7822190 us navy course navedtra 134 navy instructor manual

7/27/2019 7822190 US Navy Course NAVEDTRA 134 Navy Instructor Manual

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NAVEDTRA 134Naval Education and August 1992 Training Manual

Training Command 0502-LP-219-8800 (TRAMAN)

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Nonfederal government personnel wanting a copy of this documentmust use the purchasing instructions on the inside cover.

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NAVSUP 2002 gives the quanti ty restr ict ion for this publication.

For authorization to exceed quanti ty restr ict ions on this i tem ordered from ASO, send

DD FORM 1348 with a let ter , s tat ing the just if ication for excess copies to Naval Education

and Tra in ing Program M anagem ent Suppor t A c t iv i ty (N ETPM SA ) , C ode 071 , Pensaco la ,

FL 32509-5000.

Letters of requests should be forwarded on command let terhead, signed by the

Commanding Off icer , OINC or by di rec t ion. Message reques ts to exceed quant i ty

restr ict ions must be in proper MILSTRIP requisi t ion format.

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Nonfedera l government personnel want ing a copy o f this document must write to Superintendent o f Documents, Government Print ing

Office , Washington, DC 20402 OR Commanding Officer , Naval Publ ications and Forms Directorate , Navy Aviation Supply Office , 5801

Tabor Avenue , Phi ladelphia , PA 19120-5099, Attention ; Cash Sa les , for price and a vai labi l i ty.


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COMMANDING OFFICER

NETPMSA

6490 SAUFLEY FIELD RD

PENSACOLA FL 32509-5237

22 September 1995

ERRRATA # 1

Stock Ordering No.

0502-LP-219-8801

Specific Instructions and Errata for

Training Manual

NAVY INSTRUCTOR MANUAL, NAVEDTRA 134

1. Make the following changes to the TRAMAN.

On page 24, in the heading titled Law of Primacy, change line 5

to read: amount of time for Learning-they do not. . .

On page 64, in the heading titled Application, change line 2 to

read: from comprehension in that...correctly.

On page 67, in the heading titled Complex Overt Response (Level

5), change the word ordinance to ordnance.

0 5 0 2 L P 2 1 9 8 8 0 1


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DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVYCHIEF OF NAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NAVAL AIR STATION

PENSACOLA, FLORIDA 32508-5100

1500Ser N-63/0330

LETTER OF PROMULGATION

1 . T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n p r o v i d e s a b a s i s f or t h e d e l i v e r y o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n N a v y c l a s s r o o m s a n d l a b o r a t o r i e s . T h e p r o c e d u r e s

a n d g u i d a n c e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s m a n u a l f or m a f ou n d a t i on f o r t h ep r a c t i c a l a p p l i ca t i on o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e t h o d s a n d t e c h n i q u e sw h i c h w i l l b e d e v e l op e d t h r o u g h f or m a l i n s t r u c t o r t r a i n i n gc o u r s e s .

2 . T h i s m a n u a l w i l l b e u s e d a s f ol l ow s :

a . A s a s u p p l e m e n t a r y t e x t f or f or m a l i n s t r u c t o r t r a i n i n gc ou r s e s A -0 1 2 - 0 0 1 1 G r o u p P a c ed I n s t r u c t o r , A - 0 0 -1 3 1 0 O f f i ce rG r o u p P a c e d I n s t r u c t o r , a n d Q - 5 K- 01 0 1 Ac a d e m i c I n s t r u c t o r .

b . As a b a s i c s o u r c e g u i d e fo r i n s t r u c t o r i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g

p r o gr a m s w i t h i n N a v a l E d u ca t i o n a n d T r a i n i n g C om m a n d s c h ool s .

c . A s a t e x t f o r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e c o u r s e N A V E D T R A 8 3 4 , N a v yI n s t r u c t i o n a l T h e o r y .

d . As a g e n e r a l r e fe r e n c e f o r p e r s o n n e l a s s i g n e d t o N a v yi n s t r u c t o r d u t y .

3 . C or r e ct i on s a n d co m m e n t s con c e r n i n g t h i s m a n u a l a r e i n v i t e d

a n d s h o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d t o C h i e f o f N a v a l E d u c a t i on a n d T r a i n i n g( N - 6 3 ) .

4 . T h i s p u b l i ca t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e fr o m C o m m a n d i n g O ff ic e r , N a v a lP u b l i ca t i o n s a n d F o r m s C e n t e r , 5 8 0 1 T a b or Av e n u e , P h i l a d e l p h i a ,PA 19120.

5 . R e v i e w e d a n d a p p r o v e d .


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S u b j: LETTER OF PROMULGATION FOR NAVEDTRA 134, NAVY INSTRUCTORMANUAL

D i s t r i b u t i o n :(CNETINST 5218 F, Case A)L i s t s I , I I ( 1 - 2 ) , I I I ( 7 ) , I V ( 1 - 2 , 4 - 6 ) ,V ( 1 -1 7 , 2 1 , 2 4 - 4 4 ) V 1 , V I I

c op y t o :C N O ( O P - 1 1 , 2 9 , 3 9 , 5 9 ) ( 1 )COMNAVSEASYSCOM (04MP) (2)COMNAVAIRSYSCOM (PMA 205-41) (1)COMSPAWARSYSCOM (Code 003-244) (1)HS ETC ( C ode 05 ) ( 2 )AEGIS TRACEN (TD2) (1)D I R S S P ( S P - 1 5 3 1 1 ) ( 1 )NAVPERSRANDCEN (Code 152) (2)

NAVSAFECEN (Code 48) (2)

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CHANGE RECORD

Recommended changes to this manual will be forwarded to CNET (N63) via the functional

commander. Approved changes will be recorded on the Change Record of this manual.

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FOREWORD

This manual is part of the following series scheduled for publication:

N A V ED TR A 130 , Task B ased C ur r i cu lum D eve lopm ent M anua l

N A V E D T R A 1 3 1 , P e r s o n n e l P e r f o r m a n c e P r o f i l e B a s e d C u r r i c u l u m D e v e l o p m e n t

M a n u a l

N A V ED TR A 132 , M anagem ent /Leadem hip /Sem ina r C ur r i cu lum D eve lopm ent M anua l

N A V E D T R A 1 3 3 , T e a m T r a i n i n g c u r r i c u l u m D e v e l o p m e n t M a n u a l

N A V E D T R A 1 3 4 , N a v y I n s t r u c t o r M a n u a l

N A V E D T R A 1 3 5 , N a v y S c h o o l M a n a g e m e n t M a n u a l

The NAVEDTRA 130 series of manuals provides fundamental guidance within the Naval

Education and Training Command for the development of curricula, the delivery of instruction,

and the management and evaluat ion of t ra in ing programs.

These manuals do not supersede the directive policy established by Chief of Naval Education

and Tra ining Ins t ruct ions (CNETINSTs) in these subjec t a reas . Rather , they supplement the

CNETINSTs in two important ways. First , they reflect the philosophical principles underlying

CNET policy for curriculum, instruction and evaluation and second, they provide procedures

for carrying out that policy.

Each of the 130 series manuals is designed as a stand alone document to serve a specific user

group such as curriculum developers, instructors, training managers, or evaluators of training.

The manuals are , however , in ter re la ted and appropr ia te ly cross referenced to one another .

The purpose of NAVEDTRA 134, Navy Ins t ructor Manual , is to present knowledge factors

and background information on the theory and techniques of Navy classroom instruction. I t

is designed to follow the outline of the formal group-paced Instructor Training Courses and is

to be used as a supplementary text for those courses. For Navy reservis ts , NAVEDTRA 134

is to be used as the primary text for the correspondence course that is prerequisite to their two

w ee k g r ou p -p a ce d cou r s e . I t m a y a l so b e u s ed a s a g e n er a l r e fe r e n ce b y t h o se h a v in g

responsibil i ty for conducting shipboard or on-the-job training programs.

In some instances, the terms used in this manual may differ from those used in other manuals.

The following is a list of exceptions to the use of terms located in this manual.

T E R M U S E D I N N A V E D T R A 1 3 4 E X C E P T I O N T E R M

Training Act iv i ty Training Facil i ty

Tra inee G uide Student Guide

S tuden t Tra inee

Lesson P la n In s t r u ct or Gu ide

Adminis t r a t or s Guide Proctor Guide

Knowledge Tes ts Wri t ten Tes ts

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHANGE RECORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

TABLE OF CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv

C H A P T E R S

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

NAVY TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

THE NAVY INSTRUCTOR.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

MOTIVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

LEARNING OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

COURSE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

10. INSTRUCTOR EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110

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CHAPTER 1

NAVY TRAINING

INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of the Navy training establishment is to provide the operational forces

with trained personnel who can maintain a high degree of f leet readiness. Several offices

coordinate with each other to plan for training and to determine the purposes of training within

various commands. These offices are the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), Fleet Commanders

i n C h i e f (F L T C I N C s ) , S y s t e m C o m m a n d s ( S YS C O M S ) , C h i e f of N a v a l E d u c a t i o n a n d

Tra in ing (C N ET) , and the C om m ander , N ava l R ese rve Forces (C O M N A V R ESFO R ) .

About one-third of all people in the Navy are involved in some kind of training at any one

time. New technical developments as well as losses of trained personnel through promotion,

re t i rement , d ischarge , or t ransfer crea te a constant need for t ra in ing. How does the Navy

perform such a la rge and complex t ra in ing task wi th changing requi rements and a changing

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population? How do the Navys tr ainers en sure n eeded standa rdization a nd carr y out required

changes? The answer is that the Navy uses a systems approach to training. One of the purposes

of this ma nua l is to acquaint you with the details of th e Navys forma l tra ining system an d th e

educational concepts upon which i t is based.

T H E N A V Y T R A I N I N G S Y S T E M

T h e p u r p o s e o f a n y systems

approach is to provide a method by

which an organization can analyze

a n d a p p l y a l l t h e e l e m e n t s t h a t

make up the sys tem (fig. 1-1). The

p u r p o s e of t h e N a v y s t r a i n i n g

s y s t e m i s t o e n s u r e a s y s t e m a t i c

approach fo r de t e rm in ing w ha t t o

t r a in and how bes t t o accom pl i sh

tha t t r a in ing . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h eNavys a p p r o a c h t o t r a in in g,

visualize Navy training as a system

with three dis t inc t but in ter re la ted

elements: p r e p a r a t i o n t o t r a i n ,

delivery of training, and evaluation

of training.

The success of the entire system

depends upon the e f f ec t iveness o f

t h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . A n

organiza t ion m u s t g i v e e q u a l

a t t e n t i o n a n d e m p h a s i s t o e a c h

element of the system and to how

each e lement re la tes to the others .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e t r a i n i n g o f N a v y

tra iners must address tasks in

three elements of the system.

P R E P A R A T I O N T O T R A I N

all

B e f o r e t h e N a v y c a n p r o v i d etraining, it must determine training

requirements; develop training; and

t r a in in st r u ct or s , c u r r i c u l u m

developers , and t ra in ing managers

(fig. 1-2). T h e r e f o r e , i t u s e s a

planning process through which i t

Figure 1-1.-The Navy training system.

Figure 1-2.-Preparation to train.

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determines the formal courses i t wil l offer and the number of students i t wil l t rain in e a c h

course. It then sets standards for course and curriculum development and prescribes the training

path(s) appropriate for instructors, curriculum developers, and training managers.

D etermin in g T ra in in g R eq u iremen ts

The Na vy determines t raining requirement s from the fleets n eed for people with part icular

job s k il ls . Be for e p r ov id in g for for m a l cou r s es , i t ch eck s t o s ee if t h e t r a in ed pe r son n el

inven to ry has enough peop le w i th those pa r t i cu l a r sk i l l s . I f t he inven to ry l acks t r a inedpersonnel, the Navy then provides formal courses in each skill area unless on-the-job training

(OJT) is more cost effective.

The Navy provides most in i t ia l ski l l t ra in ing and a lmost a l l t ra in ing tha t awards a Navy

Enl i s t ed C las s i f i ca t ion (N EC ) th rough fo rm a l , r e s iden t cour ses . I t p rov ides non-N EC sk i l l

training courses in both formal and informal set t ings.

Identif ication of training requirements is an ongoing process. As skil l requirements become

obsolete, the Navy changes, revises, or deletes courses; as new skill requirements are identified,

i t introduces new courses.

D ev e lo p in g T ra in in g

Once a training requirement is validated, program managers must determine if the required

training is already available. If not available, they must determine if a change or revision to

existing training can meet the training requirement or if new curriculum development is required.

For new course development, the program manager must decide the type of training needed and

d i r ect t he developm ent of cour se m a te r i a ls . The program m anager t hen m us t ensure tha t

designated personnel receive the required training to develop, conduct, or manage the course.

D ur ing the deve lopm ent o f t r a in ing , t he des igna ted func t iona l com m ander and t r a in ing

activity work together to establish the course of instruction and develop the course materials.

To e s t ab l i sh a cour se , t he func t iona l com m ander and the t r a in ing ac t iv i ty m us t t ake the

following actions:

n I d e n t i f y t h e m a n p o w e r , s u p p o r t , a n d e q u i p m e n t n e e d e d t o s u p p o r t t h e t r a i n i n gr e q u i r e m e n t

n Submit a course description via the functional commander for insertion into the C ata logo f N avy Tra in ing C ourses (C AN TRAC )

n A ss ign a cour se iden t i f i ca t ion num ber (C IN )

The CIN will be included in the Navy Integrated Training Resources and Administrat ive

System (NITRAS). NITRAS is a Navywide automated information system designed to manage

and suppor t the Navy t ra in ing ef for t . Managers wi l l be able to t rack s tudents and t ra in ing

information related to a specific course because of the course unique CIN.

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The development of technical course materials also follows a systematic procedure. The goal

of the systems approach is to establish uniform training. T h e s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h h a s t h e

fol lowing advantages :

n Preven t s o r m in im izes ove r t r a in ing and unde r t r a in ing th rough the iden t i f i ca t ion o f t ra in ing requi rements

E Ensures uni form t ra ining for a l l personnel a t a l l fac i l i t ies through the use of s tandardguidelines for materials development

n Ensures up- to-date t ra in ing through the analys is of t ra in ing mater ia ls and proceduresn Assesses overall effectiveness and identif ies deficiencies through the continued feedback

of a training evaluation program

T r a i n i n g S t a f f

All officer and enlisted personnel occupying

ins t ruc to r , t r a in ing m anager , o r cu r r i cu lum

deve lope r b i l l e t s /pos i t i ons w i th in the N ava l

E d u c a t i on a n d T r a i n i n g C o m m a n d

( N A V E D T R A C O M ) m u s t c o m p l e t e t h et r a i n i n g p a t h ( s ) a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r d u t y

a ssign men ts . O nly t h r ou gh t h e in t e ns iv e,

r e c u r r i n g t r a i n i n g o f i n s t r u c t o r s , t r a i n i n g

managers , and curr iculum developers can the

Navy achieve uniform technical training.

D E L I V E R Y O F T R A I N I N G

All of the analysis, course development, and

s t a f f t r a in ing conduc ted a s pa r t o f t r a in ing

prepa ra t ion cu lm ina te s w i th the de l ive ry o f

t r a i n i n g (fig. 1-3). The responsibi l i ty of the

Figure 1-3.-Delivery of training.

instructors and managers of Navy training courses is to help the student to learn. No matter

what the course is, their efforts are aimed at training the student to do a specific job and to

apply the principles learned. An important part of this training is giving the students clear and

precise directions and explaining the best way to perform the tasks associated with their job.

T ra in in g Ma n a g emen t

Management and adminis t ra t ion are two impor tant e lements of ins t ruct ion. Es tabl i shing

instructional management and administrative guidelines helps to prevent difficulties and solve

problems that develop in a learning situation.

Management involves several areas of concern. The primary concern is the safety of the

s t u d en t s a n d s t a ff. An o t h e r con c e r n i s t h e e ffe ct i v e a n d e c on o m ica l u s e of i n s t r u c t i on a l

m a te r i a l and equ ipm ent . M anagem ent i s conce rned w ith t he fu l l u se of a ll educa t iona l and

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training facilities. Management involves the filling of billets, manning, resource needs, quality-

of-l ife issues, and after-hours routines. As in every other component of the training system,

cou r s e m a n a ge m en t i s m u lt ifa ce t ed . I t con s i s t s of cl a s s r oom m a n a g em e n t a n d cou r s e

m a n a g e m e n t .

Classroom ma na gement is th e inst ru ctors responsibili ty. An inst ru ctor mu st esta blish a

recep t ive , coope ra t ive w ork ing r e l a t ionsh ip w i th s tuden t s , o the r i ns t ruc to r s , and cour se

managers. The instructor should make whatever arrangements are needed to provide favorable

learning conditions for all students. The students should be able to hear and see the instructor

w i t h o u t b e i n g d i s t r a c t e d b y o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s a r o u n d t h e m . T h e i n s t r u c t o r m u s t h a v e a

safety-conscious attitude and instill in each student safe work habits and an awareness of the

hazards of equipment and machinery . The pr inciples and procedures the ins t ructor adopts in

classroom management contribute to the success of the instruction.

All instru ctional operat ions and procedures are the instru ctors a dministra tive responsibility.

To make instruction effective, instructors should fully use the time specified for lesson topics.

They should repor t equipment in need of repai r and reques t suppl ies needed to help them

provide effective instruction. They should also make sure the classroom or laboratory is ready

for t he n ext class of stu dent s or for t he inst ru ctors use t he following day. That includes al l

equipment and t ra in ing mater ia ls .

C ourse m anagem ent i nvo lves m anagem ent o f t he ins t ruc t iona l m a te r i a l s , t he s t a f f , t he

students, and the physical plant ( i .e . , building, equipment, furniture). CNET establishes the

instructions, manuals, and directives that spell out the duties of the school supervisors, directors,

and support personnel in each of these areas; they are amplified by the functional commanders

and the local training activity. Ins t ruc to r s shou ld be f am i l i a r w i th the o rgan iza t ion and

management responsibil i t ies of their training activity.

E V A LU A T I O N O F T R A I N I N G

Evaluat ion m an agement measur es th e effectiveness of the Na vys tr aining programs (fig. 1-4).

Eve ry m em ber o f t he com m and , f rom the com m anding o f f i ce r t o t he ins t ruc to r , sha res

Figure 1-4.-Evaluation of training.

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responsibility for the evaluation of training. It is a joint effort that should be used as a tool to

improve the training provided. Evaluation is normally divided into internal evaluation and

external evaluat ion.

Internal evaluation involves feedback on the course of instruction on a regularly scheduled

bas i s . Th i s i n fo rm a t ion i s used to m ake im provem ent s t o t r a in ing . Exam ples inc lude the

following:

n Reviews of safety, the course, and at tr i t ion or setback percentages

m Testing Programs, including test- i tem analysisH Evaluation of instructors in both classroom and laboratory sett ings

~ Cri t iques of course and ins t ructors by the s tudents

External evaluation involves the gathering of feedback by individuals or groups of individuals

outside the course. Although this information is normally not gathered as frequently as the

internal feedback data, it is also used to make improvements to the training.

S U M M A R Y

The Navy training system is extremely complex. It includes the preparation to train, delivery

of tr aining, an d evaluat ion of tr ainin g. Although i t requires coordination at al l levels of the

Navy organization, the most essential, single link in the training chain is the instructor. The

instructor is the one who must simplify the learning process for students of varied backgrounds

and experiences. The instructor is the one who must present the knowledge and skills required

to transform students into proficient and productive members of the operating forces.

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CHAPTER 2

THE NAVY INSTRUCTOR

INTRODUCTION

Teaching has been described as both an art and a science. The science of teaching helps to

explain what must be done. It is concerned with the why and how of instruction. The science

of teaching helps the new ins t ructor unders tand the techniques and acquire the knowledge

required to do the job. That is why Navy instructor training includes subjects on the principles

of learning, motivation, communication, instructional methods, objectives, testing, and the ways

people learn, among other topics. That is also why instructor training includes a lot of practice

t each ing and t each ing-pe r fo rm ance exam ina t ions . These specific parts of the training are

designed to help the beginning instructor grasp the basic techniques of instruction.

Once beginning instructors learn to use these techniques, they can start to learn the art of

ins t ruct ion. As wi th any ar t , some ar t i s t s (ins t ru ctors) wi ll be more effect ive tha n others .

Ef f i c i en t i n s t ruc to r s know and fo l low a l l t he ru l e s and t echn iques o f t each ing . H ow ever ,

e f f ec t ive ins t ruc to r s a r e o f t en those w ho se i ze eve ry oppor tun i ty to enhance the l ea rn ing

experience by being more creative in their use of the rules and techniques. Before you can do

that, though, you must know the rules and when you may appropriately deviate from them.

The a r t o f i n s t ruc t ion r ea l ly canno t be t augh t . Y ou deve lop i t t h rough expe r i ence and

learning what works. The science of instruction can be taught. Therefore, the more you know

and understand about the science of teaching, the better equipped you will be to develop the art.

Although almost anyone can become a competent instructor, some people will develop into truly

superior instructors. The start ing place, however, is the same for al l of us--with the basics.

In h is text , I n s t ru ct ion a l T ech n iq u e, D a v i e s d i s c u s s e s t h e c o n c e p t s o f e f f i c i e n c y a n d

effectiveness (Ivor K. Davies, I n st ru ct ion a l T ech n iqu e [New York: McGraw-Hil l Publ ishing

Company, 1981], 22). According to Davies, efficiency is concerned with doing things right while

effectiveness is doing the right things.

Most of us easily recognize efficient instructors. They do things right. They plan their lesson,

prepare the learning environment, conduct proper lesson introductions, ask questions, and use

instructional media material . That , however, does not ensure they are effective. Effectiveness

in instruction is much more than just doing things r ight; i t is a measure of the outcome of

learning. It is what students can do, as a result of instruction, to demonstrate they have met

the objectives of the course.

Ideally, your instruction will be both efficient and effective. Through study and experience,

you can l ea rn to do the r igh t t h ings r igh t . T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r t r a i t s i n s t r u c t o r s s h o u l d h a v e a s w e l l a s i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e d u t i e s ,

responsibil i t ies, and concerns common to Navy instructors.

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P R O F E S S I O N A L P R E C E P T S

I f y o u w e r e t o o b s e r v e e f f i c i e n t a n d

effectivetive instructors, you would see that

they have ce r ta in qua l i t i e s in common.

These qualities provide a list of traits that

may serve as a set of ideals toward which

y o u m a y w o r k a s a n i n s t r u c t o r . T h e s e

traits also provide you with a basis for self-

e v a l u a t i o n a n d s e l f - h e l p . E a c h o f t h e s e

t r a i t s b e l o n g s i n o n e o f t h r e e b r o a d

categories: k n o w l e d g e , a b i l i t y , or

personality. Toge ther , t h e s e t h r e e

categories contain the professional qualities

of an effective and efficient instructor

(f ig . 2-1).Figure 2-1 .- P r o f e s s i o na l pr e c e pt s .

K N O W L E D G EYou must have many types of knowledge to be both efficient and effective as an instructor.

First, you must be thoroughly familiar with the subject you will be teaching. Generally, your

assignment to instructor duty indicates that your area subject matter expert in your area of

assignment . The formal t ra ining you have received in your ra t ing coupled with your actual

work exper ience and on- the- job t ra in ing wi l l p rove inva luab le to you in your ins t ruc tor

assignment. You may discover, however, that knowing the subject well enough to do the job

yourself is quite different from knowing how to teach others to do it. This latter area will bring

you your greatest challenges and rewards as an instructor.

You wil l need to know far more about the subject than you actual ly teach your s tudents .

Only through practice, study, research, and keeping up with new developments can you attainthe vas t s to re o f knowledge requ i red in your ro le as ins t ruc tor . Ava i l yourse l f o f every

opportunity to observe other instructors. Not only will that benefit you in learning more about

the subject matter, i t will also expand your knowledge of instructional techniques.

You need to understand that you will be conducting training to meet the needs of the Navy,

not individual members. As discussed in chapter 1, the primary purpose of the Navy training

establishment is to provide the operational forces with trained personnel who can maintain a

high degree of fleet readiness.

Training and education have much in common, but they differ in important ways. Education

does not necessarily have a practical or defined goal; acquiring knowledge for its own sake is

a legitimate goal of education, but not of training. Training should accomplish at least threethings:

9 Develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes9 Produce changes in behav ior_ Attain specif ic object ives

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The focus of training is to prepare individuals to perform the duties of the job to which they

will be assigned. Your cha l lenge i s to he lp s tuden ts l ea rn- - to l ead them in ga in ing the

knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will make them successful.

To help s tudents learn you need to know something about their previous educat ion and

e xp er ie nce . S t u d e n t r e cor d s w i l l pr o vi d e s om e o f t h e i n f or m a t i on y o u n e e d . P r e v iou s

ins t ruc tors o f s tuden ts can a l so p rov ide you wi th va luab le in format ion . H o w e v e r , y o u r

interaction with the student in the training environment is your greatest source of information.

Finally, you need to know basic instructional strategies and techniques. That brings us back

once again to discussing the science and art of instruction. Formal instructor training and the

information in this text will provide you with information on the science of teaching. The art

o f ins t ruc t ion you wi l l ga in th rough your exper ience and in te rac t ion wi th s tuden ts , o ther

i n st r u ct or s , a n d t r a i n in g a d m i n is t r a t or s , You s h o u l d con t i n u o u s ly s t r i ve t o e x pa n d y o u r

knowledge in both the science and art of instruction.

A B I L I T Y

You should have two basic types of ability: leadership and instructional. Some individuals

are said to possess natural ability; that is, they are born instructors or born leaders. While

certain traits may set those people apart from others, they have probably worked very hard at

being born instructors and leaders.

Research, upon wh ich t he Na vys leadership t ra ining is ba sed, has def ined a n umber of

leadership skills, knowledge, and behaviors that distinguish superior Navy leaders from average

per formers .

Eff ic ient and effect ive instructors have leadership ski l ls such as planning and organizing,

op t imiz ing the use o f resources , de lega t ing au thor i ty , moni to r ing progress and resu l t s ,

disciplining, and rewarding. Their skillful use of influence helps them to persuade others, build

teamwork, develop subordinates, and maintain self-control. In advising and counseling, they

under sta nd s tu dents needs, and th ey both h ave and create in others posit ive and real is t ic

expectations. In applying concepts to job situations, their knowledge and experience helps them

to identify problems, sort through facts, and decide on appropriate courses of action.

As a Navy instructor , you wil l f ind that leadership by example takes on a par t icular ly

important significance. Everything you do is under scrutiny. Not only must you instruct in an

efficient and effective manner, you must also serve as a role model in your military conduct,

at tit ude, app ear an ce, an d bear ing. You should exemplify the Na vys core valu es of integr ity,

professional ism and t radi t ion.

Ins t ruc t iona l ab i l i ty , a long wi th leadersh ip ab i l i ty , i s e ssen t ia l to your e f f ic iency and

effectiveness as an instructor. You must not only know the principles, methods, and techniques

of instruction, you must also be able to apply them effectively. Your ability as an instructorshould grow with experience. However , your abi l ity wil l grow only i f you m ake a conscious

effort to improve.

As stated earlier in this chapter, almost anyone can become a competent instructor. You are

mistaken, however, if you assume that job experience and formal training alone will prepare you

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to instruct others. You must have a great amount of knowledge--but knowledge is not enough.

You must have excellent leadership ability--but leadership ability is not enough. You must care

about the students you instruct--but caring is not enough. You must be dedicated to the Navy

and to helping others succeed--but dedication is not enough. Your ability to be efficient as well

as effective requires you to have al l of these qualities and to work at continually improving

them.

P E R S O N A L I T Y

For purposes of this discussion, personality is defined as the pattern of collective character,

behavioral , temperamental , emotional , and mental t ra i ts of an individual .

To be successful as an instructor, you must gain the respect of your students by displaying

a professional a t t i tude toward others . Always show a s incere interest in a l l of your s tudents

regardless of their race, geographical heritage, or level of intellect. Remain constantly aware

that students will be influenced by your behavior and the example you set both in and out of

the t ra ining environment .

As wi th mos t p rofess ions , ins t ruc tors mus t adhere to ce r ta in ru les o f conduc t in the

performance of their duties. The following are some of the rules of conduct you should follow:

n If you do not know an answer, admit i t . Do not bluff. At times, questions will arisethat you will not be able to answer. Find the correct answer at the earliest opportunity;

then provide the information to the class as soon as practical.

9 Ke e p y o ur r e m a r ks pr o f e s s i o na l a nd a ppr o pr i a t e t o t he c l a s s r o o m . Do not useprofanity or obscenity. Use of profane or obscene language is one of the fastest ways to

lose the respect of your students.

n B e p a t i e n t . Be aware that not all people learn in the same way or at the same rate.While you may easily become frustrated with a person who is having difficulty with

seemingly simple material, never allow your frustration to show. If all else fails, take a

break to cool off, or consult with other instructors to find another approach to resolve the

d i f f icu l ty . Remember , in the major i ty o f s i tua t ions , s tuden ts a re s incere ly t ry ing to

understand what is being taught. Your job is to find a way to help them.

n Maintain rapport with students. The use of sarcasm is another way to lose the respectof your students. Sarcasm, whether it is directed at one individual or the entire group, is

never appropriate .

= Tr e a t s t ude nt s w i t h r e s pe c t . All of the individuals you train should feel you have asincere interest in their effor ts to learn. Al though your s tuden ts wi l l no t have your

knowledge or experience, you should think of them as being physically, mentally, and

emotional ly mature .

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I N S T R U C T O R R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S

While you are assigned as an instructor, you must abide by the directives and instructions

within your chain of command. You also must exhibit and enforce proper military conduct and

discipline at all times.

Whatever your task, approach your job with honesty, enthusiasm, and genuine dedicat ion.

As a Navy instructor, you fill one of the most critical positions in the training program. Your

responsibilities include m aking t he best of your own t ime an d th e stu dents time t o develop t hose

skills, knowledge, and attitudes essential to effective performance.

R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y T O S T U D E N T S

Although your instruct ional and leadership role inf luences s tudents in the formal t ra ining

environment , be aware that many other inf luences a lso affect their performance (fig. 2-2).

Students have many mil i tary dut ies and responsibi l i t ies that affect their l ives . In addi t ion,

p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t s w i t h f a m i l y m e m b e r s , f r i e n d s , a n d o t h e r c o n c e r n s a f f e c t t h e i r

per formance .

PERFORMANCE

Figure 2-2.-Influences on student performance.

To the greatest extent possible , t ry to help s tudents resolve confl ic ts resul t ing from these

various influences. Your role as an instructor places you in a unique position to identify

persons experiencing conflict. Since you interact with s tudents on a f requent basis , not ice

changes in s tu dents performa nce or beha vior; then tak e s teps t o help them.

Your responsibility to your students is to teach effectively, set a good example for them tofollow, and help them resolve conflicts that hinder their training.

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R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y F O R T R A I N I N G S A F E T Y

Safety is an integral part of all elements of

the Naval Educat ion and Training Command

(N A V E D T R A C O M) mission.

N A VE D T R A C O M h a s i s s u e d p o l ic y a n d

procedures to eliminate or reduce the chances

o f m i s h a p s o r m i s h a p - r e l a t e d i n j u r i e s t o

students and instructors during t ra ining. This

p o l i c y s t a t e s t h a t s a f e t y a n d s u p e r v i s o r y

procedures shall be maintained at a level that

e n s u r e s s a f e t r a i n i n g w h i l e p r o v i d i n g t h e

r e a l i s m n e e d e d t o f u l f i l l f l e e t o p e r a t i o n a l

r e qu i r em e n t s w it h i n p r a ct i ca l l im i t s. T h e s e

p r o c e d u r e s a r e e s s e n t i a l t o a n a g g r e s s i v e

training program that prepares naval personnel

to perform professionally in normal as well as

high-risk activities.

Never forget that as an instructor you area role model for your students. This is true in all

aspects of training, especially training safety. You must demonstrate proper safety procedures

in addition to teaching them. Be aware that your behavior often has greater impact on students

than do your words. You have no greater responsibility as an instructor than that related to

the safety of the personnel you train.

R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y F O R S E C U R I T Y

Many Navy courses contain mater ia ls that are c lassif ied for securi ty purposes . In teaching

classified information, you must be aware of several requirements:

n Never d i scuss any c lass i f i ed mate r ia l no t in the approved cur r icu lum. Remember todisclose classified information only to properly cleared personnel with a need to know the

informat ion .

n Never present or discuss information that carries a higher security classification than thatof the approved curriculum.

9 Do not incorpora te in to your course mate r ia l s any in format ion tha t ca r r ies a h ighersecuri ty c lassif icat ion than that of the approved curr iculum. That includes information

incorporated into your lesson plan through personal izat ion, s tudent handouts , t ra ining

materials, and test i tems.

l Make sure you can account for c lassif ied t ra ining mater ia ls or references used in the

training environment at all t imes.

n Immediately report any s i tuat ion you suspect may const i tute a securi ty violat ion.Security of classified materials demands constant attention by everyone involved. As with

safety, your behavior has a great impact upon your students. Never say or do anything that will

downplay the importance of the security of classified materials.

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R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y F O R C U R R I C U L U M

Since a relat ively small number of instructors have curriculum development duties, your

assignment to such duties is unlikely. However , you may become involved in curr iculum

revision and will almost certainly be involved with curriculum maintenance. Therefore, you

need to understand the following terms and definit ions associated with the maintenance of

curr iculum. The source of th is informat ion i s the N a v y S ch ool M a n a g em en t M a n u a l ,

NAVEDTRA 135, and Mil i ta ry Standard 1379D.

Curriculum. All training conducted within a school, outlined into specific topics, alongwith detai led training objectives.

Surveillance. A process that provides ongoing evaluation of training or training materials

t o e n s u r e c o n t i n u e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d c u r r e n c y o f c o n t e n t t o m e e t t h e t r a i n i n g

requirements .

I n t er im Ch a n ge . A m i n or c h a n g e t o cor r e ct e d i t or i a l a n d t y p og r a p h i ca l e r r or s ,

teachabil i ty, safety, or urgent type commander-issued subjects.

Change. A modification to training materials that DOES NOT affect course objectives,

increase course length, or require addit ional resources.

Technical Change. Any change to tactical ( i .e . , shipboard) or training-unique equipmentor documen ta tion originat ing in the Tr ain ing Supp ort Agencys (norm ally a SYSCOM)

parent material agency that affects curriculum. A technical change mayor may not affect

individual lesson objectives, but DOES NOT affect course objectives, course length, or

resources.

Revision. A change to any course learning/terminal objective, an increase in course

length, or any change that requires addit ional resources.

Curriculum maintenance is an ongoing effort to ensure the course curriculum is both current

and accura t e . A ny de f i c i ency no ted a s a r e su l t o f su rve i l l ance r equ i r e s a change to the

curriculum or training.

F R A T E R N I Z A T I O N

As an instr uctor, you m ust be awar e of th e Navys policy on fra ter nization pa rt icular ly as it

appl ies be tween you and your s tudents . Fra terniza t ion i s defined as personal re la t ionships

between officer and enlisted members which are unduly familiar and do not respect differences

in rank and grade. Such relationships are inappropriate and against long-standing custom and

tradition of the naval service. Similar relationships involving two officers or involving two

e n l i s t e d m e m b e r s w h e r e a s e n i o r - s u b o r d i n a t e s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s a r e a l s o

inappropriate. Inappropriate conduct of this nature is to be avoided and, when it is found to

exist , commands are expected to take administrat ive or disciplinary action as necessary to

correc t i t . Addi t ional ly , such inappropr ia te re la t ionships subjec t the involved members to

disciplinary action under the Uniform Code of Mili tary Justice (UCMJ) when the actions or

relationships: (1) are prejudicial to good order and discipline; or (2) bring discredit to the naval

service.

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As an instructor, be especially careful in your personal associations, particularly as regards

student interactions. Make sure your actions and the actions of your students support the

Navys policy on frat ern ization a nd reflect t he N avys core va lues.

S E X U A L H A R A S S M E N T

A s a N avy ins t ruc to r , m ake su re you m a in ta in h igh s t anda rds o f hones ty , i n t eg r i ty ,

impartiality, and conduct in dealing with all personnel regardless of sex. Sexual harassment is

unacceptable conduct that undermines the integrity of the instructor-student relationship. The

Navy has a longstanding policy of z e r o t o l e r a nc e of sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment is a form of discrimination involving unwelcome sexual advances, requests

for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature when the following

occurs:

w Submission to or rejection of such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a termor cond ition of a per sons job, pa y, or car eer

n Submission to or rejection of such conduct by a person is used as a basis for career oremployment decisions affecting this person

n Such condu ct in t er feres wi th an individua l s perform an ce or crea tes an in t imida t in g,hostile, or offensive environment

Prevention of sexual harassment is the responsibil i ty of al l personnel. As an instructor,

however, you are in a part icularly important posit ion to prevent sexual harassment. Take an

active role in educating your students on the seriousness of such behavior and immediately

con fr on t a n y c on d u ct t h a t m a y b e con s t r u e d a s in a p p r op r ia t e . W h e n c on f r on t e d a b o u t

ina ppr opriat e beha vior, individua ls often say t hey were only joking or th ey didnt m ean

anything by i t. Sexual harassment is not a joke .

A posit ive command/classroom climate, where behavior is professional and appropriate and

where everyone up and down the chain treats his or her subordinates and peers with courtesy

and respect, will do more than any other action to eliminate sexual harassment.

S U M M A R Y

The to t a l N avy t r a in ing p rogram invo lves m any e l em en t s . W hi l e a l l a r e im por t an t , t he

instructor is the keystone of the entire program. The success of the Navy depends to a great

extent on the effectiveness of the instruction that individuals receive during training. As a Navy

instructor, you play a critical role in providing our operating forces with personnel trained to

maintain a high degree of fleet readiness. Your success in that role will depend upon yourc o m m i t m e n t t o d e v e l o p i n g t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i t i e s o f a n i n s t r u c t o r , f u l f i l l i n g y o u r

responsibil i t ies for both the content and quali ty of the curriculum you deliver, and modeling

appropriate core values and standards of conduct, particularly with respect to fraternization and

sexual harassment. In so doing, you will have a firm foundation upon which to develop specific

teaching skills and actively involve your students in the learning process.

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CHAP TER 3

MOTIVATION

INTRODUCTION

Motivating students to learn is possibly one of the most pondered and discussed areas among

people involved in the education and training of others. How to get students interested and

involved in the learning process has long been one of the greatest challenges for instructors.

Motivation involves the activation, direction, and persistence of a specified behavior. While

students are responsible for their own learning, you can greatly enhance their desire to learn by

creatively using motivational techniques. In the educational sense, motivation is the process of

prompting a person to learn. The majori ty of your students wil l respond to general methods

of motivation. However, to provide appropriate incentives for individual students to learn, you

must learn to recognize their needs, incentives, and drives.

Genera l ly , a ll behavior i s mot ivated. The goal of ins t ruct ion i s to mot ivate s tudents to

achieve course objectives. Instr uctors sometime mistakenly believe that a student who is not

par t ic ipat ing in c lassroom act iv i t ies or f in ishing homework ass ignments i s not mot ivated.

Strictly speaking, the student is not motivated to behave in the manner desired by the instructor.

This chapter provides background information on the principles of motivation and offers some

practical techniques for instructors to use in the motivation of their students.

M O T I V AT I O N T H E O R Y

Before looking at the principles of motivation, look at the motivation theory developed by

Abrah am H. Maslow. Simply stat ed, Maslows t heory proposes t ha t in dividua ls will seek t ogratify higher order (growth) needs only when all lower order (deficiency) needs have been

relat ively well satisfied. Based on Ma slows t heory, people ar e dr iven to sa tisfy unfulfilled needs

in a specific order. Maslow refers to the order in which they fulfill those needs as a hierarchy

of needs.

Maslows hier ar chy (fig. 3-1) contains a lower level of needs, known as deficiency needs, and

a h ighe r l eve l , know n as g row th needs . Deficiency needs include physiological , safety,

belongingness and love, and esteem needs. Growth needs include the self-actualization, desire

for knowledge and understanding, and aesthetic needs.

The implications of this particular theory to the training environment are intriguing. As the

instructor, you control what takes place in the classroom or laboratory. That means you play

an important role in gratifying the needs of your students. Students are more likely to try to

satisfy their desire to know and understand once their physical and psychological needs have

been me t . T h ey n ee d t o fe e l

psychologically); have self-esteem;

s a f e , r e l a x e d , a n d c o m f o r t a b l e ( b o t h p h y s i c a l l y a n d

and have a sense of belonging.

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Applying Maslows theory in the

classroom may be l imi ted by your

knowledge of the students or your

ability to meet their needs. Chapter

2 discussed various influences that

a f fe ct s t u d e n t s i n t h e t r a i n i n g

environment. You need to be aware

of t hose in f luences and know the

resources available to help students

involved in confl icts that interfere

w i t h t h e i r t r a i n i n g . T h a t w i l l

greatly increase your effectiveness in

mot ivat ing s tudents to learn .

M O T I V A T I O N

Figure 3-1.-Masiow s hi erarc hy.

P R I N C I P L E S

The key principles to applying motivation theory in a training si tuation are summarized

below:

N e e d s a n d D r i v e s . When students have a need or drive, they lack something. A need is

usually defined as a deficit or lack that causes a desire for satisfaction. The need to belong, for

instance, can motivate a student to seek group acceptance. That need, or drive, can cause the

student to behave in a manner that eventually reduces the need and results in satisfaction.

Interest. In t e re s t r e f e r s t o a

p e r s o n s v i e w of a n a c t i v i t y a s

worthwhile or enjoyable for its own

sake . A n ins t ruc to r w ho cap tu ress tu den t s i n t e re s t d r aw s on the i r

i n t e r n a l m o t i v a t i o n . As an

instructor, learn to control student

in teres t throughout the lesson; the

learning process breaks down once

a student loses interest.

To gene ra t e i n t e re s t , s t a t e t he

purpose of the lesson at its

beginning. Emphasize why students

need to learn the material and how

t h e y will ben efit fr om th e

informat ion. W h e n s t u d e n t s

unders tand the need to learn , they

are more l ike ly to g ive the i r fu l l

at tention to your instruction.

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V a l u e s . The s tu dents va lues , a t t i tudes , an d previous exper iences af fect the nat ure and

amount of what they learn . The motivation you u se must fit a studen ts value system. Student s

have more interest in a subject that deals with goals they see as important in their lives. For

example, a lesson on the flag or the Code of Conduct would probably motivate a student who

values pat r io t i sm.

A t t i t u d e s . Attitudes consist of feelings for or against people, objects, or ideas. Showing a

positive attitude about the subject you present can cause the student to want to learn. Students

have more desire to learn when instructors show an interest in what they teach.

I n c e n t i v e s . Incentives or rewards can stimulate motivation. Incentives such as good grades,

awards, or selection as a distinguished graduate motivate students who want to achieve.

A c h i e v e m e n t . Achievement is a strong desire, a longing, an aim, a goal , or a desired

objective. To make an effort to succeed, students must have a need to achieve at a certain level.

T E C H N I Q U E S O F M O T I V A TI O N

Although motivation is one of the prime ta sks of instr ucting, it is both t he st udent s an d th e

inst ru ctors responsibility. The lesson su bject, th e classr oom a tm osphere, th e compet ence of theinstru ctor, and the per sona lity of the instru ctor an d th e studen t a ll affect a stu dents motivation.

The following techniques wil l assist you in developing motivational strategies to use when

instructing.

Ma k e th e su b jec t ma t ter in teres t in g . Plan motivational strategies to keep the lesson

interest ing. A dull presentation causes students to become bored, rest less, and uninvolved. A

lack of response from the students will affect the quality of your instruction. As a result, you

may lose confidence and enthusiasm, which, in turn, wil l have a negative effect on student

motivation. To promote interest , use a variety of materials while instructing.

Establish goals. The goals of instruction come directly from the learning objectives. Ensure

that you present the objectives for each block of instruction so that students will understand

exactly what they are expected to be able to do as a result of training.

Provide informative feedback. Students need feedback when they are trying to meet goals.

You can give ei ther oral or writ ten feedback, but be sure you give recognit ion for proper

student behavior and achievements. Also be sure to point out student errors and how to correct

them. Recognizing good performance and pointing out areas that need improvement contribute

to effective learning.

Show interest in your students . Give students detailed feedback when they respond to a

question or perform some task related to instructional objectives. Feedback may make the

differen ce betwee n a st ud ent s feelings of su ccess or Fa ilur e. Always comm ent favorably onsuccessful per formance.

E n co u ra g e p a rt i c ip a t io n . You should be open to student contributions and points of view.

Students bring many different experiences to the learning environment. Use these experiences

to stimulate interest and add variety to learning.

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Y ou can m ot iva t e s tuden t s t o l ea rn in m any d i f f e ren t w ays . F i r s t , t ake in to accoun t

individual differences in ability, background, and attitudes. Then try to satisfy the physiological,

s a fe ty, be long ingness , and e st eem needs of t he s tuden t s . M ake th e c la s s room env i ronm ent

conducive to learning. Take an interest in your students. Learn their names as fast as you can

and let them feel that they belong in your classroom. Direct learning experiences toward

feelings of success by encouraging achievement and a positive self concept. Give students

posit ive, helpful feedback and help them set challenging but at tainable goals. Use various

techniques to motivate students and encourage self confidence and self direction at all times.

Provide a learning-oriented environment. Do everything possible to create an environment that

encourages your s tudents t o learn . Make i t physica l ly and psychologica l ly safe .

A P P L YI N G M O T IV A TI O N T E C H N I Q U E S T O I N S T R U C T I O N

The techniques of motivation have application

int roduct ion, the presenta t ion, and the summary.

L E S S O N I N T R O D U C T I O N

Use mot ivat ion a t the beginning of a lesson

in each part of a lesson presentation: the

as a m eans o f i n t roduc ing the m a te r i a l ,

stimulating interest, arousing curiosity, and developing a specific direction. Besides showing the

need for learning the information, the introduction should serve as a connecting link between

the present lesson and previous lessons.

U se the l e s son in t roduc t ion to

discuss specific reasons why students

need to learn the information you

plan to present . To reinforce their

desire to learn, show students how

t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h e i rcareer advancement or some other

need. Give the s tudents speci f ic

examples, In many cases, you may

m ot iva t e s tuden t s by t e l l i ng them

they w i l l need the in fo rm a t ion to

unders tand future lessons .

For most instructional methods,

t h e l e s s o n i n t r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d

provide a road map for learning. You may find effective visual aids helpful at this point . A

clear introduction can contribute greatly to a lesson by removing doubts in the minds of thelearners about where the lesson is going and how they are going to get there. Tell students what

you will cover or leave out and why. Explain how you have organized your ideas. Students

unde r s t and be t t e r and r e t a in m ore w hen they know w ha t t o expec t . The purpose o f t he

introduction is to motivate students to learn by listening to the information you will present in

the body of the lesson.

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Attention-gett ing methods for beginning a lesson:

n Focus on the importance of the subject .n Use start l ing stat ist ics.n Ask rhetorical questions. A rhetorical question is one you direct at the students but do

not really expect them to answer. (Have you ever . . . ? Can you imagine . . . ?)

n U s e q u o t a t i o n s . A s t r ik i n g q u ot a t i on w il l a r ou s e in t e r e st , p a r t icu l a r ly on e b y awellknown person.

i Ask overhead questions. An overhead question is an interest-arousing question directedto the entire class.

n Tell a story. A story is an interest ing way of introducing a lesson, especial ly when i trelates t o experiences stu dents ha ve had. While hu mor may be appr opriate, dont t el l

irrelevant stories, jokes, or incidents that distract from the lesson.

All of these at tention-gett ing devices are potential ly useful during the lesson introduction.

However, decide which ones to use based solely on the subject and the students. Your primary

concern is to focus student at tention on the subject . The introduction to a lesson, no matter

what form the lesson plan takes, must accomplish certain goals:

n Develop s tu dent s in t eres t .n State the lesson objectives and their significance.n Direct student thinking along desired l ines.n Outline the scope of the lesson.n Show students the value of the subject matter .n Explain the method or methods you will use.n Let the students know what you expect of them.After you have won the attention of the students, you must direct them to the subject of the

lesson.

L E S S O N P R E S E N T A T I O N

T o m a i n t a i n s t u d e n t i n t e r e s t , do no t r ead a l e s son p l an ve rba t im . M ake su re you a re

thoroughly familiar with the material you are presenting. Know your lesson plan as well as the

information in the references from which you will teach. To meet the specific objectives of the

lesson, you must know exactly what you are going to teach and how you are going to teach it.

Further, you must be careful not to overteach; that is , to provide extraneous information

merely because you are knowledgeable in a part icular area.

Present the material in a logical sequence beginning with the known and moving to theunknown. Although slight variations and excursions off the main line of a lesson can promote

interest, keep them to a minimum. During the presentation, one of the best motivators is the

use of training aids.

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L E S S O N S U M M AR Y

A lesson summary is used to recapture

s tudents a t tent ion and build to a

m o t i v a t i o n a l c l i m a x . Y o u m a y w a n t t o

give short or interim summaries at various

places in a lesson. Give f inal summaries

af ter you have covered a l l of the main

points of the lesson. Quickly reviewing the

main points can refocus students and help

them retain information.

The purpose of the summary is to instill

in students a desire to retain and use what

they have learned. Although you motivate

s tu den t s t h r ou gh ou t t h e l e s s on , t h e

summary is your last chance to emphasize

how important the information is to them

as individuals. The ultimate goal of instruction is to cause students to remain motivated beyond

th e instr uctors influence and a pply what t hey ha ve lear ned on th e job.

S U M M A R Y

You must constantly motivate your students to learn. Grasp every opportunity to motivate

s tudents . As an instructor, you must f ind which methods and devices work best with your

stu dent s in cert ain situ at ions. After instr uction begins, assess each stu dent s achievement level,

learning styles, and motivational patterns to determine the readiness of each student to learn.

Remember Maslows t heory. Be sensit ive to your st udent s needs a nd provide th em with a

proper learning environment. Those students with adequate motivation should then be ready

t o le a r n. F o ll ow in g M a s l ow s t h e or y d oe s n o t m e a n y ou p a m p e r s t u d e n t s i n t o l e a r n i n g .

Rather, it means you look upon each student as a human being with certain inherent rights and

feelings.

As an instructor, be professional , intel lectually honest , and aware of your influence on

students. Set a good example at all times by maintaining a neat, clean, and proper personal

appearance. Be courteous; use proper titles when addressing military or civilian students. Set

rules early in the course and maintain them. Welcome and profit from the evaluations of the

students or other instructors. Avoid arguments, control distractions, and be fair in al l your

dealings with students--above al l be consistent .

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CHAPTER 4

P RINCIP LES OF LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

Learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience. As a Navy instructor, you want

that change to go beyond your influence in the classroom. You want your s tudents to apply

their learning on their jobs.

The objective of any act of learning is that it should serve us in the future. That is especially

true in the technical training fields. To cause this behavior change in your students, you must

understand what causes learning to occur. This chapter examines some practical , t ime-proven

basic principles of learning and your responsibilities in using them.

WA YS O F L E A R N I N G

A l l l e a r n i n g s h o u l d b e

m ean ingfu l . To m ake l ea rn ing a s

meaningful as possible, you need to

unders tand how s tudents learn . Of

the f ive different ways of learning

addres sed he re , no one pa r t i cu l a r

way is necessar i ly bet ter than the

others. Your students will use some

c om b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e w a y s o f

learning in every class you teach.

Y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w a y s

p e o p l e l e a r n w i l l a s s i s t y o u i n

h e l p i n g y o u r s t u d e n t s l e a r n a n d

re ta in the informat ion presented.

I M I T A T I O N

A s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f w h a t a

p e r s o n l e a r n s o c cu r s t h r o u g h

im it at ion . T h is wa y of le a rn in g

begins ea r ly in peoples l ives an d

las t s t h roughou t t he i r l i f e t im e . In

(pr imar i ly the ins t ructor) and to imi ta te the i r behavior i s na tura l . Learning takes p lace even

without direct reinforcement of the repeated behavior. Therefore, as the instructor, you must

a t ra in ing envi ronment , for s tudents to observe others

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always strive to set the proper example because you are the role model. Additionally, you need

to provide posit ive reinforcement to students for properly imitated behavior.

T R I A L AN D E R R O R

Sometimes referred to as discovery learning, trial and error is learning by doing. Students can

achieve success sooner if you set a proper example for them to imitate. A proper example

reduces the number of errors students make and thus helps to develop their self-confidence.Although the mastering of most skil ls requires this way of learning to some degree, i t does

involve some hazards. Think back to when you learned how to r ide a bicycle to help you

visualize some of the hazards of this way of learning. It can be dangerous to the students and

th e equipmen t. It can also become fru str at ing if repea ted t rials dont lead t o some success. The

Navy Instructor Training School is a good example of where this way of learning is currently

used as students present lessons during performance exams. Students receive proper supervision,

reinforcement of acceptable performance, and get immediate feedback on how to correct errors.

A S S O C I A T I O N

Association is a comparison of past learning to a new learning si tuation. I t is a mental

process that serves as a reference point for students. Learners can confront new problems more

eas i ly i f t hose new prob lem s con ta in e l em en t s s im i l a r t o t hose p rev ious ly m as te red . For

example, to help students more easi ly understand electr ici ty f lowing in a circuit , you might

compare i t to water f lowing through a pipe. Use comparisons, contrasts , and examples to

reinforce your explanations. Although you will have many opportunit ies to use associat ion

during your lessons, remember that you will have students with different experience levels in

your class. Make sure you use associat ions to which al l s tudents can relate.

I N S I G H T

Insight is the understanding that the whole is more than the sum of the parts. Learning by

insight occurs when the learner suddenly grasps the way elements of a problem situation are

conn ected. The term descr ibes a persons unplanned discovery of a solut ion to a problem--

o f t en r e fe r r ed to a s t he ah-ha phenom enon . T h a t p h e n o m e n o n r e s u l t s f r o m a m e n t a l

reorganization of ideas and concepts rather than from simple trial and error. Some individuals

gain insight m ore rapidly tha n other s. Individual backgrounds a ffect each lear ner s abil i ty to

gain insight , as does the sequence in which you present basic learning experiences. To help

students gain insight, you must stimulate thinking. Use appropriate questions to get their minds

working. Encourage thought ra ther than rote memoriza t ion by us ing ques t ions tha t requi re

associat ions, comparisons, and contrasts .

T R A N S F E R

Transfer is the process of a p p l y i n g past learning to new but somewhat similar situations. This

process i s impor tant in Navy technica l t ra in ing because the t ra in ing envi ronment can rare ly

duplicate the actual job environment. Your goal is to teach students the importance of applying

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their learning on the job. If possible, provide realistic exercises by using the actual (or the same

type of) equipmen t st uden ts wil l use on t he job. The Navys dam age cont rol team t ra ining is

a good example of how this type of learning takes place.

L A WS O F L E A R N I N G

Laws and principles of learning are attempts to

d e f i n e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e

l ea rn ing p rocess . I n g e n e r a l , w e h a v e f i v e

almost universally accepted laws of learning.

E a c h of t h e s e l a w s h a s c o m m o n s e n s e

a p p l i c a t i o n s b a s e d o n l e s s o n s p e o p l e h a v e

learned over the years. Your mastery of these

applications wil l greatly enhance your abil i ty

to influence your students to learn and perform

at a high level.

L A W O F R E A D I N E S S

According to the law of readiness students learn best when they are physically, mentally, and

emot ional ly ready to learn . Since learning i s an ac t ive process , s tudents must have adequate

rest, health, and physical ability. Students who are exhausted or in ill health obviously cannot

learn much. Although these areas are beyond your control , you must know how to address

them in your classroom. For students to be mentally ready to learn, they must master certain

knowledge and skills at one level before they can learn those required at the next higher level.

For example, students who have not learned the basic application of a law have little chance of

applying that law to more complex si tuations.

Just as students must be ready to learn, you must be ready to teach. Always prepare your

lesson plans, t raining materials , and classroom or laboratory before you begin to teach. Your

read iness i s an im por t an t s t ep in ga in ing the conf idence and a t t en t ion o f your s tuden t s .

Remember, you only get one chance to make a f irst impression.

L A W O F E F F E C T

An individual learns best those things which result in satisfying consequences. Since the law

of effect has a direct relationship to motivation, it has many practical applications for you in

the t ra in ing envi ronment .

One of the most basic applications is in your relationship with adult students. Adults want

immediate benefi ts from training, so begin your instruction by presenting the benefi ts of the

lesson. Cont inue to remind s tudents of these benef i t s throughout the t ra in ing. Point out the

value of the training in meeting the needs of your students: self-sat isfaction, self-confidence,

improved skills, and so forth. Begin each lesson with a statement of objectives to help students

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establish goals, and let them know you expect them to meet those goals. Motivate students by

providing positive reinforcement as they proceed from success to success. That is the basis of

the law of effect.

L A W O F P R I M A C Y

Based on the law of primacy, students retain information they learn for the first time longer

than they retain information they must relearn. Unlearning incorrect procedures (or bad habits)

is always more diff icult than learning the correct procedures in the beginning. Therefore, the

law of primacy plays an important role in Navy training. Navy training courses allow a limited

amount of t ime for learning do not include t ime for students to relearn improperly taught

in fo rm a t ion . M ake su re you t each the co r rec t i n fo rm a t ion and p rocedures the f i r s t t im e ;

p r o c e e d f r o m t h e s i m p l e t o t h e c o m p l e x , f r o m t h e k n o w n t o t h e u n k n o w n . C l a r i f y

misunders tandings and er rors before moving on. Remember , your s tudents must be ready to

learn new material.

L A W O F E X E R C I S E

This law is based on the old maxim that prac t ice makes perfec t . I t has been proven tha ts tudents learn bes t and re ta in informat ion longer when they have meaningful prac t ice and

repetition. The key here is that the practice must be meaningful. It is clear that practice leads

to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback. That means that as an instructor,

you need to follow upon every homework assignment, every lab exercise, and any other student

activities you assign. Students must have supervised practice in applying new skills to reach the

required level of expert ise to master course objectives. That i s how the t ransfer method of

learn ing ta kes place; from t he informat ion you teach, to th e stu dent s use of it.

L A W O F I N T E N S I T Y

The law of intensity states that a vivid experience is learned better and retained longer. Make

your instruction powerful enough to have a strong, positive effect on your students by getting

them actively involved in the lesson. Instruction that allows students to sit passively in the

classr oom doesnt h ave mu ch inten sity. You can ta lk about t he effects of tear ga s all day. But

talking will never have the same impact as putting students in a controlled environment and

letting them experience tear gas without a gas mask. That is In t en s i t y .

Use the best instructional media available, including the real thing. Use examples, analogies,

and personal experiences to make learning come to life. Make learning interactive by initiating

an d cont rolling your stu dent s involvement in th e learn ing process.

F A C T OR S A F F E C T I N G L E AR N I N G

Many factors affect learning. Everyone does not learn in exactly the same way or at the same

rate. Each is subject to a variety of negative and positive influences in the overall process. You

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need to be aware of as many factors that affect learning as you can. The more you know, the

better chance you have of posit ively influencing the learning process.

M O T I V A T I O N

Perh aps th e s ing le m os t im por t an t f acto r i n a s tuden t s educa t iona l advancem ent i s

motivation. Unfortunately, it is one of the hardest to get a handle on or to channel effectively.

Humans basically try to succeed and, conversely, try vigorously to avoid failure. While we need

to remember that occasional fai lure is human, we must do everything possible to organize

student efforts toward success. Simple things l ike word selection in the training environment

can add to or detract from the learning effort.

Motivation often has as much or more impact than scholastic ability. Students bring different

abilities and experience levels to the training environment. Motivation, or a lack thereof many

times determines whether or not a student masters the course objectives. Many times students

with the highest ASVAB scores do not make the grade while students who may have entered

your course with an academic waiver do very well. Talk to any seasoned instructor and he or

she can p robab ly r eca l l a t l ea s t one spec ia l s tuden t w ho m ade i t i n sp i t e o f m in im a l

background or less-than-average abil i ty. Lit t le doubt exists that motivation, ei ther internally

or externally stimulated, initiates behavior; directs it; and, when derailed, can reduce or stop it.

T H E L E AR N I N G S E N S E S

Sensory learning is the first that

occu r s for a n y h um a n be in g. It s

influence is apparent in children as

w e w a t c h t h e m g r o w u p . Each

sense, either singularly or in various

com bina t ions , p rov ides a pa thw ay

to learning. With tha t in mind, an

examination of sensory learning and

it s special considera t ions ca n

prov ide ins igh t i n to the l ea rn ing

process.

S i g h t i s c on s i d e r e d t h e m o s t

important sense, accounting for as

m u c h a s 7 5 p e r c e n t o f o u r b a s i c

learning. Most early learning comes

f r o m s e e i n g a n d i m i t a t i n g .

T h e r e f o r e , y o u w o u l d b e w i s e t o

cons ide r us ing appropr i a t e v i sua l

Figure 4-1.-Sensory learning percentages

aids in your presentations. Remember, however, to recognize and accommodate students with

any visual impairment .

H ea r ing i s t he second m os t im por t an t s ense , accoun t ing fo r a l a rge pe rcen tage o f t he

remaining sensory learning capacity. Experts differ on specific numbers, but the significance of

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s ig h t a n d s ou n d t o ge t h e r is ov er w h e lm i n g. J u s t a s wi t h si gh t i m pa i r m en t s , y ou m u s t

accommodate students with hearing impairments. Your speech patterns and volume are critical

classroom learning factors.

The sense of touch, while important in itself, becomes a major learning factor when combined

with other senses. Children do not associate the word hot with anything in particular until

they associate the word with their sense of touch. Through experience, we become sensitive to

temperature , pressure , and the overa l l fee l of th ings . For instance, an experienced engineer

doesnt n eed a tem perat ure gau ge to determ ine if a bear ing is runn ing hot, just as a n experienceddam age contr ol investigat or doesnt need one to decide tha t th e temper at ur e of a wat ert ight

door is above normal.

The senses of taste and smell may not seem important in Navy training. In many cases they

ar ent. Consider if you will , though, the importance of taste to the training of cooks and

bakers. The sense of smell, which is closely associated with taste, is very strong and primitive

in n a t ur e. I t is p a r t of ou r h u m a n w a r n in g sy st e m . For example, electr icians immediately

recognize the smell of burning insulation. Others become sensitive to the smell of various gases.

Therefore, the sense of smell is a valuable learning tool in certain narrow applications.

Although it is not normally identified as one of the senses, the phenomenon of kinesthesia is

an extension of sensory lear ning. Think of it as a sen sory perception residing in ones mu scles,

join ts, and t en dons tha t gives peop le a specia l awa ren es s of thei r spa t ia l r ela t ion sh ip with their

surroundings . Kinesthesia is actually a blend of all senses with psychomotor and perceptual

skil ls . I t m an ifests i tself in peoples a bil ity t o balance or m ove with coordinat ion.

Remember, students develop their skil ls through practice. You cannot realistically expect

students in a welding class to have the coordination to weld the back side of a pipe in the

overhead while using a mirror without some practice to develop that skill.

Retention, with respect to sensory learning, is open to many interpretat ions and opinions.

It has been estimated that people retain only 10 percent of what they read, 20 percent of what

they hear, and 30 percent of what they see. When those senses are combined, however, retentiontakes a dramatic leap forward. Those same estimates tell us that when someone hears and sees,

retention jumps to 50 percent. That makes a grea t a rgument for incorpora t ing appropr ia te

audiovisual media into your teaching. By asking proper questions to augment sight and sound

to stimulate thinking, you can push student retention close to the 70 percent level. Requiring

students to use all of their senses in skill training along with procedural steps and principles can

increase their retention to as much as 90 percent. That implies a fair degree of mastery learning.

C O MM O N C H A R A CT E R I S T I C S O F S T U D E N T S

Even though each individual is different in some way from every other individual , the

m a j o r i t y o f y o u r s t u d e n t s s h a r e c e r t a i n c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Y o u r k n o w l e d g e a n d

unders tanding of these character i s t ics can help you make more in te l l igent judgments and

decisions about training, especial ly in the counseling and tutoring areas.

One characteristic students share is their belief in their maturity. Your students want to be

t rea ted as adul ts . Appeal to tha t des i re for matur i ty by holding them accountable for the i r

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a c t i o n s . D e m a n d a n a d u l t l e v e l o f w o r k f r o m e a c h s t u d e n t . E m p h a s i z e a d u l t l e a r n i n g

techniques that demand hands on experience, and treat your students with respect. Regularly

emphasize the law of effect.

None of your students come to class wanting to fail. Use their basic desire to succeed to its

strongest advantage by str iving to help them move from success to success. The adage that

success breeds success is certainly true in the learning environment. You must inst i l l self-

confidence in students by providing reinforcement that encourages further learning. If students

are regularly unsuccessful , they will become frustrated and give up. Always be supportive,

in teres ted, and encouraging.

Another common student characterist ic is the abil i ty to evaluate. Most students are quick

to form opinions. What do students evaluate? Everything; especial ly you, the instructor. They

can quickly detect lack of competence, enthusiasm, and sinceri ty. I t has been said that your

stu dent s dont car e how much you know un til th ey know how much you car e. You need t o be

dedicated to doing your best to make each student successful in your class. Students will always

evaluate, so do not give them an opportunity for adverse evaluations.

Fallibility is a trait we all have--everyone makes mistakes. Remember that as an instructor

so that you dont lose pat ience when studen ts mak e mistak es. Most of us tak e our k nowledge

and skills for granted; we often forget the difficulties we had gaining those skills. Make sure

you have patience and provide encouragement as students move through the various stages of

competency. When minor failures occur, and they will, capi