1 edm 6210 education policy and society lecture 9 education policy and social integration: dialectic...

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EDM 6210EDM 6210

Education Policy and SocietyEducation Policy and Society

Lecture 9Lecture 9Education Policy and Social Integration: Education Policy and Social Integration:

Dialectic of Dialectic of Education for Nationality and CitizenshipEducation for Nationality and Citizenship

Wing-kwong TsangWing-kwong Tsang

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Dialectic of the State and Nation: The Dialectic of the State and Nation: The Emergence EthnicityEmergence Ethnicity

• To recapitulate, in this courseTo recapitulate, in this course– The state is conceived as a sovereign power apparatus (lThe state is conceived as a sovereign power apparatus (l

egitimate monopoly of use of physical force), which has segitimate monopoly of use of physical force), which has successfully established over residents of a definite territouccessfully established over residents of a definite territory. It is the “engineering” outcome of a power-steering syry. It is the “engineering” outcome of a power-steering system and/or struggle between power-steering systems.stem and/or struggle between power-steering systems.

– The nation is conceived as a community of sentiment, whThe nation is conceived as a community of sentiment, which emerges “spontaneously” from frequent communicatiich emerges “spontaneously” from frequent communications among residents of a territory. It is the “practical” outons among residents of a territory. It is the “practical” outcome of the lifeworld built on common-languages and tercome of the lifeworld built on common-languages and territory. ritory.

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• To recapitulate, in this course…To recapitulate, in this course…– However, human history especially in the past five However, human history especially in the past five

centuries has witnessed many different forms of centuries has witnessed many different forms of dialectical relationship between these two types of dialectical relationship between these two types of human groupings. For examplehuman groupings. For example

• Empire-states over nations, e.g. Ching Empire over nations Empire-states over nations, e.g. Ching Empire over nations in China, British colonial empire over nations in Indiain China, British colonial empire over nations in India

• Monarchy-state over nations in France and subsequently Monarchy-state over nations in France and subsequently republic-state (Jacobin-state) over nations in Francerepublic-state (Jacobin-state) over nations in France

• Nazi- and Fascist-states over nations in Germany and Italy Nazi- and Fascist-states over nations in Germany and Italy

• The state of the United Kingdom over nations in the British The state of the United Kingdom over nations in the British Isles Isles

• Migrant-states over natives in American continents and Migrant-states over natives in American continents and AustraliaAustralia

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• Institutionalization of modern nation-state: InstitutiInstitutionalization of modern nation-state: Institutionalization of constitutional-democratic states and onalization of constitutional-democratic states and civil-democratic citizenship in the past two centuricivil-democratic citizenship in the past two centuries have provided the state and nation a common fes have provided the state and nation a common foundation, i.e. a community of sentiment of citizenoundation, i.e. a community of sentiment of citizenship.ship.– Through the institutions of constitutional-democratic statThrough the institutions of constitutional-democratic stat

e, residents within the territory of a sovereign state are ene, residents within the territory of a sovereign state are entitled to participate on equal bases in political affairs as wtitled to participate on equal bases in political affairs as well as in socio-cultural and economic activities.ell as in socio-cultural and economic activities.

– Through these equal-participatory practices of citizenshiThrough these equal-participatory practices of citizenship, it is anticipated (as Habermas advocates) that a moderp, it is anticipated (as Habermas advocates) that a modern nation in the form of community of sentiment (or even cn nation in the form of community of sentiment (or even community of prestige) of equal entitlement of citizenship.ommunity of prestige) of equal entitlement of citizenship.

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• Conception of ethnic group and ethnicityConception of ethnic group and ethnicity– Anthony Smith’s conception: Anthony Smith’s conception:

“ “We arrive at the following definition of the term ethnie: a We arrive at the following definition of the term ethnie: a anmeed human population with myths of common ancestanmeed human population with myths of common ancestry, shared historical memories, one or more elements of cry, shared historical memories, one or more elements of common culture (e.g. religion, custom or language), a link ommon culture (e.g. religion, custom or language), a link with a homeland and a sense of solidarity among at least with a homeland and a sense of solidarity among at least some of its members.” (Hutchinson & Smith, 1996, p. 6)some of its members.” (Hutchinson & Smith, 1996, p. 6)

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• Conception of ethnic group and ethnicityConception of ethnic group and ethnicity– Max Weber’s conception:Max Weber’s conception:

• Definition: “We shall call ‘ethnic groups’ those human Definition: “We shall call ‘ethnic groups’ those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of descent because of similarities of physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and migration; this belief must be important for the and migration; this belief must be important for the propagation of group formation; conversely, it does not propagation of group formation; conversely, it does not matter whether or not an objective blood relationship exist. matter whether or not an objective blood relationship exist. Ethnic membership differs from the kinship group precisely Ethnic membership differs from the kinship group precisely by being a presumed identity, not a group with concrete by being a presumed identity, not a group with concrete social action, like the latter.” (Weber, 1978, p. 289)social action, like the latter.” (Weber, 1978, p. 289)

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• Conception of ethnic group and ethnicityConception of ethnic group and ethnicity– Max Weber’s conception: …Max Weber’s conception: …

• Having analyzed a list of contributing factors to the Having analyzed a list of contributing factors to the formation of ethnic group, Weber comes to the conclusion formation of ethnic group, Weber comes to the conclusion that that

“ “All in all, the notion of ‘ethnically’ determined social action All in all, the notion of ‘ethnically’ determined social action subsumes phenomena that s rigorous sociological analysis subsumes phenomena that s rigorous sociological analysis …would have to distinguish carefully……. It is certain in this …would have to distinguish carefully……. It is certain in this process the collective term ‘ethnic’ would be abandoned, for process the collective term ‘ethnic’ would be abandoned, for it is unsuitable for a really rigorous analysis. …The concept it is unsuitable for a really rigorous analysis. …The concept of the ‘ethnic’ group…dissolves if we define our term of the ‘ethnic’ group…dissolves if we define our term exactly.” (Weber, 1978, p. 394-395)exactly.” (Weber, 1978, p. 394-395)

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• Conception of ethnic group and ethnicityConception of ethnic group and ethnicity– Max Weber’s conception: …Max Weber’s conception: …

• Ambiguity in distinguishing the notions of ethnicity and Ambiguity in distinguishing the notions of ethnicity and nationality:nationality:

– ““The concept of ‘nationality’ shares with that of the ‘people’ The concept of ‘nationality’ shares with that of the ‘people’ (Volk) — in the ethnic sense — the vague connotation. …In (Volk) — in the ethnic sense — the vague connotation. …In reality…persons who consider themselves members of the reality…persons who consider themselves members of the same nationality are often much less related by common same nationality are often much less related by common descent than are persons belonging to different and hostile descent than are persons belonging to different and hostile nationalities. Differences of nationality may exist even among nationalities. Differences of nationality may exist even among groups closely related by common descent, merely because groups closely related by common descent, merely because they have different religious persuasions, as in the case of Serb they have different religious persuasions, as in the case of Serb and Croats.” (Weber, 1978, p. 395) and Croats.” (Weber, 1978, p. 395)

– ““A common language is also insufficient in sustaining a sense A common language is also insufficient in sustaining a sense of national identity. …Many German-speaking Alsatian feel a of national identity. …Many German-speaking Alsatian feel a sense of community with the French because they share certain sense of community with the French because they share certain custom and some of their ‘sensual culture’ …and also because custom and some of their ‘sensual culture’ …and also because of common political experiences.” (Weber, 1978, p. 396)of common political experiences.” (Weber, 1978, p. 396)

9Alsace: Border region between France and Germany

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• Conception of ethnic group and ethnicityConception of ethnic group and ethnicity– T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnificationT.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnification

• Oommen’s definition of ethnie and ethnicity:Oommen’s definition of ethnie and ethnicity:

“ “An ethnie is a collectivity, members of which share a commAn ethnie is a collectivity, members of which share a common lifestyle, history and language, but whose identification on lifestyle, history and language, but whose identification with its ancestral homeland is weak or endangered. Ethnicitwith its ancestral homeland is weak or endangered. Ethnicity, then, is a product of attenuation between territory and culty, then, is a product of attenuation between territory and culture. Id an ethnie aspires to and succeeded in establishing a ure. Id an ethnie aspires to and succeeded in establishing a moral claim over the territory to which it has migrated, and moral claim over the territory to which it has migrated, and with which it identifies as its homeland, it becomes a nation.with which it identifies as its homeland, it becomes a nation.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 45)” (Oommen, 1997, p. 45)

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• Conception of ethnic group and ethnicityConception of ethnic group and ethnicity– T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnificationT.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnification

• Conception of ethnification: “Ethnification is a process throConception of ethnification: “Ethnification is a process through which the link between territory and culture is attenuateugh which the link between territory and culture is attenuated, and the possibility of a nation sustaining it integrity is put d, and the possibility of a nation sustaining it integrity is put into jeopardy.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 13)into jeopardy.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 13)

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Dialectic of the State and Nation: The Dialectic of the State and Nation: The Emergence EthnicityEmergence Ethnicity • Conception of ethnic group and ethnicityConception of ethnic group and ethnicity

– T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnificationT.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnification• Types of ethnification:Types of ethnification:

– Native Indians in American continent and native Australian (aboriNative Indians in American continent and native Australian (aborigines) in Australia: “A nation may continue to be in its ancestral gines) in Australia: “A nation may continue to be in its ancestral or adopted homeland and yet it may be ethnifiied by the colonizior adopted homeland and yet it may be ethnifiied by the colonizing or native dominant collectivity.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 13)ng or native dominant collectivity.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 13)

– Natives in multinational-states in former USSR, PRC, and many iNatives in multinational-states in former USSR, PRC, and many independent states from former colonial states in Africa and Asia, ndependent states from former colonial states in Africa and Asia, e.g. Public of India and South Africa: “Ethnification …occurs whee.g. Public of India and South Africa: “Ethnification …occurs when a state attempt to ‘integrate and homogenize the different nation a state attempt to ‘integrate and homogenize the different nations in its territory into a common people.” (Oommen, 1997, p.15)ns in its territory into a common people.” (Oommen, 1997, p.15)

– Chinese and Indian migrant labor settled in Malaysian peninsula: Chinese and Indian migrant labor settled in Malaysian peninsula: Migrants, who have settled in colonial and subsequent independMigrants, who have settled in colonial and subsequent independent states, are ethnified by the majority nation, as in the case of tent states, are ethnified by the majority nation, as in the case of the Federation of Malaysia, or by the state-formation project as in he Federation of Malaysia, or by the state-formation project as in the case of the Republic of Singapore.the case of the Republic of Singapore.

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Dialectic of the State and Nation: The Dialectic of the State and Nation: The Emergence EthnicityEmergence Ethnicity • Conception of ethnic group and ethnicityConception of ethnic group and ethnicity

– T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnificationT.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnification• Typology of ethnification:Typology of ethnification:

External Ethnification Internal Ethnification

Natives Aborigines, Native-Americans

Uyghur, Tebetan, Mongol in PRC

Migrants Chinese and Indian migrants in Malaysia

Chinese-Americans

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Synthesis: Modern Citizenship as Means Synthesis: Modern Citizenship as Means of Reconciling Ethnicity and Nationality of Reconciling Ethnicity and Nationality within Modern Nation Statewithin Modern Nation State

• Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationalityJurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality– In light of the two historical or even historic movements taIn light of the two historical or even historic movements ta

ken place at the end of the twentieth century, namely the Gken place at the end of the twentieth century, namely the German unification and constitution of the European Union, erman unification and constitution of the European Union, Habermas suggests a thesis to reconcile the structural coHabermas suggests a thesis to reconcile the structural contradictions among states, nations and ethnic groups and ntradictions among states, nations and ethnic groups and the identity conflicts among citizenship, nationality and etthe identity conflicts among citizenship, nationality and ethnicity.hnicity.

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Synthesis: …Synthesis: …

• Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationalityJurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality– Re-conceptualization of the nationRe-conceptualization of the nation

• Classical meaning of the notion of nation: In its “classic usage Classical meaning of the notion of nation: In its “classic usage , …nations are communities of people of the same descent, wh, …nations are communities of people of the same descent, who are integrated geographically in the form of settlements or no are integrated geographically in the form of settlements or neighborhoods, and culturally by their common language, custeighborhoods, and culturally by their common language, customs and traditions, but who are not yet politically integrated in oms and traditions, but who are not yet politically integrated in the form of state organization.” (Habermas, 1994, p. 22) the form of state organization.” (Habermas, 1994, p. 22)

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• Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationalityJurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality– Re-conceptualization of the nation …Re-conceptualization of the nation …

• Meaning of nation in the 21st century: “The meaning of the terMeaning of nation in the 21st century: “The meaning of the term ‘nation’ thus changed from designating a pre-political entity m ‘nation’ thus changed from designating a pre-political entity to something that was supposed to play a constitutive role in to something that was supposed to play a constitutive role in defining the political identity of the citizen within a democratic defining the political identity of the citizen within a democratic polity. …The nation of citizenshs does not derive its identity frpolity. …The nation of citizenshs does not derive its identity from common ethnic and cultural properties but rather from the om common ethnic and cultural properties but rather from the praxis of citizens who actively exercise their right. At this junctpraxis of citizens who actively exercise their right. At this juncture, the republican strand of ‘citizenship’ parts company compure, the republican strand of ‘citizenship’ parts company completely from the idea of belonging to a pre-political community iletely from the idea of belonging to a pre-political community integrated on the basis of descent, a shared tradition and a contegrated on the basis of descent, a shared tradition and a common language.” (Habermas, 1994, p. 23) mmon language.” (Habermas, 1994, p. 23)

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• Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationalityJurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality– Two types of nationality: In connection of the new conceoTwo types of nationality: In connection of the new conceo

ption of nation, Habermas makes a distinction between twption of nation, Habermas makes a distinction between two types of nationalityo types of nationality

• Hereditary nationality, which is identity built on elements sucHereditary nationality, which is identity built on elements such as common descent, custom, language or even ancestral hh as common descent, custom, language or even ancestral homeland. They are ascribed from one’s traditional-cultural heromeland. They are ascribed from one’s traditional-cultural heredities edities

• Acquired nationality, which is identity and commitment indiviAcquired nationality, which is identity and commitment individual citizens who consciously strive to achieve collectively in dual citizens who consciously strive to achieve collectively in the preview of civil-democratic citizenship and constitutional-the preview of civil-democratic citizenship and constitutional-democratic state. democratic state.

Therefore, Habermas proposes that hereditary nationality Therefore, Habermas proposes that hereditary nationality should give way to acquired nationality. (Habermas, 1994, should give way to acquired nationality. (Habermas, 1994, p. 23)p. 23)

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• T.K. Oommen’s conclusionT.K. Oommen’s conclusion– On the pessimistic part, “given the above, it is unrealistic tOn the pessimistic part, “given the above, it is unrealistic t

o expect that a common civilization which embaces the muo expect that a common civilization which embaces the multiplicity of nations and ethnies will emerge even in a distaltiplicity of nations and ethnies will emerge even in a distant future; it is a wrong agenda to be pursued.” (Oommen, 1nt future; it is a wrong agenda to be pursued.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 243)997, p. 243)

– On the optimistic part, “one must recognize the role of citiOn the optimistic part, “one must recognize the role of citizenship as an instrument that can reconcile the two identitzenship as an instrument that can reconcile the two identities of nationality and ethnicity and the competing demandies of nationality and ethnicity and the competing demands of equality and identity.s of equality and identity.

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Social Integration of Modern Societies

Ethnicity

States

Traditional Nation

Sovereign power

Citizenship

Descent Ancestral Homeland LanguagesReligions

Social Integrations

Customs

Hereditary Nationality

Sovereign power

Acquired Nationality

Schooling & Education

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Universal Education as Means of Universal Education as Means of Integration in Modern Nation-StateIntegration in Modern Nation-State

• Universal education as part of project of state Universal education as part of project of state formation and citizenship developmentformation and citizenship development– Universal provision of education as the primary basis of Universal provision of education as the primary basis of

equality of future citizens of modern stateequality of future citizens of modern state– Universal education as means of construction of identity Universal education as means of construction of identity

of citizenshipof citizenship• Entitlement to universal provision of equal education as Entitlement to universal provision of equal education as

citizenship rights to literate and intellectual developments as citizenship rights to literate and intellectual developments as well as equal opportunities to socio-economic developmentswell as equal opportunities to socio-economic developments

• Participation in universal provision of equal education as Participation in universal provision of equal education as citizenship obligation to participate in common socio-cultural citizenship obligation to participate in common socio-cultural activities of the modern stateactivities of the modern state

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Universal Education as Means of Universal Education as Means of Integration in Modern Nation-StateIntegration in Modern Nation-State

• Universal education as part of the project of nation Universal education as part of the project of nation formation and nationality developmentformation and nationality development– Universal education as means to nurture common languagUniversal education as means to nurture common languag

e of communication among future citizenshipe of communication among future citizenship– Universal education as means of construction of identity oUniversal education as means of construction of identity o

f acquired nationalityf acquired nationality– Universal education as means of construction of identity oUniversal education as means of construction of identity o

f hereditary nationalityf hereditary nationality

• Education as part of the project of de-ethnification Education as part of the project of de-ethnification and national homogenization: Universal education and national homogenization: Universal education as means to integrate ethnic identities into identity as means to integrate ethnic identities into identity acquired nationalityacquired nationality

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Educating Identities Educating Identities of Citizenship and Nationalityof Citizenship and Nationality

• Basic meaning of identity: Basic meaning of identity: – According to Oxford English Dictionary, the Latin root of According to Oxford English Dictionary, the Latin root of

the word identity is identitas, which is from idem, meaninthe word identity is identitas, which is from idem, meaning “the same.” It signifies two basic meanings. “The first ig “the same.” It signifies two basic meanings. “The first is a concept of absolute s a concept of absolute samenesssameness: this is identical to that.: this is identical to that. The second is a concept of The second is a concept of distinctivenessdistinctiveness which presu which presumes consistency or continuity over time.” (Jenkins, 1996, mes consistency or continuity over time.” (Jenkins, 1996, p.3) p.3)

– Hence, the notion of identity implies both the notion of siHence, the notion of identity implies both the notion of similarity and distinctiveness. More specifically, in dealing milarity and distinctiveness. More specifically, in dealing with one’s identity, one must simultaneously handling the with one’s identity, one must simultaneously handling the distinctiveness of oneself and the similarity one shares wdistinctiveness of oneself and the similarity one shares with members of the collectivity one identified with.ith members of the collectivity one identified with.

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• Conceptual framework of identities of nationality Conceptual framework of identities of nationality and citizenshipand citizenship– Distinction between personal and social Distinction between personal and social

• Personal identity: It refers to the distinctiveness, coherence Personal identity: It refers to the distinctiveness, coherence and continuity that an individual attributes to herself or and continuity that an individual attributes to herself or more profoundly the person-qua-person essence. more profoundly the person-qua-person essence.

• Social identity: It refers to the sense of belonging and/or Social identity: It refers to the sense of belonging and/or membership to social categories, collectivities or membership to social categories, collectivities or association that an individual “ascribed” or “achieved”.association that an individual “ascribed” or “achieved”.

Nationality and citizenship by definition are constructs of Nationality and citizenship by definition are constructs of social identitysocial identity

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• Conceptual framework of identities of nationality aConceptual framework of identities of nationality and citizenship …nd citizenship …– Distinction between essentialist and constructionist apprDistinction between essentialist and constructionist appr

oaches to identity\oaches to identity\• Essentialism: Essentialism in identity studies refers to apprEssentialism: Essentialism in identity studies refers to appr

oaches which takes social identity, such as gender, ethnicity,oaches which takes social identity, such as gender, ethnicity, race, nationality, class, as objectively exiting reality. Their f race, nationality, class, as objectively exiting reality. Their formations are based on some essentially fixed traits such as ormations are based on some essentially fixed traits such as biological sex, skin color, place of birth, formal-legal status, biological sex, skin color, place of birth, formal-legal status, level of income, etc.level of income, etc.

• Constructionism: Constructionism in identity studies refers Constructionism: Constructionism in identity studies refers to perspective which conceives identity as socially constructo perspective which conceives identity as socially constructed reality. They are on one hand collectively constituted in ted reality. They are on one hand collectively constituted in social processes or even political movements, and on the otsocial processes or even political movements, and on the other hand individually articulated in deliberate articulations.her hand individually articulated in deliberate articulations.

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• Conceptual framework of identities of nationality Conceptual framework of identities of nationality and citizenship …and citizenship …– Distinction between primordial and instrumental bases of Distinction between primordial and instrumental bases of

identityidentity• Primordial identity: It refers to identity founding its bases on Primordial identity: It refers to identity founding its bases on

some primordial components of a collectivity, such as some primordial components of a collectivity, such as common descent, culture, homeland, religion, etc.common descent, culture, homeland, religion, etc.

• Instrumental identity: It refers to identity generated from Instrumental identity: It refers to identity generated from instrumental- rational calculation and action of a collectivity, instrumental- rational calculation and action of a collectivity, for example identities of migrants to American continentfor example identities of migrants to American continent

27Primordial Identity

Instrumental Identity

Essential Identity

ConstructedIdentity

Han Identity

Chinese Identity

Asian-AmericanIdentity

HK-ChineseIdentity

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The Constituents of Education for The Constituents of Education for Nationality and CitizenshipNationality and Citizenship

Constituents of Nationality Constituents of Citizenship

1. Hereditary Nationality a. Territorial and ethnic

nationality

- Geographic characteristic & landscape

- Ethnic homogeneity and heterogeneity

b. Historical and cultural nationality

- Linguistic and symbolic system

- Historical experience & system of memory

2. Acquired Nationality 1. Citizenship-right education a. Common participation in

economic activities a. Civil rights

b. Citizenship & equality in political participation

b. Political rights

c. Common and equal participation in social & cultural activities

c. Social and participation rights

2. Citizenship-obligation education a. Civil obligations b. Political obligation

d. Ethic duties and obligations owe to fellow citizens

c. Social and participation obligations

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Development of Citizenship Education in Development of Citizenship Education in HK HK

• Basil Bernstein’s three message systems of educational knowledge

“Formal educational knowledge can be considered to be realized through three message system: curriculum, pedagogy, and evaluation. Curriculum defines what courts as valid knowledge, pedagogy defines what courts as valid transmission of knowledge, and evaluation defines what counts as a valid realization of this knowledge on the part of the taught. …How a society selects, classifies, distributes, transmits, and evaluates the educational knowledge it considers to be public reflects both the distribution of power and the principles of social control within that society.”

(Knowledge and Control, 1970, p. 47)

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• Citizenship-education in the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War (1948-56)– HK Government’s initiatives in civic education in

1948• Special section – “Education for Citizenship” - in

ED annual report

• Training courses on teaching civics

• Introducing a new subject – Civics into the Hong Kong School Certificate examination in 1948.

– Complying subjects/refugees under the British colonial rules

– No rocking of the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War

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• Citizenship-education in the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War (1948-56)

The syllabus for Civics in the Hong Kong School Certificate examination consisted of the following subjects: (1) introduction; (2) our community; (3) how it is governed; (4) public health; (5) housing; (6) communications; (7) education; (8) other public services; (9) livelihood; (10) work; (11) industry; (12) money; (13) insurance; (14) the press; (15) politics; (16) war and peace; and (17) the future.

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Our Community:

“The community in which we live. ... Hong Kong connected racially with China and politically with Britain"

(The Hong Kong School Certificate Syndicate, 1950, p.47).

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How it is Governed:

"Order is the first condition of happy and prosperous community. ... Laws are intended to protect rather than to punish. General description of the British system of justice, and how it differs from that of China" (p. 48)

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The Press:

“The primary function of a democratic press is to give full and fair information, and to criticize public affairs within the bounds of justice and good taste. Freedom of the press is safeguarded by law. Its abuse is restricted by the law of libel. What happens when the press become corrupt or falls under the control of one political party, or the state.” (p. 49)

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“Man as an individual and as a member of society: today he is a ‘citizen’ rather than a ‘subject’. Active association in community life is the mark of a citizen; mere obedience to community law is the mark of a subject. Democracy requires that all citizens should participate in its activities.” (p.47)

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"American capitalism, Russian Communism, and British Socialism" (p, 50).

War and Peace: “The causes of war. Intellectually, socially, and

economically, we are largely cosmopolitan, but politically we have not advanced far beyond a narrow form of nationalism. War is caused largely by the retardation of our political development. Peace as a positive and creative force. How it can be secured. The United Nations Organization as an ideal of world-wide government to which all nations owe ultimate obedience. The British Commonwealth as an example of what can be done to achieve the peace, happiness and co-operation of nations.” (p.50)

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The Future:

“Citizens of the World. How science and knowledge has broken the old barriers of isolationism... . Every individual is now virtually concerned with events happening throughout the world. Our first concern and first loyalty are with our own immediate surroundings, but they, in turn are bound up with the international situation (world conditions). The ultimate loyalty of all is humanity as a whole.” (p.50)

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A Legislative Councilor said, “Hong Kong is a lifeboat, China is the sea. Those who have climbed into the lifeboat naturally don’t want to rock it.”

(quoted in Hoadley, 1970, p. 211)

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• Citizenship-education curriculum under the Subject Political Culture (1957-84)

– Descents of citizenship-education curricula• The syllabus of Civics in 1957

• The syllabus of Economic and Public Affairs (EPA) in the 1960s

• The syllabus of EPA in 1975

• The syllabus of EPA in 1982

– Responsible residents in an industrial colony– The constitution of the subject political culture

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– The syllabus of Civics in 1957

• Disappearance of cold-war rhetorics

• Replacing democratic and participatory citizenship with “responsible citizen”

"The Citizen and the Community: Obeying its laws; civic duties; active participation in its affairs---service; the value of character and initiative" (The Hong Kong School Certificate Syndicate, 1957, p.32).

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– The syllabus of Civics in 1957• Changes in the imagery of HK

“(a) What Hong Kong is: Commercial and industrial centre, community of free individuals, example of tolerance, e.g. racial, religious. (b) Main reasons for growth: Geographic position; trade; the overcoming of early difficulties; just and stable government; periodic influx of population; enterprise and industry of population; influx of capital.” (p.31)

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Development of Citizenship Education in Development of Citizenship Education in HK HK • Citizenship-education curriculum under the

Subject Political Culture (1957-84) – The syllabus of EPA in 1964

•Replacement of Civics with Economic and Public Affairs

•HK was characterized a colony•Emphasis on administrative output of the government

•The emergence of the subject political culture

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Development of Citizenship Education in Development of Citizenship Education in HK HK • Citizenship-education curriculum under the

Subject Political Culture (1957-84) – The syllabus of EPA in 1964

• "The Government and the Citizenship: (a) The government's responsibility to provide necessary services and to protect the citizen. (b) The citizen's duty to co-operate, the importance of the individual's work, character and service. (c) Aid given by voluntary societies.

(Hong Kong Certificate of Education Board, 1966, p.28)

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– The syllabus of EPA in 1964

“The Role of Youth: (a) The size of the youth population in Hong Kong

and the rights and responsibilities of youth to the community.

(b) The importance and problems of youth in relation to Hong Kong public affairs.

(Hong Kong Certificate of Education Board, 1973, p.52)

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– The syllabus of EPA in 1982

• Introduction of the concept “liberal democracy”

• Re-introduce the topic “The Government and the People”

• Political inputs was characterized as “consultation” and “channels for redress of grievance”

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• Citizenship-education curriculum under the shadow of the 1997 handover

– Changes in citizenship-education curricula• Guidelines on Civic Education in Schools, 1985

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Guidelines on Civic Education in Schools, 1985

“Socialization is usually understood as a process through which new or immature members of society are induced to accept and conform to traditionally established ways of life. To this end, civic education, with the promotion of social responsibility as its main aim, becomes a method of political socialization. However, there are those who consider that civic education should not be used in this way, claiming that its 'products' become merely passive, consenting adults all too ready to 'toe the government line'. Critics of political socialization would prefer to see young people grow up with a reforming zeal, prepared to question established authority and introduce radical changes.”

(The Curriculum Development Committee, 1985, p.9)

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“Democracy means different things to different people. As the American president Abraham Lincoln put it, it means "Government of the people, by the people, for the people". Alternatively, it may also be interpreted as a way of life in which the decision-making process is characterized by majority control. There are many brands of democracy in the political arena — some pluralistic, some centralist and various combinations of both. So education for democracy per se would be difficult to interpret. Although some basic understanding of the concept of democracy may be introduced according to the intellectual level and experience of pupils, for the purpose of the guidelines the term "civic education" will be used.” (p.8)

49



“Civic education...should be merged into the widest possible programme of interdisciplinary or "integrated" studies but not to the extent that it loses its focus and identity in the minds of teachers and pupils. Teachers of social subjects will continue to play a central role in the school's civic education programme, but teachers in other areas of experience should be aware of the social and political dimensions and incorporate these in their teaching. (p.25)

50




• Guidance on Civic Education in Schools, 1995

– From the apolitical and anational “citizen” of the retreating colonial state to the patriotic “citizen” of the HKSAR

– Patronage, domestication or empowerment: Contention over the preparation of citizens for the HKSAR

51




• Guidance on Civic Education in Schools, 1995

53


• Over-comprehensiveness and groundlessness in the 1995 Guideline

– Over-comprehensiveness• Sanctity of life• Harmony in family• Co-operation in neighbouring community• Integration in regional community• Identity of national community• Betterment of human kind

– Groundlessness: Absence of the power base of citizenship

• Process of power delegation• Process of empowerment

54


• The articulation of the Cultural and Education Subgroup of the Preliminary Working Committee for the Special Administrative Region Preparatory Committee (PWC)

"the content of civic education after 1997 should stress two aspects: one is to strengthen the idea of the motherland, national consciousness and an understanding of the history of the Chinese nation, so as to enhance school children's sense of belong to the nation-state of China. The other is to incorporate the teaching of the Basic Law into the formal curriculum. ..... Although education about democracy, human rights and environmental protection is essential, it is not the primary concerns for post-1997 citizenship education."

(Lau, report of Wen Wei Po, 22 May 1995; my translation).

55


• The articulation of the Cultural and Education Subgroup of the Preliminary Working Committee for the Special Administrative Region Preparatory Committee (PWC)

"the content of civic education after 1997 should stress two aspects: one is to strengthen the idea of the motherland, national consciousness and an understanding of the history of the Chinese nation, so as to enhance school children's sense of belong to the nation-state of China. The other is to incorporate the teaching of the Basic Law into the formal curriculum. ..... Although education about democracy, human rights and environmental protection is essential, it is not the primary concerns for post-1997 citizenship education."

(Lau, report of Wen Wei Po, 22 May 1995; my translation).

56


• National education in HKSAR schools proposed in the 2011 Policy Address of Chief Executive of HKSAR

57

Lecture 9Lecture 9Education Policy and Social Integration: Education Policy and Social Integration:

Dialectic of Dialectic of Education for Nationality and CitizenshipEducation for Nationality and Citizenship

END

1 edm 6210 education policy and society lecture 9 education policy and social integration: dialectic...

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