UNIT 2 – THE ANCIENT NEAR EASTChapter 4 – Ancient Egypt and Nubia – Key Terms (Vocabulary & Notes)

Key Terms (Vocabulary):Section 1:

1. cataract - group of rocky rapids2. delta - a flat plain formed on the seabed where a river

deposits material over many years3. artisan - skilled worker who practices a handicraft4. pharaoh - king of ancient Egypt5. dynasty - a series of rulers rom the same family6. bureaucracy - system of many government officials who carry

out government rules and regulations7. mummy - a body that has been preserved so it will not

decompose

Section 2:8. hieroglyphic - symbol that stands for a word, idea, or sound9. papyrus - a writing surface similar to paper named after the

papyrus reed that grew along the Nile River in ancient Egypt

10.pyramid - structure with triangular sides11.sculpture - statue or other free-standing piece of art made of

clay, stone, or other materials12.anatomy - study of the structure of the body and its organs

Section 3:13.commerce - buying and selling of goods and services14.ivory - hard white material made from elephant tusks15.interdependence - dependence by each country or group by the

other16.ebony - black wood from West Africa17.Meroitic script - one of the world’s first alphabets, invented in

ancient Nubia

Section 1 – Egypt Under the PharaohsObj: Students will know how Egypt’s geography shaped its civilization; that dynasties of pharaohs ruled Egypt; that Egyptians worshiped many gods; students will be able to identify main ideas and details; compare viewpoints to understand the lives of ordinary Egyptians.Expectations: In this section, students will read “Egypt Under the Pharaohs”; understand how geography, government, economics, and religion affect people’s lives; go “On Assignment” in ancient Egypt and collect information the land and culture.Key Ideas:

Egypt’s unique geography helped shape its civilization and farming methods Pharaohs belonging to dynasties ruled Egypt and were seen as gods Egyptians worshiped many gods

Chapter 3 – Section 1 – Egypt Under the PharaohsLike the Fertile Crescent, Egypt became one of the world’s first great civilizations. It also developed along a river valley with rich soil. However, Egypt’s geography and culture differed in many ways from those of the Fertile Crescent.

The Nile River ValleyEgyptians knew that the Nile was a life-giving river for them. Without it their land would be only desert.The World’s Longest RiverThe Nile is the world’s longest river:

It begins in East Africa and flows between 3500-4000 mil north to the Mediterranean Sea.

It has two main sources the White Nile and the Blue Nileo White Nile flows from Lake Victoriao Blue Nile rushes down from the highlands of present-day Ethiopia.

The two rivers meet in present-day Sudano In ancient times northern Sudan was known as Nubia, or Kush

In Nubia and Egypt, the Nile flows through the Sahara desert, which stretches across most of northern Africa.

In ancient times, the Nile roared through six cataracts before reaching Egypt.The rocky cataracts made it impossible for people to travel by ship upstream from Egypt.

Upper and Lower EgyptBelow the cataracts, the Nile flows through a narrow valley lined with cliffs, this region is known as Upper Egypt – it is upstream from the Mediterranean Sea.

Near the end of its journey, the Nile slows down and fans out into many streams (tributaries) ad marshy areas. As it slows, the river drops its silt.

Over thousands of years, the silt has built up to form a large river deltao A delta is an area of sediment, soil or minerals carried by water,

deposited at the mouth of a river.The Nile Delta forms the region known as Lower Egypt.Floods and the Black LandThere is a narrow strip of fertile soil that lines both bands of the Nile and covers the delta.

This soil was so important to the Egyptians that they named their country after this soil

o Kemet – which means “black land” Yearly flooding created the Black Land

o Each summer heavy rainfall from East Africa poured into the Nile’s sources

o Flood waters surge through Egypto Waters then drain away, leaving a layer of fresh soil

Nile floods were unpredictableo If too much water came, the floods could be a natural disaster

that swept away soilo If too little water came, it could cause a drought.

Droughts could bring hunger or starvation by causing crops to fail.

The Red LandOn either side of the Black Land is desert.Egyptians called these deserts the “Red Land” (deshret)

Unlike the Black Land, the Red Land was a deadly place of hot, burning sands.

Civilization DevelopsMore than 7,000 years ago people began growing grains in the fertile soil left behind by the Nile floods.Over time Egyptian farmers were able to grow more and more food, which helped support its growing population.

Growing a SurplusEgyptian farmers built earthen walls around fields to trap the Nile’s flood waters.The water soaked into the soil allowing grains, such as wheat, to grow.Crop irrigation allowed farmers to produce a food surplus.Powerful people and families gained control within Egypt by collecting some of the farmers’ crops as taxes.The Birth of CitiesLocal leaders used the surplus tax to buy rich cloth, jewelry, and luxury goods.These goods were supplied by merchants and artisans.

Farmers’ surplus supported the artisanso Skilled artisans’ product were much more advanced than similar

products made by farmers.Artisans and merchants began to settle around homes of local rulers.In time, these settlements turned into cities.

Egypt’s cities brought together wealthy and skilled people They became centers of culture and power Skilled architects built impressive building Artists created great works of art to decorate them.

The Kingdoms of Egypt (see map on pg 148)3000s BC – two kingdoms developed in Egypt

Upper Egypt – its king wore a white crown Lower Egypt – its king wore a red crown

Uniting EgyptAround the same time, legends say that Narmer united the two kingdoms.

This made him the first pharaoh of both Upper and Lower Egypt. He wore a double crown of red and white He founded Egypt’s earliest dynasty

Normally control passed between members of a dynasty.Sometimes a new dynasty gained power instead.

The Old and Middle KingdomsHistorians divide Egypt’s history into periods based on kingdoms and dynasties. Events were in the control of the pharaohs of these time periods.2686 BC – 2125 BC – the Old Kingdom

A period of prosperity, political strength, and cultural achievement Then came a period of civil wars

2055 BC – 1650 BC – the Middle Kingdom Concentrated on public works

o Built a system of canals that could drain dangerous flood waters and irrigate new farmland

Then came more civil wars and invasions1550 BC – 1070 BC – the New Kingdom

Conquered lands in Asia and Africa. It would eventually weaken and break apart.

Egypt faced foreign invasions.One dynasty gained power with the help of the AssyriansLater, Egypt was conquered by the Persian empire.In 332 BC – the Greek army of Alexander the Great conquered Egypt.Egyptian GovernmentThe pharaoh relied on bureaucracy.The head of Egypt’s bureaucracy was an official called the vizier.The bureaucracy:

collected taxes from farmers (mainly surplus crops)o they took some of the surplus for themselveso distributed the rest to:

priests pharaoh artisans and merchants who worked for the pharaoh

Egypt’s bureaucracy and system of taxation were a model for later governments, including those of today.

Two Great RulersGreat pharaohs were powerful figures who shaped Egypt’s history.

HatshepsutOne of the few women to rule Egypt

the daughter of one pharaoh and the wife of another When her husband died, her son was too young to rule She decided to make herself Egypt’s new pharaoh (regent)

Some Egyptians did not want to bow to a woman.To gain their support, Hatshepsut carried out all the rituals expected of a king.

She dressed as a kingo Wearing a false beard (the symbol of the pharaoh’s power)

Most Egyptians came to accept her rule.Her rule was peaceful.

She built Egypt’s wealth and power through tradeo Stories of trade journeys were carved on the stone walls of an

enormous temple that she built.

Ramses IIHe ruled about 200 years after Hatshepsut, and was a very different kind of pharaoh.Hatshepsut gained power through tradeRamses II would gain power through war.

The first half of his life as pharaoh would be spent fighting in Canaan and Syria, in the Fertile Crescent.

1275 BC – he led his army against the powerful Hittites, in a place called Kadesh in present-day Syria

He lost many soldiers in the Battle of Kadesh Later, he made peace with the Hittites by agreeing on a border

He was a great builder.During his reign, Ramses II built more monuments than any other pharaoh.

Egyptian SocietyTo control Egypt, pharaohs needed the loyalty and labor of the people.Egypt’s social order provided both

Egypt’s society was shaped like a pyramid (see example on pg 149) Top - pharaoh

o Because the people believed that the gods controlled everything, and the pharaoh controlled Egypt, he was considered a god-king wo deserved loyalty

Just below the pharaoh – nobles, priests, and officialso They helped the pharaoh run the government (this included scribes,

who kept records for its bureaucracy) Middle level – merchants and artisans

o Work their entire lives working on public works (temples, tombs, etc) Lower level – farmers

o The majority of people in Egypt. During the growing season they raised Egypt’s food Non-growing time they worked as laborers on the pharaoh’s

building projects (most did willingly anyway out of religious devotion, which would reward them after death)

Slaves – lowest of societyo Many prisoners of waro Debtors (who were freed after serving for a period of time)o Property of their owners and did forced labor.

Egyptian ReligionReligion played an important role in the life of the people of Egypt

They believed their gods controlled everythingo From the flooding of the Nile to the death of a child

The gods could be kind or dangerouso To please them the Egyptians build temples and offered them

prayers and gifts

Many GodsEgyptians were polytheists.Many of their gods were associated with animalsStatues or works of art of their gods could depict a god with the head or body of a lion, crocodile, or some other creature.

Egyptians believed that the gods shared the qualities of the animal (strength, speed, or bad temper)

One of the most important gods was Amon-Re, the sun god. Egyptians believed he made a daily journey across the sky

o Each night he died in the west (where the sun set)o Each morning he was reborn in the east (where the run rises)

Osiris was the god of the underworld, or world of the dead Egyptian legend – he was killed and chopped into pieces by a rival god

names Seth. Isis, his wife and the mother goddess of Egypt, moved heaven and earth to help Osiris. She found the pieces of his body and brought him back to life.

Isis represented love, caring, and protection in both life and death.Horus (son of Isis and Osiris)

Legend tells of great battles between Horus and Seth.o Horus defeated Seth and then united the two lands of Egypto As a result, every pharaoh was thought to be Horus in human form.

Religion and SocietyPharaohs thought to be god on earth only contributed to their power.

People would obey the pharaoh and his officials in fear of angering a godPriests were also powerful

People thought priests could help them gain favor with the gods The priests of the Temple of Amon-Re in the city of Thebes were especially

powerful.

Preparing for the AfterlifeEgyptians believed they could overcome death (in this world)Life on Earth could lead to an afterlife, but required some preparation:

First, live a good lifeo Osiris decided who would have an afterlife

Those who lived good lives would be allowed to live forever, but the sinful would be destroyed

Preserving the Dead Second, prepare the body after death

o Egyptians believed that they needed to preserve the body so after death their spirit could recognize it and use it as a home.

o Egyptians went to great efforts to preserve the bodies of their dead. Poor people were buried in the desert where the hot, dry sand

quickly dried out their bodies Wealthy Egyptians were mummified

The body is preserved by a special process – mummification . o Knowledge of this process was one of ancient Egypt’s great

achievements. o From mummies, scientists have learned much about life and death in

ancient Egypt.

Section 2 – Art, Architecture, and Learning in EgyptObj: Students will know that Egyptians developed one of the world’s first systems of writing; Egyptian accomplishments in math, science, art, architecture, and literature; students will be able to summarize ancient Egypt’s main accomplishments; develop cultural awareness about the role of mathematics in building the pyramidsExpectations: In this section, students will read “Art, Architecture, and Learning in Egypt”; explore how Egyptian engineers used math; go “On Assignment” in ancient Egypt and work on the chapter assignmentKey Ideas:

Egyptians developed one of the first systems of writing and some of the world’s earliest literature

Egyptians build impressive pyramids and produced beautiful works of art Egyptians were accomplished mathematicians and scientists

Chapter 3 – Section 2 – Art, Architecture, and Learning in EgyptAncient Egyptians were great inventors. They paved the way for later civilizations in writing, literature, art, architecture, mathematics, and science.

Writing and LiteratureThe ancient Egyptians developed one of the world’s first writing systems.Egyptian writing preserved some of the world’s oldest records and works of literature.

Hieroglyphic Writing3200 BC – ancient Egyptians developed early forms of writing

Around the same time, Sumerians were developing their own writing system

o Scholars aren’t sure which developed writing first Was it the Egyptians and Sumerians borrowed the idea? Or, was it the Sumerians and the Egyptians borrowed the idea? Or, did each come up with their ideas separately?

Egyptian writing was unlike Sumerian cuneiform. Egyptians used hieroglyphics.

Most ancient Egyptians did not know how to write.Scribes or officials knew and were valued for their knowledge of writing

These individuals could share and preserve knowledge The ability made its complex civilization and advanced technology possible.

PapyrusThis invention was a material very similar to paper (papyrus)

Made from the papyrus reed that grew along the Nile Our work paper comes from the word papyrus Scribes wrote on the papyrus sheets with ink

o Much easier than pressing symbols into clay like the Sumerianso Papyrus easier to transport than pieces of clay

Papyrus’s most important quality is that it could last a very long time in Egypt’s dry environment

Many of their documents have survived to the present.Wall paintings may show us how Egyptians lived, however, written records give us a fuller sense of what was in their hearts and minds.

Egyptian LiteratureAncient Egyptian literature included:

teachings stories poems religious texts histories

It was written on sheets of papyrus, carved on stone monuments, and painted on the coffins of mummies.One famous text…..The Book of the Dead, is a guide to the afterlife for dead souls.

Architecture and ArtEgyptians created temples for their gods and tombs for their pharaohs.

The PyramidsTombs of early rulers were underground chambers, or rooms.The burial chamber contained items that the ruler might want in the afterlife.An architect named Imhotep designed a new kind of tomb for his pharaoh:

six stone mounds, one on top of the other. smaller in size as they go up

o the result is known as a step pyramid.Later architects made the sides smoother to create a “true” pyramid.During the Old Kingdom, three enormous pyramids were built at Gaza: (see pgs 154 & 155)

1. King Khufu2. Khufu’s son Khafre3. Khufu’s grandson Menkaure

The largest is the Great Pyramid of Khufu For nearly 4,000 years this pyramid stood as the world’s tallest building Nearby stands the Sphinx, or the Great Sphinx:

o it guarded the road to Khafre’s pyramido it has the head of a man and the body of a lion

When they were built, these pyramids were the largest structures on Earth. These great achievements were possible due to Egyptians’ command of

mathematics and advanced building techniques.Building pyramids also required the labor of thousands of workers.

Workers cut and placed the huge stones by hand (each stone was 6,000 lbs or 3 tons)

Scholars once thought slaves built the pyramids, but now they think many workers were farmers.2200 BC – the great age of pyramid building ended (during the Old Kingdom)After this time, pharaohs carved massive tombs from the cliffs at the edge of the Nile Valley.

Painting and SculptureEgyptians were skilled artists as well as builders.Much about what we know about their lives comes from paintings found on the walls of tombs.

Their purpose was to provide the person buried in the tomb with all of the objects and pleasures shown of the walls.

Egyptian artists also created wonderful sculptures. Colossal statues of gods stood in temples Smaller statues of people in tombs were placed alongside their mummies

o If a mummy was destroyed, the statue could replace it as a home for the dead person’s spirit.

Science and MathematicsThe Egyptians made many great discoveries in science, mathematics, and technology.Later civilizations built on these discoveries

The Egyptian CalendarLike most early peoples, prehistoric Egyptians probably measured time by the cycles of the moon, resulting in a lunar (moon) based year (about 354 days)Over the years, the seasons would run ahead of a calendar since the seasons follow a solar (sun) based year (365.2422 days)

Ancient Egyptians wanted to keep the calendar linked to the seasons, so farmers can plan when to plant and harvest their crops.

o Each year a bright star, called Sirius, first appeared above the horizon before sunrise about the same time of year as the Nile floods

o Sometimes the first appearance of Sirius came too close to the end of the lunar year (354 days), so the Egyptians added an extra month to that year so it could catch up to the seasons

This meant each year had to have a different number of days This made record keeping and planning difficult.

o Resolution – ancient Egyptians developed a solar calendar with exactly 365 days and used it for official record keeping.

200s BC - Because of the extra .2422, the ancient Greeks added leap years (every 4 years there is an extra day)

Our modern calendar is modeled after this solar calendar

MathematicsAncient Egyptians had a solid understanding of mathematicsThe great pyramids proves their command of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and geometry (the measurement of dimensions)

Science, Technology, and MedicineAncient Egyptians made advances in these three areas as well.The star Sirius and their knowledge of it shows their advanced knowledge of astronomy.The construction of the great pyramids show their mastery of engineering.

No other civilization had been able to plan and build structures so large or so perfectly shaped.

Early discoveries in chemistry, led to many new inventions earliest forms of glass mortar for setting stones and bricks cosmetics

Complex irrigation systems by bringing the Nile water to their fields.The Egyptians had the most advanced medical knowledge of their time:

work with mummies human anatomy skilled surgeons doctors studied diseases and developed effective medicines to treat or cure

them.

Section 3 – Egypt and NubiaObj: Students will know that trade led to diffusion between Egypt and its neighbors; how the culture of Egypt and Nubia were linked and yet distinct; students will be able to analyze cause and effect as it affected relations between Egypt and Nubia; solve problems that might have affected relations between Egypt and NubiaExpectations: In this section, students will read “Egypt and Nubia”; role play an adviser to the Egyptian pharaoh; go “On Assignment” in Egypt and Nubia and explore the culture of the regionKey Ideas:

Trade led to cultural diffusion between Egypt and neighboring lands Nubia had a close relationship with Egypt and shared elements of its

culture Nubia was also a unique African civilization with its own accomplishments.

Chapter 3 – Section 3 – Egypt and NubiaSouth of Egypt, farther up the Nile River, was a land that the Egyptian kings called Kush, or another name would be Nubia.It extends from present-day southern Egypt into northern Sudan.Trade brought Egypt and Nubia together.

Trade in Ancient EgyptEgypt was rich with sunshine and fertile soil, but lacked things like forests, minerals, horses, and other useful natural resources found in Nubia and other countries.

They got the resources they needed through trade, or commerce, with neighboring countries

As their country grew in wealth, luxury goods were of interest to themo Expensive goods that are not needed but make life more enjoyable.

This included precious stones and perfumesTrade gave Egypt access to goods it would not otherwise have

Trade in the Eastern MediterraneanMerchants and officials were sent to other lands to promote trade.

Cedar wood from forests in present-day Lebanon Olive oil, tin and copper from other lands

Trade in the Nile ValleyThe most valuable goods that Egypt bought in Nubia were gold and elephant tusks.In return, the Egyptians sold grain, cloth, papyrus, glass and jewelry.

Egypt relied on Nubia’s gold Nubia relied on Egypt’s grain

This trade created interdependence.Trade brought the Nubians into closer contact with ancient Egypt.

Over time, Nubians would adopt Egyptian culture and religion.

The Land of NubiaLike Egypt, Nubia had an ancient culture and its geography was both similar and different in comparison to Egypt.

The Geography of NubiaNubia received very little rainfall.Deserts surrounded its Nile ValleyIt depended on the Nile River and its annual floodsIts people farmed a narrow ribbon of fertile land along the Nile RiverTheir farming generated surplus (smaller than Egypt’s)Their surplus supported cities with artisans and merchantsUnlike Egypt, Nubia could not use boats to transfer goods

Cataracts of the Nile River made it impossible to travel very far Instead, people had to travel on foot through the rugged desert

Nubia also had much less land to farm than Egypt This sometimes resulted in being short of food and eager to trade They traded their gold, iron, and other products for Egypt’s grain

Nubia was in closer contact with the peoples of Africa south of the Sahara. Nubians traded with them as well.

Sources of Information About NubiaScholars have used both historical records and archaeological evidence to learn about Nubia.

Written records document trade and a powerful kingdom modeled on the kingdom of Egypt.

Some evidence of trade comes from archaeology.

o Archaeologists have found that both Nubians and Egyptians saw kings as gods

This idea was common in Africa and may have come to Egypt through Nubia.

Nubia and EgyptEgyptians realized that Nubian gold could buy them more resources from the eastern Mediterranean.

Egypt Conquers NubiaDuring the Middle Kingdom, to gain more control of its riches, Egypt conquered most of Nubia, and then again during the New Kingdom.

The conquered Nubians had to pay tribute to Thutmose III, which included hundreds of pounds of:

o goldo cattleo slaveso ivoryo ostrich feathers

After the rule of Ramses II, Egypt weakened, and the New Kingdom endedIn Egypt - rival leaders in different cities fought for controlIn Nubia – it became a independent kingdom ruled by Nubian kings.

Nubia Conquers EgyptMid 700s BC – the Egyptian city of Thebes was conquered by a Nubian king.The next king, Piye or Piankhi, expanded the Nubian empire by conquering one Egyptian city after another.

Piye declared himself pharaoh and united Egypt and NubiaPharaohs from Nubia ruled Egypt for almost one hundred years

Nubian rulers promoted traditional Egyptian ways, and built temples to honor Nubian and Egyptian gods.

Nubia tried to expand their power and went to war with the Assyrians, who were those skillful warriors who had just conquered the Fertile Crescent.This error in judgment would lead to their downfall.665 BC – Assyrian troops invaded Egypt, Nubians retreated from Egypt back to Nubia.

Nubian CivilizationNubians remained an advanced civilization for almost a thousand years after it lost Egypt.It developed its own system of writing, economy, and government.

Independent Nubia591 BC – Egyptians destroyed Napata, the capital city of Nubia, so the Nubians moved their capital south to the city of Meroe, which was easier to defend.Meroe:

Located near iron deposits Located on a trade route from Central Africa This region received more rain than most of Nubia

o Rain supported growth of wood Wood used to burn to smelt, or melt out, iron from the iron

ore It was Africa’s first ironworking center

Nubia’s iron tools and weapons were much stronger than Egypt’s soft bronze tools.Nubians continued to male jewelry and other beautiful objects from their gold.Like Egypt, Nubia built pyramids which served as tombs for their kings and queen mothers.

Queen mothers were also known by their Roman name – candaceso Candaces remained powerful and were sometimes more powerful

than kings throughout Nubia’s historyNubians created Meroitic script, one of the world’s first alphabet.

Scholars have learned to read this alphabet but still don’t understand the words written in it.

Nubia’s Link to Africa and the WorldNubians played an important role in ancient Africa.Nubia had advanced iron-working technologyNubian trade:

They traded iron goods, cloth, and gold with other African peoples In return, they bought ebony from West Africa, and elephant tusks from

East and Central Africa. They also sold slave from other parts of Africa to Egyptians The also traded with Greek and Roman Egypt.

They used irrigation to grow more food for their busy cities, but still had to trade to meet some of their need for food (grains mostly)The ancient Greeks and Romans valued Nubian metalworking skills and iron tools and weapons.Ports on the Red Sea allowed the Nubians to trade with countries as far away as India.

By AD 200s – Nubia was weakened due to a war with the Roman empire, who controlled Egypt.

Desert people raided Nubia’s cities and disrupted its trade AD 300s – Nubia was conquered by the kingdom of Axum, centered in

present-day country of Ethiopia to the southeast.Throughout its history, Nubia had linked Africa south of the Sahara with other ancient civilizations.Their patterns of farming and trade continued after the conquest by Axum.These traditions continue in the region to this day.