University of Nigeria Virtual Library

Serial No.

Author 1

MADUEWESI, Ebele N.

Author 2

Author 3

Title

Basic Ideas and Principles Concerning Teaching

Keywords

Description

Basic Ideas and Principles Concerning Teaching

Category

Education

Publisher

Institute of Education University of Nigeria Nsukka

Publication Date

Signature

Contents

General Introduction

heface

1 Our TeachingILearning Environment - M.O. Nduanya

4'2. Basic Ideas and Prmciples Concerning Teaching - E. J. Maduewesi

3. Basic Ideas and Principles Concerning Learning - 0 s . Okobioh

4. Basic Ideas and Principles Concerning Human Development - A.A. Akahara

5. Lesson Planning: A Basic Teaching Model - M.O. Nduanya

6. Major Tasks of Lesson Planning - A.A. ~ k a h a r a

7. Mapping out the Specific Objectives of instruction - P.O. Onwuka

8. Deterrni&ng the Entering Behaviour and Planning the Performance Assessment - S.O. Olaitan

9. Plann~ng the Irlstructiorial Procedures - S.O. Olaitan

10. ~dni in&us '~ssessment - O.S. Okobiah

11. Innovation in Primary School Methodology - E. J. Madueruesi

12. Innovation in Teacher Education: Micro- teaching - D.O. Ere

h

Page

v

vii

Basic Ideas and Principles Concerning Teaching

Introduction

Many of us probably remember our early teachers and have one impression or other of the111 because they have made some impression on us. Now, faced with the vocation of teaching, we might wondur how our teachers came to teach. Did they really decide that teaching would be their life calling? Or was it just 'one of those things' you cirift into before you know what you are doing? At this stage, we might also begin to worlder about the kind of people who taught us. Were they bright or dull people? What were their basic ideas about teaching? How were they trained? Were their ideas about teaching the same as we have today? What in fact is teaching both as an activity or series of wti- vities and as a profession?

In this chapter, we shall discuss the ideas people have about, and also definitions of teaching; we shall discuss the major tasks of the teacher and also the principles of teaching.

. , . .t' -

Definition of Teaching

Teaching involves 'doing' and 'being' and the two aspects cannot easily be separated. Properly conceived, tedching involves helping others to l ean to do certain new things. These can take the form of physica1:xtivitiee such as making a basket, building a fence, repairing a car or sweeping the

Basic Ideas and Principles Concerning Teaching

Introduction

Many of us probably remember our early teachers and have one impression or other of them because they have made some impression on us. Now, faced with the vocation of teaching, we might wonder how our teachers came to teach. Did they really decide that teaching would be their life calling? Or was it just 'one of those things' you drift into before you know what you are doing? At this stage, we might also begin to wonder about the kind of people who taught us. Were they bright or dull people? What wcre their basic ideas about teaching? How were they trained? Were their ideas about teaching the same as we have today? What in fact is teaching both as an activity or series of =ti- vit ies and as a profession?

In this chapter, we shall discusss the ideas people have about, and also definitions of teaching; we shall discuss the major tasks of the teacher and also the principles of teaching.

I ( . .I' - Definition of 'reaching

Teaching involves 'doing' and 'being' and the two aspects cannot easily be separated. Properly conceived, teaching involves helping others to learn to do certain new things. These can take the form of physical 'xtivities such as making a basket, building a fence, repairing a car or sweeping the

flour. Or it can be a mentaI activity such as calculating the bpeed of a c u , alswering questions or writing this chapter. I t is important to call special attention to the fact that tea- ching is HELPING another person to DO. Teaching helps 1,ut the olle who is taught DOES the act. So what the teacher act~lally does is to help the learner to do his own learning; lie or she is shown how to learn because in ihe find analysis the learner does the learning while tlie teacher assists him or her. It is in this sense that people frequently say that no one can actually teach another, that the things worth learning can never be taught by others but are learnt voluntarily by thc learner. Expressed in this way, there is a suggestion that teaching is done by compulsion or force, but this is a mis- taken view of teaching. Rather, the good teacher has the duty to find out the most suitable methods to help the learner at whareva stage of development the learner may be. In fact, teaching is like what the mother does when her child is sick and rehws to eat. She tries one dish after the other to see which she can tempt the reluctant appetite with. This is not to suggest that learners are always reluctant to learn. No. Many learners are enthusiastic and eager, but this is under certain condition8 such as ( 1) what is to be learned is of in- terest and relevance, (2) they feel they can l e m and (3) the method of learnin$is attractive to the learner. But we cannot deny that some things which need to be learned are not always pleasant, and that some people are reluctant to learn.

W e can also look at teaching from the point of view of what it is supposed to do. Even though teaching takes place outside the school, our interest is in teaching t l~at takes place within the school. .Today we-no longer lay al l the emphasis on the subject matter, but on the learner as the focus of attention. This modern view perceives the role of the school as concerned with seeing the learner develop towards social, emotional and mental maturity so that he would be both acceptable to others and capable of dealing successfully with his own life situations. (Shipley et al, 1968, p. 6).

Basic Ideas and f'rinciples Concerning Teaching 1.5

In articulating the philosophy of Nigerian Education, the National Policy on L'ducation (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1981) stated that the quality of instruction at all Ievels has to be oriented towards inculcating the following values:

(a) respect for the worth and dignity of the indivi- duals ;

(b) faith in man's ability to make rational decisions; (c) moral and spiritual values in interpersonal and

human relations; (d) shared responsibility for the common good of

society ; (e) respect for the dignity of labour ; ( f ) promotion of the emotional, physical and psy-

chologicd health of all children (p. 4). In a l a t a aection of the Nationul Policy, the objectives of

primary education were also stated and can be summarized as expecting the child to acquire skills in the mental, social and motor areas of development. At every stage, the teacher is the instrument, the means by which these objectives, these hopes, are to be achieved. The beliefs which society wishes its citizens to hold cannot be plastered on, the skills cannot be injected into the system, but workable means must be found of getting the learners to accept the beliefs and to master the skills. That means is what teaching is all a b w t I t is a combination of procedures which include elements of persuasion, rewards and punishment, and elllightened guidance each in just the right quantity, and carried out in a co-operative effort between the teacher and the learner,

. , . d - Teaching Means Understanding the Learner

The common saying that you can take a horse to the water but that you cannot force it to drink contains an impor- tant implication for teaching and learning. If you understand the behaviour or the psychology of the horse, you would take him to the water only wh& he has shown signs of thirst.

1 t, / , /' , ,t ,L~t,turv .sc/1001 l l i f~~ / loc lo log .~~

~y he sane tokcn, teaclli~lg should only be done when Irmling can take place; and since the learner is the centre 01

teaching, the teacher has to watch out for signs that the l e a - ner is rcady before he or s h ~ begins to teach. How is this achieved? This is xhitvcd by the teacher being sensitive and observant, in short by the teacher understanding the learner so that she can inte~pret his or her signals. Today, studies of human bchaviours and how learning takes place, have provided us with some ideas and insi&ts which are useful to the teacher. These include: -

Motivation -- we can think of motivation as those factors/situations which increase the leaner's effort or desire t o succeed. Readiness is the concept that in the course of deve- lopment there are moments of peak or optimal pre- paredness for the child to learn certain skills. The readiness results from both maturation and ex- perience. Maturation refers to the natural unfolding of the individual person's inheritance. I t is not usually influenced by training. Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly predictable way as a result of maturation and experience or training.

'I'he understanding of these terms and ideas among others has helped teachers and other educators to apply their know- ledge of the learner to the 'art of teaching'. We can say that the modern teacher marries the science of education with the art of teaching.

. . .I -

'reaching meails Opening Doors and Guiding

Imagine what would happen if you were to lead a five or six-year old into a room gaily and generously hung with many balloons and other bright decorations. There are also many large cc)lourful charts, books, Pictures, crayons, papers,

Bdsir Idem a d Yrinciples Concerning Tcuching 1 7

pencils, popcorn, gt-mudnuts, soft drinks and biscuits. Ini- tially, the child nlight be so overwhehned that he would not know what to do, but you are there to help and sup- port thc chlld. You can steer the chdd first to the tiuttering ballons to touch and fccl and to admire the various colours and probably blow some of hem. Next, you could suggest the ;ittractive books with their large and beautiful pictures, then you could lead the child to the wall charts or else he might prefer t o use tile large crayons to draw or paint some- thing, and so thc exploration continues. Note that the child is not just a spcctator, hc is involved also in deciding, and judging.

111 t t ~ e sane way, the teacher can opcn the door of the world of learning to thc child with all its attractive treasures, and methodically and systematically lead him through the various 'stands' and 'cities' to see, t o study, to build and to enjoy. Every child who comes to school is as curious and as anxious t c~ touch, to smell, to taste, to cxamine, in short to learn. We can think of the ways a teacher can uphold this desire in terms o f the art of teaching. We can summarize this particular perception of teaching by outlining teaching as involving :

(i) encouraging the child to use his imagination;

(ii) developing a child's awareness of and love for the beautiful and excellent;

(iii) assisting pupils in their discovery of problems and inciting the satisfaction obtained from solving the problctns themselves ;

(iv) l e a d b a-child to learn to think of and see issues I . -

in more than one way ;

(v) teaching pupils to discover the group processes of living and the results of their behaviour on other pcople;

(vi) encouraging a ,pupil to talie pride in his achieve- men t ;

("ii) helping to moderate and resolve conflicts

in ;rnJ properly determine priorities ; ("g) encouraging children to develop a critical sense

arid to investigate issues for themselves ; (ix) making the child feel that he is more than himself; (x) establishing desirable attitudes towards work,

knowledge, discipline and achievement.* The above list shows that teaching involves not only acti-

vities but also a 'modeling' role, that is, living and p r a c h g what is taught.

We shall conclude this section on trying to understand the meaning of teaching by examining the Igbo view of the tea- cher. The Igbo word for teacher, Onyenkwi, is in actuality a clause which can be rendered: The one who hammers (or shapes) well' . It is very interesting to note that the same basic idea of shaping or regulating or directing is contained here as is the case in the Western concept of education aa 'bringing up' or 'directing to develop well'. Onyenkuri the teacher, we notice (from the positive connotation of the suffix - x i to the root word ku-hammer or &ape), is always positively perceived. He is the one who shapes properly, probably trying to r e w e what was previously done poorly. Thus, we can say that in Igbo pedagogid thought the teacher and the teaching job are always seen in a positive light. Thus the idea of a bad teacher is a contradiction, other- wise a different suffix has to be found to end the word, to read for example 'onyenkugo' or 'onyenkujo', the one who mis-shapes. But there are no such words in the Igbo vocabulary, so we shall build on the positive view that the teacher is an important person in shaping the destiny of citizens and that t;e;iching ig "the crucial responsibility of helping the citizens in a positive way to acquire the skills for a satisfying life. Let us continue to maintain this positive orientation and image of the teacher. The teacher ehould

*Adapted from Shipley et a1 (1%8'), p. 11 .'

Bask Idem and Yrinciples Concerning Teaching 19

continue to be an example, a light put on a hill, a beacon to which the pupils, parents and community look for help and inspiration.

The Major Tasks of the Teacher

So far we have considered teaching from various angles and in the course of it implied the tasks which the teacher is ex- pected to perf om^. We have also said that teaching involves both 'doing' and 'being'. Let us look at the being facet of teaching first.

Teacher's Personality

There is a saying common in these parts that you observe the child's face before you ask him what he has in his hand. So it is with the teacher. The teacher's personality is an im- portant aspect of the teaching responsibility not only because the children are at an impressionable stage of development, but also because the teacher represents the parental figure which, to the children, is a model to be copied. Another reason why the teacher's personality is important is because its influence is pervasive like that of a parent, manifesting itself in various ways at different times and circumstances. Pt was Henry Adams who said that teacher affects eternity and he can never tell where his influence stops.

The personality of the teacher affects the way she per- forms her tasks and even the way she perceives her tasks. So let us consider some desirable personality traits which a tea- cher should have: . . . .'

(a) The teacher has to be healthy mentally and physi- cally and be emotionally stable, to enable her handle the pupils effectively.

(b) I t is desirable for her to have more than average intelligence and a good memory because many of her pupils might be very bright and sharp.

slle should be resourceful, creative and able to use her imagir~atiorl. The teacher should pay attention to careful per- sonal grooming and be refined in her bchaviour md appearance.

The teacl~cr should be courtcous, kind a d patient because ability carmot be uniform in all tlw pupils and she requircs these qualities to handle the situa- tion. Sincerity and honesty are essential qualities sirlce the teacher is the best judge of her own pcrfor- mance vis-a-vis her lessons and her pupils. Pupils, even young ones, easily pick out the insincere kacher especially if she ib also inconsistent and unfair to some. The teacher must be f m but democratic if she is to make a success because often the pupils like to 'try out' the limits to see how far they c a ~ go.

Organizational ability and efficier~cy will nuke the teacher's work so much easier arid intcrcsting. The teacher who has a positive, encouraging and enthusiastic attitude makes things happen in her class. She can impire her pupils to achieve excel- lence above their oNn expectations. Lastly the teacher should be open to, and in- terested in new ideas especially h c itlcas of the younger genelatimi. She has to know tlw young and learn 'thc peculiar patterns of their thought and einotions'. In olher words, the tedcher has to h l i l ~ l ,i b~idxe + between n~aturily ad youth- (Highet, 1957).

'I'he above characteristics, which make up what we call 1xrsor1ality, underlie and affect the traitrcr's activities. Let us uow look at some of thr tasks of the primary school t cachrr.

Basic Ideas and Principles Coneenling Teaching 21

Planning for Instruction

The teacher's task is concerned with the wholesome deve- lopment of the child, not just the mental or the social or the physical aspect, but aU of these together. Before the teacher can plan, she has first of all to prepare.

i. Preparation. In a special way, the teacher's education and training constitute preparation, but more specificidly the teacher has to be knowledgeable in whatever she has to teach, be it basket-making, long division, systems of transport or whatever. The teacher should not only know the facts and the processes but the latest situation In other words, she must be up-to-date. Another form of preparation is for the teacher to have a broad-based knowledge (especially the pri- mary school teacher), so that she can illustrate her lessons with examples drawn from daily life and thus broaden the horizon of her pupils

i i Yhnning of Content (Unit Planning). The teacher has to pay careful attention to selecting, arranging and outlining the content and learning experiences which make up school learning. There are various s tags in planning, ranging from decisions about what is to be learned, what constitutes a unit, to rnatcrids and methods of teaching and evaluation. Usually, units are planned before they are broken down into lessons And at each level of planning the teacher's goal is not merely to provide instruction but to do so in such a way as to effect changes in pupil behaviour. The issue of objectives or the needs to be sewed must be worked out be- forehand or as the unit plan proceeds. The unit is based on the concept of 'oneness' ," so that a unit of work includes

. , . 3.

the subject matter as well as other relevant experiences which puplls should have during the study. Usually, there are many lessons which constitute the unit, but they all

hold together by having a common core and the aim is to teach the unit content as a meaningful whole, each lesson linked and logically leading to the others.

V ; L T ~ ~ ) U S IJ nit 'I'ypes 'rhere the topic or thvrnc. t y p e of unit planning irr which a section of a subject is taken up for study and broken into lessons with appropriate methods, materials, skills and acti vities. There is also the correlated t y p e of unit planning. Thk type acknowledges the unity of knowledge and that subject divisions are for convenience only. Thus correlated unit planning attempts to restore this unit of knowledge by plan- ning learning experiences across more than one subject so as to encourage cross fertilization of ideas This type requires careful planning and careful aclection of materials, skills and activities, There is dso the problem t y p e of unit planning where the problem approach is adopted. T o be adequate the problem most be big enough to contain sub-problems also which would then constiture lessons or groups of lessons. This is very beneficial for tmining children in independent work and discoveriug information for themselves. I t requires not only careful planning by the teacher but also, while the learners are carrying it out, close guidance and direction and a ready source of materials that are easily available to pupils.

The Unit plan of work within the subject area is the com- monest and most familiar form of unit planning. Let us, therefore, illustrate with the correlated type which though not so common among Nigerian teachers and schools, is quite feasible and would in tact generate plenty of interest, novelty and excitement for the pupils We recommend it and illus- trate with a unit on transportation, (based on Shipley, 1968, pp. 47-48).

Transportation (Primary . , . . . 5). . ,

A. Colrsidcrdtions in P1mrling. ( I ) Basic nerds of pupils.

(a) Need to learn about different types of transportation;

(b) Need to be safety-consicious while on bicy- cles, in cars 'and in public transport;

Basic Idem and Principles Concerning Teuching 23

(c) Need to improve reading with understan- ding;

(d) Need to :earn to appreciate the constribu- tion of transport workers - bus drivers and conductors, train drivers and guards and taxi drivers; air line pilots, hostesses and ste- wards.

Interests of the children in the class.

(a) Interest in vehicles of various types, e.g. cars, spaceships, aircraft, buses, etc.

(b) Interest in drawing and painting boats, cats, planes, trains,

(c) Interest in transport workers' career e.g. being a driver, pilot, stewardess etc.

(d) hterest in cost and means of making jour- neys.

Special needs of individuals in the class.

(a) Ijeoma needs to express herself more clearly ;

(b) John needs to become more factual ; (c) Ike needs to work in co-operation with

others, (d) Ona needs to improve her skill in calcu-

lation, (e) Pupils in reading group A need to pay more

attention to their spelling.

Reader Selections. 'Vehicles' Travelling.'

B. Content. (1) The reader seledtions ;

(2) Discussion on pupil travel experiences,

(3) Make a list such as.- Water: canoe, steam boat, ocean liner. Land: bicycle, lony, donkey, horse-back,

Wain, car, bus, motorcycle.

Air: airplane, helicopter, je t-aircraf t. Space: space rocket.

Listing of jobs performed by different people in public transport system etc.

pilots, drivers, conductors, engincers. Study of routes used by the following:

r-dway system, road system, ocean liners, aircraft.

Health safety measures necessary for public t rasport system:

fire extinbaisher, cleanliness, ventilation. Fuels used by different vehicles

stcarn, petrol, diesel oil, aircraft fueL

Costs: Costs of different journeys and coinprrri- son of costs for different journeys

Meaning and spelling of new words.

C. Motivation Methods for different lessons. I. Discussion of children's travels; 2. E:xanination of pictures of different vehicles; 3. Singing songs such as 'Row, row, row your boat'

or '1 mct an c~lbrlrle on the road', or the poem, Going downhill on a bicycle'.

4. Listening to an invited speaker e.g. train driver, bus driver or aircraft pilot.

5 . Watching T.V. for films or proganlmes involving vehicles of various types.

r). Likely Activities. 1. Keadiili fro& the Class Kcatier or a story from

the newspaper. 2. 'L'rip to s milway station or big bus station c.g.

E k ~ n p ])i/i Chukwu, Izu Chukwu and being con- ducted round and inside the bus and train.

3. Tel l i~~e or writing imag+ative stories e.g. 'If

I were to travel in a space-ship', 'What I would do if our bus sudd(m1y caught fire'.

4. Paint, draw or mould any vehicle the children

would likc. 5. Calculate and prepare a chart showing com-

parative costs of trips. 6. Trace various routtbs on a rnap or globe. 7. Prepare a papcr globe showing routes across

the world. 8. Prepare a mat, and have children fill in the major

train and road links in their state. 9. Five to tell sentences describing or summarizing

their learning.

E. Budget of time and lessons. Up to 12 lessons or more or less depending on available periods.

F . Subjects involved. Reading, Spelling, Social Studies, Arithmetic, Health Sciencc, Music.

i i i LL'ssort Planni?~,~~. Now, following the Unit plan, each lcsson has to be planned. Jus t as the unit was planned on the \,asis 01' what is realistic and available so the lessons must be planned taking into consiclcration the age, interests, and abili- tics of the learners, the materials and sources that are re- quired and those that can be obtained or made. No matter how experienced the teacher, she still requires to spend time a1tl thought to plan and prepare the daily lessons. She has to follow the sequence of lesson planning, beginning with the statement of objectives, stated so that they can be measured or assessed, then the ?evelopment of the content in steps . , . .* followed by the evaluation or assessment of the lesson on the basis of the objectives.

The well prepared lesson also lists materials and methods or procedures to be followed in teaching the lesson, as well as the methods for evaluation. Details on lesson planning will be treated in another chapter in thk book.

Nott.

It should bt. noted with rc>gxd to the Unit on l'ransportation just discussed, tl,,lt consid( r;ltions for planning 1, 2, 3, i.c. ncctls r ~ l d I ~ I I ( ~ I C S L S 01 t h ~ pupils S(TVC the same 1,urpose as the objectives a r d tlrey cover Lot11 the cognitive, aflective 2nd psychomotur donuil~s.

In sonlc ways, dlis type of approach is specially suitalile as it specii'ically addrc.sscs thr: nccds and i~iterests of pupils. T h c x u w oI' statements of o1)jectivzs can d m be suitable par- t~cuIxIy i l lhe statements are specific arid address die needs of die lear~lcrs. lGthcr type can be bcneiicially uscd but, the importmt t l ~ i i ~ g is to remember dlat whethcr I11 unit or in Icssor~ pla~ining, tlle objectives have to be ,irticulated at tach S L L L ~ C , Lelorc tlic other t let~ils follow.

The s ~ ~ o n t l t ~ s k o f dic L C L L C ~ C ~ (Icals with t l ~ e i ~ n p l e n ~ c n t a t i ~ n of pla~min,: wliic4i W,LI discussrd as d ~ e first task. I'lmriing cntaiis an'ingi~ig tlic Irarnmg ~natrrial in such a way as t o aid learni~~g, itlc~itiI'ying d1c sources LO be U S C ~ .ind how they art. to be uscd. A t thc stage ol uoplcnienutiou, we now focus attc~rtion on t h ~ t aspcct t ) f thc teacher's job for which sht: is ~ ~ O l ~ a b l y best known - - teaching the lesson. I t has been said tlidt the focal poirit of teaching is the way tltlle teacher commu~iicatcs tlic C U I ~ ~ ~ C U I U I ~ to the pupils and that is where wc are now.

'I'ht* purpose 01 tec~1iLIig is to help the pupd to learn, and l twr r iq~ is i~ c l ~ ~ ~ t i g ( * i l l h41miour. 'l'lic q~tt*stion, thcreforr IS,

11,iviq set out content to bt- lt.arncd, how best do we prcjceed in urclcr to acllicvc: 1112 ti'esird ch:uigc in pupil behaviour?

Husic Ideas atld Principles Concerning Teuching 2 7

I'his is becausc tli1 f t . :ci~cs in individual ;hilitics arc oi lcn bcst servcd thougli the use of small groups. Ctiildreu nlso support one arlothcr better in a small group rather tllr"l in a large group like a class. Additionally, the small group provi- des the teacher with a better and closer focus for helping in- clividu:lls or small groups with problems.

Criteria for Grouping

(iroups for iiistruction are usually formed on the basis of

achievement, age or interest 111 our educational practice, g p u p work is not very conlmon bccau se teacher training does not xtivcly strcss teaching by grouping, and partly hecause group projects which require pupils t o usr libraries and community resources are not feasible for a variety of rrasons. We lost vcry v~luablc learning skills such as cliscovcry : ~ r ~ d exploration I)cc,wsc of this particular handicap. All the s i n e , tc;ichc.rs ccin g o u p pupils for reading, spelling and nlathc~ilatics, 11si11g whtcvcr cri tc~ia arc most a1)propriate.

No best nlcthod has yet been found, so teachers still have to continue with the ones that have always t een used with good rcw.dts. Every method has some advantage but cannot be useful or suitable for every lesson. Thc lesson (topic), the age of the leaners arid the materials available rue among the

factors which help thc t c~chcr to tlecidc which mcthod to

Whatevcr inethocl is used, therc arc a number of factors to be ranem bered. . , . '1' .-

(a) Motivation - the pupils' interest must be aroused at tlle beginning by the usc of questions, pictures, stories or whatever and the interest must be sus- tained tllroughout the lesson.

(b) Using a variety of methods even within the sane lesson.

(') iJLipil prirticil)lltiori must bc ensured by ques- tioning he111 .~nd allowing them to p d o m activi- ties to exprcss thcir learning in various way2 such as by rliscuss~oii, tlriw ing, modelling.

((1) Tcclclier talk and chalk is valuable and has its pl;icc, I)ut that is not ,111 there is iri teaching.

(c) Ilrill or repetition has a legitimate place in tea- clillig a l d 1c;uning t~ 'fix the unprcssio~i', but must takc its placc.

1~:valuatiug the results of Instruction and Planning

'rile tc:dicr's third task is c.onccrncd with rvaluating thc two previous tasks - planning uicl iml)lenicnting the instruc- tional process. 111 the scliool, the teacher is a repr~senta t iv~ of the society in scnercll, and of pacn l s in particula~. l'ro- fcssiundly, each tcachcr rcprescnts dl t c d i c r s md so from :dl ~upccts, the teacher requires to look back i u ~ d assess her efforts. This is not only to enable her rcport on pupil pro- h~ess, but also to cnahlc hcr report on the siritability of the instn~ctional plan and process.

Continuous Assessnient

The achievemen t of leaning is not confined to intellectual inatters hut corrcerns the development ol' the child in all

facets. The teachel tfierefore has tu monitor continuously the child's devclopmcn~ in all awas with a variety of insmi- ~ n c n t s and tools. 'l'hey could iriclude cliccklists, logs, diarics, case notcs, etc. Scores in weekly tests and cpkzes can also be rccu~dcd and useti $11 t11c crid 0 1 ' acadclrlic period to pro- duct. a realistic 'profile' of thc learner's achievement be- haviour durini'ari academic period. 'l'his is in prclerence to tlic present once id for all exiunination which has bccn found to bc an u~ucal istic way of assessing learning.

Apart f r m giving a smsc d directioli to the lesson a n d o r

unit of wurh, dlc ol . jrc tivcs pt operly out1inc.d luvc a11 in- valuable role - that of providing a frame work for prrfor- mmce assessment. When the objectives are slated in such a way that they can be easily assessed, tlle job of evalucltion is simplified and all that is required is to refer to the objectives and decide whether die skills or behavio~lrs indicated have been achieved.

Principles of Tcachhg ,

Principles of tcaching lime come to us through n closc. study of how learning tidies place and a conscious effort to rc!l;ite the knowledge to methods of teaching. 'I'he w:ly to look at

principles of teachirig is to ask 'wl~al things should tcaclicrs always provitie for in tl~eir teaching sc: 2s to prornotc Icarniug in children?' 1,et us corisictc.r thc I'ollowing as out1ini.d by Shipley ( 1968).

I . .,lctizlc, bwr,ri?rg m t d /~nrtici/)ntiotl Oy t k ( , prr/~il: Learning is a sell'-activc process so it is usirally bcttcr for the ~ ) i ~ p i l t o l)c. physically itlvolvetl whilc doing c.vcn a ~ncntal task. Questions iuc. good, but too nliiti), teacl~ers rcly o n olic ur

two questions as lhc only type of studcrit parti- cipation in thc coursc of a lcsson.

2. G'aricty oj Al(~t11orls: Different materials lend themselves t o tlil'fcrcrit rnethods and apart from borc.rIotn, t l~c wisc. tc.acl~c.r tailors lies rrictlicds L O

suit her lessotis. Sonic. rcqu irc drill, othcrs cxposi- tion, sotntr tlisciissioti ar~tl still ol11c.1.s group study.

3. j2lotivab&l:.,. 'llic I~~ll) i ls ' intcrcsts rind ncetls should always be takc~i into account. ,$rid usually when llic pupils arc c:t~couraged by reinforcement in the fomr of praise, prkcs, and the like, their efforts are uphdd. But care must be taken to see that children u~idcrstand that such things are not ends in themselves. -

-1 ~ , , ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ , / ~ ~ , ~ / ~ ) Q / c w , l r ~ s : The good teacher realizes ~ t ~ ~ t c h ~ L i r ~ ~ i Ieum at dilferent rates and s~ tries to for these differences. Each learrler is @cn work which suits his or her circumstances - the bright child is encouraged to use probleni- solving, the cxperin~erital metliocls while other chilclrcii usc drill, concrete illustrative materials and stories.

5 . Simplc to Conl,t)lcx: The good teacher hegins with what the learner most easily understands and p a - dually goes on to more complex areas. This enables the learner to feel cpnlident and removes the tlncat she would feel otherwise. I t also makes uncierstanding easier, as it builds sequentially f r on~ the simpler concepts.

6. f.'roul know?i t o unkriowtc As in the preceding case, thc lcunrr is comfortable when he is in fa- miliar territory so, even wlierc new learning i:, ti) be taught, it is brtter to begin with familiar ground arid thcn from that footllold proceed to the un- known and the r i c . ~ .

7. fincouragc~ncnt ,- Many learners esptxially children will double their effort when they are encouraged, especially by their teacher. This could Le in the form of oral praise, an approving nod, a look of 'well done', c l~mce to help ttie tcacl~er, a smile and so on (p. 1 9).

Summary . , . +. -

'Teaching involves both doing and being and consists of helping a learner to accomplish certain tasks or acquire some skills. 'I'eaclling focuses on the learner as a wholu, riot con-

fining attention to one particular aspect of the learner. I t calls for an understanding of the learner and application of that understanding t o the art of teaching. I t also calls for

Uusic Ideas urid Principles Concemitig Teaching 31

maturity in selectiq and deciding what is to be taught and learned. The teacher as conceived by the Igbos is usually a good, effective and positively oriented person in the society.

The teacher's personality is the first thing that strikes the learner, and dominates whatever else the teacher does, so the teacher has to cultivate some personal characteristics which support and enhance the performance of her tasks. The tasks of planning, implementing and evaluating consti- tute the teacher's major tasks.

Principles of teaching arc formulated from experiences in teaching and studies of human learning. They are like posts or pillars on which teaching activities can be built. They must be taken into account in planning for teaching.

Revision Ouestions

Explain how the corlcept of the 'whole child' affects teaching. Discuss how the personality of the teacher relates to the teacher's tasks. What are the major considerations which the teacher must make in planning for instruction? Discuss the various types of unit planning that are pos- sible and suggest a topic for planning a unit. e.g., which type would you plan and why? 'Implementation of instruction is incomplete without evaluation of the results of hstruction.' Discuss the above point of view and indicate whether you agree or disagree. Explain. tho idea of principles of teaching. Suggest and discuss at least two more principles of teaching.

References

Federal Republic of Nigex& (1981). National Policy on Education. Federal Ministry of Information, Lagos.

14iglwt, Gilbert (1957). Tht, Art .of Teaching. Vintage Books, Ncw Y ork.

Shiplcy, C . Mortvn and others (1968). A Synthesis of Tea- chirig M c h ~ d s 2nd ed. McGraw Hill of Canada Ltd. Toronto.