Researchinmanagementeducationisseverelylack-inginitsfocusonthedeliverytothoselivinginextremepoverty.Todate,mostoftheworkhasnotaddressedtheissue,orithasaddresseditfromtheperspectiveofreplicatingWesternprogramsforwealthierinternationalelites.Inordertoaccomplishdelivery,wecanutilizethethree-partconceptofknowledgedomains.Ireporthereoneinstancewheremanagementeducatorsusedclassroomtrainingandinternationaltraveltoreinforceallthreedomainswhilealsocreatingchangeinthelivesofthestu-dentsandofthoseinpoverty.Thecasestudyalsoportraysaclassroomexerciseeventuallygrowingintoastand-alonenonprofitorganization.Thelessonsfromthatexperienceillustratenewrolesformanagementeducationin—andforpeoplein—conditionsofextremepoverty.

Knowledge Domains: Three Types IrwinAltmandescribesoneapproachthatfacultymembersinhighereducationcanusewhentheyhaveaninterest

in(re)shapinghowstudentsrelatetosocialissuesandtofuturesocietalneeds.1Fromhispsychologyexpertise,heoutlinesthreedomainsofknowledgethathesuggestsmustbedevelopedandutilizedsimultaneouslyinorderto“educatethegoodcitizenofthefuture:” • foundationalknowledge:content,theories,history,andmethodologyofadiscipline • professionalknowledge:practitionerskillsandcontent,oftenvocationallyfocused,ofafield • sociallyresponsiveknowledge:first-handexperienceandunderstandingofissuesinasociety Altmanreiteratesthatthetriadisintertwinedandthatallthreeareco-dependent—inparticular,sociallyrespon-siveknowledgecannotstandapartfromtheothertwoforms.Hesuggeststhatschoolsalreadyexcelatprovidingfoundationalandprofessionalknowledge,buttheydonotexcelatgeneratingorutilizingsociallyresponsiveknowl-edge.WesuggestthatwhenWesternstudentsusefounda-tionalandprofessionalknowledgewhileperformingservice

Utilizing Socially Responsive Knowledge

By Lisa Jones Christensen and Jennifer Boehme Kumar

Ph

ot

oS

: to

P: m

aR

aN

da

mU

RP

hY

, Bo

tt

om

lE

ft

: tY

tY

Rl

EY

, Bo

tt

om

RIG

ht

: tY

lE

R W

oo

lS

tE

Nh

U.m

E

1� ESr —SPRING 2008

best practices

learningprojectsinlessadvantagedcontexts,thelessonstheygathercon-stitutesociallyresponsiveknowledge. HELPInternational,orHELP,isanexcellentcasestudyofthisinteractionofdomains,andthe

studyillustrateslessonslearnedforprovidingmanagementeducationtothepoorest.

The First Year: Response to CrisisDuringthecloseof1998,HurricaneMitchdevastatedmuchofCentralAmerica.Dr.WarnerWoodworth,aprofessoroforganizationalbehaviorattheMarriottSchoolofManagementatBrighamYoungUniversity,respondedtothecrisisbycreatinganopenelectivecourseentitledBecomingaGlobalChangeAgent.Fromtheoutset,theclasswasplannedasanactionresearchexperienceaimedatmobilizingcol-legestudentsandtrainingtheminspecificwaystochangetheworld.Itwasalsocreatedasawaytoorganizeteamswhowouldhelpplantripsand/ortraveltoHondurasduringthesummerof1999asreliefandreconstructionvolunteers—withafocusoncreatingmicrofinanceprojects. Thecollegecoursewasapar-ticipatoryexperiencewithaheavyemphasisonthepotentialofmicro-financetohelppeoplerebuildlives.Overall,seventy-ninestudentspar-ticipated.ClassparticipantsformedteamstoplanthelogisticsofgoingtoHondurasandtoexplorewhatmicrofinanceinstitutions(MFIs)werecurrentlyinthecountry,which

MFIswereopentopartnerships,andwhatreliefandhumanitarianaidwasrequiredbythelocalimpov-erishedfamilies. Additionally,classmembersorganizedaHondurascultureteam

toteachvolunteersaboutlocalnorms,values,andtechnicalterms.Theyestablishedapublicrelationsteamtoobtainmediaattention,afundraisingteamtohelpgeneratemoney,andamicrocreditresourceteamtoresearchcompetingmicrofinancemethodolo-giesandeventuallytraineveryoneinrudimentarytechniquesofvillagebanking.Theclasswasdesignedtoallowstudentssignificantautonomyinalmosteveryaspectoforganizationbuilding,andthestudentsvotedtonametheneworganizationHELPHonduras(HelpingEliminatePovertyinHonduras). Duringthecourseofthesum-merof1999,forty-sixstudentstraveledtoandservedinfiveregionsinHonduras.Eachstudentwascommittedtovolunteereightweeksormore.Thestudentsidentifiedandapproachedamicrofinanceorganizationasapartner,andwiththenonprofitorganizationFINCAInternational,theyworkedduringthesummertojointlycreatenewcom-munalbanks.Betweenfoundingnewbanksandrecapitalizingoldbanks,thestudentscreatedonehundrednewmicrobanks.HELPHonduras’smicrocrediteffortscreatedapproxi-matelyeighthundredjobs,benefitingnearlyfourthousandindividuals.2ThepartnershiptermswithFINCA

includedaclausewherebyFINCAwouldmanageallofthenewbanksafterHELPvolunteersleftthecountry,thusensuringfuturesustain-ability.Therefore,thepresenceandsubsequentdepartureofHELPdidnotcreatedependenciesinthecom-munityorwithinFINCA. Studentsworkedwithmanagersofmicrobusinessesbyparticipatinginprojectsthatentailedteachingbusiness,language,andcomputerskillstoindividualsorgroupsofadultlearners.Throughfunction-inginthiscapacity,studentsandfacultylearnedmuchaboutteach-ingbusinessskillstotheextremelyimpoverished.Participantsfromthatformativeyearlearnedthatindividu-als,evenyoungpeople,canhaveatangibleeffectonthelivesofothers.Theyalsolearnedtheimportanceofpreparation,culturalunderstanding,financialmanagement,andbusinessskillacquisitionforthevolunteersandtherecipients. Clearly,theoverallexperienceincorporatedallthreeofknowledgedomains.Bythetimethestudentslefttheprogramtheyhadtheoppor-tunitytoutilizetheirfoundationalknowledgeofaccountingandinven-torymanagementprinciplesandtheirprofessionalknowledgeaboutcontentdeliveryandnegotiationskillstodevelopaproficiencyinactingonaprobleminasocially responsive,efficaciousway.Theyalsogeneratedsociallyresponsiveknowledgeastheylearnedaboutprocessesandbehaviorsthatdidordidnot“work”inthecon-textofextremepoverty. Inadditiontoprovidingfinan-cialandemotionalbenefitstotheHonduranpeople,manystudentsreportthattheirworkwithHELPinformedsubsequentlifedecisionsandbehaviors.Anextremeexampleofthisisthecaseofonevolunteer

Individuals—even young people—can have a tangible effect on the lives of others.

1� ESr —SPRING 2008

whoservedinElSalvadorforonesummerpriortoattendingapres-tigiousculinaryinstitute.AfterhissummerwithHELP,hedecidedtochangehiscareerfocusinfavorofdoingsomethingtomoredirectlycontributetopovertyelimination.HesubsequentlystartedsponsoringtheeducationofaSalvadoranstudent,andhealteredhisowneducationalplansinfavorofpursuingaJD/MBAdegree.Currently,heworksinTanzaniaasaclerkinvolvedwiththeRwandangenocidetrials.Obviously,notallvolunteersareaffectedsomarkedly,butthiscaseillustrates

thepotentialimplicationsofservice-learningprojectslikeHELP.

The Growth of HELP International as an NGOHELPhasexpandeditsoperationseveryyearsinceitsinception,andmanagementhasincorporateditintoanonprofitorganizationoperationgunderthenameHELPInternational.Fromthebeginningin1999,HELPhasenabledmorethanfivehundredstudentstotravelinacombinedser-viceandlearningcapacitymorethanthirteenregionsinninecountries.Table1indicatesthenumberof

volunteersandthecountrieswheretheyhaveserved,taught,andexpandedmicrofinance. Typicalprojectsvolunteersemployindeliveringmanagementeducationtotheseparticipantsincludethefollowing: • Weeklymini-businesslessonsgivenasastand-aloneprojectordur-ingamicrocreditbankmeeting • Six-weekbusinesscoursesthatmeetthreetimesaweek • One-tothree-dayspecialbusi-ness-topicclassesgivenasworkshops • One-on-onepersonalizedcon-sultingwithmicroentrepreneurs • Businessplancreationcourses • ImpactassessmentsforlocalMFIs Duringthelastnineyears,studentsandfacultymentorshavereturnedfromparticipatingintheseinterventionswithsignificantinsightsaboutwhatwouldimprovethedeliveryofbusinessandmanage-menteducationinuniversitiesintheUnitedStatesandinimpoverishedcommunitieswhereHELPoperates.HELPmanagementcollectstheseinsightsaspartofeveryvolunteer’sexitinterview.

Lessons Learned Itisimportanttoclarifythattheobservationsaboutkeylessonsweremadeinthecontextofdeliveringinformaleducationtolargegroups(typicallycomprisedoftwelvetofortywomenorlargermixedgendergroups)offragmented,extremelypoor,andoftenilliteratemicroentre-preneurs,smallbusinessowners,andmanagers. Table2providesasimplelistofpracticesthatHELPmanagementhasconsistentlyseensucceedorfailindisadvantagedcontextsacrossmultiplecontinents.

Table 1: HELP History:

Countries Served and Number of Volunteers

Year Countries Served Number of Volunteers

1999 Honduras 47

2000 HondurasEl SalvadorPeruVenezuela

72

2001 HondurasEl SalvadorPeru

33

2002 El SalvadorGuatemalaBolivia

47

2003 El SalvadorGuatemalaBrazil

49

2004 El SalvadorGuatemala

50

2005 El SalvadorGuatemalaThailand

143

2006 El SalvadorGuatemalaUganda

52

17

best practices

What Doesn’t WorkHELPleadershavefoundthatformostextremelypoorstudentsaformalclassroomenvironmentisintimidating.Thetermformal classroomreferstoattemptstousealocalcollegeoruniversityinfrastruc-ture(i.e.,rowsofchairs,podiums,microphones,andlargeandpossiblyintimidatingbuildings)asthepri-maryplaceforteaching.Usingformalclassroomsattheoutsetcanleadtodifficultyinrecruitingortohighlevelsofattritionafterrecruitment. Instructorsoftenmistakenlyassumethateachclassparticipantneedshisorherownmaterials.HELPleadershavefoundthatthisassump-tionleadstospendingmisallocationsandprecludesattemptingteam-basedlearningmodels.Itcanalsoleadtoteachingdelaysasinstructorswaituntilmaterialsarecollected,copied,orareotherwiseavailable. Studentsinextremelydisadvan-tagedcontextsdonotnecessarilyhaveexpectationsofhavingtheirownmaterials,noraretheyalways

comfortablewithaninfluxofmateri-alsattheoutsetofclasses.Instead,theyareoftenquitefamiliarwithmodelsoflearningthatrequiretakingturnswithmaterials,watchingothersusematerials,andsharing—orthatrequiredoingwithout.Forexample,whenstudentslearnaboutinventorymanagement,theyworkwithoutcal-culatorsortheytaketurnsusingthecalculators.Theyoftenpassaroundaclipboardtorecordledgerentries.Thesestudentsaretypicallypatientwhiletheywait,andtheytendtolearnfromtheentriesofothers.

What WorksHELPmanagementdiscoveredthatalternateteachingenviron-ments—liketheoutdoors,churches,workfacilities,andhomes—haveyieldedsignificantsuccessintermsofretention,recruitment,anddemand.HELPinstructorshavefoundthateventualmigrationtomoreformalclassrooms(particularlythoseinlocalschoolsutilizedduringevenings)ispossibleafterareputationfor

nonintimidatingmethodshasspreadthroughoutthecommunity. Otherpositivetechniquesaretouseexperientialmethods,suchassimulationgamesorroleplaying,thattiestudentlifeexperiencestobusinessormanagementtopics.3Usually,usingthesemethodsallowsinstructorstoteachcompellingbusi-nessconceptsfirstandthenintroduceformalnamesandtheorieslater. Forexample,inteachingthetheoreticalconceptofseparateentitiesinbusinesspractice,HELPinstructorstalktostudentsabouttheirstrugglestokeepfamilymem-bersawayfromtheirbusinessmer-chandise.Participantscanunderstandandelaborateonthisproblemfromtheirsharedexperience,andtheycantalktogetheraboutpossibleoptionstokeeptheentitiesseparate.ButtheyrarelygrasptheconceptwheninstructorsuseWesterntacticsandbegindiscussionswiththetheoryofseparateentities.HELPmanagementlearnedthatwithexperientialmethods,instructorscanmoreeasilymoveto

Ph

ot

o: t

Y t

UR

lE

Y

Table 2: Issues in Implementing U.S. Management Practices in Disadvantaged Contexts

Western Practices That Do Not Translate Well

Formal classroom environments early in educational process

Leading with theory-based introductions

Assuming that each student needs his or her own materials

English-language instruction

Screening based on literacy

Adjusted Practices That Do Translate Well

Alternate teaching environments (outside, in homes, smaller classes, etc.)

Experiential methods (games and role plays)

Teaching concepts first and theories later (or never)

Tailoring educational content by geographic location and according to local cultural mores

Checking assumptions that teachers and learners have about the role and motive of profit maximization

Revisiting biases about student motivation

otherbusinessdevelopmenttopics.Inthisexample,thenexttopicisusuallyadiscussionofseparatebookkeepingforbusinessandfamilyenterprises. Anothertacticthathasprovensuccessfulacrossmultiplecontextsistailoringeducationalmethodstogeographiclocationand/orculturalbiases.Forexample,HELPinstruc-torsfoundthaturbanresidentsdem-onstrateanunderstandingofbusinessconceptsinwaysthatarequitesimi-lartowhatonemightexpectfromatypicalWesterncollegestudent.Theseurbanstudentsindevelopingcoun-triestendtoquicklyunderstandcon-cepts,suchasnegotiationtechniquesoreconomiesofscaleandscope,andtomorequicklyapplytheseconceptsintheirownbusinesses.Forexample,HELPvolunteersinUgandafoundthatteachingmarketingprinciplesinanurbanorsemi-urbansettingwas

fairlyeasy.Participantsintheclasscouldciteexamplesoftechniquestheyhadseenthatwereeffectiveornoteffectivebecausetheywereaccus-tomedtoseeingandinteractingwithmultipleformsofmarketing. Incontrast,aHELPvolunteerteachinginaveryruralsetting,wheremanyofthestudentshadlittleinteractionwithmarketingandrarelytraveledoutoftheirsmallvillage,reportedthattheconceptsweredifficultformanyparticipantstograsp.Forinstance,whenHELPvolunteersaskedpigfarmershowtheycouldletothersknowtheyweresellingpigs,theystruggledtofindanyotheroptionthansimplytellingtheirneighborsthattheysoldpigs.Theseclassparticipantshadnotbeenpreviouslyexposedtoothertypesofmarketing. Generallyspeaking,HELP

instructorshaveconsistentlyfoundthatruralparticipantslearnedmoreslowlythantheirurbancounterpartsandthatbusinessconceptsmustbetaughtdifferentlyinextremelyruralareas.Thus,simplybeingprimedtoadjustcontentbygeographyhasimprovedtheteaching. Thefinaltwotechniquesthathaveimprovedtheteachingofbusi-nessconceptstotheextremelypoorrelatetoconsideringinstructorbiases.IntheWest,weencouragecreativityandindustryandtendtocorrelatetheseskillswithincreasedsuccessinbusinessandmanagement.However,byusinggamestoteachbusinessskillsindevelopingcontexts,HELPhasrepeatedlyfoundthatplayerswhoshowhighlevelsofcreativityandindustryinthegamedonotneces-sarilyautomaticallyhavetheskillsormindsettotranslatethatcreativity

19

best practices

andindustrytotheirbusinesses.Thegameshaveillustratedthatstudentspossesstheskills,butinstructorsneedtotakeextracareintranslatingthegamelessonstoreal-lifebehavior. Somestudentswhowerehighlysuccessfulinthecontextofgamesstillclaimedthattheirskillscouldnothelpthemintheirreallivesbecausetheybelievedthatbeingpoorwastheirfate.Therefore,HELPvolunteerslearnedtheyneededtounderstandthestudents’perspectivesonpovertyandaltertheirlessonstoworkwithinthatcontext.Thisfindingservesasacriticalreminderthatnoteveryonelearnsbythesamemethod. Instructorsmayalsoneedtoadjusttheirmindsetconcerningassumedstudents’motives.Theyshouldnotethatabiasintrainingtowardstheprofit-makingmotivecanaffecttheholisticpictureofstudentlives.Participantsarenotalwaysprimarilydrivenbyastrongprofitmotivebecausebusinessforthemisalsointerwovenwithfamilyandculturalconcerns.Thus,theyoftenchoosetoadjusttheirprofitmargins

dependingontheircustomerinsteadofalwayschargingthehighestprice. Instructorsmayalsoneedtohelpstudentsseethelong-termimplica-tionsofsomeoftheirpreferences.Forexample,manyofthepeopleHELPteachesgrowcashcropsforexporta-tion.Thelandisfertileandyieldscashcropstosellinforeignmarkets.However,insteadofusingpartofthelandforgrowingvegetablesfortheirownfamilies,theyuseallofthelandforcashcropsandthenusetheincometopurchasesimilarorlessnutritiousproductsfromthelocalmarket.Situationssuchastheseillustratetheresponsibilityofteach-erstounderstandtheholisticviewofstudents’lives.Clearly,understandingtheparticipants’perspectivesiskeytousingbusinessknowledgeformaxi-mumpositiveeffect.

Conclusion Asresearchersandpractitionersexpandtheroleofmanagementeducationtoincludenewandatypicalstakeholdersindevelopingcountrycontexts,manyquestionsandchallengesremaintobeanswered.

about the authors

Lisa Jones Christensen is an

assistant professor of entrepre-

neurship at the University of North

carolina. her research and teaching

focuses on sustainable enterprise,

corporate social responsibility, lead-

ership, change management, and

change implementation. through

her research, she co-founded hElP

honduras (now hElP International).

Jones christensen has a Phd in

organizational behavior and has been

published in numerous edited books

and journals. Jennifer Boehme

Kumar is the executive director of

hElP International. She has held that

position for eight years. her service

in the organization began as a volun-

teer during its first year.

Thispaper—withitsgroundinginthemodelofknowledgedomainsandexamplesofsociallyresponsiveknowledgegeneratedinsuchset-tings—seekstoinformothersastheyrefinetheroleofmanagementeducationindevelopmentinterven-tions.Wehopethispaperbenefitsresearchersandpractitionersastheyattempttoincreasetheself-relianceofstudentslivinginsuchsettings.

Endnotes1 IrwinAltman,“HigherEducationand

PsychologyintheMillennium,”American Psychologist51,no.4(1996):371–378.

2WarnerW.Woodworth,“MicrocreditinPost-Conflict,Conflict,NaturalDisaster,andOtherDifficultSettings”(Papercommis-sionedbytheMicrocreditSummitCampaignin2006).(BasedonthestatisticthatinHonduras,onejobtypicallysupportedfivepeople.)

3SeeJohnDewey,Experience and Education(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1938/1997)andDavidA.Kolb,Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1984)formoreinformationonexperientiallearning.

Understanding the participants’ per-spectives is key to using business knowledge for maximum positive effect.

Ph

ot

o: t

Y t

UR

lE

Y

20 ESr —SPRING 2008