WORLD HISTORY NOTESCHAPTER 6 SECTION 1

RELIGION AND SCIENCE (1450-1750)

The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution

Intellectual and cultural transformation Began in Europe 1450 to 1750

Knowledge acquired through: careful observations, controlled experiments, the formulation of general laws, and mathematical expressions

Less reliance on: the authority of the Bible, the Church, the speculations of ancient philosophers, or the received wisdom of cultural tradition

The Question of Origins: Why Europe?

12th and 13th centuries = Europeans developed a legal system that gave a measure of independence to a variety of institutions Ex: the Church; towns and cities;

workers’ guilds; professional organizations; universities

Independence for universities = scholars had the freedom to pursue their studies without interference from the Church or political authorities

Most of the major figures in the Scientific Revolution = trained in or affiliated with these universities

Cambridge University in England

Why Not the Islamic World?

Focus in colleges/universities = Quranic studies and religious law Science was studied outside the

formal system of higher education

Religious scholars = viewed science and philosophy with suspicion To them = Quran holds all the

wisdom Science might challenge the

Quran Science and philosophy lead to

uncertainty and confusion

Why Not China?

Chinese education = focused on preparing males for the civil service examinations Focused on classical

Confucian textsChinese authorities = did

not allow independent institutions of learning where scholars could pursue their studies freely

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish astronomerStarted his career at

University of Krakow in Poland in 1492

At the forefront of the Scientific Revolution

Started at a time when few people dared to question old beliefs and superstitions

Nicolaus Copernicus

Believed the Earth was round & that it rotated around the sun

Said the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe

Challenged the idea that the Earth was unique and at the center of God’s attention

Copernicus continued…

His theory was known as the “Heliocentric Theory”

Spent more than 25 years studying planetary movements.

Did not publish his findings until 1543 (last year of his life) – “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies” Fear – contradicted religious beliefs Tycho Brahe and Brahe’s assistant Johannes Kepler

concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer & mathematicianProtestantUsed math formulas to show that the planets

revolved around the sunPlanets moved in ellipses = ovalsPlanets don’t always travel at the same

speed - move faster as they approach the sun

Johannes Kepler

Galileo Galilei

Italian mathematicianImproved the telescope to

make it more powerful Observed: sunspots,

mountains on the moon, Jupiter’s moons

Created the pendulum clock

1636 = published ideas on physics, astronomy, etc. Book banned by the Catholic

Church

Galileo Galilei

Faced heated opposition by the Catholic Church. Why? If The Church could be wrong about

this then they could question other church teachings also.

1616 – Catholic Church warned him not to defend ideas of Copernicus.

1632 – published “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems.” Which showed he clearly supported the Copernican Theory.

Pope Paul V summoned him to stand trial by the Inquisition (Inquisition was a permanent institution in the Catholic Church charged with the eradication of heresies)

STOOD BEFORE THE COURT IN 1633 . • UNDER THE THREAT OF TORTURE, HE KNELT BEFORE

THE INQUISITION AND READ ALOUD A SIGNED CONFESSION (PG 191) . IN IT HE AGREED THAT THE

IDEAS OF COPERNICUS WERE FALSE. • HE LIVED UNDER HOUSE ARREST FOR THE REMAINDER OF HIS DAYS AND DIED IN 1642 .

• IN 1992 THE CATHOLIC CHURCH OFFICIALLY ACKNOWLEDGED THAT GALILEO HAD BEEN CORRECT

IN HIS FINDINGS.

Galileo Galilei Continued…

Trial of Galileo

Sir Isaac Newton

British scientistBelow average

student at Cambridge University

Explored the most complicated mathematics of his day

Studied Copernicus & Galileo

Sir Isaac Newton

1665 = plague closed Cambridge University & he was forced to go home to his family

Sitting in his garden one day, he saw an apple fall -- helped him develop his theory of gravity

1687 = published theories about gravity Prevents objects from flying off the

Earth; also holds the solar system together

Believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe, the clockmaker who had set everything in motion.

Sir Isaac Newton

Formulated modern laws of motion and mechanics

Developed calculus = system of math that calculates changing forces or quantities

Proved that math can be used to explain the universe

Francis Bacon

English philosopherTruth found through

investigation & evidence

Helped develop scientific method1. Observe 2. Make hypothesis 3. Test hypothesis 4. Conclusion

Rene Descartes

French philosopher & mathematician

Truth gained through mathematics and logical deduction (reason)

Invented analytic geometry

Famous quote = “I think, therefore I am.”

William Harvey

English physicianConcluded that blood

circulates throughout the body, pumped by the heart and returning through the veins

Before = people thought the liver digested food & processed it into blood

Robert Hooke

English scientistDiscovered the

cellUsed new

microscope -- recognized cells in vegetable tissues

Robert Boyle

Irish chemistConsidered the Father of

Modern ChemistryEstablished chemistry as a

pure scienceProved air wasn’t a basic

element. Challenged Aristotle’s idea that the world consisted of four elements – earth, air, fire, and water.

Boyle’s Law – explains how the volume, temperature, and pressure of gas effect each other.

Joseph Priestley

English chemist & clergyman

Did experiments about the properties of air and discovered the existence of oxygen

His studies on carbon dioxide led to his invention of carbonated drinks (like soda)

Scientific Revolution Spreads

Zacharias Janssen (1590) – created first microscope (previously made eyeglasses)

Evangelista Torricelli (1643) – developed the first mercury barometer - a tool for measuring atmospheric pressure and predicting weather.

Gabriel Fahrenheit (1714) – made 1st thermometer to use mercury in glass. (Freezing at 32 degrees)

Anders Celsius (1742) – created a separate scale for the mercury thermometer. (Freezing at 0 degrees).

Medicine and the Human Body

Andreas Vesalius – proved ancient Greek physician named “Galen” wrong. Galen had only dissected pigs and other animals. Never a human body.

Vesalius dissected human corpses and published his observations in the book, “ On the Structure of the Human Body (1543). It was filled with detailed illustrations of human organs, bones, and muscle.

Edward Jenner (late 1700s) – introduced a vaccine to prevent smallpox. Inoculation had been practiced in Asia for centuries (could be beneficial

but could also be dangerous). Jenner discovered that inoculation with germs from a cattle disease

called “cowpox” gave permanent protection from smallpox for humans. Greatly significant in the world of medicine and for the progression of

mankind.

Conclusion

The aforementioned thinkers helped to usher in a movement that challenged the age-old relationship between a government and its people and eventually changed forever the political landscape in numerous societies.