urban conservation policy development: character appraisal and analysis

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Urban Conservation PolicyDevelopment: CharacterAppraisal and AnalysisAndrea MageeanPublished online: 16 Jan 2014.

To cite this article: Andrea Mageean (1998) Urban Conservation Policy Development:Character Appraisal and Analysis, Journal of Architectural Conservation, 4:3, 59-77,DOI: 10.1080/13556207.1998.10785226

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Urban Conservation Policy Development: Character Appraisal and Analysis

ANDREA MAGEEAN

Abstract

This paper addresses the widespread concern regarding the need to achieve a reconciliation between the desire to conserve our historic cities and the pressures for change that they face. It considers the nature of the recent responses to this situation and concludes that they can be criticized both conceptually and practically. An alternative approach drawing on techniques of urban nwrphological analysis is suggested and demonstrated using a case study of Chester city centre. This focuses on an analysis of three-dimensional urban forrn and the interacting social, economic and historical processes involved in its generation. Whilst testing and refinement of this postulation is required before its use in practice might be considered, the benefits of adopting such a structured and rational approach should be considerable.

Introduction

The designation of the first conservation areas 30 years ago reflected a huge conceptual and practical leap. The areas selected and the efforts made to develop sound policy frameworks for their protection reflected the 'best practice' case studies provided by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government.' Emphasis was on the protection of the special qualities of these historically outstanding areas.

As increasing numbers of conservation areas have been designated it has been suggested that the criteria adopted for the identification of such areas have become less exclusive, and the approaches to appraisal and policy development have become less than rigorous.z It is within this context that the current concern of government, academics and practitioners to both strengthen the basis for conservation area

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designation and their subsequent care and management can be understood. The focus of this paper is on how these issues might best be addressed.

As the nature and urgency of these problems have been realized, so a number of responses have been made seeking to suggest ways forward: these are briefly reviewed in the next section. The situation in our historic centres is of particular concern given 'the tension between the need to conserve the physical fabric of the city (both the core and its setting), and the demands of the activities currently taking place within it or attracted to it' .3 It is important that such pressures are contained by strong and well articulated policy frameworks. The nature of these pressures and the current approaches to addressing them are also reviewed in the following section.

The presentation and analysis of current concerns about the management of change in historic centres provide the context for consideration of an alternative approach suggested by this paper. Based on research recently completed by the author,4 a methodology for area appraisal and evaluation is suggested that utilizes techniques of urban morphological analysis. Derived largely from the work of geographers seeking to analyse and rationalize the process of change over time in mature urban settings, the method focuses on the introduction of a more thorough-going approach to character appraisal than is common in current practice. The nature of the techniques is explained and illustrated by reference to a case-study application in Chester city centre.

Identifying need: a crisis of confidence in change

In the wake of the Civic Amenities Act 1967 the drive to designate protected conservation areas focused on the historically important centres of our towns and cities. This reflected the consensus opinion that these areas represent precious and irreplaceable environmental assets. The protective frameworks, which were developed to control activities within these centres, were influenced by the concept of 'Townscape',5•6 which promoted the belief that conservation should be more than simply the preservation of buildings: it should encompass all aspects of the physical composition of the conservation area including the quality of the space between buildings, views in and around the area, the overall massing and composition of built form.

It is clear that considerable time and energy were initially devoted to

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the development of management strategies that reflected these areabased concerns. As time has passed and the number of conservation areas has escalated to over 9,000,7 so the efforts devoted to the management of individual areas have inevitably been reduced. Research suggests that only around 40 per cent of authorities in England and Wales give consideration to townscape management, and even within this minority group there is limited attention paid to individual townscape elements within policy documents.8

The implications of this rising number of conservation areas have been little considered until the present time. A number of problems are, however, emerging from this situation: the designation process, which is entirely at the discretion of the individual authority and has no capacity to guard against falling standards, appears inadequate; the growing number of conservation area designations might be seen as devaluing the concept with 'less special' areas being nominated; and the funding and other resources for activity within such areas is becoming increasingly stretched. This paper seeks to address concern about the adequacy of the planning frameworks used to manage the process of change. The nature of this problem has been examined by a number of practitioners and academic interests.9•10•11•12 The key concerns can be highlighted as follows:

• Common assumption that following initial conservation area designation, the supporting legislation will be sufficient to secure the future of these areas.

• Approaches to the management of change are frequently piecemeal and reactive.

• The conceptual basis for the consideration of change within conservation areas is dominated by conservative attitudes and overconcern with preserving superficial visual relationships.

• The general acceptance of 'standard' approaches to improvements, which has led to an erosion of local identity and distinctiveness.

• The integration of conservation policies with the wider statutory local planning framework is inadequate, with superficial treatment being given to linkages with other policy areas.

The significance of these issues is greater in historic centres than elsewhere. This is largely due to the fact that these areas are usually of great historic interest, with patterns of evolved continuity through time usually being evident, meaning that the neglect of this quality is particularly damaging. There is now a widespread acknowledgement of


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the significance of these deficiencies. A growing body of professional concern and literature is centring on the need for more structured frameworks of designation and control. The result is that there is now a substantial volume of guidance about approaches to the management of conservation areas.n.li,l5•16 A central thesis of this paper is, however, that these ideas do not address the conceptual deficiencies and logistical constraints of current practice. Subsequent sections will seek to identify and define a potential way forward.

Developing a conceptual framework

The starting point for defining the requirements of a way forward is a combination of two elements: the inadequacies of existing approaches to conservation management that were identified in the previous section, and the potential of the range of techniques offered by the field of urban morphological analysis. The term 'urban morphology' means many things to many people. It may be defined simply as the study of the three-dimensional form of towns and cities, understanding of which is gained from analysis of the evolution and present structure of urban fabric based on historical, social and economic processes. This broad methodology underpins a wide range of more specific concepts and issues that have developed at many levels of understanding: this reflects the diverse origins and concerns of the particular authors. 17

As a field of study, the concept of urban morphological analysis is perhaps best known for its adoption by a wide range of disciplines concerned with evaluating and understanding the structure and functioning of urban areas. Concepts associated with urban morphology and the disciplinary split can be very broadly grouped as concern with either the process of analysing fabric and/or the process of designing fabric. The most rigorous methodologies are those associated with the first of these groupings: urban morphology in its analytical mode.

This field has tended to be dominated by geographers who have presented a relatively coherent, though narrowly empirical, body of work. Researchers in this field have, particularly since the 1960s, been actively developing research approaches that seek to understand the two- and three-dimensional form of urban settlements. Additionally, emerging from such analytical studies, some tentative suggestions about the potential of morphological analysis as a practical device for establishing guidelines for townscape management have been made.

The second group within the field of urban morphology develops this

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prescriptive theme further. They use the understanding of urban form generated by detailed study to establish frameworks for urban design. Within this group there is, however, a great diversity of approaches. Generally, there is a common aim of understanding evolutionary processes and their contribution to present-day urban structure, so that the integrity of urban fabric can be maintained or recaptured. This is achieved by 'making use of the existing elements, and also ... creating as many additional elements as are needed for reconstructing the unity and continuity lacking in the contemporary city'.••

Beyond this general consensus there is a great deal of diversity between the actual design methods .adopted. At one extreme some proponents express the need for the strict adoption of past forms, attempting to achieve qualities of stability and permanence in cities. At the other extreme there are those who express the need for responsiveness to changing social and economic circumstances in urban areas, using the structure suggested by evolved form as a framework within which contemporary requirements must be accommodated.

A central argument of this paper is that much urban morphological research can contribute to the improvement of urban design and conservation theory and practice. A review that draws upon the great range of work encompassed by the term 'urban morphology' has been undertaken and is summarized in Table 1. This uses a crude method of classification that is by no means ideal, but appears at the time of writing to be the best compromise solution. Six categories of analysis have been derived from a combination of the main concerns of recent morphological research and initial perceptions of what a comprehensive approach to the development of conservation policy might encompass.

The current breadth of morphological techniques provides an extensive field of reference from which to draw. The potential of these concepts and the need for further research in this area has already been identified. Firstly, the geographers and historians who dominate the morphogenesis group (and tend to be most concerned with understanding the process of change rather than design) recognize the damaging impact of more recent changes on our towns and cities. They have suggested that 'townscapes represent accumulated experience which should be conserved for future generations using an approach to townscape management which focuses on the transformation, augmentation and conservation of what already exists'.36

Secondly, the effective use of morphological techniques in practice


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elsewhere is also a clear indicator that the potential of such approaches should at least be examined. Whatever the inadequacies of the machinery of implementation, the conceptual basis for development control in Italy and, to a lesser extent, in France is illustrative of the nature of prescriptive morphological techniques in practice.37 Not only are extensive studies of evolutionary development, which aim to identify the 'rules' of growth, undertaken, but this knowledge is then combined with socio-economic studies of current and future space requirements in order to identify realistic policies and programmes.

Defining the conceptual framework

Drawing on the identification of the inadequacies of current practice and the potentials of the morphological field, a method which could be adopted for the development of conservation policy is suggested, which is summarised in Table 2. The key stages are explained below.

a. Process of evolution Influence of social, economic and demographic factors on pattern and form of development over time.

b. Present-day structure

Examination of present-day physical and functional structure and their interaction.

Used as a basis for understandina: c. Qualities that respond to social values Quality of environment created by characteristics such as sense of place, accessibility, variety and vitality, leQibilitv, and robustness.

d. Forces of change Factors that need to be accommodated in any realistic auidelines for chanae.

e. Generation of principles lor design and conservation policy Both the establishment of city-wide general codes of conduct and the analysis of particular areas in Qreater depth.

Table 2 The suggested methodology.

Process of evolution It is suggested that an evolutionary analysis of the development of the particular study area should form the starting point of the method. The basis for this suggestion is that much can be learnt from evolutionary processes about local culture and character, and also from earlier solutions to accommodating social, economic and environmental change: this could influence or inspire, but not dictate future adaptive processes.

The structuring elements of this analytical process comprise three stages:


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• Morphological periods: particular phases in history when social, economic and demographic factors interacted to create distinctive physical characteristics. The residual features of each period influence successive periods, in some cases being modified to fulfil new purposes. The analysis is further structured into three elements that together represent the townscape: 1. the plan form, which refers to the two-dimensional arrangement

of streets, plots and buildings. Figure 1 illustrates the analysis of the medieval town plan in the city of Chester;

2. the land use, which refers to the way in which a unit of land is used; and

3. the building fabric.

• Morphological areas: regions that can be defined as cohesive/homogeneous entities following the analysis of evolving plan form, patterns of land and building utilization and built fabric. The result should be a framework that recognizes the influence of historical periods and present-day structure.

• Mutation and adaptation: modification of plan form, land use, and built form occur in response to changing circumstances. This component of the analysis is concerned with identifying within the general process of change particular patterns that appear to be typical and to which some kind of logic might be attached.

The ultimate outcome of this first stage is the identification of underlying systems, forms and processes that might, as an ideal, be retained or extended. Table 3 illustrates the patterns of mutation and adaptation that were identified in the town plan of Chester, and which were used subsequently to inform the development of a conservation strategy.

Present-day structure This stage of the study aims to gain an objective understanding of the way in which the city is structured and interacts at a detailed level. This should allow for the identification of any particular problems or deficiencies and, on a broader scale, recognize the role played by the city in the lives of inhabitants, workers and visitors. Clearly this is an essential context within which any attempt to provide realistic development guidelines must be framed.

A comprehensive appraisal consists of four elements:

• Topography: identification of the features of the underlying land


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• The main physical changes which had taken place since Roman times were the drying out of creek which had formed the dock area for the Romans, creating the area now known as the 'Roodee'.

• This 'new' occupation of Chester was purely civilian in nature, and therefore its character and layout was very different from that of the earlier fortress. The lack of any overall authority to plan and control early growth, together with the need for large areas of open ground to sustain the self-sufficient community meant that the layout was more spacious and occupied a greater area.

• Between 1150 and 1198 the Wall was extended to the south and west, most probably for defensive purposes. The line followed was as close as physically possible to the water's edge.

• The topography of the city was modified due to the large-scale accumulation of deposited material, particularly to the rear of houses along the main thoroughfares.

• The principal street system followed that established in Roman times. • The characteristic pattern of long narrow plots along principal streets was established at

this time. This was the result of the need for the majority of inhabitants to sell their goods and services for a living, and therefore to have a position on the street frontage.

Not to scale Source: Mageean 1996

Figure 1 Analysis of the medieval town plan of Chester.


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PaHern of mutation/adaptation Potential relevance today within the town plan The core has become increasingly Areas of respite from intensity of compact, and undeveloped areas activity areas ever diminishing. have diminished over time. The regularity of the Roman grid has This continues to define development endured over time. opportunities within its parameters.

Central street spaces for public This has contributed to variety and activities and events have been an vitality. enduring feature.

Plots are long and narrow, extending The erosion allowed earlier this behind the main frontages. Regularity century should be avoided. Traditional dictated by blocks, though plot dimensions influence appropriate considerable variation in plot built form. dimensions.

Away from main frontages, plots Flexibility of use and built form change in size and increase in possible. dimensions.

Building frontages gradually shifted This is the dominant pattern that out into the street, though they have should/might be retained/replicated, now been stable for several centuries. particularly as a way of maximizing

commercial potential.

The rear of buildings have been This flexibility to accommodated regularly extended and reduced when change is valuable. required, within the plan unit.

Amalgamation of two to three plots This flexibility increases robustness. have regularly appeared and disappeared.

Floorscape has typically been poor, An enduring problem for which uneven and constantly in need of solutions must be found. repair. Pedestrian movement has been This feature has been progressively facilitated by a network of informal eroded, reducing permeability, and so routeways through blocks. should be reintroduced wherever

possible.

Table 3 City-wide patterns of the town plan that might be retained or extended.

form including archaeological evidence. Not only can this provide an understanding of the base upon which the physical form of the city has developed, but it will also show its continuing influence on development and the general functioning of the city.

• Infrastructure: includes the pattern of public and private spaces, and of routeways and paths currently used by vehicles, people and services around the city. This incorporates an assessment of the


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nature and intensity of use patterns and how successfully they are accommodated within the existing infrastructure.

• Dispersal and interaction of patterns of land use: taken down to the detail of the sub-division of use within plots.

• Pattern of building types and their associations: as the built form remains relatively constant over time, much of this information will have been covered in the evolutionary analysis. This section will also go on to consider recent trends as evidence in a review of planning applications and statements of policy.

This information provides an important objective base for developing the final stage of the generation of design and conservation policy guidelines. It will also indicate the constraints and opportunities of the existing environment.

Quality of environment This is the most contentious and therefore problematic stage of the analysis, involving as it does value judgement. There appears, however, to be a general consensus as to the kind of qualities urban environments should embody and how, broadly, they can be identified within existing environments. 18 These are contained within the following terms, relating to the way a place is perceived by its users: sense of place, legibility, accessibility, robustness, variety and vitality, safety and security, human scale, and personal expression.39 The intention of this stage of the methodology is to identify and analyse the occurrence and continuity of these qualities, with the particular aim of picking up on any gaps or problem areas.

Forces of change When considering the most appropriate direction of environmental change it is vital to broadly assess the economic, social and political forces at work in the area. It may well be possible to influence or slightly redirect certain pressures, but for the most part they establish the context local planners and designers must work within.

Generation of principles for design and conservation policy The approach to be taken in this concluding stage is the most difficult to define in methodological terms. Whatever the rigour of proceeding analysis, this stage will inevitably involve some element of subjectivity. None of the morphological groupings provides a particularly solid basis


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on which to proceed beyond the general premise 'proposals for managing the urban landscape should place great stress on the way in which developments fit into and in a sense are almost organic growth from, existing landscapes'.10 The problem seems to be that the gulf between the theoretical constructs and postulations, and the development of specific control frameworks, is currently large.

A sensible approach would be to pull together the threads of analysis to generate guidelines for future change. The intention would not be to establish rules that will be imposed, or a pattern book that must be followed to the letter, but to make suggestions and establish a framework that would guide the conservation and design process. It is suggested that this could be tackled most effectively by adopting a two-tier approach as follows:

• City-wide 'codes of conduct': these are guidelines and principles for the management of change that are generally applicable across the whole area. This would include both issues that can only be considered on a city- or town-wide basis, such as the control of the skyline and traffic management, and also issues common to a number of areas, such as the design of street furniture and shop-front security measures.

• Area-specific guidelines: at a more detailed area-specific scale based on the morphological areas identified earlier, closer consideration should be given to sub-areas of particular character. In general terms it is likely that each area sub-division will fall into one of the following broad categories:

70

1. a 'conservation' area: where the essence of the place is determined by its historical development and it is usually appropriate that absolute sensitivity to existing historic fabric is observed. Nevertheless, though evidence of evolutionary development should be retained or respected in any alterations, change should not be ruled out: the aim is that the area should continue to evolve within the context of the morphological frame in order that it may remain 'alive'.

2. a transitional area: although there may be individual or disparate elements of interest, an overall identity is weak. The intention here would be to draw out whatever latent qualities might exist in order to re-establish a state of wholeness. It is again appropriate to consider the earliest stages of the analysis, though in this case the morphological evolution must be considered very

Journal of Architectural Conservation No 3 November 1998

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carefully alongside current needs and preferences. 3. an area requiring reconstruction: where the historical continuity

of fabric has largely been destroyed and little, if any, contribution is made to the character of the place as a whole. In these cases evolutionary analysis can only provide guidance for future change in a very general sense, providing suggestions for possible forms and features that might be incorporated into design solutions. Morphological analysis might suggest possibilities, but it should not alone determine outcomes: it is equally relevant to consider contemporary requirements and preferences. Far from detailed management, it is appropriate to provide broad guidelines, accepting that opportunities for modern design solutions should exist. It would probably be useful to prepare a visual plan for guidance with suggestions as to how identity and meaning could be established.

In each case guidance for the management of change is derived in a similar way, as demonstrated in an example from the Chester study (Table 4 and Figure 2).

Conclusions

Of all the conservation areas in the United Kingdom, it is the historic centres that contain the greatest wealth of history, culture and physical heritage. As a result, the concern is frequently to protect what remains. Critical appraisal of practice reveals that preservation and minimal change are commonly central objectives of management strategies. Where change is deemed to be necessary, terms of reference for deciding the appropriate nature of the development are often limited to the immediately visible environment, neglecting the wider townscape and also previous development patterns. The result is stagnation and fear of adaptation and change, which are essential if such centres are to be reconciled with the needs of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

It is in this context that this paper has sought to consider the potential of techniques of urban morphological analysis to improve the approach to the development of urban design and conservation policy for historic centres. The application of the methodology generated certainly does not pretend to provide any absolute 'answers'. In attempting to rationalize the process of the management of change within sensitive historic environments, it is tempting to see the


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Evolutionary analysis • Portraits of the city doting from medieval times hove highlighted the spires and other

landmark buildings in the city. • As development within the centre has intensified, areas of soft landscape hove progres

sively been reduced. • The powerful influence of the grid system has dictated the nature of viewpoints: the reg

ularity of the grid system means thot within the centre there ore few opportunities for incidental views.

Current structure and function • T opogrophicol analysis (Figure 2) reveals the height sensitivity of the core: the slight

height advantage of the area of 25 m above sea level is significant, but vulnerable, in that insensitive development con easily erode the impact of landmark buildings in this area.

Quality of environment • The current skyline retains some importance in defining the relationship between the

compact centre and the surrounding rural areas. This contributes to the creation of a distinct sense of place.

• Within the centre, the presence of particular landmarks contributes to the legibility of the city.

Forces of change • Recent policy guidance has emphasized the need to ensure that the special qualities of

the place must be recognized and protected. "·'2•43 Whilst some degree of change is necessary to maintain vitality, it is necessary to recognize the distinction between replaceable and irreplaceable assets. In particular, those elements considered to be unique and essential components of the image of the place must be carefully managed: critical elements of the skyline and important landmarks clearly loll into this category.

Management guidelines • Maintenance/enhancement of viewing corridors: Viewing points that should be con

served and protected due to the attractiveness of the vista and/or the visibility of particular landmarks, and those view points that might be improved when the opportunity for alteration and/or new additions arise ore identified (Figure 2).

• Respect for height restrictions: Height controls on new development should not only seek to reinforce/protect the skyline, but should aim to enhance the topographic features of the city, particularly the high point in the north of the core and the decline towards the river in the south. Whilst strict height control should be placed on the form of new development within the high area, this area could most readily accommodate substantial buildings that contribute positively to the skyline.

• Improvement to existing viewing opportunities: Possibilities include the removal of eyesores where redevelopment opportunities arise, and the addition of landscape features to disguise certain areas.

• Design principles for landmark buildings: Where encroachment into a view is inevitable (this might be justified by the status of the building or the poor quality of the existing view), then particular attention must be given to the impact of the new design. Blond designs of the recent post hove hod a negative impact; closer attention to detail and consideration of the profile could result in positive additions.

• Using landscape management to reinforce the skyline: Soft landscape ploys on important role in existing profiles, often providing effective contrast to the sharp outlines of spires and towers, and in some cases softening the impact of less welcomed views. If this feature is to be maintained and enhanced effectively, then a management strategy should be adopted to core for existing areas and propose new strategic planting areas.

Table 4 Relevant aspect of morphological investigation in relation to the development of guidelines for skyline management in Chester.


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resulting recommendations as 'solutions'. The intention is not, however, to establish rules that must be followed, but to make suggestions and establish a framework that will guide the management of the conservation and design processes. Morphological analysis, even at its most comprehensive, has its limitations; its main application is to highlight all relevant considerations as an aid to rational decisionmaking.

If the methodology is to be developed as a practical working tool, then further work is required to reduce potential problems and enhance its relevance to current practice. It is useful to set such considerations within the context of current guidance on the production of conservation and design policy frameworks. The most relevant and thorough response from practice has come from English Heritage, which identifies the elements of a formal assessment and definition of the special architectural and historic interest of a conservation area in some detail.14 This can be criticized as being a less exhaustive approach to area appraisal than is suggested by this paper, as the focus is firmly on a statement of current elements of townscape.

The suggestion is that the identification of a series of qualities can provide a sound basis for development control and for initiatives to promote an area. Beyond acknowledging that a subsequent 'conservation area study' is required, little consideration is given, however, to the process of translating the findings of the appraisal into guidance for the management of change. The emphasis is on the preservation of specifically-identified features or qualities, rather than on the more controversial questions of how and where change might be accommodated. By looking to the past, the approach suggested in this paper draws on techniques and solutions for controlling change that have worked previously, as a basis for informing and even inspiring contemporary dilemmas.

In promoting such an approach to local authorities themselves, what must be highlighted is the potential of this work. Benefits will be felt not only in terms of environmental quality, but also from the wider value of the establishment of a strong conservation strategy. A clearly articulated strategy for historic areas must be well integrated with the wider planning framework for providing a robust and defensible decision-making framework.~s Other benefits could include the use of detailed appraisal information in the preparation of Conservation Area Partnership and other grant applications.

The recommendations of this paper are based on the review of a field


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of study that has not previously been seen as having particular relevance to conservation and urban design practice in the United Kingdom. As the value of this connection has now clearly been demonstrated, future work must focus on developing and promoting a realistic practical application. Action to forge the connection between evolutionary processes and contemporary development would address current concerns about the absence of a strong theoretical basis for conservation policy and provide a sound basis for the management of change.

Biography Andrea Mageean BA (Hans), BPI, PhD (Man), MRTPI Andrea Mageean is a lecturer in town and country planning at the University of Manchester. Following periods of employment in local government as an urban design and conservation officer, she has pursued research into the management of change in conservation areas.

Notes 1 Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Preservation and Change, HMSO,

London (1967). 2 Royal Town Planning Institute, The Character of Conservation Areas, A study com

missioned from Chesterton Consulting and the University of Central England (1993).

3 Cheshire County Council, Chester City Council, Department of the Environment and English Heritage, Environmental Capacity: A Methodology for Historic Cities, Amp Economics and Planning, London (1995), p. 6.

4 Mageean, A.J., The Use of Urban Morphological Analysis in the Development of Urban Design and Conservation Policy: the Case of Chester, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Manchester, Department of Planning and Landscape (1996).

5 Worskett, R., The Character of Towns, Architectural Press, London (1969). 6 Cullen, G., Townscape, Architectural Press, London (1961). 7 English Heritage, Conservation Area Appraisals, English Heritage, London (1997). 8 Royal Town Planning Institute, op. cit. (1993). 9 Booth, E., 'Enhancement in Conservation Areas', Journal of the Royal Town

Planning Institute, Vol 79, No 4, 1993, pp. 22-23. 10 Royal Town Planning Institute, op. cit. (1993). 11 English Historic Towns Forum, Townscapes in Trouble, English Heritage, London

(1992). 12 English Heritage, Street Improvements in Historic Areas, English Heritage, London

(1993). 13 Department of the Environment and Department of National Heritage, Planning

Policy Guidance Note 15: Planning and the Historic Environment, HMSO, London (1994).

14 English Heritage, Conservation Area Practice, English Heritage, London (1996).


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15 English Heritage, Conservation Area Appraisals, English Heritage, London (1997). 16 Royal Town Planning Institute, op. cit. (1993). 17 Slater, T. (ed.), The Built Form of Western Cities, Leicester University Press (1990). 18 Perez de Arce, R., 'Urban Transformations', Architectural Design, Vol 48, No 4,

1978, pp. 237-66. 19 Conzen, M.R.G., 'Alnwick: A Study in Town Plan Analysis', Institute of British

Geographers Special Publication No 27 (Reprint of 1960 Paper with Glossary) (1969).

20 Kostof, S., The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings through History, Bulfinch Press/Little, Brown Boston (1991).

21 Rasmussen, S.E., Experiencing Architecture, MIT Press, Cambridge Mass (1986). 22 Whitehand, J.W.R. (ed.), 'The Urban Landscape: Historical Development and

Management', Institute of British Geographers Special Publication No 13 (1981). 23 Canter, D., The Psychology of Place, Architectural Press, London ( 1977). 24 Jacobs, J., The Death and Ufe of Great American Cities, Vantage Books, NYork

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42 Cheshire County Council Cheshire 2011: Replacement Structure Plan Cheshire County Council (1995).

43 Building Design Partnership Chester- The Future of an Historic City (1994). 44 English Heritage, Conservation Area Appraisals, English Heritage, London (1997). 45 Department of the Environment and Department of National Heritage, op. cit.

(1994).


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urban conservation policy development: character appraisal and analysis

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