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1 NOUNS ANDNOMINALISATIONS

Nouns in Chinese are not specifically identified as being nouns except in thecase of those with suffixes like � zi, � er,1 � tou, etc. They are mainlydisyllabic, but there are also quite a number of monosyllabic nouns in every-day vocabulary. Trisyllabic nouns are rare and polysyllabic nouns are even rarer,the latter being often regarded as nominal phrases. Chinese nouns do not underany circumstances inflect for case, gender or number,2 though an unmarkedcommon noun is normally assumed as being plural, e.g. � she ‘books’ ratherthan ‘book’.

1.1 NOUNS AND CATEGORISATION

Nouns can be assigned to different categories with reference to their gram-matical properties. Such categorisation, as we shall see, helps to highlight theirusages, and identifies distinctive features relating to the use of measure words,definite and indefinite reference, plurality, etc.

1.1.1 COMMON NOUNS

Certain nouns are referrable to classes of tangible (and sometimes discrete)entities, categories, events and phenomena in the natural or human world. Theyare generally known as common nouns, and are linguistic labels we attach toourselves and our surroundings. For example:

�� shcrén poet� shan hill; mountain�� shangdiàn shop� giu dog�� mjdan peony� xié shoe(s)� yán salt

1 � er is essentially a nominal suffix, but occasionally is found with other word classes, e.g. theverb �� wánr ‘to play, enjoy oneself’, and with some reduplicated adjectives, e.g. �� hfohaor‘well, good’.

2 An unmarked common noun is normally assumed as being plural. Also see §1.3 for the specificuse of the plural suffix � men.

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�� yjyán language�� ycnyuè music�� gufnggào advertisement�� diànyhng film; movie�� bhsài contest�� zhànzhbng war�� dìzhèn earthquake

Tangibility is not to be understood only in a macroscopic sense. Some entitiesmay not be visibly observable, but their existence can be verified by means ofinstruments or by accompanying phenomena.

� diàn electricity�� xìbao [biology] cell�� fbnzh molecule�� yuánzh atom

The so-called discreteness, on the other hand, does not necessarily imply separ-ateness. Sometimes such discreteness may be more pragmatic than real. Forinstance, �� shùzhc ‘branch, twig’ is discrete but not separated from ��

shùgàn ‘tree trunk’, and there is a similar pragmatic distinction between � tuh‘leg’ and � jifo ‘foot’.

However, a most distinctive feature of a Chinese common noun is that some kindof measure word is normally used in conjunction with a number or demonstrat-ive. In some cases the measure is a classifier (a) and in others it is a universal orstandard measure (b),3 which is generally associated with material nouns:4

(a) �� yc zuò shan a hill; a mountain�� ! lifng dui huar two flowers; two blossoms�� ! sì jia shangdiàn four shops�� ! wj dòng fángzi five houses�� nèi ge rén that person�� zhèi bgn she this book

(b) �� yc dc shuh a drop of water�� ! san piàn miànbao three slices of bread�� yc bbi chá a cup of tea�� shí dù diàn ten units of electricity (for

billing a consumer)�� ! wj gdngjcn mh five kilos of rice�� !"# èrshí gdngshbng qìyóu twenty litres of petrol

3 See Chapter 2 for a full discussion of measure words in all their forms.4 See §1.1.2 below.



Nouns and Nominalisations 3

1.1.2 MATERIAL NOUNS

There are a number of common nouns that may be regarded as material nouns.One important feature of these nouns is that, unlike other common nouns, whichhave their own specific measure words, material nouns must first be grouped,packaged, partitioned or measured in terms of national or international standardsbefore they can be counted. For example:

�� bdli glass� tig iron� shuh water�� kdngqì air

They may only be used in connection with grouping, packaging, partitioning orstandard measures:

�� ! yc kuài bdli a (thick) piece of glass (partitioning)�� yc piàn tig a (thin) piece of iron (partitioning)�� ! san píng niúnfi three bottles of milk (packaging)�� sì duc ní four heaps of earth (grouping)�� lifng den tig two tons of iron (standard measure)

Material nouns can also be distinguished from other common nouns in twofurther ways:

(a) While, as indicators of small or imprecise number or amount, �� ycxib‘some’ and � jh (plus measure) ‘several; a few’ can be used with anycommon nouns, ��(�) ycdifn(r) ‘a little’ occurs only with materialnouns:

�� ycxib she some books�� jh bgn she a few books*��(�)� *ycdifn(r) she *a little books

�� ycxib shuh some water�� jh ting shuh a few buckets/pails of water��(�)� ycdifn(r) shuh a little water

(b) When suffixed by the particle � de, a material noun more often indicatescomposition rather than possession:

�� tóng de (made of) brass�� sùliào de (made of) plastic�� bdli de (made of) glass




Compare the following sentences:

�� !"#$%& zhèi ge hézi shì sùliào de(lit. this mw box is plastic de)This is a plastic box. (material composition)

�� !"##$% zhèi ge hézi shì bàba de(lit. this mw box is father de)This box belongs to father. (possession)

1.1.3 COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Another group of Chinese common nouns has an inbuilt notion of plurality.They are known as collective nouns, and are usually formed by juxtaposing twohyponyms (a) or by tagging a measure to a noun (b). For example:

(a) �� fùmj parents (father and mother)�� fefù a married couple (husband and wife)�� zhnm children (sons and daughters)

(Others include: �� shcshbng ‘teachers and students’, �� qcnyiu ‘friends and relatives’, ��

nánnm ‘men and women; boys and girls’, �� rénmín ‘people (as opposed to government)’, ��

chéngxiang ‘cities and villages’, �� yuànxiào ‘academic institutions’, �� shebào ‘publications(books and newspapers)’, �� wénjù ‘stationery’, �� shùmù ‘trees’, �� fàncài ‘food (cookedrice and dishes for a meal)’, �� cáichfn ‘possessions’, etc.)

(b) �� chbliàng vehicles (�� yc liàng chb a/one car)�� huadui flowers (�� yc dui hua a/one flower/blossom)�� mfph horses (�� yc ph mf a/one horse)

(Others include: �� rénkiu ‘population’, �� qiangzhc ‘rifles’, �� chuánzhc ‘shipping’, ��

shebgn ‘books’, �� zhhzhang ‘paper’, �� zhuankuài ‘bricks’, �� shìxiàng ‘matters’, ��

bùph ‘(bolts of ) cloth’, �� tiánmj ‘cultivated land’, etc.)

A common feature of these collective nouns is that they are not differentiableinto individual items by means of numerals and measures. For example:

*�� ! *lifng ge fùmj *two parents*�� *san liàng chbliàng *three vehicles

The only measure words that may be used with them are those of grouping,location or indeterminate amount. For example:

�� ! yc duì feqc a couple�� ! yc pc rénmf a cohort of people (assembled

for a particular job)




�� ! yc zhud fàncài a table of food�� ! ycxib qcnpéng some relatives and friends

1.1.4 ABSTRACT NOUNS

A second major set of nouns is generally known as abstract nouns. Unlikecommon nouns, they are non-referrable to concrete objects or entities in thenatural or human world. They are rather products of human epistemology, beingconvenient, summary labels used holistically to refer to complex or sophistic-ated situations, experiences, processes, qualities or phenomena in diverse areasof human endeavour. For example:

�� máodùn contradiction�� míngshbng reputation�� zhbnlh truth�� fànwéi scope�� qiánjhng prospect�� yhngxifng influence�� yìnxiàng impression

While common nouns are the basic stock of words sufficient for general pur-poses, abstract nouns are tools for conceptualisation and argument.

Abstract nouns may also be defined by a numeral/demonstrative and a measureword, but this measure is restricted to either the more general � gè or a measureword indicating type, e.g. � zhing ‘type, kind, category’ or the indeterminatenumber/amount measure �� ycxib ‘some’ or �� ycdifn ‘a little’. For example:

�� ! nèi ge zhbnlh that truth�� ! yc ge yìnxiàng an impression�� ! yc zhing yhngxifng a certain influence��(�� )�� lifng zhing (bù tóng de) two (different) situations

qhngkuàng�� ! zhèixib máodùn these contradictions�� ! ycdifn xiàogui a little effect

1.1.5 PROPER NOUNS

A third important set of nouns is proper nouns. They are unique labels used toidentify particular individuals, items, places, etc. In other words, proper nounshave unique referents in the universe. For example:

�� kingzh Confucius�� zhdngguó China




�� huixcng Mars�� fójiào Buddhism

Proper nouns do not usually associate themselves with numerals and measurewords except in a metaphorical sense. For example:

*�� ! *san ge huixcng *three Mars*�� ! *lifng ge kingzh *two Confucius’s

but:

�� !" lìng yc ge kingzh another Confucius�� ! lifng ge zhdngguó two Chinas

1.1.6 TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL NOUNS

A group of time and location words can be defined as temporal–spatial nouns.These nouns cut right across common, abstract and proper nouns to focus on thenotions of time and space. They are, in fact, habitual cognitive linchpins in aspeaker’s awareness of daily happenings and events, their precedences, con-sequences and developments, and their venues and associations, and they helpto order and rationalise thought processes. Without these temporal and spatiallabels, narration would become impossible and argument would be devoid of logic.

Temporal nouns:�� zuótian yesterday�� qùnián last year�� xiàzhdu next week�� mgitian every day�� !" xcnshíqì shídài the Neolithic Age

Spatial nouns:�� zhdngguó China�� bgijcng Beijing�� lúnden London�� fbijcchfng airport�� huichbzhàn railway station

What differentiates this group of nouns from the rest is their normal usage asadverbials with or without the help of the preposition-like coverb � zài ‘at, in,on, exist’. For example:

�� !"#$ ta zuótian lái kàn wi He came to see me yesterday.�� !"#$ ta zài zhdngguó ffngwèn He is touring China at the

moment.




1.2 NOUNS AND REFERENCE

1.2.1 DEFINITE OR INDEFINITE/GENERIC REFERENCE

Proper nouns have unique referents and are therefore always of definite refer-ence while abstract and material nouns usually have indefinite or generic refer-ence when unqualified. Collective nouns, too, are by nature of indefinite reference.With common nouns, however, we are faced with a clear choice between defin-ite and indefinite reference.

In a language without definite or indefinite articles like Chinese, the reference ofunmarked nouns is influenced by a number of factors: context, sentence type, theposition of the noun in relation to the verb in the sentence, and the nature of theverb itself.5 When we use the noun � she ‘book’, for instance, we have no wayof determining whether it means ‘the book(s)’ or ‘books’ in general until weplace it in a sentence.

In a sentence with an action verb, whether transitive or intransitive, all pre-verbal unmarked nouns (being given information) are of definite reference whereasall post-verbal unmarked nouns (new information) are generally of indefinitereference. For example:

�� !" she yhjcng huán leThe book /books has/have already been returned.

�� wi qù jiè sheI am going/went to borrow a book /some books.

�� ! háizi huílái leThe child/children has/have come back.

In some contexts, however, a post-verbal unmarked noun may be part of giveninformation and therefore be of definite reference:

�� !�� ta qù zhàogù háiziShe went to look after the children.

With an expository verb like � shì ‘to be’, the pre-verbal position may alsofeature new information. It is therefore not impossible for pre-verbal nouns inexpository sentences to acquire indefinite or generic reference as well as definitereference, depending on the context. For example:

5 See Chapter 23 for a full discussion of reference in relation to sentence types.




�� !"#$%&'(

she shì zhcshí yj wénhuà de shhzhg (indefinite/generic reference)Books are messengers of knowledge and culture.

�� !"# she shì wi mfi de (definite reference)(lit. books are I buy de)I bought the books.

Definite or indefinite reference may, of course, be formally marked bydemonstratives or ‘numerals +++++ measure word’ phrases.

�� zhèi bgn she this book (definite reference)�� nèi bgn she that book (definite reference)�� yc bgn she a book/one book (indefinite reference)�� jh bgn she a few books (indefinite reference)�� ycxib she some books (indefinite reference)

With the help of demonstratives and measure words, a definite-referenced nounmay also be used post-verbally:

�� !"#$ wi kàn guo zhèi bgn sheI have read this book.

However, an indefinite-referenced noun, despite the fact that it has been speci-fied by a ‘numeral + measure word’ phrase, cannot normally be featured in apre-action-verb position:6

*�� !"#$%& *yc bgn she fàng zài zhudzi shàng*A book was placed on the table.

As a general rule, the shift of an indefinite-referenced noun to a pre-action-verbposition will entail the use of the verb � yiu ‘there is/are, to exist, to have’:7

�(�)�� !"#$% yiu (yc) bgn she fàng zài zhudzi shàng8

There was a book on the table.

�� !"(�)�� !"# zhè shíhou yiu (yc) liàng chb kai lái leAt this moment a car drove up.

6 This, however, happens increasingly in modern translations: e.g. �� !"#$%&'( zhè shíhouyc liàng chb kai lái le ‘At this moment a car drove up’, but it is still felt to be translationese bymost Chinese readers.

7 See Chapter 6: the verb � yiu.8 The numeral � yc ‘one’ is often omitted for reasons of speech rhythm.




1.2.2 EXCLUSIVE REFERENCE

Apart from definite and indefinite/generic reference, exclusive references canalso be expressed through the use of � yc ‘one’9 plus a measure word or theadjective �� shénme ‘any’. Exclusive-referenced nouns are invariably posi-tioned pre-verbally, and are always accompanied by the obligatory use of anadverb � yg ‘also’ or � ddu ‘all’ in the predicate or comment:

�� !"#$% wi yc bgn she yg méi jièI didn’t borrow a single book.

�� !"#$ ta shénme she ddu kànHe reads any books.

1.3 NOUNS AND PLURALITY

Collective nouns, as we have seen, possess inbuilt notion of plurality and aretherefore not definable by precise numbers (see §1.2).

Proper nouns derive their singularity or plurality from their correspondingreferents.

�� ycngguó Britain (singular)�� ! jcde jiàotú Christians (singular/plural)

With abstract nouns, the notion of plurality does not normally arise. If it does,it is in a metaphorical and non-numerical sense. An abstract noun can usuallyonly be made to associate with the numeral � yc ‘one’. For example:

�� ! ycxiàn xcwàng a gleam of hope�� ! yc pài húyán a pack of nonsense

It is only with common nouns that there is an obvious choice as to whether theyare plural or singular, and plurality is generally indicated by a ‘numeral + meas-ure word’ phrase:

�� ! wj ge xuésheng five students�� ! lifng zhc xifomao two kittens�� san bf dao three knives

9 See also §6.2.




In addition ��10 ycxib ‘some’, � jh plus a measure word ‘a few’, and otherestablished adjectives like �� xjdud ‘many’, �� bùshfo ‘quite a few’, etc.,can be used:

�� ! ycxib pcnggui some apples�� jh ge rén a few people�� ! xjdud shangdiàn many shops�� bùshfo she quite a few books

Similarly, in the case of material nouns, plurality is expressed in conjunctionwith their measures or through rough estimation. For example:

�� yc kuài bù a piece of cloth (singular:partitioning)

�� lifng ph bù two bolts of cloth (plural: packaging)�� yc pc bù a batch of cloth (singular: group)�� lifng chh bù two Chinese feet (plural: standard

of cloth measures)��/�� ! ycxib/ycdifnr bù some cloth (rough estimate)

With human nouns there is a standard plural suffix form � men. Some restric-tions, however, apply to its use: it normally relates to people in groups, andtherefore regularly occurs as a term of address in gatherings, e.g. �� péngyoumen ‘friends’, �� !"# xianshengmen nmshìmen ‘ladies andgentlemen’; it is not used with numbers, e.g. ‘three children’ will therefore be�� ! san ge háizi rather than *�� !" *san ge háizimen; and when it ispresent in a sentence, the noun to which it is suffixed is invariably of definitereference:

�� kèrenmen the guests�� háizimen the children

It should also be noted that there are a small number of nouns in the languagethat, whatever their category, cannot be quantified at all (unless metaphorically).They provide some form of overall description: from natural phenomena tosocial conditions and human traits.11 For example:

�� dàzìrán nature�� tiankdng the sky

10 The indeterminate plural measure � xib occurs with the numeral � yc and no others. It is alsoused with the demonstratives � zhè and � nà to form the plural demonstrative adjectives ��

zhèixib ‘these’ and �� nèixib ‘those’ (see §3.2). The � yc ‘one’ in �� ycxib ‘some’ maysometimes be omitted.

11 The list is not exhaustive.




�� hfiyáng the ocean�� bdtao billows, great waves�� cháoxc the morning and evening tides�� dìshì topography, terrain�� fbngshuh fengshui, geomancy�� lièrì the scorching sun

�� guófáng national defence�� jcnróng finance�� mínyì public opinion, the will of the people�� xíngzhèng administration�� quánjú the overall situation�� rénlèi humankind�� shangyè commerce�� zhèngzhì politics

�� shbnxcn body and mind�� thpò physical condition�� wàibifo physical appearance�� xcnlíng heart, soul�� yíbifo demeanour�� zhìnéng intelligence�� yfnjiè outlook, field of vision�� xidnghuái frame of mind

1.4 NOUNS AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

Nouns, whatever their category, and noun phrases may contract the followingsyntactic relationships with other word classes in a syntactic construction –phrasal as well as sentential:

Phrasal:(a) as an attributive with or without � de indicating attribution or possession:

�� diànnfo shìjiè the computer world�� diànnfo de jianglái the future of computers

(b) as a headword modified by an adjectival attributive with or without� de:

�� xcn she new books�� niánqcng de shcrén a young poet�� mgilì de fbngjhng a beautiful view




(c) as a headword modified by a ‘numeral + meaure word’ phrase:

�� yc ge shcrén a poet�� lifng jià fbijc two aircraft

(d) as an object governed by a preposition or coverb:

�� kào qiáng against the wall�D�� yánzhe dàlù along the road

(e) as a headword followed by a full or abbreviated postposition:

�� zhudzi shàngbian on the table�� zhudzi shàng on the table

(f) as items juxtaposed to each other or joined together by conjunctions:

�� lóushàng lóuxià upstairs and downstairs�� zhuózi hé yhzi tables and chairs

Sentential:(g) as the subject of a sentence:

�� ! fbijc qhfbi le The plane took off.

(h) as the topic of a sentence:

�� !" diànnfo shífbn Computers areyiuyòng extremely useful.

(i) as a predicative after � shì ‘to be’:

�� zhèi wèi shì shcrén This gentleman/lady isa poet.

(j) as a nominal predicate:12

�� jcntian xcngqc wj Today is Friday.�� !�� xifohái jcnnián sì suì My child is 4.

12 A nominal predicate can always be reworded to include the expository verb � shì ‘to be’: e.g.�� !"#$ jcntian shì xcngqc wj ‘Today is Friday’. Predicates like these are restricted to thepredication of time, date, size, weight, length, height, price, age, nationality, birthplace, personalphysical or psychological traits, etc. Physical and psychological traits are represented by phraseslike �� gaogèr ‘a tall person’, �� jíxìngzi ‘a person of fiery temper’, etc. For example,�� !"#$ zhèi ge rén jíxìngzi. ‘This person is hot-tempered’.




(k) as the object of a transitive verb:

�� !�� ta hgn zenjìng lfoshc He respects teachersvery much.

(l) as an adverbial:

�� ta zuótian huílai He came back yesterday.�� ta yc ge rén huílai He came back on his own.

Apart from temporal nouns, which are almost always used as adverbials, there area very restricted number of nouns that may be sometimes used (with or more oftenwithout the adverbial marker �=de) as adverbials. The most common ones are:

�� bifomiàn surface > superficially�� bùfèn part > partially�� jíth collective > collectively�� hépíng peace > peacefully�� bgnnéng instinct > instinctively�� lìshh history > historically�� luóji logic > logically

1.5 NOUNS AND SEMANTIC FIELDSNouns may be compartmentalised into definable categories in terms of meaning.These definable categories are generally known as semantic fields. One salientfeature of these categories is their established or potential hyponymic relation-ship with one another. For example, a semantic field concerning meteorologicalphenomena in Chinese may have a superordinate term �� qìxiàng ‘meteorology’dominating the following hyponyms:

� yj rain� xug snow� bcng ice�� báozi hailstone� fbng wind� yún cloud� shuang frost�� lùshuh dew� hóng rainbow�� cfixiá sunset clouds� wù fog�� yanwù smog� léi thunder�� shfndiàn lightning




These terms may seem different from one another, but in their written form theymostly share the common radical � yj ‘rain’: � xug, � shuang, � báo, � lù,� xiá, � wù, � léi, and the original, unsimplified versions of � diàn (�) and� yún (�). If we go further and try to retrieve co-hyponyms of, for example,� yj ‘rain’ or � fbng ‘wind’ down the semantic ladder, we will find that mostterms are organised with the superordinate terms themselves as headwords:

� yj ‘rain’:�� dà yj heavy rain�� máomáo yj drizzle�� zhèn yj shower�� bàofbng yj storm

� fbng ‘wind’:�� wbi fbng breeze�� dà fbng gale�� táifbng typhoon�� jùfbng hurricane�� lóngjufnfbng tornado

In the Chinese lexicon, in fact, hyponymic or co-hyponymic relationships likethe above are often realised in terms of a suffix-like form shared by the hyponymsor co-hyponyms in the field. For example:

superordinate term: �� zhuanjia specialist; professionalco-hyponyms: �� zuòjia writer

�� huàjia painter�� ycnyuèjia musician�� yìshùjia artist�� tànxifnjia explorer�� císhànjia philanthropist

superordinate term: �� ! jiaotdng gdngjù means of transportco-hyponyms: �� huichb train

�� diànchb tram; trolley�� qìchb car�� lfnchb cable car�� mótudchb motorcyle�� zìxíngchb bicycle

co-hyponyms of �� qìchb ‘car’:�� ! chángtú qìchb coach�� ! gdnggòng qìchb bus




�� !13 cheze qìchb taxi�� xifoqìchb private car�� huòchb lorry, truck

Another salient feature of these semantic fields are the sets of metonymic rela-tionships which are often expressed in terms of a prefix-like form shared by themembers of the same field. For example:

�� chbtóu the front of a car�� chbshbn the body of a car�� chbwgi the rear of a car�� chblún wheel (of a car)�� chbtai tyre�� chbzhá brake�� chbpái number plate

�� shandhng peak; summit�� shanyao halfway up (a mountain)�� shanjifo foot (of a mountain)�� shanpd slope�� shanjh ridge�� shangj ravine; valley�� shanwù glen; col

�� xiédh sole (of shoe)�� xiégbn heel�� xiébang upper (of shoe)�� xiédài shoelace

�� huabàn petal�� hualgi bud�� huaruh stamen or pistil�� huafgn pollen

Such metonymic associations are not limited to part-and-whole relationship,but extend to spatial affinity in diverse senses. For example,

�� huapén flower pot�� huapíng flower vase�� hualán basket of flowers�� huayuán garden�� huajiàng gardener

13 Nowadays there is an increasing use of �� dìshì for ‘taxi’ (in place of �� ! cheze qìchb) ineveryday speech, �� dìshì borrows the Cantonese transliteration of ‘taxi’.




1.6 NOMINALISATIONS

Nominalisation in Chinese does not usually seek morphological conversions. Itis always context-dependent. In other words, all nominalisations are contextualnominalisations.

A verb or an adjective may be taken as a noun therefore only in a given contextor grammatical framework: for example �� gufngbd ‘to broadcast’ in origin isa verb, as in �� ! gufngbd xcnwén ‘to broadcast news’. However, if theorder of the two words is reversed, �� ! xcnwén gufngbd will mean ‘newsbroadcast’, in which the word ‘broadcast’ may be said to have been nominalisedaccording to its headword status in the collocation.

Again, � mgi ‘beautiful’ in �� !"#$% zhèi ge cài de wèidào zhbn mgi‘This dish tastes really delicious’ (literally: the taste is really beautiful) is un-doubtedly an adjective. However, in a context such as the following, it functionsas a noun: �� !"#$%& ! wàibifo de mgi bù dgngyú nèixcn de mgi‘Beauty in appearance is not the same as beauty at heart’.

Contextual nominalisation, as we can see, occurs essentially with verbs andadjectives when they are used as grammatical topics or objects. Other wordclasses are less likely to become nominalised. Here are a few more examples, inwhich the verbs �� yánjie ‘to study, to research into’, �� faxiàn ‘to dis-cover’ and �� pànduàn ‘to judge’ have been made nouns:

�� !"#$%&'() ta duì zhèi ge wèntí jìnxíng le yánjieHe conducted some research into/made a study of the problem.

�� !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123

ta ránhòu gbnjù zìjh de faxiàn | duì zhèi ge wèntí zuòche le pànduànHe then, based on his discovery, made a judgement on the problem.



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