War in Kosovo 1999: religious, cultural, ethnic or?

Valerie Fleming

Political and religious background

• Pre 6th century Kosovo and the surrounding area occupied by Illyrians (present-day Albanians);

•  6th & 7th centuries Serbs settled in Kosovo;

• 13th century Rastko (1174-1236) founded first Serbian national church;

• 14th century Ottoman Turks conquered Yugoslavia at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Islam was introduced by the Turks during their occupation;

• 19th century Russia defeated the Turks granting Serbia independence. Kosovo remained under control of the Turks.

Early 20th century

• Pre-World War II Disintegration of Austro-Hungarian empire, collapse of Ottoman empire, after World War I, Yugoslavia became a kingdom and Kosovo vanished as independent entity;

• World War II Yugoslavia partitioned by Nazis. Fascist Ustashe (Croatians: Roman Catholic) supported by ethnic Albanians (Muslim) established puppet Nazi state. Large numbers of Serbian Orthodox, Jews and Roma exterminated.

Historical desire for self government

• The system of self-government in Kosovo and northern Albania rests on a strong framework of customary law;

• All rules relating to marriages, inheritance, pasture rights and criminal acts were laid down in traditional codes of law originally passed in memory for generations and codified under the name of ‘Kanuni I Leke Dukagjinit’;

• The Kanun remained unwritten until 1913 when it was compiled by a Catholic Albanian priest and published in 1933. It was later translated into English.

Post world war II

• 1945 -1980 Tito unified the six republics into a communist dictatorship, independent of Russia:o Religious and cultural rivalries among the Roman

Catholics, Serbian Orthodox and Muslims suppressed during his lifetime;

• 1974 Kosovo granted autonomy;

• 1989 Milosevic revoked autonomous status;

• 1990s Disaggregation of Yugoslavia, ethnic Albanians gradually forced from all jobs in public sector;

• 1995 Dayton accord excluded Kosovo;

• 1996 Kosovo Liberation Army’s (KLA) guerilla warfare tactics began.

Ferizaj

• The building of the mosque and church on the same site in Ferizaj in 1910 marked a turning point in religious cooperation.

• Both buildings survived all the changes of late 20th century and the number worshippers in each remained steady.

Interfaith rivalries?

• Suppression suggests that these existed prior to this time;

• Suppression did take place but it was suppression of Islam and it continued from Tito to Milosevic;

• Took different forms but after initial total suppression (as in many Central Asian republics) religion was tolerated but overt believers were excluded from positions of public leadership;

• Most of Kosovo’s Catholics supported Albanian patriots and refused on religious grounds to join communist party so also excluded;

• During autonomous period (1974-89) new mosques built.

1999 war

• Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) reinforced by Muslim fighters from Albania, Saudi Arabia and Yemen;

• NATO’s bombing campaign of Belgrade:o Ceasefire proposed for Orthodox Easter (refused by

NATO);o Serbia backed strongly by Russians;o Ceasefire negotiated after three months; o Serbs withdrew and Kosovo became NATO

dependency.

Immediate post war damage

Cultural, ethnic or religious reasons?

• Report for the International Crisis Group (2001) carried out suggested the war was nothing to do with religion as prior to the conflict of the 1990s Islam, Orthodoxy and Catholicism lived together in harmony;

• Possibly a little naïve as, while before the war religion was not to the fore amongst the Muslims in Kosovo, its suppression added fuel to the fire.

• For the Serbian people their religious heritage was and is firmly centred in Kosovo with >1000 sites of cultural importance, 162 being “extremely important” three of which have great international significance.

Peja’s heavily guarded monastery

Post war: 21st century

• 1999-2008 Kosovo under UN control;

• 2008 Unilateral declaration of independence;

• 22 July 2010 International Court of Justice (UN Advisory) ruled that declaration of independence of Kosovo "did not violate any applicable rule of international law", because its authors, "representatives of the people of Kosovo", were not bound by the Constitutional Framework or UNSCR 1244 as it only concerns UN Member States;

• Present: 110 diplomatic recognitions:o 108/193 UN Member States,o 23/28 EU Member States.

Kosovo flag

Countries recognising Kosovo 2015

Religion in Kosovo

2011

Orthodox

Muslim

Roman Catholic

Other

none

not stated

1998

Orthodox

Muslim

Roman Catholic

Other

none

not stated

The situation today

• Religious freedom protected in the constitution;

• Religious holidays observed by the government: o beginning of Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Easter,

Orthodox Easter Monday, and Orthodox and Western Christmas;

• Ombudsman involved about banning of headscarves on school pupils and lack of action re Protestant cemetery;

• Some attacks on Orthodox priests;

• Kosovo Interfaith Council Established but not particularly active though maintains a good website < http://www.interfaithkosovo.org >

Source: International Religious Freedom Report for 2012 United States Department of State • Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor

The situation today

• Serbian dominance to north, Albanian rest of country;

• Serbian political cause being supported by several Orthodox patriarchs (Joseph, 2014);

• Kosovo’s Muslims mostly adherents to Sufi schools (though before suppression by communists renowned for secularism);

• Increasing Islamisation;

• Sectarian violence targetted against Protestant churches in Ferizaj and Phristine.

Beacon of lights for Albanians

• Mother Teresa is highly respected by all in Kosovo;

• She was welcomed by all sides when she visited and opened a birth house in the troubled 1990s;

• Her death was marked by three days of national mourning.

Prizren: a future World Heritage Site

References• International Crisis Group (2001). Religion in Kosovo. ICG

Balkans Report 105, 31 January.

• Joseph, R. (2014). The Balkans conundrum: Kosovo and regional ripple effects. Report for International Relations and Security Network, 18 August. Available: http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Articles/Detail/?id=182904 Accessed 28 February 2015.

• Malcolm, N. (1999). Kosovo: a short history. New York: Harper Collins.

• United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (2012). International Religious Freedom Report: Kosovo. Available: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/208542.pdf Accessed 28 February 2015.