A Framework for Teaching Thinking

Clifton ChadwickBritish University in Dubai

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Teaching Thinking

The purpose of teaching critical thinking through academic subjects in schools is to prepare students to succeed in the world and to be responsible for their own continuous learning and progress.

Schools are the first place where students/children are exposed to critical thinking strategy in a systematic way.

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Knowledge Economy Demands

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World Class Schools for a Knowledge Economy

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A Simple Research Project

In a MOE(MAG) primary school that had a reputation of being one of the best and has won national prizes in teaching strategies and student care

Teachers, Principal, MAG staff (Americans) were all interviewed and asked if they thought the school taught critical thinking

All enthusiastically said “Yes!”

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In-Class Systematic Observation

Three teachers of Arabic, History, and Science were observed on a regular basis. Each one of them was observed four times teaching grade four and five for a total of twelve hours (using Wincour (1991) critical thinking observation check list).

The results of the observations follow.

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Observation Checklist No. of practice

Percentage

Yes No Yes (%) No (%)

1 Students work in pairs or small groups. 4 8 33.33% 66.67%

2 Students respond to other students. 3 9 25.00% 75.00%

3 Students help others to analyze and solve problems. 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

4 Teacher accepts all valid students’ responses. 4 8 33.33% 66.67%

5 Incorrect students respond elicit encouraging, Supportive Comments.

0 12 0.00% 100.00%

6 Teacher works from organized information. 10 2 83.33% 16.67%

7 Students take note systematically. 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

8 Teacher’s presentation is logically organized. 9 3 75.00% 25.00%

9 Ideas are graphically symbolized during instruction. 2 9 16.67% 75.00%

10 Teacher acts as facilitator. 1 11 8.33% 91.67%

11 Teacher probes for correct response. 7 5 58.33% 41.67%

12 Teacher seeks evidence for stated claims. 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

13 Teacher frequently asks, “Why do you think so?” 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

14 Students relate learning to past experience or similar situations.

0 12 0.00% 100.00%

15 Teacher allows time to consider alternative/point of view. 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

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16 More than one student is queried for point of view/solution. 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

17 Teacher asks students to justify and explain their thoughts. 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

18 Teacher asks open ended questions with multiple answers. 2 10 16.67% 83.33%

19 Provides visual cues for developing cognitive strategies 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

20 Teacher appropriately uses a variety of visual media (charts, chalkboard, maps, pictures, gestures).

5 7 41.67% 58.33%

21 Teacher poses “what if” suppose that” questions. 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

22 Encourages transfer of cognitive skills to everyday life 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

23 Teacher encourages transfer at end of lesson with Comments like, “this will help you in your everyday Life in this way...”

0 12 0.00% 100.00%

24 Teacher allows at least ten seconds wait time for students answer before restating the question.

10 2 83.33% 16.67%

25 Teacher asks students to clarify and justify their response. 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

26 Teacher reinforces students for responding to open ended questions.

0 12 0.00% 100.00%

27 Encourages students to ask question 0 12 0.00% 100.00%

28 Teacher poses problematic situation. 1 11 8.33% 91.67%

29 Teacher withholds correct responses; encourages students to explore possibilities.

1 11 8.33% 91.67%

30 Teacher encourages students to answer other student’s questions.

0 12 0.00% 100.00%

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Results

Of the thirty categories in the chart, seventeen produced a 100% failure by teachers to respond in a manner that would stimulate critical thinking,

eight categories had negative scores of two-thirds or more and only four categories were above the fifty percent positive level. Of those, all were issues related to somewhat regular teacher behavior (organized presentation, probing for correct response, allows wait time for response).

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There were no indications of the teacher asking students “Why do you think so?” to ask students to clarify and justify their response (100.00%).

The teachers rarely used “if/then” language or “what if,” “suppose that” questions to encourage students to think and conclude, nor did they encourage transfer of cognitive skills to everyday life to relate what are learning to the background knowledge or to the practices in their daily life.

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What do we Think about when we Think About Teaching Thinking?

“I assume critical thinking to be reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe and do…”(Ennis, 1985).

“When teachers refer to teaching for ‘critical thinking’ they typically mean teaching for analytic thinking… which… means encouraging students to analyze, critique, judge, compare and contrast, evaluate, and assess” (Sternberg, 2003).

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Metacognition& Dispositions

Problem Solving Techniques & Skills

Logic and

Structure

Intellectual Standards

Components of Critical Thinking

Processing

Skills (cognitive strategies

)

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Think content

First, the student is learning something – think content - mostly languages, math, natural science, history and related subjects, the verbal information, concepts, rules, principles and the logic and structure which comprise the subject.

The most important insight for the appropriate design of instruction and curriculum to teach critical thinking is that content is nothing more nor less than a mode of thinking, a way of figuring something out, a way of understanding something through thought.

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Processing Strategies

Along with learning content the student must learn how to grasp and process information in an effective way, what Gagne called cognitive strategies.

These are processes such as use of questions, metaphors, analogies, compare and contrast, use of images, and other strategies that facilitate acquisition

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Metacognition

The student should learn to be aware of what and how he or she is learning, when and how to use cognitive and affective learning and enacting strategies, when to review, rehearse, and evaluate what is being learned, how to recognize and apply basic rules of logic, how to discern the overall structure of the subject being learned, and how to think about applying his knowledge

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Metacognition & Learning to Think

Hattie, in his synthesis of meta-analyses on achievement (2009) found that metacognitive skills have a major impact on learning. One form, predictive self-reporting of anticipated grades, had the highest overall impact on learning with an effect size of 1.44 (p. 44).

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Dispositions The student should develop positive

attitudes about learning the subject, such as personal responsibility, persistence, mastery, self efficacy and autonomy. Through the process of self-efficacy and the theory of self-determination the child develops intrinsic motivation, develops socially and has a sense of well-being which supports and facilitates learning

This is mostly done in the home

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Parents Have a Primary Role in Developing

Dispositions

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Nothing in the world can take the place of

persistence.

Talent will not: Genius will not; Education will not.

Persistence and determination alone are omnipotent.

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Intellectual Standards

the student should learn about intellectual standards in the mastery and analysis of information, such as clarity, objectivity, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, significance, etc. In my experience, this subject is simply not present in most school learning and only casually present in the home.

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Problem Solving

then the student applies what he has learned to critical thinking, to retrospection, analysis, evaluation, synthesis and full incorporation of learning and learns to apply all that has been learned to the resolution of problems.

We can teach students the forms of analytic thinking, when trial and error is acceptable, the advantages and risks of intuitive thinking, etc. through classroom teaching.

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All five activities interact One cannot think without content so learning new

information and ideas is important. Good cognitive strategies are required to ensure solid

acquisition of required skills and information. If a student does not have positive dispositions and

attitudes about thinking, he will not be a good thinker no matter how much content he has accumulated.

Awareness of the thinking process and its results contribute strongly to thinking

A good attitude and much knowledge will not be enough if the student has not learned the rules of intellectual standards.

Solving problems requires all of the above.

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The Thinking Curriculum

We have looked a a bit of research And I have suggested a framework for

thinking about teaching thinking How can a “thinking curriculum” be

developed for the UAE?