definition of achievement motivation

8/7/2019 Definition of Achievement Motivation

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Definition of Achievement Motivation

ByDana Griffin, eHow Contributorupdated: May 10, 2010

Seeking a first place trophy shows ego involvement.winner cup image by Igor Zhorov from Fotolia.com

"Motivation is based on your emotions and achievement-related goals. Achievement motivation is based

on reaching success and achieving all of our aspirations in life," reports the Rochester Institute of

Technology (RIT). People's needs and desires visibly influence their behavior. People with a high

achievement need prefer work with a moderate probability (around 50%) of success. For these people,

low-risk situations do not provide enough challenge, and high-risk situations are too chancy.

Motives

1. Two motives predict behavior: implicit and explicit. Implicit motives are instinctual, spontaneousimpulses to act. Explicit motives are deliberate choices caused by outside situations. These two worktogether to define behavior. According to the RIT, "Individuals with strong implicit needs to achievegoals set higher internal standards, whereas others tend to adhere to the societal norms."

Hierarchical Model of Achievement Motivation

2. A new model for achievement motivation combines the two most prominent theories: theachievement motive approach and the achievement goal approach. Achievement motives are theneed to achieve and the fear of failure; these direct us toward positive or negative behaviors.

The three types of achievement goals are performance-approach goals, performance-avoidancegoals and mastery goals. The performance-approach goal is when a person improves to be better atsomething than others are. Performance avoidance is improving to not look inept in front of others. Amastery goal is when a person improves simply for the sake of getting better regardless of outsidesocial influences.

Achievement Goals

3. Achievement goals affect achievement-related behaviors. Two types of achievement-related attitudesare task involvement and ego involvement. Task involvement is when the main goal is to learn skillsor understanding. People with ego involvement want to demonstrate superior abilities.

According to RIT, "Studies confirm that task-involvement activity more often results in challengingattributions and increasing effort than in an ego-involvement activity." Self-motivation (intrinsic) ismore prominent in task-involved activities. Ego-involved individuals consider success asoutperforming others.Societytends to label these people as "high achievers" because theirachievements are for public view.

Self-Worth Motivation

4. According to RIT, "Self-worth theory states that in certain situations students stand to gain by nottrying and deliberately withholding effort." This usually happens after a person fails. Poorperformance threatens self-esteem, so instead the person may choose to not try. Withdrawing effort

places failure on not trying rather than low ability, which is easier on a person's self-esteem.Achievement Goal Conceptualization

5. Achievement goal theorists label both performance and mastery goals as "approach" motivation.More recently, however, they have proposed an integrated approach that includes modernperformance and mastery theories along with standard approach and avoidance. The performancegoal has three parts: a mastery goal (focused on developing the skill), a performance approach goal(focused on gaining acclaim and approval from others) and performance avoidance (focused

6. Abstract
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Although achievement motivation has been much studied in conjunction with variousmeasures of anxiety, there is no clear answer to whether or not achievementmotivation relates to N in Eysenck's schema. An international series of communitystudies is therefore described in which the Ray AO (Achievement Orientation) scaleis used. Projective tests were held to be discredited. The AO scale was correlatedwith either the Taylor MAS or the Eysenck N scale. On all occasions the correlationwas low and negative, but so low that it was not always significant. It is concluded

that N is essentially irrelevant to achievement motivation.

INTRODUCTION

Is achievement motivation a personality trait? If so, where does it fit into the Eysenckian schema that uses

only three variables for the description of personality (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1976)? It would of course be

easy at the conceptual level to deny that achievement motivation is a trait. Is it not, as the name implies, a

motive? Are not motives quite different from traits? Perhaps.

When we look at operational definitions, however, any distinction between traits and motives becomes

quite difficult. Measuring achievement motivation by projective means has tended in recent years to fall

into some disrepute (Entwisle, 1967). Instead, there have been many behaviour inventories constructed

which are used to measure it (Ray, 1986b). Of these, the Ray (1979b) "AO" scale would seem to be fairly

typical in form. Yet the Ray "AO" scale reads just like a personality scale. It simply asks questions about

characteristic behaviour in different situations. Why is it not a personality scale? There is certainly no

obvious reason why it is not.

At least on a provisional basis, then, it is proposed here to regard achievement motivation as a

personality trait. It is further proposed to explore the possibility that it is related to the Neuroticism variable

in the Eysenckian system.

Why 'N'? Because anxiety of various sorts has for so long played a notable part in studies of achievement

motivation. The Mandler & Sarason (1952) Test Anxiety Questionnaire has probably been used in such

studies nearly as often as the T.A.T. As Atkinson & Litwin (1966) remark, early studies of these two

variables could well lead one to the view that achievement motivation and anxiety are two poles of theone variable. They note the correlation of -.43 between the two found in a study by Raphelson (1957).

Despite this, however, they go on to espouse a more complex theory than this simple bipolar one. They

say that the T.A.Q. measures not achievement motivation but rather motive to avoid failure. As the two

motives should presumably correlate to some degree, this is a theory that does accord with the evidence

that Atkinson & Litwin (1966) had.

Perhaps surprisingly, however, there seems to have been little interest in what the correlation between

the two motives in fact is. Atkinson & Litwin (1966) themselves, for instance, reported at the end of their

paper a non-significant correlation between n-Ach and T.A.Q. score but apparently saw no need to

discuss this finding in the light of the earlier findings that they alluded to at the beginning of their paper.

They did not seem to see any problem in finding a high negative correlation on one occasion and

orthogonality on another.

This is not to say that such a difference in findings cannot be explained (See Raphelson & Moulton, 1958)

it is rather to say that the interests of the various authors have lain in personality dynamics rather than in

personality typology. An interest in individual differences still seems to be a minority vocation among

psychologists.

To add to the problem, what little is reported of the relationship between the two variables tends, as we

have seen, to oscillate between a finding of orthogonality and negative correlation (see also Hafeez &


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Shanthamani, 1972; Muthayya, 1968). If the studies available all pointed in the one direction there would

be little need for any further enquiry, but they do not. There is clearly a need for much more high-quality

data on the question. In particular, studies using samples of the general population would be helpful. The

oscillation in findings so far observed could be due to the unpredictable outcome of using available

groups instead of true samples.

The present author has carried out a number of large surveys in which his 14 item "AO" (AchievementOrientation) scale was administered. Some of those studies also included measures of anxiety or

neuroticism. It seems therefore of interest to bring together here data from these surveys that might help

illuminate the relationship between the two variables. Some of the findings to be presented here have

been given in print before and some have not but the main point is that collectively they allow a much

more certain answer to the question than any one would alone.

STUDY I

This study used a random doorstep sample of the white population of the South African city of

Bloemfontein with an N of 95. Fuller details of the sampling are given elsewhere (Ray & Heaven, 1984).

Anxiety on this occasion was measured by a slightly modified form of the Taylor (1953) MAS. Details of

the modifications are given elsewhere (Ray, 1984).

The correlation between the MAS and the AO scale was -.008 (N.S.).

STUDY II

The sample for this study comprised 87 people selected by students at the University of New South

Wales (Australia) from among their friends and acquaintances under rough quota constraints which

included a direction not to use fellow-students. The final sample was reasonably representative in

demographic terms. See Ray (1979a) for further details.

'N' was measured on this occasion by the short-form 'N' scale from the Eysenck (1959) MPI. The 'N' scale

correlated -.151 with the AO scale, which is not significant at the .05 level.

STUDY III

The sample in this study comprised 305 people interviewed at random by trained interviewers in the

Indian city of Bombay. As Bombay is a very heterogeneous city, the questionnaire was quadrilingual.

Each questionnaire was in English followed by one of three Indian languages -- Gujurati, Marathi or Hindi.

These four languages allowed virtually all the population to be reached.

The scales used were as for Study II. Because of the cultural gap between India and the West, there was

some concern over how well the scales would work in Bombay. As some check on this, the reliabilities

(alpha) of the two scales were calculated. These were .72 for the 'N' scale -- which indicates reasonably

satisfactory internal consistency -- and .57 for the AO scale, which is much less satisfactory. Given the

latter figure, the results from this study can therefore be seen as only of indicative interest. The two scales

correlated .078 (N.S.) See Ray (1982) for further details.

STUDY IV

Simultaneously with Study III another survey was carried out which sampled only highly educated

Bombay residents. Such people were contacted by oversampling in districts where they were likely to be

found. The questionnaire was as in Study III. The N was 100. See Ray (1983) for fuller details.


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The reliability (alpha) for the scales was: N .67, AO .63. Their correlation was -.100 (N.S.).

STUDY V

This study also used an Indian population -- this time Parsee immigrants living in the Australian city of

Sydney. They were contacted by means of a mail-out survey (with one follow-up to non-returners) of all

Parsees living in the Sydney area. See Ray (1986a) for fuller methodological details. The final N was 72.

The two scales were as in Studies III and IV except that only English and Parsee Gujurati was used to

present them. The reliability of the N scale was .77 and the reliability of the AO scale was .78. Both were

deemed quite satisfactory. The scales correlated -.253 -- which is significant at the .05 level and indicates

that anxious people were less ambitious.

STUDY VI

This study again used the 6-item Eysenck N scale but the Ray (1980) AO scale was used in its

unabridged form. The sample was of 95 people resident in the Australian city of Sydney and contacted by

random doorstep interviews. See Ray (1981) for fuller details. The two scales correlated -.149 (N.S.).STUDY VII

Finally, the relationship between achievement motivation and Neuroticism in the study conducted by Ray

& Kiefl (1984) in West Germany should be reported here. Once again the Ray AO scale and the short

Eysenck N scale were used and the sample was randomly gathered in the Munich conurbation. N was

136. See Ray & Kiefl (1984) for further details. The AO and N scales correlated -.252, which is significant

at the .05 level. It indicates that chronically anxious people tended to be less ambitious.

DISCUSSION

The present findings could perhaps be read with some profit in conjunction with the findings reported in a

recent paper by Heaven, Brewer & Bester (1986). These authors also used the Ray AO scale as their

measure of achievement motivation and applied it cross-culturally. Their three samples were gathered in

Northern Ireland, Australia and South Africa but appear to have been generally less representative than

those described in this paper. They found that achievement motivation and anxiety correlated -.25 in

South Africa, -.23 in Australia and -.28 in Northern Ireland. All correlations were significant. Adding in

these results to those reported in the present paper means that in ten studies done across a considerable

range of samples and cultures a remarkably uniform finding emerges: The correlation between anxiety

and achievement motivation is negative but very low -- so low that on only five out of ten occasions did it

rise to a level capable of being shown as significant.

Significant or not, however, on any substantive criterion the correlation must be called negligible. The

amount of common variance between the two variables is too low for us to conclude that anxiety has

much relevance in studies of achievement motivation. Achievement motivation may, of course be related

to other variables in Eysenck's schema but the present work should have shown fairly conclusively that it

is essentially irrelevant to N. It is very seldom that such a large and varied body of data derived from at

least some attempt at proper sampling is brought to bear on a psychological question so the present

conclusions should be fairly definitive. Abstract

Although achievement motivation has been much studied in conjunction with various measures of anxiety,

there is no clear answer to whether or not achievement motivation relates to N in Eysenck's schema. An

international series of community studies is therefore described in which the Ray AO (Achievement

Orientation) scale is used. Projective tests were held to be discredited. The AO scale was correlated with

either the Taylor MAS or the Eysenck N scale. On all occasions the correlation was low and negative, but


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so low that it was not always significant. It is concluded that N is essentially irrelevant to achievement

motivation.

INTRODUCTION


















variables could well lead one to the view that achievement motivation and anxiety are two poles of the

one variable. They note the correlation of -.43 between the two found in a study by Raphelson (1957).














psychologists.






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The present author has carried out a number of large surveys in which his 14 item "AO" (Achievement

Orientation) scale was administered. Some of those studies also included measures of anxiety or

neuroticism. It seems therefore of interest to bring together here data from these surveys that might helpilluminate the relationship between the two variables. Some of the findings to be presented here have



STUDY I






STUDY II







STUDY III









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STUDY IV





STUDY V








STUDY VIThis study again used the 6-item Eysenck N scale but the Ray (1980) AO scale was used in its


random doorstep interviews. See Ray (1981) for fuller details. The two scales correlated -.149 (N.S.).

STUDY VII






DISCUSSION





















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motivation.

INTRODUCTION








which are used to measure it (Ray, 1986b). Of these, the Ray (1979b) "AO" scale would seem to be fairlytypical in form. Yet the Ray "AO" scale reads just like a personality scale. It simply asks questions about
























psychologists.



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The present author has carried out a number of large surveys in which his 14 item "AO" (AchievementOrientation) scale was administered. Some of those studies also included measures of anxiety or





STUDY I






STUDY IIThe sample for this study comprised 87 people selected by students at the University of New South




N' was measured on this occasion by the short-form 'N' scale from the Eysenck (1959) MPI. The 'N' scale


STUDY III











STUDY IV





STUDY V








STUDY VI


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STUDY VII



Eysenck N scale were used and the sample was randomly gathered in the Munich conurbation. N was136. See Ray & Kiefl (1984) for further details. The AO and N scales correlated -.252, which is significant


DISCUSSION









and achievement motivation is negative but very low -- so low that on only five out of ten occasions did itrise to a level capable of being shown as significant.














motivation.

INTRODUCTION













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studies nearly as often as the T.A.T. As Atkinson & Litwin (1966) remark, early studies of these twovariables could well lead one to the view that achievement motivation and anxiety are two poles of the










They did not seem to see any problem in finding a high negative correlation on one occasion andorthogonality on another.




psychologists.














STUDY I






STUDY II





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STUDY III


Indian city of Bombay. As Bombay is a very heterogeneous city, the questionnaire was quadrilingual.Each questionnaire was in English followed by one of three Indian languages -- Gujurati, Marathi or Hindi.








STUDY IV



found. The questionnaire was as in Study III. The N was 100. See Ray (1983) for fuller details.The reliability (alpha) for the scales was: N .67, AO .63. Their correlation was -.100 (N.S.).

STUDY V








STUDY VI




STUDY VII






DISCUSSION










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to other variables in Eysenck's schema but the present work should have shown fairly conclusively that itis essentially irrelevant to N. It is very seldom that such a large and varied body of data derived from at









motivation.

INTRODUCTIONIs achievement motivation a personality trait? If so, where does it fit into the Eysenckian schema that uses





























14/21





psychologists.











illuminate the relationship between the two variables. Some of the findings to be presented here havebeen given in print before and some have not but the main point is that collectively they allow a much


STUDY I






STUDY II The sample for this study comprised 87 people selected by students at the University of New

South Wales (Australia) from among their friends and acquaintances under rough quota constraints which





STUDY III











STUDY IV


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STUDY V





present them. The reliability of the N scale was .77 and the reliability of the AO scale was .78. Both weredeemed quite satisfactory. The scales correlated -.253 -- which is significant at the .05 level and indicates


STUDY VI




STUDY VII






DISCUSSION





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international series of community studies is therefore described in which the Ray AO (AchievementOrientation) scale is used. Projective tests were held to be discredited. The AO scale was correlated with



motivation.

INTRODUCTION


only three variables for the description of personality (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1976)? It would of course beeasy at the conceptual level to deny that achievement motivation is a trait. Is it not, as the name implies, a
















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STUDY II


Wales (Australia) from among their friends and acquaintances under rough quota constraints whichincluded a direction not to use fellow-students. The final sample was reasonably representative in




STUDY III











STUDY IV




The reliability (alpha) for the scales was: N .67, AO .63. Their correlation was -.100 (N.S.). STUDY V

This study also used an Indian population -- this time Parsee immigrants living in the Australian city ofSydney. They were contacted by means of a mail-out survey (with one follow-up to non-returners) of all






STUDY VI


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STUDY VII


& Kiefl (1984) in West Germany should be reported here. Once again the Ray AO scale and the shortEysenck N scale were used and the sample was randomly gathered in the Munich conurbation. N was



DISCUSSION

















conclusions should be fairly definitive.

researchDefinition

The process of gathering information for the purpose of initiating, modifying or

terminating a particular investment or group of investments.

What Is the Meaning of Research & Science?By an eHow Contributor

Research is a thorough, orderly, organized, efficient and logical investigation of an area of

knowledge or of a problem. Research can be scientific or scholarly. It now includes looking things up

onthe Internet. The scientific method can be used for all research.

Curiosity
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1. Science is knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation andexperiment. Research begins with a broad question that needs an answer. A review ofsimilar research narrows the scope of the research to a manageable, realistic question.

Theory (Hypothesis)

2. Research creates a theory (hypothesis) to be proved from the question; the researcher

maintains an awareness of the limitations of budget, time and technology on experimentsneeded to answer the question.

Experiment

3. Researchers design an experiment with steps to test and evaluate the theory (hypothesis)and generate analyzable data. Experiments have controls and a large enough sample groupto provide statistically valid results.

Observation

4. Observing and recording the results of the experiment generates raw data to prove ordisprove the theory.

Analysis

5. Statistical analysis on the data and organizing it so that it is understandable generatesanswers to the initial question. Data may show trends that allow for the broadening of theresearch.

Conclusions

6. Research following the scientific method will either prove or disprove the theory(hypothesis). What happened and why needs to be explained by the researcher. Even whena theory (hypothesis) is disproved, valuable data collected in the research may lead tofurther research. The results are usually published and shared.

Chapter I

THENATURE OF

RESEARCHResearch involves original work in answering a

question or solving a problem . Of the several

different research approaches available, this

book focuses on those approaches which can be

applied to solve questions or problems that are

directly related to everyday life . The technique

of community involvement in practical issues is

often called action research . In this chapter, you

will find an overview of the steps needed to

develop an action research plan . Common errorsthat are made in the research process are

discussed, from the perspective of both insiders

and outsiders to the communityDIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are many different ways to approach a research question . Researchers

from different areas of study develop different methods to focus

upon a particular aspect of the question . These are a few of the things to

consider in choosing an approach :

Topic/ issue/ concern

Purpose of the project

Resources (such as time, people, funds)


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In discussing the topic with a community group, it is sometimes helpful to

take notes on these items as a topic is discussed . This process enables the

group to reach agreement as to the purpose of the project and to assess the

resources that will be needed to complete the project . Then, the methods

to accomplish the work must be chosen . The research methods covered in

this handbook are descriptive in nature and may be applied for

community use

definition of achievement motivation

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