1450- 1750 Review

REVOLUTIONS IN THOUGHT AND EXPRESSION

Revolutions to Thought and Expression

• Crusades opened Christians to Islamic civilizations and trade– Europeans exposed to new developments and

history– Leads to four main movements: the Renaissance,

the Protestant Reformation, the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

The Renaissance (Rebirth)

•After black Death, demand for goods and services increased

•Urbanization•Middle class (bankers merchants, and traders emerged)

•Influx of money

•Use money to study the past

Humanism

• Medieval Europe- thoughts of salvation and afterlife; earth to be suffered through on the way to heaven

• Humanism- person accomplishment and personal happiness. Participation on the “here and now”

• Fascination with Greek and Roman concepts of beauty and citizenship

• Shift focus to life on Earth and celebration of human achievements

Art

• The Medici Family: turned Italy into a showcase of architecture and beauty

• Michelangelo-painter; Sistine Chapel• Brunelleschi- The dome of the Florence Cathederal• Leonardo da Vinci-painter/ sculptor• Donatello-painter/ sculptor• Van Eyck brothers-Dutch artists• Albrecht Durer- German painter

New Techniques

• Application of humanistic ideas• Use of light and shadow made figures appear full and

real• Autopsies to understand the structure of the human

body• Linear perspective– Developed by Tommaso Masaccio and Fillipo Brunelleschi – Gives art three-dimensional quality

• Architects get Greek and Roman influence to build domes on cathedrals

Art

Medieval Times• Humans flat, stiff, and out of

proportion• Almost entirely religious

• Mostly in cathedrals• Did not try to be “worldly”

Renaissance• Used realism to make

humans look softer• Religious and secular• Commissioned by religious

and secular leaders• Seen in cathedrals, plazas,

and public homes• Very worldly

Western Writers

• [1400s] Johannes Gutenberg invents printing press– Books easy to produce– More affordable– Written in different vernaculars (native languages)– More literate and educated people

Books!

• Most were practical or political• Machiavelli [1517 C.E.] The Prince• Erasmus [late 1500s] In Praise of Folly• Sir Thomas More [late 1500s] Utopia• William Shakespeare [late 1500s] Venus and

Adonis, Julius Caesar, etc

Protestant Reformation

• Catholic church was a unifying force and intermediary between man and God

• Finance projects funded by indulgences– Paper faithful could purchase to reduce time in

purgatory– Church maintained power over masses– Angered people; seen as corrupt

Martin Luther• [1517] 95 Theses– Frustrations with church practices– Church services should be conducted in local languages

(not Latin)• Translated the Bible into German• Believed salvation given by God through grace, not

the authorization of the church• Believed the Bible taught self salvation (no need for

pope)• Pope Leo X outraged and excommunicated Luther• Followers- Lutherans

John Calvin

• Calvinism• Predestination- God predetermined ultimate

destiny for all people– Those saved known as “Elect”

• [1530s]Protestant theocracy in Geneva in Switzerland

King Henry VIII

• Church of England (Anglican Church)• King did not have authority of pope to annul

marriage of Catherine of Aragon• King Henry VIII declared himself head of

religious affairs in England– [1534] Act of Supremacy

The Counter-Reformation

• Catholic Reformation [16th Century]• Led by Spain• Banned the sale of indulgences, consulted

more frequently with bishops, trained priests to live the Catholic life, weekly mass mandatory– Regained some lost credibility– “Clarifying the Catholic Church’s position”

The Jesuits

• Ignatius Loyola• Restoring faith in teachings of Jesus

interpreted by the Catholic Church• Self control and moderation• Prayer + good works = salvation• Oratorical and political skills; many appointed

by kings to high palace positions

The Council of Trent

• [1545-1563]• Dictated and defined Catholic interpretation of

doctrine• Re-established Latin as language used in

worship

The Scientific Revolution

• Nicolaus Copernicus [1543] On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Sphere – Earth and other celestial bodies revolve around

sun: “Heliocentric” – Earth rotates on axis

• Galileo [1632] Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World– Showed how Earth revolved on axis and stars

distance– Put on trial before Inquisition in Rome – Book put on “The Index”, a list of banned works

The Scientific Method

• Replaced scholastic method based off of “reasoning”

• One had to prove an idea, document it, repeat it, and publish it

• Tycho Brahe [1546-1601] built observatory• Francis Bacon [1561-1626]• Johannes Kepler [1571-1630] laws of planetary

motion• Sir Isaac Newton [1642-1727] Law of gravity

Scientific Revolution

• Scientific inquires conducted with practical goals in mind

• Produced a larger number of people rejected church’s rigid pronouncements that conflicted with scientific findings – Atheists: No God exists– Deists: God exists, but plays passive role. “God as

watchmaker”

The Enlightenment

• Focused on mankind in relation to government

• Social contract: governments formed to meet social and economic needs of people

Enlightenment Thinkers• Thomas Hobbes [1588-1679] Leviathan– people greedy and prone to violence; government

should preserve peace and stability “at all costs”• John Locke [1632-1704] Two Treatises on

Government– Man had unalienable rights (life, liberty, and property),

up to government to secure and grant them; people were justified in replacing government if these rights weren’t met

• Jean Jacques Rousseau [1712-1778]– All men equal; majority rule; essence of freedom to

obey laws that people prescribe for themselves

Enlightenment Writers

• Voltaire– Religious toleration

• Montesquieu– Separation of powers among branches of

government

Enlightened Monarchs

• Ruled absolutely but made attempts to tolerate diversity, increase opportunities for serfs, take on responsibility of rule

• Joseph II of Austria• Frederick II of Prussia

EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND EXPANSION: EMPIRES OF THE WIND

Portuguese Exploration

• Cut out the Muslim middlemen• Advances in ship-building, navigation, and

gunpowder allowed for increased sea travel

Portuguese Success

• Royal family supported exploration• [1488] Bartholomew Dias rounded tip of

Africa (Cape of Good Hope)• [1497] Vasco de Gama rounded Cape of Good

Hope, east African kingdoms, and established trade relations in India

Spain vs Portugal

• [1492] Christopher Columbus went west and found the Americas

• [1494] Portugal and Spain fighting over Americas– Treaty of Tordesillas

Explorers

• Amerigo Vespucci [1500s]- many explorations of South America; America named after him

• Ponce de Leon [1513]- explored Florida for Spain to find fountain of youth

• Vasco de Balboa [1513]- laid sight on Pacific Ocean

• Ferdinand Magellan [1519]- crew circumnavigated the globe

More Explorers

• Giovanni da Verrazzano [1524]- explored North American coast for France

• Sir Francis Drake [1578] first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe

• John Cabot [1597] explored coast of North America for England

• Henry Hudson [1609] sailed for Dutch looking for Northwest Passage; made claims around Hudson River

Technology that made Exploration Possible

• The Sternpost Rudder- better navigation and control of ships

• Lateen Sails- sails allowed ships to sail in any direction, regardless of wind

• The Astrolabe- measured distance of sun and stars to determine latitude

• The Magnetic Compass- determine direction• Three-Masted Caravels- large ships could hold

provisions for longer journeys

Cortes and the Aztecs

• [1519] Hernan Cortes landed on coast of Mexico with 600 men

• Hooked up with neighboring people of Aztecs who were willing to help Cortes defeat Aztecs

• Montezuma (Aztec Ruler) thought Cortes was a god & brought Cortes gold

• Spaniards seized Montezuma and began siege of Tenochtitlan

• Control by [1525]

Francisco Pizarro

• Went for Incan Empire in [1531]• 200 men with him• Disease + Weapons = success• Control of Inca in [1535]

Disease

• Weapon of mass destruction– Smallpox– Infections new to Americas, no natural resistance

to them

The Ecomienda SystemPeninsulares- Spanish officials to govern the colonies

Crillos or Creoles- People born in the colonies to Spanish parents

Mestizos- European and Native ancestry

Mulattos- European and African

Native Americans- little or no freedom

The Ecomienda System

• Viceroys provided peninsulares with land and number of native laborers

• Peninsulares protect natives and convert them to Christianity

• Reform needed: switch to African slavery

The African Slave Trade

• Europeans traded guns and goods to African leaders in exchange for slaves

• [mid 15th century] Portuguese captured Africans

• Demand increased; Europeans kidnapped Africans or pitted groups against each other to control weapons trade

The Middle Passage

• Middle Passage: sea route from Africa to the Americas– Approx. 13 million Africans took journey– 60% to South America– 35% to Caribbean– 5% to North America

• Death rates ~20% on Middle Passage

The Columbian Exchange

• Transatlantic transfer of animals, plants, diseases, people, technology, and ideas among Europe, the Americas and Africa

• Two key products: sugar and silver

The Commercial Revolution

• Joint- Stock Company- organization created to pool the resources of merchants, distributing the costs and risks and reducing danger for individual investors

• Monopolies– The Muscovy Company of England: trade routes to

Russia– The Dutch East India Company: trade routes to the

spice islands• Mercantilism- country tried not to import more

than it exported

Asian Trade

• Portuguese set up trading post in Goa (west coast of India) and Spice Islands

• Dutch formed Dutch East India Company and had raids on Portuguese ships and trading posts.– 1600s, Dutch became biggest power in spice trades

• England and France: trading posts in India• China and Japan limited trade with Europeans

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

Spain

• [1469] King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella get Spanish authority under one house– Supported exploration– Survival and expansion of the Spanish language

and culture– Built naval fleet

Portuguese

• Domination of costal Africa, the Indian Ocean, and Spice Islands

• Limited manpower; could not control colonies• Lost colonies to Dutch and British– Faster ships, heavier guns

Charles V

• [1519] Charles elected Holy Roman Emperor• Held land in France, the Netherlands, Austria, and

Germany, plus Spain• Fought for control of Italy and Ottoman Turks for

control of eastern Europe– Led to expansion of Ottoman rule

• Defended Catholicism against Protestantism• [1556] gave control of Austria and Holy Roman Empire

to brother, Ferdinand I• Gave control of Spain, Sicily, the Netherlands to son,

Philip II

Philip II

• Spanish expansion in New World• Continuation of Spanish Inquisition – Led to Catholic Reformation against Protestants– Increase in missionary work in New World

• [1581] Dutch (mostly Protestant) revolted and gained independence from Spain

ENGLAND

England: the Elizabethan Age

• King Henry VIII’s daughter, Elizabeth I “Golden Age”

• [1558-1603] commercial expansion, exploration, and colonization

• Muscovy Company & British East India Company, Drake, first English colonists in Roanoke colony, Shakespeare

James I

• Elizabeth dies; [1607] James I comes to power• Attempted to institute reforms for Catholics

and Puritans• Puritans did not want to accept James I as

divine right– Cross the Atlantic… Pilgrims to Plymouth colony

Charles I

• Son of James I; rose to power in [1625]• Petition of Right: document limiting taxes and

forbidding unlawful imprisonment– Charles ignored petition after securing funds he

needed; ruled without calling another meeting of parliament for 11 years.

Charles I

• [1640] Parliament called when Scotland invades England– Know as Long Parliament: limited absolute powers

of monarchy– [1641] denied Charles's request for money to fight

Irish rebellion

Charles I

• Charles led troops into House of Commons to arrest some members civil war

• Roundheads under Oliver Cromwell to fight king– Defeat armies of Charles I (Cavaliers)– King tried and executed

Oliver Cromwell

• Rose to power as leader of “English Commonwealth”– Then Lord Protector– Religious intolerance and violence against

Catholics.

Charles II

• Restore a limited monarchy• Stuart Restoration [1660-1688]• Acknowledged rights of the people (esp.

religion)– Habeas Corpus Act: protects people from arrests

without due process

James II

• After Charles II• Open Catholic and unpopular; believed in

divine right of lings• Glorious Revolution– James II driven from power by Parliament– James II flees to France

William and Mary

• [1688] replace James II• Protestant rulers of the Netherlands• English Bill of Rights [1689]– Ensured England’s future monarch would be

Anglican– Powers would be limited

FRANCE

France

• Began to unify after Hundred Years’ War with strong monarchy

• French Protestants (Huguenots) develop during Protestant reformation

• Huguenots vs French Catholics• [1598] Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes– toleration

France

• Henry IV was the first Bourbon king• Cardinal Richelieu: chief advisor to Bourbons– Compromise with Protestants– New bureaucratic class: the noblesse de la robe

Louis XIV• 4 years old when he inherited the crown• Cardinal Mazarin(his mom) ruled until he was an adult• Louis XIV nicknamed “Sun king” and “The Most

Christian King”– Absolute monarch– Ruled under divine right– “I am the State”– Versailles– Never called Estates-General– Revoked Edict of Nantes (many Huguenots left)

War and Succession

• Jean Baptise Colbert appointed by Louis XIV to manage royal funds

• Wanted to increase size of French empire for business transactions and taxes (French mostly at war)

• War of Spanish Succession [1701-1714]– Philip V, Louis XIV’s grandson could rule Spain– Spain couldn’t combine with France– France had to give up territories to England

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

Holy Roman Empire

• Located in present day Austria• Geographically dominated but feudal– Local lords – Weakened the empire

Holy Roman Empire

• Lost parts of Hungary to the Ottoman Turks in the early [16th century]

• The Thirty Years’ War [1618-1648] devastated the region; weakened role of Holy Roman emperors

• [18th century] northern German city-states (esp Prussia) gaining momentum & power

• [1555] Peace of Augsburg: bring end to constant conflict between Catholics and Protestants

• Thirty Years’ War [1618]Protestant territories challenged authority of emperor religious and political war

• [1648] Peace of Westphalia: independence of small German states

RUSSIA

Russia

• [1480]Ivan III refused to pay tribute to Mongols; declared Russia free of Mongol Rule

• Established absolute rule in Russia (uniting and expanding it)

• Cossacks: peasants promised freedom from feudal lords if they conquered and settle lands east of Russia

Time of Troubles

• Ivan IV dies in [1584]• [1604-1613] Feudal lords battled over who

should rule• [1613] Michael Romanov elected czar– Romanov Dynasty• Added stability• Ruled until [1917]• Serfs almost slaves• Expansion

Peter the Great

• In power from [1682-1725]• Westernize Russia– First navy– St. Petersburg as new capital “window to the

west”– Recruited western Europeans to westernize Russia– Women wore western fashions– Men shaved their beards

Catherine the Great

• Ruled from [1762-1796]• Continued westernization– Education – Western culture– Western expansion (Poland, the Black Sea)

The

Ott

oman

Em

pire

Ottoman Empire

• Mongol Empire fell, Muslim Ottoman Empire rose in Anatolia– Founded by Osman Bey– Unify and challenge the Byzantine Empire– “Turks”

• [1453] invaded Constantinople and ended Byzantine Empire

Changes in the Ottoman Empire

• Conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul• Hagia Sophia and cathedrals converted into

mosques• Empire more tolerant to religion, but changed

with expansion• Within 100yrs, Ottomans conquered much of

Roman empire region

Selim I

• [1512] came to power• Claimed he was the rightful heir to Islamic

tradition under Arab caliphs• Istanbul= center of Islamic civilization• Christian subjects and children captured and

turned into fighting warriors (Janissaires)

Suleiman I

• [1520] came to power (aka Suleiman the Magnificent)

• Built up Ottoman military• “golden age” [1520-1566]– Tried to push into Europe

Ottoman Empire

• Lasted until [1922]• Expanded Islam• Pressure on Eastern Europe allowed Western

Europe to dominate the world

The Safavids

• Based on military conquest• Shia Islam• In between Ottomans and Mughals

Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire

• [1526] Babur- leader claimed to be descended from Genghis Khan

• Dominated Indian subcontinent for 300 years• United most of subcontinent

Akbar

• Grandson of Babur• Ruled [1556-1605] unified much of India by

practicing religious toleration– Open practice– Elimination of jizya (head tax on Hindus)– Attempted to eliminate sati

• Established golden age of art, architecture, and art– Taj Mahal built under Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan

Post-Akbar era

• Religious toleration ended– Muslims reinstated jizya– Hindu temples destroyed– Muslims persecuted Hindus; Hindus organizing

against Muslims • Arrival of Europeans– British and Portuguese scrambled for trade in

India

Africa

Songhai

• Islamic state• Economic ties to Muslim world• Sunni Ali built Songhai by conquest and

military force– navy– Central administration– Timbuktu as major Islamic center

• Fell to Moroccans (they had muskets)

Kongo

• Close economic and political relationships with Europe (esp. Portugal)

• Kings of Kongo (ex. King Alfonso I) converted to Roman Catholicism– Kingdom converted

• State declined as Portuguese desired slaves

Angola

• Trading post in Portugal [1575]– Expanding trade – When Portugal tried to exert authority, Queen

Nzinga resisted• 40 years resisted Portuguese control, allied with Dutch• Could not unify rival or overcome Portuguese

CHINA

China & the Ming Dynasty

• [1368] Ming Dynasty restored power to native Chinese– ruled until 1644

• Strong centralized government• Civil service exams• Built large fleets– Zheng He: naval voyages

Ming Government

• “single-whip” system- silver currency– Silver obtained first through Japan, then Spanish through

the Philippines • [16th century] Ming in decline– Europeans and pirates

• [17th century] – Famines and peasant revolts

• [1644] Qing warrior from Manchuria to quell peasant uprising– Take over; Qing (Manchu) Dynasty ruled until [1912]

Qing Dynasty

• Not ethnically Chinese; tried to remain “elite”– Forbade Chinese to learn Manchu language or

marry Manchus• Opened up civil service exams to lower classes

Kangxi•Ruled [1661-1722]•Confucian scholar•Supported arts•Conquered Taiwan, extended empire to Mongolia, central Asia, and Tibet

Qianlong•Ruled [1735-1796]•Confucian scholar•Supported arts•Conquered Vietnam, Burma, and Nepal

Manchu trade

• Rights to Portuguese, Dutch, and British• When Manchu felt threatened, they would

expel certain groups– [1724] Christianity banned– [1757] trade only in Canton

• Europeans brought tea, silk, and porcelain for sliver

JAPAN

Japan

• [16th century] shoguns stilled ruled, emperor figurehead

• Centralized power began to emerge when power of feudal lords reduced

• Westernization– Christian missionaries– Jesuits take over Nagasaki and trade flourished

Tokugawa Shogunate

• Established by Tokugawa Ieyasu• Strict, rigid government that ruled until [1868]• Power away from emperor• Ieyasu claimed ownership to all lands• Rigid social class model Warrior

Farmer

Artisan

Merchant

Tokugawa period

• “Edo period”- capital moved to Edo• Christians persecuted• [1635] National Seclusion Policy– Prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad– Prohibited foreigners to visit

• Executed group of Portuguese diplomats and traders that tried to negotiate an open trade [1640]

Culture

• Absence of other cultures= Japanese cultures to thrive

• Buddhism and Shinto• Kabuki theatre• Haiku poetry

The Big Picture

• Technology helped Europe become a powerful force

• Expanded knowledge of the world (by exploration by the Europeans)

• Increased contact= spread of new ideas and technology

• Powerful women took charge of powerful empires– Elizabeth I (England), Isabella (Spain), Nur Jahan

(Mughal, India)• Status and freedoms of women changed little– Legally considered property of husbands– Few rights in legal or political spheres

• Biggest change: mixing cultures (mestizo)• Exception: matrilineal societies in Africa (men

engaged in slave trade)

Global Economy

• Sailing: diminished need for Asian land routes, connected the world

• Mercantilism: economic and political developments

• Private Sector: larger number of people had direct stake in trade and conquest– Governments began to lose their grip on

controlling economies