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Foundry Manual , 1958, is an update to the 1944 Foundry Manual that was created primarilyfor use by foundry personnel aboard repair ships and tenders.

In this online version of the manual we have attempted to keep the flavor of the original

layout while taking advantage of the Web's universal accessibility. Different browsers andfonts will cause the text to move, but the text will remain roughly where it is in the originalmanual. In addition to errors we have attempted to preserve from the original this text wascaptured by optical character recognition. This process creates errors that are compoundedwhile encoding for the Web.

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NAVSHIPS 250-0334

FOUNDRY MANUAL


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Department of the Navy, Bureau of Ships

JANUARY 1958

BUREAU OF SHIPS NAVY DEPARTMENTWASHINGTON 25, D. C.

Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. - Price $3

ii

NAVY DEPARTMENT,Bureau of Ships,15 April 1958

The Foundry Manual of 1944 has been revised to reflect the advancement in foundry

technology and to indicate current foundry practice. The revised manual contains informationfor persons who operate or are employed in a foundry.

J. B. Duval, Jr.Captain, USNAssistant to the Assistant Chief ofBureau for Shipbuilding and FleetMaintenance

iii

PREFACE

This Manual is intended primarily for use by foundry personnel aboard repair ships andtenders. The recommended practices are based on procedures proved workable under Navyconditions and are supplemented by information from industrial sources.

The Manual is divided into two general sections. The first section, chapters 1 through 13,


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contains information of a general nature, such as "How Metals Solidify," "Designing aCasting," "Sands for Molds and Cores," "Gates, Risers, and Chills," and "Description andOperation of Melting Furnaces." Subjects covered in these chapters are generally applicableto all of the metals that may be cast aboard ship.

The second section, chapters 14 through 21, contains information on specific types of alloys,such as "Copper-Base Alloys," "Aluminum-Base Alloys," "Cast Iron," and "Steel." Specificmelting practices, suggestions for sand mixes, molding practices, gating, and risering arecovered in these chapters.

This manual has been written with the "how-to-do-it" idea as the principal aim. Discussionsas to the "why" of certain procedures have been kept to a minimum. This manual containsinformation that should result in the production of consistently better castings by repair ship personnel.

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v FOUNDRY MANUAL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Chapter I. How Metals Solidify 1

The Start of Solidification 1

Contraction 1

Freezing Temperature of Metals 3

Crystallization 3

Heat Transfer 4

Gases in Metals 5

Summary 5

Chapter II. Designing a Casting 15

Strength Requirements 15

Stress Concentrations 15

Section Thickness 16

Directional Solidification 16

Wall Junctions 17

Good Casting Design 17

Summary 18

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Chapter III. Patternmaking 25

Functions of the Pattern 25

Types of Patterns 25

Pattern Materials 25

Making the Pattern 28

Finishing and Color Coding 28

Maintenance, Care and Repair 28

Calculation of Casting Weight 29

Summary 29

Chapter IV. Sands for Molds and Cores 39

Molding Sands 39

Sand Properties 40

All-Purpose Sand 43

Properties of a 63 AFS Fineness Number Sand 43

Molding Sand Mixtures 44

Cores 45

Core Sand Mixes 48

Methods for Testing Sand 49

Summary 51

Chapter V. Making Molds 61

Molding Tools and Accessories 61

Types of Molds 64

Molding Loose-Piece Patterns 64

Molding Mounted Patterns 66

False-Cope Molding and the Use of Broken Parts as Patterns 66

Setting Cores, Chills, and Chaplets 67

Closing Molds 68

Summary 68

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Chapter VI. Making Cores 83

Coremaking Tools and Accessories 83

Types of Cores 83

Internal Support 83

Facing, Ramming, Relief, and Venting of Cores 83

Turning Out and Spraying 84

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Baking 84

Cleaning Assembly 85

Storage of Cores 85

Making a Pump-Housing Core 85

Summary 86

Chapter VII. Gates, Risers, and Chills 95

General Purpose 95

Gating System 95

Risers 98

Chills 104

Summary 105

Chapter VIII. Description and Operation of Melting Furnaces 121

Oil-Fired Crucible Furnace 121

Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 123Electric Resistor Furnace 127

Electric Induction Furnace 128

Sintering the Monolithic Lining and Making the First Steel Heat 131

Summary 131

Chapter IX. Pouring Castings 139

Types of Ladles 139

Ladle Linings 139

Pouring the Mold 140

Speed of Pouring 141Pouring Temperature 141

Summary 142

Chapter X. Cleaning Castings 147

Removing Gates and Risers 147

Grinding and Finishing 147

Welding 148

Summary 148

Chapter XI. Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects 149

Names of Defects 149Design 149

Pattern Equipment 150

Flask Equipment and Rigging 151

Gating and Risering 151

Sand 152

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Cores 154

Molding Practice 154

Pouring Practice 155

Miscellaneous 155

Summary 156

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Chapter XII. Heat Treatment of Castings 179

Iron and Steel Castings 179

Nonferrous Castings 179

Brass and Bronze Treatment 180

Stress-Relief Anne al 180

Reasons for Heat Treatment 179

Aluminum 181

Iron and Steel 181

Monel 183

Summary 183

Chapter XIII. Composition of Castings 185

Specifications 185

Selection of Metal Mixtures 185

Raw Materials and Calculation of Charges 189

Summary 194

Chapter XIV. Copper-Base Alloys 213

Selection of Alloy 213

How Copper-Base Alloys Solidify 213

Patterns 214

Molding and Coremaking 214

Melting 217

Pouring 220

Cleaning 221

Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Copper-Base Casting 221

Welding and Brazing 222

Summary 222

Chapter XV. Aluminum-Base Alloys 227

Aluminum Silicon 227

Aluminum Copper 227

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Aluminum Zinc 227

Aluminum Magnesium 227

How Aluminum Solidifies 227

Patterns 227

Molding and Coremaking 228Melting 230

Pouring 231

Cleaning 231

Causes and Cures for Common Defects In Aluminum Castings 231


Summary 232

Chapter XVI. Nickel-Base Alloys 235

Monel 235

Modified S-Monel 235How Nickel-Base Alloys Solidify 235

Patterns 235


Melting 236

Pouring 236

Cleaning 237

Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Nickel-Base Alloy Castings 237


Summary 237

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Chapter XVII. Cast Iron 239

Selection of Alloys 239

How Gray Cast Irons Solidify 241

Patterns 241


Melting 244

Pouring 247

Cleaning 247

Causes and Cures for Common Defects in Iron Castings 247


Summary 248



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Chapter XVIII. Steel 251


How Steels Solidify 252

Patterns 252

Molding and Coremaking 252Melting 254

Pouring 256

Cleaning 256


Summary 257

Chapter XIX. Copper 259

Selection of Metal 259

How Copper Solidifies 259

Patterns 259Molding and Coremaking 259

Melting 260

Pouring 260

Cleaning 261

Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Copper 261

Summary 261

Chapter XX. Babbitting With Tin-Base Bearing Metal 263


Preparation of Bearings 263Melting 264

Pouring 264

Finishing of Bearing 265

Bearing Failures 265

Summary 266

Chapter XXI. Process Control 269

Sand 269

Molding 269

Melting 269Inspection and Test 270

Summary 270

ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS



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Chapter I

Figure Title Page

1 Schematic Illustration of the Solidification of Metal in a Mold 6

2 Volume Change During the Cooling of a 0.35 Percent Carbon Steel 7

3 Types of Shrinkage 7

(a) piping 7

(b) gross shrinkage 7

(c) centerline 7

(d) microshrinkage 7

4 Cooling Curves of a Pure Metal, a Solid Solution Alloy, and an EutecticAlloy

8

5 Melting Points of Metals and Alloys 9

6 Effect of Section Size on Size of Crystals 10

7 Schematic Representation of Crystal Growth 11

8 Dendrite Growth 11

9 High Magnification of Shrink Area in an Aluminum Casting, ShowingDendrites

12

10 Crystal Growth in a Gun Metal Casting Dumped Before Solidificationwas Complete

12

11 Preferred Orientation in Chill Zone Crystals 12

12 Dendritic Solidification and Dendritic-Equiaxed Solidification 13

13 Solubility of Hydrogen in Iron and Nickel at One Atmosphere Pressure 13

14 Mechanism of Pinhole Formation in Steel 13

Chapter II

15 Effect of Section Size on Physical Properties 19

16 Use of Fillets 19

17 Blending of Thin and Heavy Sections 20

18 Wheel Design 20

19 Recommended Wheel Designs 21

20 Transitions in Section Size 21

21 Simple Directional Solidification 21

22 Taper as an Aid to Directional Solidification 21

23 Hot Spot Location by the Method of Inscribed Circles 22

24 Reduction of Cross Section in L and V Junctions 22

25 Reduction of Cross Section in an X Junction 22

26 Various Treatments for a T Junction 22

27 Coring to Reduce Section in a Rib Junction 22

28 Removal of Heavy Section by Redesign 22

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29 Hub Cross Section - Heavy Section 23

30 Hub Cross Section - Improved Design 23

31 Bracket Casting 23

32 Aluminum Yoke Casting 23

Chapter III 33 One Piece Pattern 35

34 Split Pattern 35

35 Core Print Construction 36

36 Chaplet Location With Pads 36

37 Mold Broken Due to a Lack of Taper 36

38 Clean Pattern Draw With Correct Taper 36

39 Pattern Draft 36

40 Distortion Allowance in a Simple Yoke Pattern 37

41 Plaster Patterns and Core Boxes 37

42 Making a Simple Plaster Pattern 37

43 Calculating Casting Weight 37

44 Calculating Casting Weight 37

x

Chapter IV

Figure Title Page

45 Permeability as Affected by the Grain Size of Sand 53

46 Permeability as Affected by Sand Fineness and Moisture 53

47 The Effect of Sand Grain Shape on Permeability 53

48 Permeability as Affected by the Amount of Binder 53

49 The Effect of Bentonite and Fireclay on Permeability 53

50 Green Strength as Affected by the Fineness of Sand 53

51 Green Strengths of Sands With Varying Fineness Numbers 54

52 Green Strength as Affected by the Shape of Sand Grains 54

53 Green Strength as Affected by Moisture and Varying Bentonite Contents 54

54 The Effect of Bentonite and Fireclay on Green Strength of Foundry Sand 54

55 The Effect of Bentonite on Sands With Various Moisture Contents 54

56 The Effect of Western and Southern Bentonite on Green Strength andDry Strength

54

57 Green Strength as Affected by Mulling Time 55

58 Relationship Between Moisture Content, Bentonite Content, GreenCompressive Strength, and Permeability for an All-Purpose Sand of 63

55

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AFS Fineness Number

59 Relationship Between Moisture Content, Bentonite Content, GreenCompressive Strength, and Dry Strength for an All-Purpose Sand of 63AFS Fineness Number

56

60 General Green Compressive Strengths for Sands of Different Grain Class Numbers 56

61 Strength of Baked Cores as Affected by Baking Time and BakingTemperatures

56

62 Core Gas Generated by Two Different Core Binders 57

63 The Effect of Single Binders and Combined Binders on the BakedStrength of Cores 57

64 Rammer Used for Test Specimen Preparation 57

65 Permeability Test Equipment 58

66 Strength Testing Equipment 58

67 Equipment for Drying Sand Specimens for Moisture Determination 58

68 Jar and Stirrer for Washing Sand 58

69 Sand Washing Equipment Assembled 59

70 The Difference in Sand Grain Distribution for Two Foundry SandsHaving the Same Grain-Fineness Number

59

Chapter V

71 Molder's Hand Tools 69

72 Additional Molder's Tools 70

73 Double-Headed Chaplets 71

74 Stem Chaplets 71

75 Perforated Chaplets 71

76 Recommended Chaplet Design for Emergency Use 71

77 Anchoring Cores With Chaplets 71

78 Pattern Set in Drag With Gating System Parts 71

79 Hand Packing Riddled Sand Around the Pattern 72

80 Ramming a Deep Pocket 72

81 Striking Off the Drag 73

82 Drag Ready for the Cope 73

83 Cope With Pattern and Gating Pieces Set 74

84 Ramming the Partially Filled Cope 74

85 Venting the Cope 75

86 Start of the Pattern Draw 75

87 Pattern Completely Drawn 76

88 Setting the Core 76

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89 Cope and Drag Ready for Closing 77

90 Clamped Mold With Weights and Pouring Basin 78

91 Pouring the Mold 78

92 Finished Pump Housing Casting 79

93 Propeller Set in the Drag 79

94 Propeller in the Drag With Parting Line Cut 80

95 Drawn Cope 80

96 Mold Ready for Closing 81

97 As-Cast Propeller 82

xi

Chapter VI

Figure Title Page

98 Arbor for a Medium-Size Core 87

99 View of Inside of Core Showing Hollowing to Make the Core MoreCollapsible When Metal is Poured Around It

87

100 Section of Mold Showing Use of Lifting Eye for Supporting Heavy Core 87

101 Typical Lifting Hooks for Lifting Cores 87

102 Core Boxes for Pump Housing Core 88

103 Ramming Up the Core 88

104 Striking Off the Core 89

105 Placing the Reinforcing Rods 89

106 Cutting Vents 90

107 Drag Core Turned Out 91

108 Cope Core Turned Out 92

109 Applying Core Paste 93

110 Assembling the Two Core Halves 93

Chapter VII

111 Parts of a Simple Gating System 106

112 Illustration of Gating Ratio 106

113 Gating Nomenclature 107

114 Unfavorable Temperature Gradients in Bottom Gated Casting 108

115 Defect Due to Bottom Gating 108

116 Bottom Gate 108

117 Reverse Horn Gate 108

118 Reverse Horn Gate 108

119 Bottom Gating Through Side Risers 109

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120 Bottom Gating Through Riser with Horn Gate 109

121 Sprue With Well at Base 109

122 Simple Top Gating 109

123 Pencil Gate 109

124 Typical Parting Gate 109

125 Parting Gate Through the Riser 110

126 Whirl Gate 110

127 Simple Step Gate. (Not Recommended.) 111

128 Thirty-Degree Mold Manipulation 111

129 Complete Mold Reversal 111

130 Pouring Cups 111

131 Pouring Basin 111

132 Solidification Time vs. A/V Ratio 111

133 Effectiveness of Square and Round Risers 112

134 Proper and Improper Riser Height 112

135 Poor Riser Size and Shape 112

136 Proper Riser Size and Shape 112

137 Riser Location at Heavy Sections 112

138 Cold Metal Riser (Not Recommended ) 112

139 Hot Metal Riser 113

140 Feeding Through a Thin Section 113

141 Flanged Casting with Open Riser 113

142 Flanged Casting with Blind Riser 113

143 Inscribed Circle Method for Riser Contact 113

144 Effect of Keeping Top Risers Open 113

145 Effect of Keeping Blind Risers Open 114

146 Casting Defects Attributable to Shrinkage Voids and Atmospheric Pressure 114

147 Blind Riser Principle 114

148 Individual Zone Feeding for Multiple Risers 114

149 Padding to Avoid the Use of Chills or Risers 115

150 Padding to Prevent Centerline Shrinkage 115

xii

Figure Title Page

151 Typical Padding of Sections 115

152 Shrinkage on the Thermal Centerlines of Unpadded Sections 115

153 Use of a Core to Make a Padded Section 115

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154 Effect of Insulated Risers 115

155 Reduction in Riser Size Due to Insulation 115

156 Comparison of Ordinary Riser, Insulated Riser, and Exothermic Riser 116

157 Typical Internal Chills 116

158 Typical External Chills with Wires Welded-On or Cast-In to Hold Chill inPlace

116

159 Use of External Chills in a Mold for an Aluminum Casting 117

160 Use of External Chills on a Bronze Casting 117

161 As-Cast Aluminum Casting Showing Location of External Chills 118

162 Gear Blank Mold Showing Location of External Chills 118

163 Principle of Tapering Edges of External Chill 118

164 Effect of Chill Mass and Area of Contact 119

165 Typical Application of External Chills to Unfed L,T,V,X, and W Junctions 119

166 Preferred Method of Applying External Chills by Staggering 119

Chapter VIII

167 Pit-Type Crucible Furnace 133

168 Crucible for Tilting Crucible Furnace 133

169 Tilting Crucible Furnace 133

170 Cross Section of a Stationary Crucible Furnace 133

171 Undercutting a Refractory Patch 133

172 Proper Burner Location 134

173 Proper Fit for Crucible Tongs 134

174 Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 134

175 General Assembly View of Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 134

176 Accessory Equipment for Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 135

177 Properly Charged Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 135

178 Electric Resistor Furnace 135

179 Electrode-Bracket Assembly for Electric Resistor Furnace 136

180 Cross Section of Electric Induction Furnace 136

181 Flow Lines in an Induction Furnace Melt 136

182 Essential Parts of an Induction Furnace 137

183 Typical Electric Induction Furnace 137

184 Induction-Furnace Control Panel 137

185 Method of Lining Induction Furnace Using a Steel Form 137

Chapter IX

186 Lip-Pouring Ladle 143

187 Teapot Ladle 143

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188 Lip-Pouring Crucibles 143

189 Teapot Crucibles 143

190 Lining a Teapot Pouring Ladle 143

191 Proper Pouring Technique 144

192 Poor Pouring Technique 144

193 Use of Pouring Basin and Plug 144

194 Skim Core in Down Gate 144

195 Skim Core in Pouring Basin 144

196 Pyrometer Field When at Correct Temperature, Too High a Setting, and TooLow a Setting

144

197 Effect of Pouring Temperature on Grain Size 145

Chapter XI

198 Sticker 173

199 Gross Shrink 173

200 Surface Shrink 173

xiii

Figure Title Page

201 Surface Shrink 173

202 Internal Shrink 174

203 Gating and Risering that Corrected Internal Shrink in Figure 202 174

204 Gross Shrink 174

205 Dross Inclusions 174

206 Blow 174

207 Expansion Scab 174

208 Erosion Scab and Inclusions 175

209 Metal Penetration and Veining 175

210 Hot Tear 175

211 Pin Holes 175

212 Rattails 176

213 Rattails 176

214 Buckle 176

215 Cracked Casting 176

216 Misrun 176

217 Blow and Expansion Scab 177

218 Sticker 177

219 Blows 177

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220 Blow 178

221 Drop 178

Chapter XIII

222 Example of Charge Calculation for Ounce Metal 210

223 Example of Charge Calculation for Gray Iron 211

Chapter XIV

224 Horizontal Molding of a Bushing 223

225 Vertical Molding of a Bushing 223

226 Gating a Manganese Bronze Casting 223

227 Gating a Number of Small Castings in Manganese Bronze or Red Brass 223

228 Gating for a Thin Nickel-Silver Casting 223

229 Poor Gating System for a Cupro-Nickel Check Valve 223

230 Improved Gating That Produced a Pressure-Tight Casting 224

231 Globe Valve - Poor Risering Practice 224

232 Globe Valve - Improved Risering Practice 224

233 High Pressure Elbow - Poor Risering Practice 224

234 High Pressure Elbow - Improved Risering Practice 225

235 Risers for a Cupro-Nickel Valve Body 225

236 Tapered Chills on a Flat G Metal Casting 225

237 Tapered Chills on a G Metal Bushing 225

238 Examples of Gassy and Gas-Free Metal 225

Chapter XV

239 Enlargement-Type Sprue Base 233

240 Well-Type Sprue Base 233

241 Coarse-Grained Structure (Caused by Iron Contamination ) 233

242 Porosity. (Caused by Excessive Moisture in the Sand ) 233

Chapter XVI

243 Poor Gating and Risering Practice for a Nickel-Base Alloy Casting 238

244 Improved Gating and Risering for Nickel-Base Alloy Casting 238

xiv

Chapter XVII

Figure Title Page

245 Knife Gate 249

246 Lap Gate 249

247 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Cope and Drag 249

248 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Drag 249

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249 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Cope 250

250 Plan View of Runner, Riser, and Ingate 250

251 Operating Log for Cast Iron Heats 250

Chapter XVIII

252 Iron-Carbon Diagram 258

253 Tapered Chill 258

254 Steel Rods Used for Determining the Pouring Temperature of Steel 258

Chapter XIX

255 The Effect of Various Elements on the Electrical Conductivity of Copper 262

256 Properly Deoxidized Copper Sample 262

257 Partially Deoxidized Copper Sample 262

258 Gassy Copper Sample 262

Chapter XX

259 Jig for Babbitting Bearings 267

1 Chapter I

HOW METALS SOLIDIFY Making a casting involves three basic steps:(1) heating metal until it melts, (2) pouringthe liquid metal into a mold cavity, and (3)allowing the metal to cool and solidify in theshape of the mold cavity. Much of the art and

science of making castings is concerned withcontrol of the things that happen to metal as itsolidifies. An understanding of how metalssolidify, therefore, is necessary to the work ofthe foundry-man. The control of thesolidification of metal to produce bettercastings is described in later chapters oncasting design, gating, risering, and pouring.

The change from hot molten metal to coolsolid casting takes place in three main steps.

The first step is the cooling of the metal fromthe pouring temperature to the solidificationtemperature. The difference between the pouring temperature and the solidificationtemperature is called the amount of superheat.The amount of superheat determines theamount of time the foundryman has available

The speed of solidification depends on howfast the necessary heat can be removed by themold. The rate of heat removal depends onthe relation between the volume and thesurface area of the metal. Other things being

equal, the thin sections will solidify before thethick ones. Outside corners of a castingsolidify faster than other sections becausemore mold surface is available to conductheat away from the casting. Inside corners arethe slowest sections of the casting to solidify.The sand, in this case, is exposed to metal ontwo sides and becomes heated to hightemperatures. Therefore, it cannot carry heataway so fast.

Changes in design to control solidificationrate sometimes can be made by the designer.If, however, a change in solidification rate isrequired for the production of a good casting,the foundryman is usually limited to methodsthat result in little or no change in the shape ofthe casting. The rate of solidification can be

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to work with the molten metal before it startsto solidify.

The second step is the cooling of the metalthrough the range of temperature at which it

solidifies. During this step, the quality of thefinal casting is established. Shrink holes, blowholes, hot cracks, and many other defectsform in a casting while it solidifies.

The third step is the cooling of the solid metalto room temperature. It is during this stage ofcooling that warpage and casting stressesoccur.

THE START OF SOLIDIFICATION

Solidification of a casting is brought about bythe cooling effect of the mold. Within a fewseconds after pouring, a thin layer of metalnext to the mold wall is cool enough forsolidification to begin. At this time, a thinskin or shell of solid metal forms. The shellgradually thickens as more and more metal iscooled, until all the metal has solidified.Solidification always starts at the surface andfinishes in the center of a section. In other

words, solidification follows the direction thatthe metal is cooled.

The way in which metal solidifies from moldwalls is illustrated by the series of steelcastings shown in figure 1. The metal that wasstill molten after various intervals of time wasdumped out to show the progress ofsolidification. All metals behave in a similarmanner. However, the time required to reacha given thickness of skin varies among the

different metals.

influenced in three other ways: (1) bychanging the rate of heat removal from some parts of the mold with chills; (2) by propergating and risering, mold manipulation, andcontrol of pouring speed, and (3) by padding

the section with extra metal that can bemachined off later.

CONTRACTION

Metals, like most other materials, expandwhen they are heated. When cooled, theymust contract or shrink. During the cooling ofmolten metal from its pouring temperature toroom temperature, contraction occurs in threedefinite steps corresponding to the three steps

of cooling. The first step, known as liquidcontraction, takes place while the moltenmetal is cooling from its pouring temperatureto its freezing temperature. The second, calledsolidification contraction, takes place whenthe metal solidifies. The third contractiontakes place when the solidified casting coolsfrom its freezing temperature to roomtemperature. This is called solid contraction.Of the three steps in contraction, the firstliquid contraction causes least trouble to the

foundryman because it is so small in amount.

Figure 2, which shows the change in volumeof a steel alloy as it cools from the pouringtemperature to room temperature, illustratesthese contractions. In a similar way, most ofthe metals considered in this manual contractin volume when cooling and whensolidifying. The amount of shrinkage inseveral metals and alloys is given in table 1. Notice that some compositions of gray cast

iron expand slightly

2 TABLE 1. THE AMOUNT OF SHRINKAGE FROM POURING TEMPERATURE TO

ROOM TEMPERATURE FOR SEVERAL METALS AND ALLOYS

Name Composition Decrease in Total


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VolumeDuring

Solidification, percent

Decreasein Volume,

percent

Copper Deoxidized 3.8 10.7Red brass 85 Cu, 5 Zn, 5 Pb, 5 Sn 6.3 10.6

Yellow brass 70 Cu, 27 Zn, 2 Pb, 1 Sn 6.4 12.4

Bearing bronze 80 Cu, 10 Sn, 10 Pb 7.3 11.2

Manganese bronze

56-3/4 Cu, 40 Zn, 1-1/4 Fe, 1/2 Sn, 1 Al,1/2 Mn

4.6 11.5

Aluminum bronze

90 Cu, 10 Al 4.1 11.2

Aluminum Commercial 6.5 12.2

Nickel 98 Ni, 1-1/2 Si, 0.1 C 6.1 14.2Monel 67 Ni, 32 Cu 6.3 13.9

Nickel silver 20 Ni, 15 Zn, 65 Cu 5.5 12.1

Carbon steel 0.25 C, 0.2 Si, 0.6 Mn 3.8 11.4

Nickel cast iron 13 Ni, 7 Cu, 2 Cr, 3 C 1.6 7.8

Gray cast iron 2.18 C, 1.24 Si, 0.35 Mn3.08 C, 1.68 Si, 0.44 Mn3.69 C, 2.87 Si, 0.59 Mn

4.851.94-1.65(expands)

during solidification. This results from theformation of graphite, which is less densethan iron. The formation of graphitecompensates for a part of the shrinkage of theiron.

Reservoirs of molten metal, known as risers,are required to make up for the contractionthat occurs during solidification. If risers arenot provided at selected spots on the casting,shrinkage voids will occur in the casting.

These voids can occur in different ways,depending on the shape of the casting and onthe type of the metal. Piping, the type ofshrinkage illustrated in figure 3a, occurs in pure metals and in alloys having narrowranges of solidification temperature. Piping ina riser is usually a good indication that it isfunctioning properly. Gross shrinkage,

Centerline shrinkage occurs most frequentlyin alloys having a short solidification rangeand low thermal conductivity.Microshrinkage, which is also known asmicroporosity, occurs as tiny voids scatteredthrough an area of metal. It is caused byinability to feed metal into the spaces betweenthe arms of the individual crystals or grains ofmetal. This type of shrinkage, which isillustrated in figure 3d, is most often found inmetals having a long solidification

temperature range. Microporosity may also becaused by gas being trapped between the armsof the crystals.

After solidification, cast metal becomes morerigid as it cools to normal room temperature.This cooling is accompanied by contraction,which is allowed for by the patternmaker in


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illustrated in figure 3b, occurs at a heavysection of a casting which has beenimproperly fed. Centerline shrinkage,illustrated in figure 3c, occurs in the center ofa section where the gradually thickening walls

of solidified metal from two surfaces meet.

making the pattern for the casting.Contraction in cast metals after solidificationis resisted by the mold. Often, differentcooling rates of thin and heavy sections resultin uneven contraction. This uneven

contraction can

3 severely stress the partially solidified, and stillweak, heavier sections. Resistance tocontraction of the casting results in severe"contraction stresses" which may tear thecasting or which may remain in the castinguntil removed by suitable heat treatment.Sharp internal corners are natural points for

these stresses.

Some metals, such as steel, undergo otherdimensional changes as they pass throughcertain temperature ranges in the solid state.In the case of castings with extreme variationsin section thickness, it is possible forcontraction to take place in some parts at thesame time that expansion occurs in others. Ifthe design of the junctions of these parts is notcarefully considered, serious difficulties will

occur in the foundry and in service.

FREEZING TEMPERATURE OF

METALS

Molten metal has the ability to dissolve manysubstances, just as water dissolves salt. Themost important elements that are soluble inmolten iron are other metals and fivenonmetals--sulfur, phosphorus, carbon,nitrogen, and hydrogen. When substances are

dissolved in a metal, they change many of its properties. For example, pure iron is relativelysoft. A small amount of carbon dissolved inthe iron makes it tough and hard. Ironcontaining a small amount of carbon is calledsteel. More carbon dissolved in the ironmakes further changes in its properties. When

solidification temperatures are different foreach material.

Most of the metals used by foundrymen areimpure and are not eutectic mixtures. Thesemetals solidify over a range of temperatureknown as the solidification range. Mixtures of

metals have many of the solidificationcharacteristics of mixtures of salt and water.Just as the addition of salt to water changesthe temperature at which water starts tofreeze, so does the addition of one metal toanother change the freezing point of thesecond metal. An example of such a mixtureof metals is the copper-nickel system shownin figure 4b (right). A given mixture of copperand nickel will be liquid until it reaches thetemperature that crosses the line marking the

upper boundary of Area A + L. In the Area A+ L, the mixture will be partly liquid, and inthe Area A, it will be entirely solid. It will benoted that the addition of copper to nickellowers the freezing temperature. On the otherhand, the addition of nickel to copper raisesthe freezing temperature. A metal systemwhich has the same general shape as thecopper-nickel system is said to have completesolid solubility. Like the mixture of water andsalt, metal mixtures of this type must be

cooled well below the temperature at whichfreezing begins before they are completelysolidified. In its simplest form, the coolingcurve looks like that in figure 4b (left). Therange of temperature between the upper andlower line is the solidification range.


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enough carbon is dissolved in the molten iron,the excess carbon will form flakes of graphiteduring solidification. This metal is known ascast iron. The graphite flakes lower theeffective cross section of the metal, lower the

apparent hardness, and have a notch effect.These factors cause cast irons to have lowerstrengths and lower toughness than steels.

One of the most important changes in a metalas it dissolves other substances is