1960)
and Morris (1966), found that the greater Ms is, the greater will be
one's preference for intermediate-difficulty tasks. Their studies
demonstrated that young adults who are high in nAch (that is, high in
Ms), also aspire towards vocations of intermediate difficulty).
Similar results have been found by Veroff & Peele (1969). In a
ring-to~s game, they found that subjects with high nAch, stand at an
intermediate distance from the ring, whereas subjects with a low nAch,
stand :.either very close to/very far away from the ring. Other studies
designed to test this same principle, have used academic setting. For
example, Isaacson (1964) has shown that Ms > Maf men choose college
majors of intermediate difficulty more often than Maf :> Ms men do.
Similarly, de Charms & Carpenter (1968) showed that Ms ~ Maf children
chose arithmetic probl ems of intermediate di.f'f i cu.I ty and Maf > Ms
children chose problems of extreme difficulty or extreme ease.
b) The incentive value of success
Atkinson t s theory predicts that the incentive val ue of success shoul d
increase steadily as a function of how unl Lke Ly- success is. Litwin
(1958, in Atkinson & Feather, 1966) found evidence that this is the
case. Male subjects were asked to assign a monetary value to success in
a ring-toss game. The money assigned to success at each distance was
linearly related to the probability of success, with the most money
being paid for success at the greatest distance.
/50 .•. . •
PAGE 50
c) Task performance ~fficiency
Atkinson's theory of task performance efficiency has been
investigated. There is some evidence that very high levels of
motivation produce a decrement in task performance-efficiency (Horner,
1972 ). Similarly, {Litwin, Dembo, Festinger & Seas (1944, in Arkes &
Garske, 1977) found results similar to those above: the higher the
difficulty level of an achievement related task, the greater the
incentive value of success.
d) Persistence level
Perhaps the most important study done to test the theory of persistence
as it relates to achievement motivation, was done by Feather (1961) who
measured the number of trials for which subjects would persist on an
impossible task. Feather found that Ms :> Maf subjects persisted longer
when the Ps was initially 0,7. As the subject begins to fail, the Ps
estimate approaches 0,5. This is the level at which the subject shows
maximal motivation and consequently, the subject persists. When the
initial Ps = O,5m, failure causes the Ps estimate to move farther from
the region of maximal motivation. The result is minimal
per-s i.s.tence . The results for the Maf > . Ms men were entirely the
opposite. As the subject fails a task, on which the Ps = 0,7, thereby
lowering the Ps estimate, the Ps will move into the region he most
dislikes - the intermediate difficulty region. As a result, the subject
shows little persistence on such a task. When the initial Ps is 0,5,
failure causes the Ps to become even more extreme. Since such subjects
do not find extreme values aversive, they persist with the task.
Success and fai lure experiences have been shown to affect how hard
subjects try the next time they attempt a similar task. Halisch &
Heckhausen, (1977, in Beard, 1980) have shown that in Ms ~ Maf
chi ldren, failure resulted in increased ef'for-t.j- whereas following
failure, Maf > Ms children decreased' their effort on a similar task.
These results have been explained by Weiner (1972), who claims that the
above effects are a result of the types of attributions people maKe for
their successes and failures. Avc i dance mot i vat.ed subjects blame their
failures on lack of ability, so failure makes them give up, whereas
approach-motivated subjects bl ame failure on lack of effort. Kukla,
I t: ~
.'..J_ ........
PAGE 51
(1977, in Beard, 1980) so these people double their efforts after a
failure. The reasoning is that approach motivated (Ms > Maf) subjects
tend to attribute success to ability, whereas avoidance motivated
subjects attribute success to lucki Berglas & Jones (1978, in Beard,
1980), have found that avoidance motivated (Maf ::> Ms) males who had
experienced success, due to 'luck' rather than effort, often choose to
'self handicap'. As a result, hindered performance may be explained in
terms of this factor. For example, such subj ects may choose to take
drugs that they know will hinder performance, rather than attributing
lack of performance to lack of ability.
e) Educational implications of Atkinson's theory
To some extent, the educational implications of Atkinson ':s theory have
been researched. Atkinson & O'Connor (1963, in Atkinson & Feather.1966)
found that if Ms::> Maf children are in a classroom situation in which
their Ps is very high, that is, far above 0,5, they will not be
maximally motivated. If they are placed in a class in which all the
children have about the same ability, their Ps being about 0,5, they
will :.be maximally motivated. This therefore, is evidence for
mainstreaming. On the other hand, Maf .> Ms children are maximally
inhibited in a class of their own ability level. This is rational if we
recall that Maf:> Ms subjects dislike tasks in which the Ps is about
0,5. In· other words, Ms .> Maf children are maximally motivated if
mainstreamed and Maf ~ Ms children are maximally inhibited if
mainstreamedand thereby placed in a classroom with others with
similar ability.
f) Extensions of Atkinson's theory
i) Contingent pathways
To some extent, the extensions made to Atkinson! s theory have been
researched, including the concepts of contingent pathways, inertial
tendency and motive to avoid success. This research confirms that these
152 •..•.
PAGE 52
extensions to his theory are indeed necessary and most important
they are val Ld , The extensions of Atkinson's theory have also been
researched. Raynor (1970) researched the concec'; of contingent
pathways. The abovementioned researcher found that Ms~ Maf psychology
students performed better when they perceived the psychology cause
to be instrumental to future plans (that is, the task was a multistep
contingent pathway). On the other hand, Maf ~ Ms students performed
worse under these circumstances. Similarly, results confirming the
above have been found by Entin & Raynor (1973).
ii) Inertial tendencies
Results which are complementary to those above have been found by Lucas
(1952). His results illustrate the different e:ffects that failure has
on the anxiety levels of different individuals. He found that people
high in anxiety (Mar:::::> Ms) do more poorly after failure and that
people low in anxiety (!vIS"> }~af) do better after failure. In this
exper-i.merrt , Ps (probability of success) was very high, so as failures
occurred, Ps moved into the 0,5 area, causing Ms :> Maf people to enjoy
the t.ask more and Maf::::> Ms peopl e to dislike it. It is possible to
criticise this research by saying that this would be a natural reaction
if Ps is very high, but research by Weiner & Schneider (1971) :found
that the above is true even if the task is very easy or very difficult.
Hence, the literature on inertial tendencies is confirmed by research.
iii) Motive to avoid success (M-s)
Horner (1972) proposed that males and females experience achievement
differently. As a resul t, the concept of motive to avoid .success was
formulated. Horner (1972) concluded that fear of. success does exist
and that it can be used to predict performance, but'research following
Horner's (1972) research is often contradictory. In her earlier work,
.Hor-ner , (1968, in Arkes & Garske, 1977), devised a projective measure
in which subjects wrote stories to a verbal cue that was clearly on
experience of success by a female: 'after first-term finals, Anne finds
herself at the top of her medical school class Among female
subjects, 66% wrote stories cont.e rrn ng M-s imagery, whereas only 9%
of males, given the same cue with a male character did so. Horner
concluded from her r-es ear-ch that M-s was predominantly a pervasive
fer,;cle attribute arid ger.er-e r i y, it was uncharacteristic of men.
lI:.~! ....-- •• ., ••
\
PAGE 53
In subsequent research, Horner (1972) divided women into high and low
M-s imagery groups. She then placed subjects in a non-competitive
situation in which they worked alone and in a competitive situation in
which they worked together with others. Her results supported her
hypotheses: high M-s women performed better when working alone and low
M-s women performed better when competing. In high M-s women, Horner
maintained, the competitive situation aroused an inhibitory anxiety due
to fears that success would be incompatible with femini ty and would
cause social rejection especially from males.
Although Horner's theory appears to be supported by research, there are
researchers who have found results contradictory to those of Horner.
For example, Hoffman (1974), found that M-s imagery in males (77%)
surpassed that in females (65%), suggesting that M-s is not a uniquely
feminine characteristic. Furthermore, research completed by Feather &
Raphelson (1974) and Monahan, Kuhn & Shaver (1974) found that both sexes
projected greater M-s imagery to the Anne cue, suggesting that the
proj ective measure taps the perception of a sex-role stereotype
rathe~.than a stable personality motive.
3.3.-3 Hermans
Very little research has been completed on the works of Hermans, et. all
probably due to the fact that his theories are so recent. Research has
been completed on the scales that he has devised to measure
achievement motivation in children and adults. Waters & Waters (1976)
have found that the Hermans scale was significantly posi ttvely related
to grade point averages, in other words, the Hermans scale is
positively correlated with academic achievement. In South Africa, the
Hermans scale for children (PMT-K) has been succes~fully utilised by van
Rooyen (1983) and Viljoen (1983). Recent research has been
successfully completed in South Africa by Barling and Beattie (1982) who
differentiated between paralysing and motivating stress. They maintain
that there is a positive correlation between motivating stress and
academic achievement and a negative correlation between paralysing
stress and academic achievement.
/54 .....
PAGE 54
3.4 PROPOSITIONS
Various lines of thought or central ides may be extracted from the theory
and its accompanying research. Firstly, the central ideas relating to
intelligence study habits and attitudes and achievement motivation will
be discussed. Thereafter, the central ideas on personal i ty factors,
adjustment, anxiety and residence will be discussed.
It appears that IQ and academic achievement as well as· achievement
motivation are positively related. It also appears that study habits and
atti tudes are positively correlated with academic achievement as well as
achievement motivation. Furthermore, the above research also indicates that
achievement motivation and academic achievement are positively' correlated.
The research previously discussed, reveals and suggests that various
personali ty factors are positively related to academic achievement,
including such factors as introversion, ego strength, dominance and
seriousness. Other personality factors which are positively related to
academic achievement include persistence, conscientiousness, tough
mindedness and aggression. It appears that the successful student would
be practical, down to earth, sensitive, ambitious and disciplined.
Successful students tend to be analytical, critical, free thinking, and
independent. Research also reveals that academic achievement is positively
related to adjustment and more specifically, it is related to self
confidence, self esteem, self control and sociabil i ty. Research and theory
previously discussed suggests that academic achievement is either inversely
or negatively related to anxiety.
With the theory and research in mind, it is clear that certain general
ideas have been extracted which form the very basi s of hypotheses. In the
following chapter these hypotheses will be operationalised and tested
experimentally.
/55 .....
CHAPTER 4 : RESEARCH DESIGNPAGE 55
4.1 HYPOTHESES
\
From Chapter I, it is evident that it is important to be able to predict
academic achievement essentially to decrease the loss of state expenditure
and potential manpower. Furthermore, the whole concept of achievement
motivation in South African universities has, to date, remained unresearched.
Such a test has been constructed by Vilj oen (1983) but its vali di ty and
re 1 iabil i ty have remained unknown. Al though no hypotheses have been
formulated to assess reliability, Hypotheses 1 - 9 have been formulated to
assess the validity of the Achievement Motivation Questionnaire (Prestasie
motiveringsvraelys) and hypotheses 11 and 12 are addi tional hypotheses on
anxiety and study habits specifically.
Hypothesis 1:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation
and academic achievement (average score of final November 1985 examinations).
Hypothesis 2:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation:.
and intelligence (total intelligence score).
Hypothesis 3:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation
and study orientation (study habi ts and attitudes). (Factor 1 of SSHA). It
seems logical that the most motivated students are those who have a positive
approach to study and who have also developed effective methods of study.
Hypothesis 4:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation
and intrapersonal adjustment. (Factor 1 of PHSF). The student who is
motivated to achieve should have a sense of self confidence, self esteem,
self control and emotional stability.
Hypothesis 5:
There is a s Lgm.f'Lcant; negative correlation between achievement motivation
and personal reservedness (introversion) (factor A of 16PF). Research in
Chapter 3 (Goh & Moore, 1978) found that there is a negative correlation
between the above two variables at the university level.
/56 ..•..
PAGE 56
Hypothesis 6:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation and
assertiveness. (Factor 0 of the 16PF). It seems natural that the student most
motivated to achieve will be bold in outlook and willing to take initiative.
Hypothesis 7:
There is a significant correlation between achievement motivation and
conscientiousness. (Factor G of the 16PF). In order to achieve, it is a necessity
'that the student be willing to apply him/herself.
Hypothesis 8:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation and
independence. (Factor 02 of the 16PF). The rationale is that the student most
motivated to achieve is one who takes initiative and who is self reliant. (One
should bear in mind that a low score on this subscale indicates high independence.)
Hypothesis 9:
There is a significant negative correlation between achievement motivation and
anxiety. (Factor 04 of the 16PF). The rationale is that the student most motivated
to achieve will;.do so if feeling calm and at ease.
Hypothesis 10:
There is a significant positive correlation between academic achievement and
intelligence. It is logical that it is the intellectually stronger student who
is most motivated to achieve.
Hypothesis 11:
There ,is a significant difference between the means of over-achievers versus under
achievers on anxiety.
Hypothesis 12:
There is a significant difference between the means of over-achievers versus
under-achievers on study orientation (study habits and attitudes). It seems logical
that the over-achiever would be more positive about his/her sVJdies and would have
acquired more effective study methods than the under-achiever.
4.2 SUBJECTS
In total, there w~re 2 311 first-year students registered the Rand
Afrikaans uni versi ty in 198~,. To ensure a homogenous s arr.p l e, 1 729 Whi te,
Afrikaans speaking, undergraduate students were utilised in this study.
/57 ..•..
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PAGE 57
Of these students, 978 were male (56,6% of the total sample), and 751
(43,4% of the total sample) were commuters and 637 (36,84%) were
residing in the hostel. Below is a summarisation of the data:
TABLE C
Frequency Distribution for Sex
Sex
Male
Female
TOTAL
Frequency
978
751
1729
Percent
56,6
43,4
100,0
TABLE D
Frequency Distribution for Faculty
Facul ty Frequency Percent
Arts 554 32,0
Science 180 10,4
Commerce 603 34,9
Law 99 5,7
Education 203 11,7
Engineering 90 5,2
TOTAL 1729 100,0
/58 .....
PAGE 58
4.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
The following tests were used for this research
\
NSAGT-SSHA
16PF
PHSF
New South African Group Test
Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes
16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
Personal, Home, Social and Formal Relations
Questionnaire
IPAT IPAT Anxiety Questionnaire
PMV Prestasiemotiveringsvraelys (Achievement Motivation
Questionnaire)
4.3.1 The achievement motivation questionnaire (PMV) (See Appendix
A)
The PMV was establ i shed wi th the goal of measuring .achievement
motivation in high school pupils. The questionnaire was
constructed by Viljoen (1983), who found that the reliability
and validity coefficients of the questionnaire, when
administered to high school students, were low. This test is
comprised of 80 questions. The reliability coefficients for
standards 6, 7 and 8 respectively were 0,720, 0,762 and 0,769.
(p , 129). The validity coefficients ranged from 0,16 to 0,40
which was not cons i der-e d ev i deric e of significant correlation
(p , 138). Viljoen (1983) rr.a i rrt a i ns that the PMV should not be
regarded as simply Lnv a l r d , "Die lae, maar hoogs beduidende
kor-r-e Las i ekoef f i s.i er.te wa t in die hoofondersoek v er-kr'y is, dui
op die rnoontlike geldigheid van die prestasiemotiveringsvraelys"
(p . 138).
PAGE 59
4.3.2 The New South African Group Test (NSAGT)
The main objective of a group intelligence scale is to obtain an
impression of a pupil's general intellectual ability. The NSAGT
consists of six sub tests, of which three measure verbal ability and
three, non-verbal ability.
The NSAGT has proved to be a reliable measuring instrument. Research
done by Robbertse (1968, in van der Westhuizen (1983), : obtained the
following reliability coefficients on the total score: 0,86, 0,87 and
0,83. The manual for the NSAGT (p. 19) reports a reliability
coefficient, calculated by KR 21 of 0,84.
4.3.3 Survey of study habits and attitudes (SSHA)
The aim of this questionnaire is to identify students who have
ineffective study habits and attitudes towards their work, thereby
assisting them in realising their latent potentialities. The
reliability coefficients vary from 0,805 to 0,873 (Manual for the
Survey of Study Habits and Atti tudes, (1974), p , 8). As far as the
validi ty of the SSHA is concerned, the manual reports a high and
statistically significant correlation between the SSHA and school
achievement.
4.3.4 The Personal, Home and Formal Relations questionnaire (The PHSF)
The purpose of the PHSF relations questionnaire is to measure, by
relevant components, the personal, home, social and" formal relations of
high school pupils, students and adults, in order to determine level of
adjustment. The reliability of the questionnaire is good. The manual for
the PHSF questionnaire (1971) reports reliability coefficients ranging
from 0,71 to 0,94 (p . 213). The manual (p , 219) also maintains that
research done with the preliminary form of the PHSF, showed that it
possesses a high degree of construct validity.
/60 .....
PAGE 60
4.3.5 The IPAT Anxiety scale
The scale was constructed with the aim of. making an evaluation of
manifest, free, anxiety levels, irrespective of prevalent conditions or
\ immediate situation. The scale is sui table for persons 15 years and
older. The manual for the IPAT Anxiety questionnaire reports
reliability coefficients ranging from 0,83 to 0,88 (test - retest
reliability). Reliability is therefore satisfactory (p. 7).
4.3.6 The 16 Personality Factor questionnaire (16 PF)
Toe 16 PF is a personality questionnaire measuring 16 personal i ty
characteristics. It is designed for the use of adults and consists of
187 items. Cattell, Eber and Tatsuaka (1970) reported'reliability
coefficients ranging from 0,58 to 0,83. Although reliability
coefficients are low (Smit (1983», they are still higher than the
reliab~lity coefficients of tests in everyday use. Smit, 1983, maintains
that validation data consisting of 30 career profiles are available.
Furthermore, Maas, (1975) maintains that the 16 PF complies with
empirical validity: "Cattell en sy medewerkers wys verder daarop dat die
16 PF voldoen aan empiriese geldigheid." (p. 46).
4.4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
4.4.1 Goal of the study
The goal of this study is to assess the reliability and validity of the
PMV. In order to achieve this goal, the following experimental procedure
discussed below was utilised.
4.4.1.1. Experimental procedure
At the Rand Afrikaans University, it is compulsory that all
first-year students complete a battery of diagnostic tests before
the commencement of the academic year. All the tests discussed
below were group administered and have been marked using the
standard procedure.
/61. ....
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PAGE 61
Computation of total academic achievement score
In order to compute academic achievement scores, Naude (1986)
utilised weighted means as a measure of academic achievement,
which is the principle applied here. The total course weight
always equalled 1.00. For example, in the B.Sc. (Natural Science)
area of study, it is stipulated that in one's first year of
study, four subj ects are r'equir-ed, Thus, each subj ect has a
weight of .25. If, for example, a student fails a subject, he/she
earns only .75 (75%) of the potential total of the course total
of 1.00 (100%). Thus, in this case, he/she is penalised by .25
(25%) of a total of 1.00 (100%) for failing one subject.
Similarly, if a student takes more than four subjects in a
B.Sc., he is credited by 0.25 for every subject passed. The
principle is identical for a student who is 'in the other
faculties, where five subjects are required in one's first year.
In these cases, the weight of every course is now .20 (20%) with
a total of 1.00 (100%). Students are thus penalised and credited
by .20 for every subject failed or passed.
/62 .....
CHAPTER 5. STATISTICAL RESULTS
PAGE 62
5.1 Reliability (item analysis)
Presented in Appendix B are the item-test correlations before iteration,
in which case there are a total of 125 items. At this stage, the PMV has
a Kuder Richardson 20 reliability coefficient of 0.387. After 10 iterations,
the Kuder Richardson 20 reliability coefficient had improved to 0.847,
yielding 20 reliable items. This data can be found in Appendix C. Data which
are marked with an asterisk in Appendix C are excluded from the test.
5.2 Validi ty
\ 5.2.1 Bravais Pearson correlation coefficients
One of the ways in which validity was assessed was by computing
Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient between the PMV and
all the other variables. Data is available for 1054 of the 1729
students. In all the correlations, the minimum level of significance
is 0.05. Presentation and discussion of these results can be found
below :-
TABLE E
PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN ACHIEVEMENTMOTIVATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT, INTELLIGENCE, STUDY ORIENTATION
AND PERSONALITY FACTORS
ACHIEVEMENT
Achievement motivation
MOT I V A T ION
correlated with
Academic achievement
Intelligence
Study orientation
lntrapersonal adjustmen~
Reservedness
Assertiveness
Conscientiousness
Independence
Anxiety
*) Significant at 5% level
**) Significant at 1% level
***) Significant at 0.01% level
r
.0132
.0725
.2239
.3594
.0631
.3278
.0652
-.1099
-.4309
p n Significance
.334 1054
.009 1054 **
.000 1054 ***
.000 1054 ***
.020 1054 *"
.000 1054 ***
.017 1054 *
.000 1054 ***
.000 1054 ***
/63 .....
TABLE F
PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENT BETWEENACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND INTELLIGENCE
PAGE 63
Academic achievementcorrelated with
Intelligence
r
.2090
p
.000
n
999
Significance
***
\I
***) Significant at 0.1% level
/64 .....
PAGE 64
Hypothesis 1:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation and
academic achievement.
From Table E it is evident that there is a positive but insignificant
correlation between these two variables. For this reason. hypothesis 1 has been
rejected.
!Jypothesis 2:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement: motivation and
intelligence.
From Table E it is evident that there is a positive and significant correlation
between these variables. Thus, this hypothesis has been confirmed.
Hypothesis 3:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation and
study orientation.
From Table E it is evident that there is a positive and significant correlation
between achievement motivation and study orientation (study habits and attitudes).
For this. reason, hypothesis 3 has been confirmed.
Hypothesis 4:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation and
intrapersonal adjustment.
As is evident in Table E, there is a positive and significant correlation between
achievement motivation and intrapersonal adjustment. Thus, hypothesis 4 has been
confirmed.
Hypothesis 5:
There is a significant negative correlation between achievement motivation and
personal reservedness.
From Table E it is evident that there is a positive and significant correlation
between achievement motivation and personal reservedness •..Thus, hypothesis 5 has
been rejected.
/65 .....
PAGE 65
Hypothesis 6:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation and
assertiveness.
It is evident from Table E that there is a positive and significant correlation
between achievement motivation and assertiveness. Thus, hypothesis 6 has been
confirmed.
Hypothesis 7:
\ There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation and
conscientiousness.
From Table E it is evident that there is a positive and significant correlation
between achievement motivation and conscientiousness. Thus, hypothesis 7 has been
confirmed.
Hypothesis 8:
There is a significant positive correlation between achievement motivation and
independence.
From Table E it is clear that there is a significant positive correlation between
achievement motivation and independence. For this reason, hypothesis 8 has been
confirmed.
Hypothesis 9:
There is a significant negative correlation between achievement motivation and
anxiety.
From Table E it is evident that there is a significant negative correlation between
achievement motivation and anxiety. Thus, hypothesis 9 has been confirmed.:
that
and
Hypothesis 10:
There is a significant positive
intell igence •
From Table F it is evident
between academic achievement
confirmed.
correlation between academic achievement and
there is a s Lgnd.f'Lcarrt positive correlation
intelligence. Thus, hypothesis 10 has been
/66 .•..•
\.
5.2.2
PAGE 66
Simple Regression Analysis
Having established that there is a positive and significant
correlation between total academic achievement scores (dependent
variable) and total IQ scores (independent variable), it was possible
to compute a simple regression analysis, with the goal of identifying
over- and under-achievers.
For the purposes of this study, the author of this thesis assumed
that IQ and academic achievement were linearly related due to the
fact that other researchers indicated a positive correlation between
these two variables (Sinha, 1966). The prediction equation is based
on the mathematical equation y == ax + b, where b is a constant and
is the cut on the y axis, whereas a is the slope of the graph. In
this regression, the equation line was computed as; y == 0,3097 (x )
+ 18,0609. In other words, if the x value (intelligence) is 100, the
predicted academic achievement score (y) would equal 0,3097 (100 +
18,0609 49,03. Thus, a student with an IQ of 100 would have a
5.2.3
pre?icted academic achievement score of 49,03%.
De~inition of under- and over-achievers
With the above regression line in mind, the standard error of estimate
was computed, which was 16,539150. Students who fell one standard
error of estimate above the regression line were defined as over
achievers, of which there were 120, while students who fell one
standard error of estimate below the regression line were defined
as under-achievers, of which there were 287.
t tests
TABLE G
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES IN MEANS OFOVER-ACHIEVERS VERSUS UNDER-ACHIEVERS ON ANXIETY
AND STUDY ORIENTATION :
Variable Over-achievers Under-achievers
X S n X S n t
Anxiety 4.375 2.058 120 4.177 2.014 278 .896
Study
Orientation 6.4583 1.802 120 5.0452 2.014 278 6.833*
*) Significant difference ct <:,0; level.__!e
PAGE 67
Hypothesis 11:
There is a significant difference between the means of over-achievers versus
.under-achievers on anxiety.
From Table G above, it is clear that the means between these two groups are,not significantly different for over- and under-achievers. As a result,
hypothesis 11 has not been confirmed.
Hypothesis 12:
There is a significant difference between the means of over-achievers versus
under-achievers on study orientation.
From Table G, it is evident that the means of under-achievers versus over
achievers are significantly different. For this reason, hypothesis 12 has
been confirmed.
/68 .
CHAPTER 6 .DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
PAGE 68
6.1 INTRODUCTION
From the preceding overview of the literature it is clear that academic
achievement and more specifically, achievement motivation, are index complex and
extremely important factors for any student involved in tertiary education. The
goal of this study is essentially a validity and reliability study of an
achievement motivation questionnaire, which included an item analysis and
Bravais Pearson correlations. Also included was a simple regression analysis
which was used to predict academic achievement on the basis of a given IQ score
and, on the basis of this, two groups were selected, namely, over achievers and
under achievers, whose means on anxiety and study orientation were compared.
Below is a discussion of the statistical results of the above goal and
thereafter, limitations of the study will be discussed.
6.2 ITEM ANALYSIS
After 10 iterations, there are only 20 out of 125 items left, which suggest that
the initial reliability of the test is low. However, this may not be the case,
for although the reliability coefficient before iteration is low, it may simply
be a reflection that the achievement motivation questionnaire (PMV) is
mul tifactorial. It is highly unl ikely that the PMV, as. a measure of such a
complex variable as achievement motivation, can be scored with one single score.
6.3 BRAVAIS PEARSON CORRELATIONS
6.3.1 Achievement motivation and academic achievement
The Bravais Pearson correlation between academic achievement and
achievement motivation indicates that there is a positive but
statistically insignificant correlation between these two variables.
In other words, it is the more motivated student who achieves
academically, but in this study, the corielation is insignificant.
This positive correlation is confirmed by Wankowski and Cox (1973)
who have also found a positive correlation between academic
achievement and achievement motivation. Perhaps the reason for this
statistically insignificant correlation can be explained by the work
of Botha (l971) , who has shown that highly motivated students may
have a greater fear of failure, and that this may detract from their
academic achievement scores.
/69,.. ,.
PAGE 69
6.3.2 Achievement motivation and intelligence
The Pearson correlation between achievement motivation and intelligence
was positive and significant at the 0.05 level. In other words, it is the
more intelligent student who is most motivated to achieve
academically.
6.3.3 Achievement motivation and study orientation
The Pearson correlation coefficient between achievement motivation and
study orientation is positive and significant at the 0.05 level. This
means that the student with effective study habits and a positive
attitude to study is the most motivated to achieve. Similar research,
including Zarb (1981), Uguroglu & Walberg (1979, in Beard, 1980) confirm
the above results. Perhaps the student with a positive:approach to study
realises that this potentially enables him to achieve and therefore, he
becomes motivated to try to achieve academically.
6.3.4 Achievement motivation and personality
The Pearson correlation coefficient between achievement motivation and
reservedness was positive and significant at the 0.05 level. In other
words, it is the extroverted personality who is more motivated to
achieve academically. The above results are contradictory to those of
Entwistle (1972) and Goh & Moore (1978), who found that introverts tend
to be more motivated to achieve academically. Furthermore, there was a
positive and significant correlation between achievement motivation and
assertiveness. Similar results to these have been found by Saenger- Ceha
(1970). The correlation between achievement motivation and
conscientiousness was positive and significant at the' 0.05 level. In
other words, it is the hard-working student who is most motivated to
achieve academically. In addi tion, there was a negative and significant
correlation between achievement motiva t i on and :·independence. Thi s means
that the more independent a student is, the more motivated thi s student
is to achieve academically. Lastly, the carrel ation between achievement
motivation and anxiety was negative and significant at the 0.05 level. In
other words, it is the less anxious student who is most motivated to
achieve academically. Taking the results as a whole, it is the
extroverted, assertive, conscientious, independent and calm student who
is most motivated to achieve academicall~.
/70 .....
"
PAGE 70
6.3.5 Achievement motivation and intrapersonal adjustment
The Pearson correlation coefficient between intrapersonal adjustment and
achievement motivation was positive and significant at the 0.05 level.
This means that it is the well adjusted student who is most motivated
to achieve academically. Similar results to the above have been found by
Jensen (1958), Berger & Sutker (1956) and Burgess (1956).
6.3.6 Achievement motivation and anxiety
The correlation between achievement motivation· and anxiety were negative\
and significant at the 0.05 level. This means that it is the calm student
who is motivated to achieve academically. Similar results have been found
by Lynne (1977) and Kanekar (1976). Conflicting findings to the above
results were found by Gissrau (1976).
6.3.7 Academic achievement and intelligence
The Pearson correlation between achievement motivation and intelligence
indicates that there is a positive and significant correlation at the
0.05 level. This indicates that it is the more intelligent student who
achieves academically. Identical results have been found by Ryle &
Lungi, (1968) and Garbers and Faurie, (1972).
Due:' to the positive and significant correlation between academic
achievement and intelligence, it is possible to predict academic
achievement on the basis of IQ.
6.4 THE PREDICTION OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ON THE BASIS OF IQ SCORE
From the regression equation (Page 66), it is possible to pr-ed i c t academic
achievement on the basis of a given IQ score. However, the predicted academic
achievement score is low. For example, as illustrated on p 66, a student with an
intelligence score of 100, has a predicted academic achievement score of 49,03%.
This may be due to the fact that the regression line is non-linear. In addition,
another possible explanation for the above predicted result is that the
correlation only considers academic achievement and' intelligence, excluding
achievement motivation which may be a factor dri ving students to supreme
achievements.
6.5 A COMPARISON OF UNDER-ACHIEVERS VERSUS OVER-ACHIEVERS ON ANXIETY AND STUDY
ORIENTATION
Once the regression line was computed, those students failing one standard error
of estimate above this line were defined as over-achievers and those who' fell
one standard error of estimate below the regression line were defined as
UDder-achievers. These two groups were then compared on the following
variables, which have been discussed below.:.
/71 .....
\.
PAGE 71
6.5.1 Anxiety
Al though there was no statistically significant difference between the
means of the over-achievers and under-achievers.
6.5.2 Study orientation
The data in Table H (Chapter 5) indicate that there is a statistically
significant difference between the means of over-achievers versus under
achievers on study orientation. The average score of the over-achievers
is 6,4583, whereas the average score for the under-achievers was 5,0452.
In other words, over-achievers have, in general, a more positive
approach to study than do under-achievers.
6.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Perhaps the most important limitation of this study was that stanine scores were
used in the computation of the Pearson correlation coefficients and some of the
t Tests, because raw scores were unavailable. The use of standard scores should
pr-ef'erab Ly" not be used in r-eaear-ch for certain data is lost in the process and
deeper levels of abstraction are thereby decreased. It is important to note that
the PMV scores and academic achievement scores were available in raw scores.
It is the author's opinion that perhaps a developmental perspective would have
been meaningful and very enlightening in the sense that the first-year student
in the early adulthood stage is very different to the first-year student who is
middle-aged. More specifically, for example, their reasons; for achievement
motivated behaviour are in all likelihood very different. Perhaps, for the
eighteen-year old, achievement motivation and academic:' achievement are seen as
the beginning of a secure career; whereas for the middle-aged student,
achievement motivation and academic achievement may be an important stepping
stone to promotion.
/72 .....
PAGE 72
In addition, one must bear in mind that this study utilised university students
only, who are a very select and intellectually elite group. Perhaps the level of
achievement motivation is higher in the intellectual strata of society than in
non-intellectual groups. The point to be made here is that the results yielded
from the data may not be generalised to any other population group except
Afrikaans speaking, white, undergraduate university students.
Furthermore, the PMV in itself also has its limitations. The results obtained on
the PMV offers no assessment of the student's commitment to achievement
motivation. The diagnostic tests are completed at the beginning of one's firstyear, before the student has been exposed to possible stresses of university
life. In addition, perhaps it is best that the PMV be viewed as a test only for
academic achievement motivation, because it gives no indication of
achievement motivation in areas other than those which are academic.
Also, results from the diagnostic tests may have been influenced by the fact
that the motivation to complete these tests is low. Furthermore, levels of
achievement motivation and academic achievement may have been influenced by the
possibility that often the first-year student finds him/herself in the wrong
facul ty for; which he/she is unsuited. In addition, the diagnostic tests only
give an indication of the behaviour of the student at one point in time,
omitting the fact that the student is an ever-changing entity. The point to be
made here is that the more dynamic aspects of the student are lost through the
use of paper and pencil tests in research.
Bearing the above in mind, it is advisable that researchers utilise raw scores
whenever possible and also to take into account the motivation levels of one's
subjects. It would also be most meaningful if future research based the
prediction of academic achievement on a non-linear regression equation. This
would entail a multivariate approach to academic achievement, which is the
examination of the effect of several factors acting together on a single
variable. In addition, researchers might care to compare a student popul ation
with a non-student population. They may also find it beneficial to examine those
factors which explain variance in achievement motivation, in an attempt to
discover these factors which drive the student to over achieve or slip into the
cycle of under achievement. Furthermore, the future researcher should bear in
mind the works of McClelland (1976) who stated that the achievement motive
develops out of expectations. These include expectations of oneself and the
expectations of f ara i Ly and friends. In other words, the achievement, motive
should be seen within the breader systems context (Minuchin, 1974).
/73 ..... _
PAGE 73
It is also important that data yielded from research on academic achievement be
utilised by the counsellor to preventatively counsel students who find
themselves engulfed in a reality for which they are unprepared. For example, it
may be useful for the student to receive information on:
1) M and T f persons and expected risk levels (Atkinson, 1964).s a
2) The facilitating aspects of the fear of failure. (Atkinson, 1964).
\ 3) The effects of anxiety on academic achievement (Hermans et.al., 1982).
4) The prediction and interpretation of an achievement related event (Weiner et.
a1., 1972).
Research to date has concentrated on static rather than the more dynamic aspects
of achievement motivation and academic achievement. Future res~arch should begin
emphasising this dynamic aspect rather than the field degenerating into a
lifeless body of static literature. This may be achieved by viewing behaviour as
a constant flow of activity and in addition, doing away with a cause-and-effect
explanatin of achievement motivated behaviour. In other words, the researcher
would be doing justice to this field by adopting a non-linear approach to
achievement motivated behaviour. This idea is reflected inn the words of Murray
(1938, in Weiner, 1972): "Human motivation theory began to lose its linear or
simple this-causes-that character and began to assume the form of a network of
functional relationships (p. 84)."
/74 •..•.
1\
CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
PAGE 74
7.1 SUMMARY
The phenomenon of under-achievement assumes staggering proportions in South
African universities. As a result, there is an urgent need for a questionnaire
whereby the potential under-achiever may be identified at the earliest possible
stage. Such a questionnaire is needed at the Rand Afrikaans University where the
phenomenon of underachievement has immense financial and personal implications.
(Marais, 1980).
The goal of this study is to assess the reliability and validity of such a
questionnaire known as the achievement motivation questionnaire (prestasiemoti
veringsvraelys). In order to achi eve thi s goal, 1 729 white under-graduate,
Afrikaans-speaking students completed a series of diagnostic tests. These
included the New South African Group Test, the Survey of Study Habits and
Attitudes, the 16PF, the IPAT Anxiety Questionnaire and the Achievement
Motivation Questionnaire (PMV).
In order to assess the reliability of the achievement motivation questionnaire,
an item analysis was used. (NP 50 programme). The validity of the questionnaire
was assesse~ with the use of Bravais Pearson correlation coefficients, a simple
regression analysis and t-tests.
Statistically significant results were found in all three calculations. The
resul ts which were yielded from the simple regression analysis enables one to
predict academic achievement on the basis of a given 1Q score, and also enables
one to identify over-achievers and under-achievers. Results yielded from the
t-tests indicated that there were 120 over-achievers and 287 under- achievers.
The mean scores of these two groups were compared on anxiety and study
orientation. A significant difference between study habi ts and attitudes was
found between these groups with over-achievers having more effective study
habits than under-achievers.
In addition, included in this thesis are the theories of achievement motivation
namely, Murray (1938), McClelland's (1976) affective arousal model, Weiner's
(1974) cogni tive approach to motivation and 1astly, the theory of Hermans,
Bergen & Eijssen (1982). Furthermore, limitations of this study have also been
/75.....
PAGE 75
discussed. They include the use of an elite student group, whose results
cannot be generalised to the general population, the absence of a
developmental approach to motivation and low motivation by the subjects to
complete the diagnostic tests. Recommendatins for further research have been
made, including, amongst other things, the use of a non-l inear approach to
achievement motivation.
7.2 CONCLUSION
This research has shown that the PMV is reliable if reduced to a total of
the specified 20 items, in which case, the KR reliability coefficient is
.847. Furthermore, the questionnaire is also found to be a valid measure
of achievement motivation. Highlighted is the fact that achievement
motivation is very complex, and by virtue of this, it may be multifactorial.
Lastly, there is no doubt that the field of achievement motivated behaviour
still requires considerable research to better understand such complex
behaviour as well as to provide further valuable information applicable to
many facets of life.
/76 .....
PAGE 76
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Mann, W.R., & Rizzo, J.L. (1972). Composition of the achiever per-sonaLt tyscale. Psychological Reports, 31, 218.
Marais, F.A.J. (1980). Profile of the first year dropout. Bulletin virDosente. Kwartaalblad oor die Hoeronderwys, 13, 61 - 64.
Marais, L. (1981). Akademiese prestasie van homogene klasse studente gevorm aandie hand van elke persoonlikheidsdimensie. Unpublished Master's thesis, RandAfrikaans University.
Middleton, G., & Guhne, G.M. Personality syndromes and academic achievement.Journal of Educational Psychology, 50, 66 - 69.
Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. London: Tavistock Publications.
Monahan, L., Kuhn, D., & Shaver, P. (1974). Intrapsychic versus culturalexplanations of the 'fear of success' motive. ~Tournal of Personality andSocial Psychology, 29, 60 - 64.
/81. ....
BIBLIOGRAPHY (cont) PAGE 81
Morgan, H.H. (1952). A psychometric comparison of achieving and nonachievingcollege students of high quality. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 16, 292 298.
Maris, J.L.choice: anPersonality
(1966). Propensity for risk taking as a determinant of vocationalextension of the theory of achievement motivation. Journal of
and Social Psychology, ~' 328 - 335.
Moss, H.A., & Kagan, J. (1961). Stability of achievement and recognitionseeking behaviours from early childhood through adulthood. Journal of abnormaland Social Psychology, 62, 504 - 513.
McClelland, P.C. (1955). Studies in motivation. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts.
McClelland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W., Clark, R.A., & Lowell, E.L. (1976). Theachievement motive. New York: Irvington Publishers.
McClelland, D.C., & Friedman, G.A. (1952). A cross cultural study of therelationship between child training practices and achievement 'motivationappearing in folk tales. In Swanson, G.E., Newcomb, T.M. & Hartley, E.L.(Eds). Readings in Social Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill.
McClelland, D.G., Rinalisbacher, A. & de Charms, R. (1955). Religious and othersources of parental attitudes toward independence training, in McClelland,D.C. (Ed.) Studies in Motivation. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.
Naude, F.P. (1986). Die akademiese prestasie van Afrikaanssprekende en Engelssprekende studente aan n tweetaalige universiteit. Unpublished doctoralthesis, University of Port Elizabeth.
O'Connor, E.J., & Chassie, M.B. & Walther, F. (December, 1980). Expendedeffort and academic performance. Teaching of Psychology, 7, 231 - 233.
Orpen, C. (1976). Personality and academic attainment: A cross-cultural :study.Bri tish Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 220'- 222.
O'Shea, A.J. (1970). Low achievement syndrome among bright school boys.Journal of Educational Research, 63 (6), 257 - 262.
Pentony, P. & Loftus, A.R. T. (1970). A predi ction of first year performance ofscience s~udents from IQ and performance in matriculation examination.Australian Journal of Higher Education, ~ (1), 57 - 64.
Purkey, W.W. (1970). Self concept and school achievement. New Jersey: PrenticeHall.
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futureSocial
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/82 .....
BIBLIOGRAPHY (cont) PAG::; 82
Romine, P. G., & Crowell, O. C. (1981). Per-sonal i ty correl ates of under- andover-achievement at the university level. Psychological reports, 48, 787792.
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/83 .....
BIBLIOGRAPHY (cont ) PAGE 83
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/84 .....
BIBLIOGRAPHY (cont) PAGE 84
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/8::, .....
APPENDIX APAGE 85
VOORBEELD
VraagIn hoe TI mate geniet jy dit om iets saam met jou maats te doen?
1.2.3.
baienogalglad nie Antwoord
As jy baie daarvan hou om iets saam met jou maats te doen, skryfTI 1 langs "antwoord."
1.2.3.
baienogalglad nie Antwoord
As jy nogal daarvan hou om iets saam met jou maats te doen, skryf'n 2 langs "Antwoord".
1.2.3.
baienogalglad nie Antwoord
As jy glad nie daarvan hOll om iets saam met jOll maats te doen nie,skryf'n 3 langs "Antwoord".
1.2.3.
bai:enogalglad nie Antwoord
Jy moet by elke vraag net een nommer langs "Antwoord" skryf. Werkvlot en moenie lank oor 'n antwoord nadink nie.
Kantoorgebruik
1. Sal jy, wanneer jy hard werk, in jou skoolvakke (1-3 )
1
2
3
gemiddelde punte kry
goed doen
nie goed doen nie Antwoord
1
(4)
(5)
186 .•...
2. Hou jy daarvan as n onderwyse julIe toetspuntein die klas uitlees?
1 meestal
2 miskien
PAGE 86
Kantoorgebr-uik
3 glad nie Antwoord (6)
3. As dit vir jou redelik seker lyk dat jy moeilikewerk nie gaan regkry nie, sou jy
1 aanhou probeer
2 ophou probeer
3 iemand vra om jou te help Antwoord (7 )
4. Hoe gou wil jy weet wat jou punte is nadat julIen toets geskryf het?
1 enige tyd
2 redelik gou
3 baie gou Antwoord (8 )
5. Hoe gou verloor jy belangstelling wanneer jy niejou werk gou kan afhandel nie?
1 baie gou
2
3
na n rukkie
nie gou nie Antwoord
j
(9 )
6. Wanneer jy 'n werkstuk moet aanpak, beplan jy
1 meestal
2 soms
3 seIde Antwoord (10)
7. Hoe dikwels dink jy oor wat jy in die toekomsgaan doen?
1 baie seIde
2 seIde
3 sorns
4 gereeld Antwoord (11 )
/8 7 •.•••
8. Wie sou jy kies as julIe twee-twee n skooltaakmoet uitvoer?
1 n klasmaat wat altyd baie goeie punte kry
2 n goeie vriend/vriendin, al do en hy/sy niealtyd so goed nie Antwoord
\9. Hoe dikwels vertel jy n leuen?
1 soms
PAG£ &7
Kantoorgebr-ui l
(12)
2 nooit nie Antwoord ( 13)
10. Dink jy dat julIe in die klas
1 hard genoeg werk
2 harder kan werk
3 baie hard werk Antwoord (14)
11. As jy n moeilik stuk werk kon regkry, sou jytrots voel?
1 miskien
2 ja
3 nie eintlik nie Antwoord (15)
12. Sou jy se dat jy gedurende 'n toets of eksamen
1 effens gespanne is
2 baie gespanne is
3 redelik op jou gemak is Antwoord
13. Veronderstel jy kry 'n probleem met jou skoolwerk;sou jou ouers jou
1 help om dit reg te kry
2 se hoe jy dit miskien kan regkry
(16)
3 op jou eie laat werk Antwoord (17)
14. Bekommer jy jou gewoonl ik nie oor- toetsui tsl ae nie, omdat
1 dit nie saak maak hoe hard n mens leer nie,jou punte bly dieselfde
2 jy weet dat jy hard geleer het
3 toetspunte daarvan afhang of die onderwyservan jou hou of nie Antwoord (18)
/88 ....•
PAGE 8$Kantoor
gebr-ufk15. Dink jy tydens eksamens daaraan dat jy dalk kan druip?
1 soms
2 nee
3 ja Antwoord (19)
16. Wanneer jy n probleem in skoolwerk nie kon oplos nie, hoe seker is jydat jy dit die-volgende keer sal regkry?
1 redelik seker
2 baie seker
3 redelik onseker
4 beslis onseker Antwoord (20)
17. Praat jy graag saam as julIe in die klas werk moet bespreek?
1 al tyd
2 dikwels
3 s eLde
4 nooit nie Antwoord (21)
18. Hoe dikwels dink jy meer aan ander mense as aan jousel~?
1 nie sodikwels nie
2 baie gereeld Antwoord (22)
19. Hoe belangrik is dit vir jou.om beter punte as jouklasmaats te kry?
1 nie eintlik belangrik nie
2 nogal belangrik
3 baie belangrik Antwoord (23)
20. As jy sukses behaal het met n taak, sou jy n volgende taak kies wat
1 moeiliker is
2 makliker is
3 min or meer dieselfde is Antwoord (24)
/89 .....
21. Hier volg n beskywing van twee persone: J vra iemand omhom te help wanneer hy n probleem met sy skoolwerk hetjP hou aan met die probleem totdat hy dit regkry. Watter eenis die meeste 5005 jy?
1 J
PAGE 39
Kantoorgebruik
2 P Antwoord (25)
22. Hoe dikwels is jy haastig om die uitslag van n toetsof eksamen te kry?
1 seIde
2 soms
3 meestal
4 altyd Antwoord (26)
23. Hoe dikwels sou jy se jy is selfsugtig?
1 dikwels
2 nooi t .ni e Antwoord (27)
24. As n stuk huiswerk jou lank besig hou,
1 bly jy daarin geInteresseerd
2 verveel dit jou gou
3 verveel dit jou na n rukkie Antwoord
25. Hoe dikwels bestee jy ekstra tyd om seker te maak dat jynie foute maak nie?
1 nooit nie
2 af en toe
3 meestal Antwoord (29)
26. Wanneer jy aan jou toekoms dink, voel dit vir jou
1 baie ver
2 redelik ver
3 naby
4 baie naby Antwoord (30)
27. Wanneer jy iemand moet kies om jou met n taak te help,wie sou jy kies?
1 n maat a1 kry hy!sy nie goeie punte nie
2 iemand ~at goeie punte kry, al is julIe nie maa~s nie. Antwoord (31 )
28. Dink die onderwysers gewoonlik dat jy in jou skoolwerk
1 redelik hard werk
2 baie hard werk
PAGF. 90Kantoor
gebruH
3 meer kan werk Antwoord (32 )
29. Wanneer jy nie soveel punte kry as wat jy verwag het nie,pIa dit jou
1 nie eintlik nie
2 effens
3 baie Antwoord (33)
30. Probeer jy afluister wanneer van jou gepraat word?
1 ja
2 neem Antwoord (34)
31. As julIe in enige skoolvak n moeilike stukwerk kry, sal jy
1 net so lank soos jou klasmaats probeer omdit te doen
2' lange as die ander aanhou probeer
3 nie te lank aanhou nie Antwoord (35)
32. Slaap jy voor n eksamen
1 net so goed as gewoonlik
2 effens onrustig
3 nie so goed as gewoonlik nieAntwoord (36)
33. As jou ouers jou nie beloon vir goeie skoolwerk nie, sal jou werk
1 effens verswak
2 baie verswak
3 op dieselfde standaard blyAntwoord
34. Van watter skoolwerk sou jy die meeste hou? Werkwaar
1 jy self vir die resultate verantwoordelik is
(37)
2 toeval of geluk die resultate bepaalAntwoord
,.
~ ..-
(38 )
j~1
PAGE 91Kantoor-
gebr-uak
35. As jy hard ge1eer het vir 'n eksamen dink jy jou punte sal
1 net soveel wees as die meeste van jou klasmaat s'n
2 swak wees
3 goed wees Antwoord (39)
36. Praat jy altyd net goed van ander mense?
1 nee
2 ja Antwoord (40)
37. Gestel jy sou n toets druipi dink jy dat jydie vo1gende toets
1 miskien weer sal druip
2 beslis weer sal druip
3 sal slaag Antwoord
38. Wanneer daar 'n klasbespreking is,
1 bly jy verkieslik stil
(41)
2 neem jy graag deel Antwoord (42)
39. n Leerling'wat beter as sy maats wil doen,
1 wil ~itstyg in die lewe
2 dink hy is beter as ander
3 probeer die onderwyser se guns wenAntwoord (43)
40. Dink jy soms wanneer julIe met skoolwerk besig is dat jyeffens rnoeiliker werk wil doen?
1 ja
2 af en toe
3 nee Antwoord (44)
41. As 'n skoolmaat jou wil help met 'n probleern in jouskoolwerk sal jy sy hulp aanvaar?
1 ja
2 miskien
3 nee Antwoord (45 )
/92 .....
42. How dikwels voel jy teIeurgesteId as n onderwysernie gou ·toetsuitslae teruggee nie?
1 baie dikwels
2 dikwels
3 nie so dikwels nie
PAGE 92-Kam:6or
gebruH
4 seIde Antwoord (46)
43. Is dit vir jou maklik om te erken as jy n fout gemaak het?
1 nee
2 ja Antwoord (47)
44. n Stuk skoolwerk wat baie tyd neem, is vir jou
1 net soos enige ander stuk werk
2 iets waarin jy gou beIangsteIling verloor
3 redelik interessant Antwoord (48)
45. Hoe belangrik dink jy is dit dat n mens jou werkmoet kontroleer om moontlike foute uit te skakeI?
1 effens belangrik
2 baie belangrik
3 nie belangrik nie Antwoord (49)
46. 'Hoe gereeld dink jy aan jou toekoms?
1 baie gereeld
2 af en toe
3 nie dikwels nie Antwoord (50)
47. Wie kies jy gewoonlik om jou met 'n opdraag te help?
1 enige klasmaat
2 'n goeie vriend of vriendin
3 'n klasmaat wat baie weet van die betrokke vakAntwoord
48. Sou jy se dat jy
1 meer werk as jou klasrr.aats
2 net soveel werk as jou klasmaats
(51)
3 'n bietjie minder werk as die meesteAntwoord (52)
/93 .....
PAGE 93Kantoor-
gebruik49. Sou jy se dat n mens trots kan voel as jy in jou skoolwerk
goed gedoen het?
1 nie eintlik nie
2 miskien
3 ja Antwoord (53)
50. Hoe dikwels vind jy gedurende eksamens dat jy nie kan onthouwat jy geleer het nie?
1 af en toe
2 seIde
3 gereeld Antwoord (54)
51- lIJanneer jy n probleem met jou skoolwerk kry,
1 hou jy op met werk
2 probeer ,jy nog 'n rukkie
3 hou jy aan totdat jy dit regkryAntwoord
52. As jy vir een stuk werk swak punte gekry net, dinkjy dat jy vir jou volgende werk in dieselfde vak
1 beslis weer swak punte sal kry
2 miskien weer swak punte sal kry
(55)
3 dalk beter punte sal kry Antwoord (56 )
53. Voel jy dat dit reg is om iemand wat jou verkulhet ook te kul?
1 ja
2 nee Antwoord (57)
54. Het jou ouers jou redelik jonk toegelaat om selfdinge te doen?
i: jy kan nie onthou nie
2 ja
3 nie eintlik nie Antwoord (58)
55. As 'n mens hard leer aan jou skoolwerk sal jyrneestal
1 goed doen
2 gerniddelde punte kry
3 swak doen Antwoord (59)
Jr, ,.
56. As jy 'iets moeiliks probeer, dink jy jy sal dit
1 meestal nie regkry nie
2 miskien regkry
3 meestal regkry
PAGE 94Kantoor
gebruil
4 beslis regkry Antwoord (60)
\57. Hou jy van klasbesprekings?
1 af en toe
2 meestal
3 nee Antwoord (61 )
58. Dink jy dat jy graag sou wou uitstyg in die lewe?
1 ja
2 miskien
3 nee Antwoord (62)
59. Watter van die volgende sou jy verkies - werk wat
1 maklik is sodat jy dit beslis sal regkry
2 redelik maklik is, sodat jy dit waarskynliksal regkry
3 effens moeiliker is sodat jy dit miskien niesal regkry nie
Antwoord
60. Laat jy toe dat iemand jou wys wat om te doen as jyn bietjie sukkel om n probleem op te los?
1 soms
2 selde
(63)
3 meestal Antwoord (64)
61. Hoe gou wil jy weet hoeveel punte jy gekry hetwanneer jy n werkstuk ingehandig het?
1 nie noodwendig gou nie
2 die volgende dag
3 redelik gou Antwoord (65)
/95......
62. Wanneer daar TI probleem opduik in n stuk skoolwerkprobeer jy om
1 iemand te kry om jou te help
2 aIleen aan te hou totdat jy die probleemopgelos het
3 met n ander stuk werk aan te gaan
Antwoord
\
63. Wanneer julIe n moeilike toets skryf, is jy gewoonlik
1 gou klaar
2 redelik lank besig
PAGE 95Kantoor->
gebruik
(66)
3 langer as die meeste ander leerlinge besigAntwoord (67)
64. In hoen mate is jy jaloers op iemand met wiejy moet kompeteer?
1 baie
2 glad ni.e Antwoord (68)
65. Hoe dikwels.kontroleer jy of alles nog reg en in ordeis wanneer jy met huiswerk besig is?
1 gereeld
2 soms
3 nie dikwels nie Antwoord (69)
66. Hoeveel van jou onderwysers se vir jou dat jy beterkan doen in jou skoolwerk?
1 baie min
2 n paar
3 die meeste Antwoord (70)
67. As jou rna of pa jou wil help met TI probleem injou skoolwerk, sal jy
1 daarvan hou
2 miskien daarvan hou
3 nie eintlik daarvan hou nieI
Antwoord (71 )
68. As jy n moeilike stuk werk regkry, wat sou jy sehet die grootste rol gespeel?
1 geluk or toeval
2 harde werk
3 jOll eie vermoe,
• Arrtwoor c ( 72)
69. Gestel jy kry n moeilike probleem in jou skoolwerkhoe goed sou jy jou kanse skat om dit reg te kry?
1 goed
2 gemiddeld
PAGE 96
Kantoorgebruik
3 nie goed nie Antwoord (73)
70. As jy n stuk skoolwerk nie kan regkry nie, dink jy dat jy,wanneer julle weer dieselfde soort werk kry
1 dit miskien sal regkry
2 dit beslis sal regkry
3 miskien dit weer nie sal regkry nie
Antwoord
.71. Gestel jy het n redelik moeilike stuk werk reggekry; sou jywil he jou volgende werk moet
1 net so moeilik wees
2 effens moeiliker wees
(74)
3 effens makliker wees Antwoord (75)
72. Sou jy graag wou weet wat jou onderwysers van jouskoolwerk dink?
1 ja
2 miskien
3 nee Antwoord (76=
73. Wanneer n mens met skoolwerk sukkel, behoort jy
1 liewer met ander werk aan te gaan
2 n maat te vra om jou te help
3 aan te hou totdat jy dit regkry
Antwoord
74. M is 'n leerling watbeplan voordat hy met sy huiswerkbegin; N begin dadelik werk. Wie is die meeste soos jy?
1 M
(77)
2 N Antwoord (78)
75. As jy miskien in n eksamen nie so goed gedoen het aswat jy graag wou nie, sou jy dink dis omdat
1 die vraestel redelik moeilik was
2 jy nie genoeg geleer het nie
ALtwoord (79)
PAGE 97
Kantoor-gebruik
76. Is jy haastig om jou rapport te kry na n eksamen?
1 gewoonlik nie
2 soms
3 meestal Antwoord (80)
77 • Goeie eksamenpunte hang daarvan af of
1 die eksamen maklik of moeilik is\
2 jy slim of nie so slim is nie
3 jy hard gewerk het Antwoord
78. As daar In onderbreking was terwyl jy met jou huiswerkbesig was, is dit vir jou maklik om weer te begin werk?
1 soms
2 meestal
3 nie eintlik nie Antwoord
79. Sou jy hard leer om van die beste punte in jouklas te probeer kry?
1 ja
2 miskien
3 nee Antwoord
80. As jy met h moeilike stuk werk besig is, dink jydat jy dit dalk nie sal regkry nie?
1 soms
2 meestal
(5)
(7)
3 seIde Antwoord (8)
/95 .....
PAGE 98
APPENDIX B
ITEM TEST CORRELATIONS BEFORE ITERATION
-ITEM N. X. SO RxgSg Rxg-........'
1 1048. 1.843 .372 .044 .1182 1048. 1.852 .729 .036 .0503 1048. 2.422 .894 .010 .0114 1048. 2.361 .645 .112 .1735 1048. 2.492 .573 .081 .1416 1048. 1.552 .637 .112 .1757 1048. 3.705 .620 .030 .0498 1048. 1.765 .431 .011 .0269 1048. 1.222 .418 .020 .04810 1048. 1.931 .348 .029 .08311 1048. 1.941 .270 .016 .06012 1048. 1.586 .778 .160 .20513 1048. 2.132 .809 .138 .17114 1048. 1.909 .376 .031 .08415 1048. 1.625 .680 .101 .14816 1048. 1.766 .967 .101 .10417 1048. 2.016 .700 .059 .08418 1048. 1.594 .499 .030 .06119 1048. ·1.767 .661 .017 ~O2520 1048. 1.607 .917 .044 .04821 1048. 1.447 .509 .092 .18122 1048. 2.977 .803 .133 .16623 1048. 1.490 .524 .062 .11824 1048. 2.014 .985 .015 .01525 . 1048. 2.319 .561 .000 .00126 1048. 2.552 .803 .146 .18227 1048. 1.240 .432 .013 .02928 1048. 2.041 .917 .159 .17329 1048. 2.622 .528 .021 .04030 1048. 1.511 .506 .058 .11431 1048. 1.545 .654 .121 ;18532 1048. 1.719 .770 .042 .05533 1048. 2.799 .600 .073 .12134 1048. 1.021 .150 .011 .07635 1048. 2.575 .815 .107 .13136 1048. 1.215 .427 .013 .03237 1048. 2.743 .666 .058 .08838 1048. 1.693 .466 -.022 -.00339 1048. 1.037 .209 .014 .06840 1048. 2.049 .638 .008 .01341 1048. 1.207 .419 .046 .11042 1048. 2.195 .. 868 .057 .06543 1048. 1.684 .469 .023 .05044 1048. 1.832 .905 .159 .17645 1048. 1.889 .340 .032 .09346 1048. 1.242 .446 -.002 -.00447 1048. 2.511 .537 .061 .11348 1048. 1.948 .672 .118 .17549 1048. 2.933 .305 .031 .10150 1048. 1.612 .633 .086 .13751 1048. 2.408 .522 .075 .14352 1048. 2.871 .370 .041 .11153 1048. 1.819 .390 .026 .06754 1048. 2.212 .557 .040 .07255 1048. 1.073 .274 .015 .05556 1048. 2.542 .598 .108 .181
PAGE 99
ITEM TEST CORRELATIONS BEFORE ITERATION (cont)
ITEM N. X. S RxgSg Rxg
57 1048. 1.693 .584 .108 .18558 1048. 1.049 .236 .008 .03359 1048. 2.228 .637 .113 .17860 1048. 2.116 .953 .058 .06061 1048. 2.551 .715 .091 .12862 1048. 1.572 .694 .130 .18863 1048. 2.138 .555 .045 .08264 1048. 1.760 .440 .071 .16265 1048. 1.648 .631 .064 .10166 1048. 1.927 .791 .153 .19367 1048. 1.801 .790 .157 .19968 1048. 2.256 .533 .094 .17769 1048. 1.758 .463 -.004 -.00970 1048. 1.401 .588 .080 .13671 1048. 1.740 .598 .038 .06372 1048. 1.114 .362 .018 .05073 1048. 2.545 .578 .096 .16774 1048. 1.469 .499 .065 .13175 1048. 1.766 .428 .065 .15376 1048. 2.548 .596 .074 .12377 1048. 2.932 .355 .031 .08678 1048. 1.931 .693 .096 .13979 1048. 1.409 .592 .062 .10580 1048. 1.597 .873 .173 .19881 1048. 2.484 .981 .155 .15882 1048. 1.964 .559 -.012 -.02183 1048. 2.035 .848 .006 .00784 1048. 1.696 .777 .017 .02285 1048. 2.576 .688 .099 .14486 1048. 2.247 .569 .082 .14387 1048. 1.986 .769 .110 .14388 1048. 1.787 .579 .070 .12089 1048. 1.580 .494 .059 .11990 1048. 1.412 .494 .083 .16891 1048. 1.969 .589 .095 .16192 1048. 1.736 .661 .024 .03693 1048. 2.042 .739 .026 .03594 1048. 1.386 .493 .003 .00595 1048. 1.901 .633 .085 .13596 1048. 1.587 .642 .052 .08197 1048. 2.057 .740 .181 .24598 1048. 1.927 .579 .120 .20799 1048. 2.073 .772 .051 .066100 1048. 2.200 .570 .. 044 .077101 1048. 1.959 .764 .035 .045102 1048. 1.361 .591 .072 .121103 1048. 2.239 .654 .090 .138104 1048. 1.708 .715 .097 .136105 1048. 1.522 .618 .032 .052106 1048. 1.754 .694 .113 .163107 1048. 1.668 .:'90 .064 .108108 1048. 1.581 .778 .116 .149109 1048. 2.297 .541 .139 .257110 1048. 1.361 .504 .028 .055
/IOD .....
PAGE 100
ITEM TEST CORRELATIONS BEFORE ITERATION (cont)
-. ITEM N. X. S RxgSg Rxg
111 1048. 1.394 .512 .074 .145112 1048. 1.403 .577 .069 .120113 1048. 1.807 .716 .134 .187114 1048. 1.854 .822 .208 .254115 1048. 1.673 .487 .088 .181116 1048. 2.096 .707 .168 .238117 1048. 2.580 .584 .148 .254118 1048. 2.198 .568 .152 .268119 1048. 1.831 .724 .136 .187120 1048. 2.094 .706 .108 .152121 1048. 1.514 .542 .037 .068122 1048. 1.438 .590 .043 .073123 1048. 1.554 .640 .096 .150124 1048. 1.802 .644 .117 .l81125 1048. 2.939 .932 .190 .204
/101. ....
/'
PAGE 101APPENDIX C
ITEM TEST CORRELATIONS AFTER TEN ITERATIONS
ITEM RxgSg Rxg
*1 .030 .082*2 -.102 -.140*3 .013 .015*4 .003 .005*5 .123 .214*6 -.042 -.065*7 .029 .047*8 .002 .004*9 -.009 -.022*10 -.012 -.035*11 .000 -.001*12 .070 .090*13 -.017 -.020*14 .046 .121*15 -.026 -.038*16 -.159 -.164*17 -.141 -.202*18 -.013 -.026*19 -.033 -.051*20 -.140 -.153*2-1 .070 .138*22 ;001 .001*23 .055 .105*24 -.200 -.203*25 .011 .01926 .257 .320*27 -.002 -.004*28 .010 .011*29 -.064 -.121*30 .059 .116*31 .029 .045*32 ,-.282 -.366*33 .027 .044*34 -.005 -.032*35 .060 .074*36 .003 .007*37 .136 .205*38 .106 .228*39 -.006 -.030*40 -.108 -.170*41 .000 - .001*42 .057 .065*43 .047 .101*44 .032 .036*45 .003 :.010*46 -.029 -.064*47 .017 .031*48 .020 .030*49 -.009 -.031*50 -.013 -.021*51 .073 .141*52 .052 .141*53 .014 .036*54 -.062 -.112*55 -.007 -.027
/102 .....
ITEM TEST CORRELATIONS AFTER TEN ITERATIONS (cont )
PAGE 102
ITEM
*56*57*58*59*60*61*62*63*64*65*66*67*68*69*70*71*72*73*74*75*76*77*78"'79*8081*82*83*8485868788*89*9091*92*93*9495*969798*99*100*101*102103*104*105106*107*108
.173
.033-.017
.141-.042
.015-.022-.071
.073-.015
.008
.017
.051-.127
.010
.007
.007
.028-.039
.019
.016
.027-.042
.007
.159
.384-.238-.314-.376
.276
.314
.485
.356
.076
.155
.265-.232-.313
.016
.274-.218.294.295
-.346-.165-.242-.085
.346-.160-.257
.432-.113-.268
.290
.056-.071
.222-.044
.021-.031-.127
.167-.024
.010
.021
.095-.274
.017
.012
.020
.049-.078
.045
.027
.077-.060
.012
.182
.391-.426-.370-.483
.401
.552
.631
.614
.154
.313
.451-.350-.424
.033
.433-.340
.397
.5097. 448-.290-.316-.144
.529-.224-.416
.623-.192-.345
/103 .....
1----- -~------- .---.~~o- ---------
J
ITEM TEST CORRELATIONS AFTER TEN ITERATIONS (cont)
ITEM RxgSg
*109 .194*110 -.142*111 -.150*112 -.148113 .453114 .393115 .272116 .328*117 .027~18 .306119 .478*120 -.196*121 -.216*122 -.103*123 -.253124 .400125 .530
.359-.281-.292-.256
.632
.479
.557
.464
.046
.538
.659-.278-.399-.176-.395
.620
.569
PAGE 103