university of nigeria and... · 2015-09-03 · university of nigeria virtual library serial no...

University of Nigeria Virtual Library

Serial No ISSN: 978-129-990-8

Author 1

NWABUISI, Elobuike M.

Author 2 Author 3

Title

Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

Keywords

Description Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

Category Education

Publisher

Associateship Certificate in

Education Series

Publication Date

1986

Signature

i Institute of Education, Univsrsity of ~Yissr is , Ysukka

lNSTITUTE O F EDUCATION UNIVERSITY O F NIGERIA, NSLTKKA

Associatesllip Certificate In Education

PhHosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

THE A . C E . S E X E S

Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education Historical Foundations and Comparative Education Educational Psychology Curriculum Studies Measurement and Evaluation Educational Administration and Supervision Elementary School Methodology Research Methodology

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF NIGERLA, NSUKKA

Associateship Certificate In Education Series

Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

Elobuike M. Nwab~isi , C.S. Sp. Institute of Education University of Nigeiia Nsukka

Contributors

Rev. (Dr.) S . A. Okafor Dr. R. Ekezie Dr. T. A. Ume Dr. U. W. Uche .

General Editor - C.B.I. Onuoha

' .@ H.E a HEINE\lASN EDUCATIONAL 1300KS iN!GERW) LTD

HEINEMANN EDUCATIONAL BOOKS (NIGERIA) LTD

Head Office: 1 Ighodaro Road, Jericho, P.M.B. 5205, Ibadan Phone: 417060 &417061;Telex: 31113 NG Cable: HEBOOK Ibadan

Area Offices and Branches - Abeokuta . Akure . Bauchi . Berun City . Enugu . Ibadan . Ikeja Ilorin . Jos . Kano . .- Maiduguri . Makurdi . Minna . Owerri Port Harcourt . Sokoto . Uyo . Yola . Zaria

O Institute of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 1986

First published 1986 Reprinted 1988 - ISBN 978 129 990 8

1 .411 Rights Rerrlved

NO par t o f this pub l ica t ion may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval ryatem o r t r an rm i t t ed in urry f o r m o r by any meanr, e lechon ic .

1 mechanical, pho tocopy ing , recording. o r o therwi re , w i t h o u t t h e p r i o r ' pe rm i r r i on o f He inemann Educat ional Book r (Nigeria) L td .

T h i r book is sold rub jec l t o the cond i t i on that i t rhou ld no t by way o f t rade o r o therwise h e len t , re.sold, hired o u t or o therwi re circulated w i t h o u t t he publ i rher ' . p r i o r conrent in any forn l o f b ind ing o r cover o the r t han that i n wh i ch it w publ i rhed and w i t h ou t o r imi lo r cond i t i on including th i r cond i t ion being impored o n the rubreauent purchaaer.

Printed by African Press Limited

General Introduction The Inttitute of Education of the University of Nigeria Nsukka, was ofYlchlly inaugurated on 8 January 1963 with eleven very welldefined objectives. Among these objectives, which are specifically relevant to the on-going Sandwich Programmes, are:

1. 'TO maintain adequate and effective contact between Teacher Training Institutions in the interests of continual improvement and further professionali~ation of teacher training ... '

2. 'To serve as consultative body to the Ministry of Education or the Board of Education on any matter affecting Teacher Train- ing...'

3. 'To organize in-service training and extramural courses and programmes for teachers'

Besides pursuing, in earnest, most of the eleven functions of the Institute since its inception, the Institute in 1976 embarked upon one of its teacher professional development projects, popularly known as the 'Sandwich Programme' for non-graduate teachers, leading to tlic Associateship Certificate in Education (ACE) and to the Post-Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) for graduates without teachkg qualification. The two programmes (ACE and PGDE) are designed to serw multiple purposes among which are :

(a) to help to retrain and up-date the profexional ability and corn- petence of the non-graduate teachers without disrupting tllc normal school year's work of the teachers;

(b) to help the teachers to remain on their jobs and earn rlie~r salaries during the period of their studies; and

(c) to help the graduate teachers without teaching quali f i a t ion to obtain professional teaching qualification while at the sarnc t m c enjoying the same advantages on their jobs as rnenr. v d above

. for non-graduate teachers. The ACE programme was started in 1976 with Cnivcrsit) ol'Nigi.~ia.

Nsukka, as the only campus. In 1983, two other centres were opened at two of our affiliated Colleges of Education (Alvan l k o 4 2 '' :lit;? 0''

Education, Owerri, and Anambra Statc ~ o l i e ~ c ' of Eclucatlon: A w i . ~ ) Although the ACE curriculum, esaniir~ar~ons wd C C ~ I ~ I ' I L J [ C S l t r r i l i l

the students in the three campuses have rcrnained the sani:. t h e Iristi

Preface This book is an attempt t o respond to an acute need for a suitable textbook in the area of philosophical and sociological fol~ndations of Education for the Associateship in Education students at the Univer- sity o f Nigeria, Nsukka. Generally speaking, all students in this particular University face a serious shortage o f textbooks, but the Asso- ciateship Certificate in Education (A.C.E) students face more serious problems in the area of textbooks. The few available textbooks do not speak directly t o these students. These books are very often so difficult to follow by students o f thiscategory and too technical as well. Most of the few books on philosophical and sociological foundations were written by foreign authors and therefore iack local illustrations and the treatment o f problems to which the students should address themselves a t this point in time in Nigeria.

The authors o f this book made the effort .to adapt the book to the level and needs of the students in accordance with their curriculum.

This book can be of great help to other students: post-graduate students in education. education undergraduate students, N.C.E. students, and even teachers in the eudcational enterprise.

There are two parts in the book. The first part deals with the philosophical foundation of education. There are six chapters here. Chapter one deals with philosophy and education. After defining philosophy and its modes, the chapter then deals with philosophy and science. It concludes with the meaning o f education, new direction in education and the reason why teachers should study philosophy.

In chapter two, major brancheaof philosophy are given. Included in this chapter are metaphysics, Epistemology, axiology, and logic. The next chapter treats different schools o f philosophy and various theories of education that came into being from these schools. An attempt is

i made to relate each school of pi:iidsophj, to education. Among the schools o f philosophy are idcdism, realism, pragmatism. These are the classical schools of philosophy. Two schools that developed later in , -

the history of philosophy are cxistcntialism and analytic philosophy. Educational schools that influenced c i iu~ .~ l ion both ill curope ir.:..

America are esszncialism, pcrcnnidism, progressivism and rcconstruc- tionism.

Chapter four su riey s the significance o f philosophy in education.

tute, as a means of further standardization of the programme, embark. ed upon thin hook-writing project for use in the ACE programme in all the campuses.

A team of experienced and dedicated teachers and scholars were commissioned by'the Institute for writing the ACE book series. The result of their hard work has led to the production of our first series of ACE Books which include:

Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education Historical Foundations and Comparative Education Educational Psychology y

Curriculum Studies Measurement and Evaluation . * Educational Administration and Supervision Elementary School Methodoln~v Research Methodology

In each book, chapters were allocated to and written by indisdduals whde each book was co.ordinated and edited by the respectiveediton as indicated.

The .production of this flrst series IS an attempt not only to meet the needs of our current stadents in all our campuses but also to respond to the constant demands for such books, by our past students as well as to satisfy the yearning needs of many teachers in the field who, because

'of our limited yearly intake, have not been successful in gaining admission into the programme.

We are deeply grateful to our diligent team of writers, cdsrdinators -and editors who have produced these books. Our gratitude equally goes to our typists who put so much time and energy to the final production of the typescripts. - -

C,. B. I . ONUOttZ Director,

Institute of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka,

Contents

General Introduction

Prefhce

v

vii

Part one Philosophical Foimdation of Education x i

Chapter - Philosophy and Education

Major Branches of Philosophy

Schools of Philosophy .

The Significance of Philosophy in Education

Philosophy and the Development of the Individual

Philosophy and Educational Objectives of Nigeria: Analysis and Assessment

Part Two Sociological Foundation of Education

Sociology and Education

Culture, Society, and Education - - Socialization and Education

The School. Classroom Socialization, and the Teaching Profession

Education and Social Stratification

Education and Socio-Cultural Change in Nigeria

Social, Economic, and Political Context of Education in Nigeria.

Such concepts as knowledge and value, value and education, ethics and education, and critical thinking and scientific method are treated. Chapter five deals with philosophy and development. The final chapter of part one treats philosophy and educational objectives of Nigeria. Efforts have been made to give the philosophy and objectives o f Niger- ian education as they evolve through time.

Part two deals with the sociology of education. This part is, made up of the last seven 6hapters. In these chapters sociological concepts of education have been delineated. Chapter seven treats such topics as the historical development of sociology, scientific method, and the meaning of education, from sociological point of view. Culture, society and education are treated in chapter eight while chapter nine treats socialization and education. Chapter ten deals with the school, classroom socializaiton a d the teaching profession. In chapter eleven, education and social stratification are dealt with while chapter twelve treats education and cu1tur;rl change in Nigeria. ' k e final chapter of the book is devoted to the social, economic and political context of education.

The authors are grateful t o the Institute of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for throwing the challenge and opportunity of providing a textbook for the students. ' k e y hope that the students as well as the reading public will benefit from the book.

May 1985

EM. NWABUISI, C.S. Sp.

Institute of Education University o f Nigeria

Nsukka

CHAPTER TWELVE Education and SocioCultunl Change in Nigeria

CHAPTER THIRTEEN Social, Economic, and Political Context of Education in Nigeria

Part One

- - PHILOSOPHICAL FOWDATION OF EDUCATION

Philosophy and Education

MTRODUCTION

Different educational institutions give different names to the topic of this chapter. Some, for example, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, New York, refer to it as "Philosophy and Education". Others, like the University of Nigeria, Nsukka and Anambra State College of Educa- tion, Awka, speak of "Philosophy of Education". They do so because they view the subject as being composed of two separate disciplines which work to inform each other almost on equal basis. Hence they talk of "Philosophy and Education". Or they may view one (phdo- sophy) as ancillary, that is, as a tool in service, of the main subject at issue (Education). Hence Philosophy of Education. In the same way, we speak of the Philosophy of Law/History/Religion/Science, etc. Here, philosophy is the thinking instrument for examining the nature o f these subjects. To understand the term as a composite or equal or ancillary subjects, it is necessary first to examine separately the component elements: philosophy{education.

THE CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY

Popular and Professional Senses

The word philosophy is derived from Creek philo-sophia, meaning "love of wisdom" (knowledge). It is usual to consider the term philosophy in two senses - the popular sense and the professional or technical sense.

In the popular (whether persoul o r public) sense, philosophy is used to characterize a person's or a group of persons' attitude to life. By attitude here is understood a person's or a group of persons' generai pattern or habitual way of responding to events and circumstances?

It also stands for or expresses a person's or a group of persons' world view (Weltanschaung), meaning the sum total of hisltheir beliefs, attitudes, prejudices partly inherited and partly acquired in the process of living. Either or both are equal to a person's or a group of persons' philosophy of life. In that sense, African philosophy, for

Philosophy and Education 3

while and why they should be so" (ibid). It seeks to establish standards for assessing values, judging conduct, and appraising art. It examines what we mean by good and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly. It asks whether these qualities are in.things themselves or are projections of our minds?

3 . Analytic PhJosophy : Focuses on words and meaning. It examines concepts or notions (e.g, cause, equality of opportunity, academic freedoin, etc) so as to expose the various meanings they bear in different contexts; and thereby avoid confused thinking. It is not included to build a system of thoughts as in speculative philosophy. .

America and Britain are dominated by analytic philosophy; The Continent is dominated by speculative philosophy. But all three are necessary for the health of philosophy. Speculation, prescription and analysis are all present to sorn.. degree (emphasis on one aspect notwithstanding) in the work of all nature and true philosophers (KnelIer, 1971,2-3). -

Philosophy and Science - . -

It is important to ask how philosophy is related to science especially in this age of great concern for science and technology. Otherwise, there is danger of negating the importance of phillosophy. regarding it as idealistic, non-functional and merely academic. As said earlier. science is concerned with empirical knowledge, studying the visible and observable things of the universe and their laws. It belongs to pliiloso-' phy to examine the findings of science, the concepts, language and,, arguments used in stating them so as to clarify their meanings. assurc' their logical consistency, and establish their relatedness. Various. branches of rcience such as biology, psychology and sociology nlay . each examine man from their own point of view only and may usc tlicir- spec'ific method of research. It belongs to pliilosopliy not only to seek. the meanings of concepts used by these branchcs of science but also to' .try and unify the fmdings into some systematic totality. Science thcre- fore supplies philosophy with the material on wllich to pllilosophizc. Biology may inquire into the cause of physical growth in man, psyclio- logy may ask the cause of anxiety and alienation of'nian; and sociology may ask the cause of extended family system thriving niore in an agrarian society than in a highly developed tecl~nological society: Philosophy, on the other hand, will begin by asking a more fundamental question: 'What is Causality?' 'Can something be said to be the cause of another?'Then it can go on to seek the cause by examining the nature of man and possibly arriving at an answer that man, by nature,

2 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations o f Education

example, stands for profound sayings of the elders, accumulated wisdom expressed in profound sayings, words of experience as well as African world view.

Philosophy in the professional o r technical sense is an academic discipline usually taught in Universities and Colleges and to which scholars devote their time and energy. It is with this second sense of philosophy that we are usually concerned when we talk of the definition of philosophy.

Giving an analytic slant to our definition, we can say that philosophy is a conceptual activity used for clarifying ideas through asking

- questions. The philosopher is not concerned with empirical knowledge

. that is acquired by observation, that is, where the fmdings can be proved or disproved by the evidence of our senses. Empirical sciences a;e . concerned with that. An astronomer, a biologist, a physicist, and a philosopher is concerned rather with ideas (concepts) that those sciences use, the assumptions they make, and the arguments they advance about their observations. Philosophy is very important for getting ideas clear and should be seen as an ally rather than an enemy of empirical study. In Education for example, the psychologist may be talking of "reading" and "readmg ability" in the children. The philosopher should like to know what he means by "reading". Does reading mean ability to pronounce words? Or does it involved ability to understand them as well? (Lloyd, 1976 : 1). In biology, the scientist sees evidence of, and goes ahead to discuss, life in plants, animals and man. The philosopher, on the other hand, is concerned about the meaning of life.

-. Does life mean the same thing in man as in animal and plant? In what - specific way does man differ from animals and plants? Four component elements in philosophy are treated in chapter two,

and they include metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology and Logic. - -

Modes of Phlosophy

Even though it is not possible to give a single/simple definition of philosophy, it is better to consider it in its three aspects, or three modes of philosophizing as suggested by Kneller (1971)

1. Speculative Philosophy: This is the attempt to fmd a coherence in the whole realm of thought and experience (Kneller, 1971 : 2). An effort is made to see how all things are related and form a nleaningful whole as in gestalt theory of psychology. It is a quest for statements of order and wholeness.

2 . Prescriptive Philosophy: It "seeks to discover and to recommend principles for deciding what actions a d qualities are most worth-

4 Philosophim1 and Sociologfcal Foundations of Education

is a social animal. In that way, it provides answers for anxiety in ps. chology, extended family system in a more primitive and agrariar society in sociology.

THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

Having discussed the concept of philosophy, let us now turn our atten. tion to the meaning of education before uniting the two into "philo. sophy ofland Education." Here we are concerned with a philosophical definition of education. Elsewhere, a sociological definition of education has been given in this book. A sociological definition usually speaks of transmission of culture. Education in this broad sense is usually the same thing as socialization. Gerald Lee Gutek's is a sample of a sot@ logical definition: "Education refers very broadly to the total social processes that bring a person into life in a Culture" (Gutek P: 4). Another example of a sociological definition of education is that by the famous French sociologist, Emile Durkheirn: "Education is the systematic socialization of the younger generation by which the latter learn religions and moral beliefs, feelings of nationality and collective opin-

. . ions of all kinds".

On the othcr hand. a philosc~phical dcfinition of education does not locate the teaching-lcarniq activity necessarily in a given society. It is lrrorc gcncral. 11 analyscs the activity or process in more universally applicable tcmis. I t asks what happens when education is said to take pl;~cc. A typical cs:urrplc of a philosophical definition is Peters' (1966) wlrcrc it is asscrtcd 11131 Education Ymplies that sometlting worthwhi1.e is being ur Iras bcuii iiiteirtio~ially transmitted in a morally acceptab!e ~uaiincr".

@in, tlirst and Peters (1979: 19) asserted that "educating peopl'e suggcsts a fanlily ol' processes whose principle of unity is tlte develop lriclrt of dcsirable qualities in them." Note that we are not told w h tlrcsc "dcsirable qualities" arc. In tlic casc of a sociological definition tlrc "dcsirablc qualities" are tlrc v:ducs of the society, things estimate( as good and important to tlrc givcn society, the culture of tlte society the pcople's way of life in its totality: whether as tra'nsmitted, preserve or inrproved upon.

Pliilosoplricdly spcakhrg. education cannot be said to have take1 placc unlcss some clrangc for the better has occurred. Education is a1 achicvcrncnt and task word but in such a way that it admits of a rang of tasks. as wcll as aclrievclrrcnts. I t is used to cover both trying an1 succcrding. Education inlplics somc sort of achievement that is wort]. whilc. It also uirplics a IIOII-objectio nable mctlrod of acltievemcnl


Hence something like conditioning, as we shall see later, cannot pass as education properly so called.

Etymologicd Definitions

Some philosophers attempt an etymological definition of education. They trace it to two opposite roots which originate from two opposing philosophical tenets. One view derives education from the Latin word educare which means "to lead out1'. This group of philosophers, following the tradition of Plato and idealists; believe that the learner has innate ideas which only need to be squeezed out.

Other Defmitions

Other philosophers of education define education in various ways. For Whitehead, education is the way people acquire the art of utilizing knowledge. It is a guidance towards a comprehension of the art of life. Dewey (1966) says that education is the reconstruction or re- organisation of experience. This "adds to the meaning of -experience and increases the ability tc direct the course of subsequent experience", pulled out and expanded. The other opposing school of thought holds that education comes from latin word educare which means "to form", "to train". This group follows the tradition of John Locke and other realists who hold that the child's or the learner's mind is a tabukr rasa (an erased or blank she'et) on which to write. ExternaI objects ,

make impressions on the mind and feed it with information with knowledge.

i ewe^ further asserts that 'education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform.' And again that education is an intelli- gently directed development of the possibilities inherent in ordinary experience' .

Notice how many times the word 'experience' appears when Dewey is discussing the meaning of education. So also are "intelli- -

gence' , 'progress' , growth' , Jevelopment", 'social' , 'reconstruction' key concepts in'Dewey7s understanding of education.

For Dewey, Education is a process of living, not a preparation for future life, it is a continuous process of growth. Its purpose is the development of the intelligence in such a way that the experience one gets at one time can be carried over to a subsequent experience and used in solving one's life problems. An experience passes for what Dewey calls an 'educative experience' only when it can be so transferred. Moreover, education is meant to develop both the individual and his capacity for social living. Dewey asserts that 'education is essentially

6 Philosophicai and Socioiogicai Foundarions of Eduacrion

a social process' since the development of experience comes about through interaction.

In relation to individual development, it is important that intelligence be developed if real education is to take place. A dead body of knowledge alone does not constitute education according to the unani- mous view of educational philosophers. Whitehead speaks of and con- demns 'inert ideas' which he described as 'ideas that are m e ~ l y received into the mind without being utilized or tested, or thrown into fresh combinations.' The educator must avoid developing in his student these inert ideas or useless information. It is this element of developed intelligence, according to Dewey, that makes possible the directing of the course of subsequent experience, after passing through an educative experience.

Speaking the same language that underscores intellectual d&elop- ment as essential to the meaning of education, R.S. Peters gives as one of the t'hree criteria that defrne education, that -education must involve knowledge and understanding and some sort of cognitive perspective which is not inert'. (Peters, 1970: 45).

The other two conditions are the transmission of-something.worthwhile condition and the morally acceptable-methodof-transmission condition. That is, ' Education implies the transmission of something worthwhile to those who become committed to it' , and 'Education at least rules out some procedures of transmission on the grounds that they lack willingness and voluntariness on the part of the learner.'

Educating people, therefore, suggests developing in states of mind which are valuable and which involve some degree of knowledge and understanding, (Peters & Hirst, 1979: 13)

Another way of sharpening our understanding of education is by checking it against other concepts and activities that look like, but are not exactly interchangeable with, education.

EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING

First, education is not the same as schooling. Education is a wider concept. It includes schooling which is the formation or education that takes place in a formal setting, in a specialized place cal!ed the school, with a systematic body of knowledge experience known as the curriculum, and directed by a specialist known as the teacher. Besides formal education (schooling) there are also informal and non-formal educa- t io n.


Conditioning

Conditw ning: It is a type of education or formation whereby a person makes automatic response to a stimulus without reflection. The conditioned person reacts to e r does something immediately without thinking. Strong Conditioning: The 'process of substituting one stimulus for another and getting the same response is known as ' strong ' or 'classical' conditioning' , (Cf. Russian scientist Pavlov's experiment concerning a dog, food, bcll and salivation). Weak Conditioning: This occurs, for example, when a soldier jumps immediately to attention as soon as he hears someone shout, 'Shun!' Again there is weak conditioning when a Christian automatically and unreflectively say; ' Amen' once he/she hears the formular 'Ilzrough Christ our Lord .

HABITUATION AND DRILL

Conditioning usually- results from habituations and drill which mean the effort to achieve the facility for performing an act through the repetition of the same act over a period of time.

Employing habituation and drill without understanding is what is educationally wrong. The other extreme of modernists to eliminate them altogether is equally wrong. Education involves some useful clcments and a degree of habituation and drill for acquiring certain skills; but they must be accompanied by understanding. What makes a good teacher is his cgntinued effort to seek to d e ~ e l o ' ~ understanding in his pupils when usiqg habituation and drill to achieve certain actions and skills and secondly, his being ever aware of the potential dangers of such activities as dnil and habituation (Schofied, 1972: 173). -

CONDITIONING, TEACHING AND LEARNING

To contrast conditioning with teaching and learning is to contrast it with education since teaching and learning are the two most important co-ordinate activities of education.

Both teaching and learning are intentional and deliberate acts. We cannot forcefully teach anyone anything, but can only cause himlher to learn. Because teaching and learning imply the development of understanding, conditioning (which does not imply understanding) cannot be synonymous with teaching; being conditioned carmot be synonymous with learning.

8 B h t l o ~ c a t and Sociological Foundations of Educutim

INDOCTRINATION

Some times conditioning tends to be confused with indoctrination. Therefore, we need to observe here that conditioning relates to changing a person's behwiour whereas indootrination is concerned with Changing a person's beliefi.

Indoqtrination is a kind of education and teaching where the learner has no say but only to accept what the teacher tells him.

Indoctrination deals with belie&, doctrines, ideologies, etc. presented to the students by the teacher as if no other world views exist elsewhere or can be acceptable.

Education and Indoctrination

To be able to clearly contrast education with indoctrination, it is yseful to consider two sets of conceptual frameworks:

1. Intent, content and method; 2. task aspect and achievement aspect.

Intent: Indoctrination suppresses critical thinking; it deliberately suppresses both reason and evidence in order to achieve its aim of inculcating beliefs. Training: Training is concerned with equipping the learner to be compe- tent so that he can perform well some task or role he is being prepared for. It is the process of equipping the learner with some competency skill.

Unlike education, training is concerncd 'with short-term goals or objectives and has immediate practical results. In training, onc is equipped with models to conform to standards, procedures and regular habits. The learner is instructed on how to do certain things whercas in education he is only led to develop certain thought pattcrns for self- improvement.

Training is morc of knowing'how than of knowing that. I t is part, not all, of education. Preparation of tcachcrs wllcrc skills are morc important than understanding goes by thc nanic "teacher training ." At a higher Icvel, wc spcak o f "tcachcr cducation." Instruction: Instruction involvcs 3 onc-sided activity by which the supcrior person (tcachcr) lla~lds dow11 inli)rlllatioil, order, facts, rules and regulations, modus opc,ranrii to thc lcarncr calculated to be inferior.

, There is element of intclligcllcc cxcrciscd but no full understanding of the rationale bcllind thc things handed down. Instruction is usually done by vcrbal conlmunication. It docs not admit of much dialogue, but only of passive rcccption or asshnilation of the content of instruction.


Inat~uction Q more suited to the nature and, therefore, education of chlldren before they come to the age of reasoning and questioning than teaching. But it is a preliminary to teaching. It becomes bad only when it degenerates into indoctr~rration which mvolves a deliberate effort to close the mind of the child agamst firther questioning even when he comes to the age of reasoning. This can happen when the instruction was given in an authoritarian or doctrinaire manner. Education differs from instruction again because education includes understanding of principles. Hence, it is possible to talk of moral and religious instruction for elementary school children but moral and religious education for students in institutions of hlgher learning.

- PHlrX)SOPHY OF EDUCATION

Having examined the separate concepts of "philosophy" and "education", we can now harmonise them preferably into the composite: "philosophy of education". This considered, it is a subject in which philosophy enables those involved in the business of education to examine ideas, arguments, problems and possible innovations ~ 0 ~ e c t e d with and behind their classroom practice.

Following the pattern of philosophy, it is possible, as Soltis, (1981 a,b,c,) suggests, to consider three perspectives of philosophy of education; the personal, the public and the professional. The personal beliefs of every educator in terms of what are sensible, right or good to do in the process of learning form the educator's personal philosophy of education, just like a person's philosophy of life.

Public sense of philosophy of education is connected with the public expressions-bf opinions in matters of education, what the public comes to judge as good and right to be done in education, and with which they evaluate all teachers and educational programmes.

The pr@essional aspect of philosophy of education has to do with accumulated wisdom expressed by educational theorists who have undergone professional training in philosophy and particularly in this century have provided professional educators with abundant philosophical literature relevant to the context, design and activities of education. It is such people that have given direction to philosophy of education since the mid-twentieth century.

A New Direction for Philosophy of Education

Formerly, philosophy of education was assumed to consist in formula- ting high-level directives with which to guide educq[ional practice as well as shape the organization of educational institutions, saying how

10 Philoiophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

schools, colleges and universities should be run. But since the 20th csntury there has been a change in philosophy, and philosophy of education now tends to follow that trend. Both philosophy and philosophy of education have gone analytical. It now tends to disdain metaphysics, speculation and building of systems. Of course, it is fertile to try to avoid these strands altogether. Nonetheless, philosophy of education has become more humble and earthly, satisfied with engaging principally in disciplined demarcation of concepts and assumptions as well as the explanation of the basis of knowledge. Impelled by their philosophical training, philosophers of education love to engagein raising questions, even if they do not succeed in giving an answer unani- mously acceptable, concerning various theories and practices in education. They ask fundamenta1,questions about the is, ought, can and worth of educational enterpee. It is the hallmark of all philosophers and philosophers of education to raise questions on the status quo and towards possible innovations. We have examples of models of people like Socrates, Rousseau, Dewey.

Socrates, for example, who said that "an unexarnined life is not worth living" died challenghg the moral views of his contemporaries, in his effort to lead them t a refhink their moral habit: what they did, not because it was right, but because it was the 'done thing'. What to others appeared in Socrates as "destructiveness" was only meant to raise the quality of morality, making it more honest and thoughtful,

JeanJacques Rousseau, for example, also questioned preexisting tfiought and practice in education. In that way he ushered in most welcome reforms in education; so also did the great American philosopher of education, John Dewey, the author and father of progressive education in reaction to traditional or old educational system.

Why ~eachers Need ~hiIosophy of Education

According to Solis (1981~) Geacher can be a good teacher even without being a philosopher of education. This is so because a teacher can be trained in the skill for teaching which he masters without full understanding. But that is not education properly so called. To be a fully educated teacher, he needs the study of philosophy of education. Four reasons are given for this necessity.

1. The development of rationality and reasonableness in children belongs to the teacher. But there is no other place where such mental qualities are developed as much as in the study of philosophy and the philosophy of education. Hence the teacher needs the Iatter in this formation.

2. For teaehers to be effective in teaching their subjects, they

Philosophy and Education I I

must understand those subject well. To do this, they will ask fundamental philosophical questions about them. What is the nature of the given subject? What is its basic structure? Its purpose? Its value? Its methods? Philosophers of education have discussed many of these subjects especially in such sub-areas as the philosophy of science, of art, of history, of law, of mathematics. Other subjects can be examined pMosophicalIy in a similar way, leading to greater mastery and ability to teach them.

3 . A body of knowledge has accumulated over the years from Socrates and Plato down t c our time, and we know a lot of the realities of life. More concepts have been discussed and analysed by the philosophy of education, Such concepts as beliefs, language, values, indoctrination, open- mindedness, autonomy, freedom, authority, punishment and discipline are crucial to education. They are discussed in philosophy of education. Therefore, the course is necessary for teacher education.

4. Education is a moral issue, involving interpersonal relationship between teacher and student. Moral education is an attempt at raising the degree of critical awareness of the ethics of the teaching profession. In this branch of philosophy of education, the teachers in making have the opportunity to study concepts like rights, duties, obligations, virtues and vices. It is hoped that'h that way they may grow more morally aware.

SUMMARY

In this chapter, we have examined the concept "philosophy and education" by examining the concepts "philosophy" and "education" separately and later jointly as "philosophy and education" or even "philosophy of education". In treating philosophy, we examined the three modes of philosophizing (speculative, prescriptive and analytic), and fmally we asked how philosophy and science are related and saw that science provides philosophy with the material on which to philo- sophize.

In considering the meaning of education, we distinguished between a sociological and a philosophical definition of education. We attempted an etymological defmition, then gave the various definitions of a number of educational phitosophers. To hrther sharpen our conception of education we compared and contrasted it with other similar and

12 Philosophical and Sociological Fottndations of Education

related concepts - schooling, conditioning, habituation and drill, teaching, learning, indoctrination, training and instruction.

After the examination of the component elements, we then treated the composite as "philosophy of educatio n", showed the new direction it has taken since the mid-twentieth century and finally demonstrated why it is jmportant in the preparation of a teacher, that is in the teacher programme.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by philosophy? Distinguish between philosophy in the popular (public) sense and philosophy in the professional sense.

2. What is education? How does a philosophical defmition of education differ from a sociological definition? #

3. Distinguish education from instruction, training, indoctrination and conditioning.

4. Why should philosophy of education form part of the necessary preparation programme for a teacher educator?

REFERENCES

Akinpeh, J.A. An Introduction to Philosophy o f Education, London: The Macmillan Press Limited, 198 1.

Brubacher, J.S. Modem Philosophies of Education, New York: Mc- Graw-Hill Book Co., n.d.

Dewey, J. Democracy and Education, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company Inc., 1966.

Durlcheim, E. Moral Education, The Free Press, n.d. Ezewu, E.E. et al, Sociological and Philosophical Foundations o f Edu-

cation, Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria) Ltd., 1982.

Kneller, G.F. Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (2nd ed), New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1971.

Lloyd, D.I. (ed.) Philosophy and the Teacher, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1976.

Peters, R.S. Ethics and Education London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970.

Peters, R.S. (ed.), The Philosophy o f Education, London: 0xfbrd Uni- versity Press, 1973.

' Phenix, P.H. Philosophy o f Education, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, n.d.

Scholfied, H. The Philosophy o f Education: An Inh.oduction, London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1972.

Philosophy and Education I3

Soltis, J.F. An Introduction to the Analysis of Educatwnul Concepts, ,

(2nd ed) London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1978.

Soltis, J.F. "Philosophy of Education for Teachers." Journal of Educa- tion, Now Scotia: 1981,7(2).

Soltis, J.F. (ed.) Philosophy of Education Since Mid-Century , New York: Teachers College Press, 198 1.

Soltis, J.F. Philosophy and Education: Eightieth Yeca book of the National Society for the Study of ~ d u c a t i a n , chicago f Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 198 1.

CHAPTER TWO

Major Branches of Philosophy

INTRODUCTION

Chapter one treated the concept of philosophy in general philosophy of education itself. In this chapter, different branches of philosophy shall be studied. These branches of philosophy include metaphysics, epiSte- mology, axiology and logic. They are theoretical approaches to philosophy. Attempt shall be made to relate them to education.

METAPHYSICS

This is the speculation about the nature of reality. Metaphysics is concerned with answering questions of what man really is; where man has his origin from; and where he is going at the end of this life. It also seeks to answer other questions such as whether the universe has a rational design or whether it is totally meaningless; if mind is reality of its own or jus t a form of matter in motion; its relationship with the body; whether the behaviour of all organisms are causally determined, or some o f them, such as men, have a measure of freedom.

Major branches of metaphysics include ontology and cosmology. While ontology deals with the problems or the nature of being and existence in general, cosmology studies the origin, nature and development o f the universe or cosmos.

Metaphysics and Education

A person's or a nation's answers to metaphysical questions will go a long way to determining the person's or the nation's educational orientation. Only a few illustrations can very well demonstrate what I mean. The metaphysical question of what will happen to man after death or the question of the purpose of the universe have puzzled people from

.time. If the universe has any purpose, what is that purpose? It is the metaphysical position a person takes that will enable him to answer the questions. If after studying the theory of evoiution, for example, a person concludes that he is the only person to determine the meaning

Maior Branches of Philosophy 15

his life would have, because, for him, the universe has no purpose, man does not go beyond this world after death. The philosophical theory that man is a rational being, which means that man is made up of body and soul, does not make any meaning to him.

The metaphysical position taken in this regard will dictate the education system person will choose. Some people hold that man is a living being or organism which has interaction with his environment, has emotions and ambitions that determine his behaviour, but has no mind or soul. For them, all we know about man is that he lives and grows until he dies. Education for people with this view is to enable man to live a happy life here on earth. There is no fbture after this life. But people who hold that man is made up of body and soul see the universe as a purposefbl creation. The development of the soul is very important. Education is geared to the preparation of the soul for the life after death. Moral and religious education plays an important role in the educational system of people with this metaphysical point of view,

In any case, metaphysical theories, as we have shown, have influence on the teaching methods. It is the work of philosophy of education to investigate into these theories so that the teachers will be enabled t o know what is valid in them and teach it to the students.

EPISTEMOLOGY

This is a philosophical discipline dealing with knowledge. It is the theory of human knowledge. It concerns itself with whether we can know, how we come to know what we claim to know, and how valid our knowledge is. It is asking what knowledge means. The problem of knowledge is both philosophical and educational. While education deals with the tasks of imparting and acquiring knowledge,epistemology as a branch of philosophy delves into the fundamental meaning of knowledge and what it is to know something, and the sources of k n m - ledge.

The epistemologist works on concepts rather than facts. A psychologist, for example, deals with how people nctually think, feel and act. The epistemologist, on the other hand, is interested in finding out what such psychological concepts as "thinking", "feeling", "perception", L L ~ t i m u h ~ ~ " , "sensation", "learning", "reinforcement" and "insight" mean. His field of operation is also to find out if the psychologist Is applying those terms correctly.

16 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

Types of Knowledge

Revealed knowledge: The knowledge disclosed to man is known as revealed knowledge. At certain times in the history o f man, God inspir- ed certain individuals to write down truths so that other people can know those truths. The Christians and Jews have their own books containing God's revealed truths. It is called the Bible. For the Muslims, God's revealed truths are contained in the Koran, while the Hindus have access to God's revealed tmth in the Bhagaved-Gita and the Upanishads. The believers hold that all that are contained in these books are eternal- ly true because they are. the word of God. The word cannot but be true otherwise God would be either ignorant o r deceitful, which He is not. God allowed man to use human language to record the supernatural truths, The language in which the word of God is recorded is mere human language. Scholars among these religious groups spend mbch time arguing about the precise meaning of words and expressiolis contained in these sacred texts. In this way the meaning of these texts hidden from non-theologists are beiter explained to lay members of the faith,

lntuitwe knowledge: Intuitive knowledge is that knowledge which a person finds within himself. This kind of knowledge comes at the moment of insght. Insght is a sudden coming to consciousness of an idea or conclusion. It normally occurs after a long unconscious work. This intuition or insight errupts suddenly as a solution to some problem which has been tasking the unconscious for days, months, and sometimes, for years. It comes as a reward to the unconscious for its efforts to solve the problem. This moment of inslght gives some joy to the person..The joy and pleasure derived from the insghtful knowledge is exhilarating because the psychic energy invested in an effort to come to solutipn is released. It also gives the person a sense of the fullness of his meGtal power.

Scientific discoveries o r theses, philosophic theses, and great works of art most o f the time originate from intuition. When this kind of knowledge is revealed to others by the person who has it, it is just accepted because of experience and imaginative strength of the posses- sor. Great writers like Shakespeare and Homer narrate to us about the truths in the heart of man. There is no way these truths can be tested in the way experimental findings are tested. They come as insights, as

'.mere institutions. This intuitive knowledge is common to human beings.

Major Branches of Philosophy 17

Rational knowkdgs: Rational knowledge comes through pure reasoning. The principle of rational knowledge is the type used in logic and mathanatics. The truth in this kind of knowledge is demonstrated by the exercise of abstract reasoning. The logical statement of two con- tradictory statements is a good example. "Ngozi is a girl" and "Ngozi is not a girl" is impossible to be predicated on the same object at the same t h e . Another good example is the principle that if A is greater than B and B greater than C then A ki greater than C. In other words, if a trailer il bigger than a pick-up and a pick-up is bigger than a volkswagen, then a trailer, by implication, is bigger than a Volkswagen. Truths such as these are valid independent of our feeling. They are universally valid. The weakness of this kind of knowledge is that it is abstract and formal. It does not take into account the actual state of the situation and the emotional needs o f those concerned. Rat iced knowledge is not enough for our needs. Men need other kinds of knowledge, particularly intuitive and empirical knowledge.

Empwical knowledge: Empirical knowledge is that knowledge that is confirmed or verified by the senses. People form their concept of the world by sight, touch, smell, hearing, and tasting. It is through personal experiences and people's actions that they gain knowledge of this kind. This is scientific knowledge. It is the model modem sciences use in their investigations. Scientific hypotheses are proved by observation or by experiments. This kind of knowledge is particularly important to teachers and students. The teacher of science should make sure that his students are taught how to observe carefully and record meticulously, formulate hypotheses, and devise a way ofverifying the truth in formulated hypotheses. When one develops scientific attitude, one tends to subject any truth one comes across to verification. It is very important that the teacher should seek to inculcate in his students the attitude of scientific inquiry.

Authoritatwe knowledge: There are certain truths or knowledge we accept because of the authority of the person proposing such knowledge in the field. "Authoritative knowledge is established knowledge that I accept on someone's authority" (Kneller, 1964). I accept that Moscow is the capital of USSR even though I have not been there; that the first World War started in 1914; that light travels at 186,281 miles per second. I feel that these facts do not need my verification. I take them for granted because they are taught by experts and can be found in encyclopedias which in any case are written by experts.


The kind o f knowledge I need will determine what knowledge I should take for granted and that which I should strive t o verify. If, for instance, I want t o know what the law o f relativity is, I just go t o the encyclopedia and get it. I d o not need any verification for it. But if I want to know the process by which this law was formulated, I shall work out the principles myself. Here I need verification.

AXIOLOGY

Axiology is the theory of values. This branch o f philosophy deals with ethics, It asks the questions about the goodness and badness of realities. It also deals with esthetics. In this case its concern is whether a thing is beautiful o r ugly. In general, it deals with all value judgements. Value itself influences our decisions and choices every day. We cannot avoid value judgement in our lives. We often pass judgement o n how people behave. the systeni o f a government. thc systeni o f education. Parents decide colrsciously o r unconsciously o n flow best they will bring u p their children. They d o not just let their children behave any how. A teacher makes evely effort to n u k e her pupils keep quiet in class. She tells them what to d o or what thcy sllould not do. A country decides o n the philosophy of education which all her educational itlstitutions should follow. All tllcsc arc v d u c d c c ~ s ~ o n s and judgenrents.

There are three questions wliicli axiology asks and secks to answer. These quest ions iilclude :

(1) Wlretllcr vducs are either subjective or ohjwtive: ( 2 ) Whetlrcr v d u c s arc co~rstant or changi~ig: and ( 3 ) Whcther valucs Iltlvc Iiicr;~rcl~ics or 1101.


or m e . It is good at all times. Other people, however, maintain that all values are relative and have no universal validity. AU values for these people depend on the desires of people. Values change with external circumstances which shape people's desires and needs at each historical epoch.

3. The choice of whether values have hierarchy or not depends on the type of personal philosophy a person holds, Idealist and realist philosophers maintain that there are hierarchies of values for different reasons. The pragmatist denies the hierarchy of values.

The idealist says that in the hierarchy of values. spiritual values are higher than material values, while the r'ealist maintains that rational and empirical values are highest. ~ h s y assist people to maintain the rules of logic, the laws of nature, and objective reality. For idealists, religious values are means through which we obtain our ultimate goal, and gain unity with the spirit order.

There are private values which are personal to individuals, and public^ values which are valid for the society' at large. Typicd examples of

I -

public values are those enunciated by the National Policy o n Education (1981). The Federal Republic of Nigeria wanted all ~ i ~ e r i a - n children to acquire those values for the s u ~ i v a l of the individual and the Nigerian society.

&or to the advent of colonial and missionary westernizers, there had been various values which were in the main based on ethnicity. At times some of those values were at variance with each other. These traditional values fell out of favour since the coming o f t h e colonists. The Nigerian who hadost his traditional values, failed in &s attempt to acquire the set of Western values. This lack of set values for the Niger- ian brought confusion in the mores of the present day Nigeria. Each person becomes the determiner of his own values. Invariably these

1. personal values go counter to the good of the Nigerian society at large. i The National Policy on Education, however, has given some basis on i which some type of system of values can be inculcated in all Nigerians

irrespective of ethnic origin, geographical location, or religious creed.

LOGIC

Logic deals with arguments. Arguments are part of our everyday life. Through argument, one can predict the outcome of an action. It is also easy through argument to learn the inconsistency in an opponent's position. It is believed that Aristotle wrote a logic series for the first time.

20 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Eduaction

Logic is a tool of systematic reasoning. In logical reasoning or argument the reality of what is being argued is not important. It is the validity of the argument that .matters. This means that for a logical argument to be in order, it must follow certain rules of reasoning. For example :

All Igbo people are Nigerians Emeka is an Igbo man Therefore Emeka is a Nigerian.

It would however, be a wrong logic to argue in this way:

All Nigerians are not Igbo ~ o h a m e d is not an Igbo man Therefore Mohammed is a Nigerian

This $ bad or invalid logic. From the point of view of fact, oh-ed may be a Nigerian, but he can also be from a country other than Nigeria.

This is fonnal logic. Its concern is the form an argument takes. It clarifks thinking.

h g i c is important in Education. A teacher can impart the knowledge of logic by encouraging students by rewards for logical thinking. In this way the student will be drawn to form the habit of logical thinking. When the student is taught properly in this discipline he will derive satisfaction for making valid conclusions.

Sometimes, it becomes a problem whether to present subjects in a logical order or according to the maturational state af a learner. Those who hold the idea that subjects should be followed according to their logical eider believe that children brought up in that system will develop logical thinking. Other people maintain that all subjects should be presented to the learner according to the psychological order. Psycho- logical-erder treats the subject matter according to the aims, interests, and experiences of the learner. John Dewey's view is that the psychological and logical order need not conflict. Rather, they should work hand in hand. He regarded the psychological form as the "process" and the logical form as the "product". The psychological process, for him, is "the means of understanding the subject matter in its logical form" (Kneller, 1972). The logical form is an ideal the student should strive to achieve.

The Logic-of lnqujl

Logic of inquiry is a process of inferring formulated by John Dewey.

Major Bmnches of Philosophy 21

The work of logic of inquiry is to establish the principles to be obselved in order to arrive at valid conclusions.

Inquiring according to Dewey, is resohing a problamatic situation. This takes place in six steps. Kneller (1972, p. 90) describes it in school setting .

1.

2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

All thmking forms a response to some diflkulty that cannot be resolved by instinct or routine. Because a student is always learning, he is always confronted with such diffi- cdties. ~ h d facts the student has do not explain much. He is not satisfied. When the student reahes that what he is learning needs to be given more importance, he changes his dissatisfactbn into the form of a problem or a question he is to resolve. "Why did the event happen?" He needs information which will help him resolve the problem he has formulated. Even though he has learned much about the problem in class, the definition or formulation of the problem has given. him some clues about areas t o explore. He then evaluates these possibilities that might have led to the problem in order to see how consistent they are with other hypotheses which have occurred to him; This will enable him to find some causes of the event. Some will be more important than others. Each hypothesis will be considered in relation to both the facts it coven and other explanations. Some of the hypotheses shall be rejected. More promising hypotheses shall be tested experimentally. The co-ordination of the hypotheses that have been verified objectively takes place and this makes up what is known as Warranted assertions". The meaning of this is that they have been Justified through the information which have been examined ,and the series of hypotheses proposed to be explicated. Any statements or assertions made are tentative because more information, stronger hypotheses, or better thoughts which may arise in future make them invalid. The knowledge which comes from all these is not final but it can form the basis of further inquiry.

Logic in Teaching

A teacher is logical in his behaviour when there is consistericy between

22 Pttilosophical and Sociological Foundations of Educarion

his teadhing and the belief system. He can use logic in class by the way he directs the pupil's behaviour. Other things that come in between. such as memories, beliefs, need and inferences all combine to determine what is going on in the classroom. The words of the teacher, for example his asking a child to define, classify or explain a thing; the way he directs the child by ask~ng him to write on the board, or to read a poem, and the way he praises, blames, or reassures the pupil influences the pupil's behaviour. Another factor that influ5nces the child is the way the teacher demonstrates, in class, what he would want achild todo. His tone, his facial expression, and his body movement show the child the teacher's psychological state. AU the above form the teacher's logical operation.

In th* same way the pupil uses words to indicate that he understands what he'is taught. When he acts or behaves he is doing that to practise what has been taught. The child can behave expressively to indicite his feelings. These also are l o g i d operation of the pupil.

What we have just explained is not the normal use of "logic"; It, however, has the qualities of logic. It has property, structure, and rationality in teaching.

SUMMARY -

Major branches of philosophy have been surveyed in this chapter. Metaphysics treats the nature of reality, whether things exist in themselves or not, the origin and purpose of reality. In epistemology, the problem and the kinds of knowledge are treated. Axiology deals with the question of values. In particular ethics and esthetics are the main components of axiology. We see that there can be objective and subjective values,:absolute values, personal and public values. Lastly, logic as it applies to education is briefly surveyed.

-- REVISION QUESTIONS

1 . Illustrate how a nation's answers to metaphysical questions can influence its educational orientation.

2 . Enumerate different kinds of knowledge and discuss the implica- tions of two of them to Education.

3 . As a teacher, how can you apply your knowledge of logic to classroom situation?

4 , Give an idealist's theory of value and .relate it to education. 5. How does an idealist's view of value differ from that of a realist? 6 . How is logic applied in class?


ReFERENCES

Akinpeh, J.A., An Introduction to Philosophy of Education, London: Macmillan Publishers, 1984.

Kneller, G.F., Introduction t o the Philosophy o f Education, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1972.

Okafor , F .C. Philosophy o f Education and Third World Perspective, Virgirria: &unswick Publishing Company, 198 1.

CHAPTER THREE

Schools of Philosophy

INTRODUCTION

In chapter two, we examined the major branches of philosophy. In our survey we limited ourselves to metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and axiology. This chapter is concerned with schools of philosophy. In the course of the chapter, we shall see how philosphy, and philosophy of education, is couched in the apparently outmoded suffix -ism. I say that the suffix is apparently outmoded because it is no longer fashionable to study philosophy of education from -isms point of view. In discard- ing the philosophy of -isms, it would seem that the developing countries of Africa would stand to lose, especially, in terms of the history of philosophical thought. Hence, we study the classical schools of philosophy and the related theories of education.

It is important to distinguish between the schools of philosophy and the theorics or categories of cducation. Idealism, realism, and pug- matism belong to the classical schools of philosophy. Existentialism and analytic philosophy are rcccnt additions- to tllc schools of philosophy. Thcy arc, howevcr, not classical scliools of philosophy. It should be noted herc that some authors prcfcr to regard analysts as only a method of philosophizing ratl~cr than as a scl~ool. Ncverthcless, a good number of philosophers not only rcgllrd unajysis us a scl~ool of philosophy but have bcconie pl~ilosopl~crs al~rl by so doing colistitute it as a school in its own right. I t is also Kncllcr's opinion that existrntialitm, which enlbraccs dil'fcring vicws, is not a systcnlatic pl~ilosoplly in the traditional.scosc, hut an act ot' pliilosopl~izirig whicll pcrnlcates various philosophics.

In our trcatn~cnt. wc s11a11 strive 10 scc what arc thc t'unduncntal orict~tzdia~~s o f c;)~'li scl~vifl. l'kcsc t c ~ ~ c t s shall I)c C X U ~ I ~ I I C ~ t'rom the points of vicw ot' thcsc scl~ools in ~i~ct;~physics, cpistcndogy, and axiology. Froni tlicse scl~ools 01' philosophy wc sIia11 80 onto the various thcorics o f education wl~ich cliicrgc tl~crct'ron~. Tliesc cduca-

Schools o f Philosophy 25

tional theories include perennialism, progressivism, essentialism, and reconstructionism.

IDEALISM

Metaphysical Position

Idealism stresses the spiritual aspects of existence. Ultimate reality is spiritual rather than material, mentai rather than c m p o ~ e a l . The world of our senses is just a shadow of the world of reality. The world of ideas is the real world. This world of ideas has eternal qualities, it is the pure state of being. The world we see, hear, touch, smell, is an apparent world. It is transient imperfect, changeable. irregular, evil. What is the real world? For the ideahsts, the real world has absolute vdue , permanence and perfi?tion as its characteristics. Some idealists deny that matter is real.

All existence is explained in terms of the mind and its working. All things exist in the mind-as ideas. They cannot be known to exist without the mind taking notice of them or thinking about them. The individual's mind (rnicroqosinic mind) is part of the universal (macrocos- mic mind). The universal mind is identified as God (for theistic idealists) and the Absolute or'the Eternal spirit (for atheistic idealists, e.g. Hegel).

This school of philosophy started with Plato. Since Plato,there had been many shades of ideahsrn. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) is known for his cogito ergo rum. This is a Latin expression meaning "I think, therefore I exist". Bishop George Berkeley (1685-175 3) is still remembered for his esse est Grc ip i , which is "to be is to be perceived". Another great idealisi is lmmanuel Kant (1724-1804). He is known for his transcendentalism. By this term Kant is telling us that the trans- cendental ideality of time and space has characteristic. This characteristic is that whatever we know is known through the senses. This is the basis for the distinction he made between appearances and things- in-themselves. This means that space and time are the framework in which sensations are ordered or arranged. Space and time therefore are necessary conditions for any sense experience. George Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) proposed the theory of dialectic of thesis-antithesis- synthesis. AH things are in constant change, evolving from thesis to antithesis and from antithesis to synthesis. This synthesis becomes theis and the whole cycle continues all over again until perfection is

&tt!iR~d:

26 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of ducat ion

Idealist Epistemology

In its epistemology, idealism holds that knowledge obtained through the senses is always uncertain and incomplete. The material world is only an imperfect and distorted copy of a more complete and more perfect sphere of reason. The product of reason alone is true knowledge. Idealism takes this stand because reason is the faculty that can grasp the pure spiritual forms beyond the material aspect of things. Hegel kaintained that in so far as ultimate reality remains rational and systematic, human knowledge is true if it is systematic. The "coherence" theory of truth holds that the more comprehensive the system of knowledge and the more consistent the ideas it covers, the more the ' a u t h it may liave. An item of knowledge is significant in as much as it is seen in its totality. In the view of some modern idealists, the p e n c e of knowing is'the imposition of meaning and order on the information gathered by the senses.

For the idealist, education is taken as a developmental process of thl person - the spiritual and conscious growth. Thought is essentially the process of rekognition and introspective self-examination where the

' individual examines his mind in search of the truth. The process of education is geared to the attainment of the individual's development of self. The individual is very active in the process of education. It is what he makes of what is presented to him that will become knowledge far him. It is the individual learner who is responsible for learning. The function of the school is to provide the right atmosphere and direction for stimulating the learner's latent interest, intuitive and introspective selfexploration for his mental growth. The school again enables the learner to see knzwledge as an integral part of a whole.

The idealist's curriculum lays emphasis on those subjects that will cultivate intelligence and understanding through stimulation of self- examination. TNs helps him to realize his spiritual potentialities. Such subjects that enhance the spiritual developnient of a person are offered. The curriculum should contain four basic skills:

(a) The language skills (b) The scientific skills (c) Thenormativeskills (d) The esthetic skills.

Other subjects such as Geography and History should be included. These deal with culture and civilization which contain models for the

. learner's imitation. f i e pupil, even though immature both in mind and body, is seen as

Schools of Philosophy 27

an individual who has his own personality. The major work of learning rests on him. The pupil has to engage in self-learning. The teacher must provide the pupil with external sources which include cultural norms and factual knowledge. The pupil's mind will work on these. The teacher who is nearer the perfect ideal of personality than the pupil must be an example and a model. The child has to engage in self-learning activity while the teacher will make every effort to have positive influence on the child.

Methods o f teaching recommended by idealists are as follows:

1. Imitation of the ideal model; that is, the teacher and works of excellence.

2. Socra:ic method which includes the method of questions and answers.

3. Project method in which the pupil is enabled to initiate learning tasks alone or with otheys.

4. Lecture method.

The ultimate aim of education irrespective of the method used is the pupil's self-learning. The responsibility of this learning rests on the pupil not on the teacher. The idealist brand of education has influenced the world ever since.

Idealist Axiology

According to the idealist, values and ethics are absolute. The good, the true, and the beautiful are immutable. They do not change. They are constant. They are part of the universe. Enduring values should be taught to the student so that he can live by them. Evil offends the very sea of the universe. A follower of Kant will always strive to avoid evil. "When a chi& misbehaves, the teacher would ask him what would happen if everyone behaved in the same way. Is he setting a good example for his classmates to follow?" (Kneller, 1972).

- .... REALISM

. - Realist Metaphysics

Just as Plato was the originator of idealism, Aristotle is known to be the originat& of realism. Realists hold that the material world and human experiences really exist. The existence of these is true, it is objective, ' it is an extramental reality. It is different from the mind. T)le object of knowledge exists whether it is known or not. It is essentially independent of human knowledge.

28 FhUowpMcal and Sodological Foundations of Education

Arirtoth (384322 BC), a student of Plato, in his search for the ploof of the problem of existence developed the form - m a t t e hypo- thuir. This hypothesfs is known as hylomorphism. According to this hypothesis, all phenomena, all the world of experience, including the heavenly bodies, have matter o r deskn. Matter is the principle of poten- t-Mity while form 19 the principle of achcolity or the principle of indwi- duation. One matter is different from another through form. When rmtter and form unite a thing emerges. Each thing possesses its own identity which identifies it from all other things. Aristotle maintained that a thing cannot be the thing if it does not have essence. Essence endows a thing with meaning. It gives the wharness (the quidity) of a thing. Aristotle explains how things-cgme to exist in the f i s t place by positing an absolute independent first cause.

In an effort to reconcile faith _to reasoning, St. Augustine introduced Platonic idealism to the Western world. St. Thomas also tried to harmonize faith and reasoning through Aristotle's philosophy of realism. He however introduced a new element to Aristotle's ideas. The new element is existence. In doing this he deemphasized the importance of essence. Existence is paramount in Thomas' perception. Essence cannot come into actuality w i t h o ~ t . a n ~ ~ c t of existence. Thomas holds that essence is the principle of potentiality while existence is the principle of actuality. Existence needs essence to make a being. There are hierarchies of being. The inanimate world ranks lowest, then followed by plants, animals, men, pure spirits, and God in that hierarchical order. St. Thomas tried to prove the existence of God through five proofs.

Realist Epistemology.

Things known are different from and independent of the mind and idea of the knower. An idea or a propositzn is true only when it corresponds to reality. Since the world exists by itself, independent of the mind, it is possible to have objective knowledge. The theory of education for the realist is teachercentred and discipline-centred. Education is a process used to develop the mind to know the truth as it is. Educa- tion aims at inculcating the knowledge of the native culture and the inner workings of the universe. This will enable the learner to cons. ciously adjust himself to the real world. The work of education is to transmit the culture from one generation to another. This makes for cultural continuity. It is the teacher who detemiines what the learner must learn. He decides what the subject matter in the class must be.

Redst Axiology

Values exist. They are objective. Values can be discovered in objccts. They are in those objects whether we know and appreciate tlieln o r not. Values are not relative or determined by individuals.

Fundamental values are, in the main, permanent. There is univend moral law which the reason can apprehend and which is binding on all as rational beings. For christian. religious realists we can understand much of this moral law by the use of reason. God established t Iris law. Even though we can understand the moral law without divine intcr- vention, it is impossible to practise it without the help ofGod because our human nature has been corrupted by sin - Original Sin. Man tralis- cends the natural. He is created for the supernatural. Therefore. naturs- listic ethics is not sufficient and adequate for man. The aim of nioral education is the salvation of souls. The child is then to be taught to keep his soul in the state of grace by doing good and avoiding evil. Christian religious realist trains both the will and the intellect. The individual uses his free will to choose or reject God's salvation. Education has the duty of correcting the fallen human nature. There is strict discipline for the elimination of bad habits and cultivation of good ones. Faith which enables us to know God is supported by reason.

For classical realists, schools should produce.men and women who are well grounded in being moderate and temperate in a l l things. The .child should be brought up in such a way that he can live by absolute moral standards. Human nature is the same everywfiere and what is right is right for man in general.

According to the scientific realist, right and wrong come from our understanding of nature not from religious principles. Morality should depend on the fmdings of scientific investigations and what they.determine to be good for man.

PRAGMATISM

An outgrowth of British empirical tradition, pragmatism is now regarded as taking its origin from America. Among the fathers of this system of philosophy were Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), William James (1842-1910), and John Dewey (1859-1952). Pragmatism has been @en various names. These names include pragmaticism, instrumentalism, functionalium, and experimentalism.

Pragmatism can be looked at under four principal themes:

(1) the reality of change, (2) the nature of man as essentially biological and social being,


(3) the relativity of value, and (4) the importance of critical thinking or critical intelligence.

Reality is what we can experience. For the pragmatist, human interaction with his environment determines what is. Nothing is permanent and nothing is absolute. Change is the essence of reality. That is why everyone must be prepared to change his way of doing things. it is the meaning that man reads into the world that the world has. The universe cannot have any deeper purpose hidden from man because whatever man cannot experience cannot be real. Things or events that can be perceived by the senses should be preoccupation of man. Only those things that can be verified through experience are real. -

Truth is always relative and in degrees. Truth is bound up with , experience. The criterion of all truth is found in experience. Those that cannot be known through experience or are not verifiable empiritally cannot be regarded as truth. Abstractions which cannot be translated and used to attain open and verifiable scientific success are not useful in the domain of truth. The practical consequences or results of intellectual conception determine the validity of an idea. Only those hypo- - theses that work are true ones. "A thought that works out right is true".

Pragmatism depended very much on the scientific method. Man . ' attains knowledge through scientific method. This method rejects all

"private and arbitrary" knowledge in favour of "the scientific demand for data, procedures, and fmdings that are open to the test of criticism of others". All knowledge should come through this kind of experi-

' . menta1,method.

. . Dewey in his explanation of the scientific method divided the act of knowing. into five problem-solving stages. These stages which substan-

.. ' tially include the following ideas show that the pragmatist follows the . . same kind of procedure used by scientists in their research when dealing - with constant problems that arise in everyday life situation. The process of knowing requires the proper location and analysis of the problem, forming some hypothesis for possible solutions, examining the solutions proposed to verify expected consequences, and lastly putting the preferred hypothesis into experiential test. This will give final proof regarding the validity of the knowledge.

There is no knowledge by intuition or by revelation. All knowledge comes through the senses in intelligent act& withiq the context of ' '

experience. Pragmatists hold that the ends and means of education should be

flexible and should be open for constant revision. Education is both an

Schools o f Philosophy 31

end and a means. It aims at improving man and at the same time it in the means of improving man. Education should always be for the student's felt needs, and interests. The child should study the world as it affects him. Education should not be separated from the child's real life. Unlike idealists and realists, education for the pragmatist is life itself and not the preparation for it. The curriculum must not only reflect the real life situation out it must be childcentred.

The pragmatist adopts the methodology of openness. This method includes: (1) Learning which takes place within the open phenomenon of interaction, (2) Learning must occur by doing. This means that leaming should happen within the sphere of problem-solving. (3) Ano- ther method of learning is project method. Students are active partici- pants in the process of learning by selecting and executing tasks with the teacher as guide. In this way the child is led to discover truths.

Ragmatist Axiology

Values are relative. Ethical .and moral laws are mutable. They change as cultures and societies change. The worth of values should be tested in the same way that truth is tested.

Pragmatism has very good points and has contributed immensely to the educational development of the world in general and America in particular. It has, however, many negative points. All truths cannot be known by experience. The denial of metaphysical and spiritual r e d - ties cannot be accepted not only by christian and modem religions but by Nigerian traditional religion and culture. In the same way, its theoly of the relativism of all realities is as unacceptable as its view of the ever- changing nature of all realities. There are absolute beings and absolute values. Certain beings are also permanent in nature. The universe has a purpose and man has an end. <, 4,

In our analysis of traditional philosophies in this chapter, we saw that metaphysical philosophies argued that certain basic features of experience derived from some reality are not accessible to human experience; while the philosophy of scepticism maintained that all human experience was deceptive and therefore nothing could be known for certain. According to this school of philosophy, all metaphysical conceptions were provisional. It was a reaction against these two philosophical points of view that gave birth to existential philosophy. Existentialism rejects these philosophical theories by maintaining tkat the real is what we experience, and that we can discover the fundamental t r u t h of our

32 Philosophical and Socfological Founaiations of Education

own existence. Lived reality is the reality. In order to describe reality we must describe what is in human condition The Danish philosopher, Soren K ie rkepd (1 8 13-1 855) and the

German thinker, Friedrich W. Nietsche (1844-1900) sowed the seed of existentialism in their works. Both men had the same end in view, a war against christianity and the speculative philosophy of Hegel. While Kierkegaard directed his attacks against christianity in an effort to revitalize it within, Nietsche denounced the other worldliness of christianity. He substituted the other worldliness with the overman. The overman is the human being who has oqanized the chaos of his pass- ions, given style to his character and become creative. Being aware of life's terrors he afflnns life .without resentment. Leading existentialists of modern times include Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Satre, Karl Jaspers, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Among the above mentionfd existentialists are the Roman Catholic Gabriel Mercel, the Protestant Paul Tillich, and the Jewish Martin Buber.

These philosophers maintain that since it is in passion that ultimate realities are disclosed, philosophy should be reason informed by passion. Passionate reason is at grips with the fundamental realities of freedom, death, guilt, suffering, and other people with which human beings must contend. Philosophy is concerned with human beings in their con- crete existence.

The universe, or the physical world has no meaning or purpose apart from man. The world is just a contingency. It happens to be there. A man was nothing to nature except his existence. By existing he makes himself. His existence precedes hisessence. It is the man who defmes himself. Satre says that man is nothing but what he makes himself. He is responsible for what he becomes. He makes himself or he allows himself to be made by others. If you -allow yourself to be made by others you are still the author of yourself because you choose to be what they make you.

Freedom

Freedom is a potential for action. As free man, free teachers, all those forces in ctilture and society that tend to dehumanize men by denying them of their freedom must be exposed and combatted by us. We should embark on the repudiation of subordination of the person to economic. laws ' the tyranny of majority over dissenting minority and the stifl-

ing 0-f individuality to cont'ormism'. We must respect our students' freedom as we value our bwn. This good example shall enable us to

Schools of philosophy 33

urge them to recognize and fulfiil the freedom that belongs to them as persons (Kneller, 1972).

Each person's character is a sum of his own actions and it is self- created. A person's character can change because he can always act differently. His destiny is his own. That makes freedom dreadful, for a man is responsible for what he becomes. We have all made ourselves and we can make ourselves again. We can be what we want ourselves to be.

The very moment for choice is important. "I am free, therefore I become". I make myself other than I am each time I make a choice, "I throw myself into the future" The danger is that I can make a wrong choice. I can lose an opportunity by my wrong choice, but I must choose. The hardest choice. however, is the choice between two alternate goods: In this case, Satre tells us, a person should act according to his strongest feeling.

Knowing

A person knows a thing through his experience. It is through a person's contact with the world of reality that he comes to know. His knowledge d e ~ e n d s on his understanding of reality, on his own interpretation of the nature of being. Being, for the existentialist, is "that mysterious something which has remained after we have stripped reality of everything we think we have successfully described". Each one of us encounters being personally. Being which is mysterious is unknow- able. It is unlike something which is not known but which can be known. Each person must understand being for himself.

The subject matter for learning is neither a means nor an end in itself. It is not a Geans of preparing a young person for future occupation or career. It should be directed towards the student's development and fulfilment. School subjects are devoted for the realization of the person. He should lntemalize them in such a way that they become part of him. No subject is more important than any other. The subject that matters is the one in which the individual finds self-fulfihent and an awareness of the world. Different subjects appeal to different people. For some people the subject is natural saier.ce while it is history, literature or philosophy for others. The young person should think out truths himself. The existentialist does not mean abstract truth here. When a student is presented with established truth he should be told that the truths have been found to be true by many.pedple., He shoLld be encouraged to fmd out himself whether those things are true or not. If they are not true he should say so without fear. Discuss them with him.

34 Philosophical and Sociologrcal Foundations of Eduaction

Education should dejl with those experiences which man is most aware of, which include all human conditions as suffering, death, conflict, and guilt. We cannot escape from these experiences. Educa- tion should provide insights into them.

In the question of teaching and learning, the teacher should engage, according to Martin Buber, in dialogue. This is a conversation between two persons in which each person remains a subject to the other. It is between an "I" and a "Thou". If a teacher is seen as an instructor there is no dialogue. The student is devalued; he is merely an instrument of the transfer of knowledge. Knowledge is the thing that matters while persons are means and products. Knowledge is offered to students and not transmitted.

The teacher who is more experienced and who has already familiari- zed himself with his subject matter brings different points of view in bis discussion. After discussion he gives his own views and asks his students . t o test this view against both their experiences and what they get from the discussion. The students can reject the teacher's-view. That is good. What matters is the' students' Reedom. The teacher should nd be worried.since it is honesty that is needed from him and not success.

.Honesty, nevertheless, leads to success in the long run. By engaging the student in dialogue, he is taught to think for hirn-

self. In the discussion on the nature of human life the teacher should bring the student to the realization that life is composed of growth and decay, joy and sadness. This should make the student work hard be-

' cause there is no happiness without pain. He should engage actively in the process of learning.

Value

., A moral act may be performed for its own sake or for an end. The ends . hust be created by man. He can however adopt the ends created by a

society or by a group. In doing this he has to convince himself that such ends are those to aim at. In that way he makes the ends his own. In treating moral principles as external standards to which acts must conform men become instruments of enslavement.

A teacher does not simply impose morality. He asks each of his students to accept the discipline as that which he considers worthwhile in itself or as worthwhile for some end; for example, for his intellectual development or harmony of the class. This is an ideal to work towards.

ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY

In chapter one where we treated modes of philosophy we saw that


analysis was one of them. Analysis is concerned with logic and language. Exponents of this school include G. E. Moore, Lhding Wittgens- tein, Gilbert Ryle, Peter F. Strains, John Willson, and Jones Soltis. Its main object of philosophy is logical clarification of thoughts. Philo- sophy makes proposition clear and should "delimit sharply the thoughts which otherwise are, as it were, opaque and blurred" (Kneller, 197 1).

Philosophers of this school believe that they have discovered a way of resolving most of the problems facing' philosophy through the combination of logical and linguistic analysis. They hold that these-prob- lerns emanate from the confusions in thought, which are caused, partly, by the confusion in language. This confusion is from "the-attempt to order and explain known facts". .

The work of the analysis, which is therapeutic, is to clear the mind and put to light the sources of confusion.

Concept of Teaching

When a teacher is teaching he' is involved in 'an intentiolio1 activity. His job is to teach in such a way that his students will know and do things in a formal way. In this way the teacher structures knowledge or skills so that students can learn, remember and do something with what they learn.

ESSENTIALISM

We can now turn our attention to the various educational theories that , flow from the various. schools of philosophy. Let us begin with Essen-

tialism Essentialism was founded in the 1930s. The adherent3 of this - system include William C. Bagley, Thomas Briggs, Frederick Breed,

Isaac L. Kande, and William Brickman. This movement has not held a united front. Members held different philosophies. They disagreed on the ultimate nature and value of education.

Subject matter should be placed at the centre of educational process. It devoted its time to: (a) reexamining cuqicular matters, (b) distin- guishing the essential and nonessential in school programme, and (c) reestablishing the authority of the teacher in the classroom.

The essentialists reached agreement on four fundamental principles (Kneller, 1972).

1. Learning, of its ve.ry nature, inrolves hardwork and &ten unwil- ' '

ing application. Discipline very important in the essentialist system. The child must make efforts to master the subject matter. The child must be taught to resist his immediate impulses. In this

36 Ptrilosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

way, he will be encouraged to attain self-discipline to achieve any worthwhile end.

2. The initiative in education should lie with the teacher rather than wlth the child. The task of the teacher is to mediate between the adult world and the world of the child.

3. The heart of the educational process is the assimilation of prescribed subject matter. The child should realize his potentialities through education. He attends school to know the world as it really is and not to interpret it in the light of his own peculiar desire.

4. The school should retain traditional methods of mental discipline. The method of problem-solving should not be applied for the

- entire learning period. Learning and doing is appropriate under . certain circumstances but should never be generalized. Essentia-

lism differs from perennialism. %

(a) It tried to strike some balance between pragrnatismlpro- gressivism and the traditional procedure. Its concern was the adjustment of the child to his physical and social'environments rather than the eternal truths. Therefore the - brand of education it advocates is less totally "intellectual".

(b) It is ready to accommodate the positive contributions to education made by pragmatism and progressivism.

(c) Great creative achievements of the past which was reversed by perennialism were used by essentialism as sources of knowledge for handling problems of the present.

Thjs is a theory of education which came into being as a reaction against the theories of pragmatism and progressivism. It made all efforts to reestablish absolute principles. Permanence is'more real than change. "Steadfastness of educational purpose and stability in educational

, bzaviour" pays more than the pragmatist's educational system that has no end that is stable. The main basic principles of perennialism are six. They are, according to K n e k r (1972):

1. Human nature is the same everywhere in spite of differences in environments. Education, therefore, should be the same for everyone.

2. Man should use his highest attribute, which is rationality, . . . .* . to direct his instinctual nature according lo his deliberately

chosen ends. It is important that man learn to cultivate reason and control his appetites. The teacher should aim at

helping the child to overcome his handicaps through an essentially intellectual approach to learning. This will he the same for all children. The child should not be per- mitted to determine his own educational experieace Education has the task of imparting knowledge of eternul truth. Hutchin (1936) put it very well. He said that educu- tion implied teaching, that teaching implied knowledge. knowledge was truth, and that truth was the same everywhere. His conclusion was that if all of the above were facts, it followed that education should be the same everywhere. Education is not an imitation of life but a preparation for life. The school has artificial arrangement for the child. I t cannot be a real life situation. It is not made to serve as a home for the child. The child should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint him with the world's permanence. Students should study the great works of literature, plrilo- sophy, history, and science in which men, through the ages, have revealed their greatest aspirations and achievements. The message of the past is valid. It is never out-dated. The student learns truths which are more important than what he can get from his own personal interests or from his study-of contemporary scene.

PROGRESSIVISM

Progressivism is another example or a theory of education that arose as a reaction to a previous theory. The excessive formalism, its emphasis on strict discipline, passive learning and unnecessary detail worried many educators about traditional system of education. Francis Parker had already started advocating school reform in the United States of America by 1879. It was John Dewey who formalized it to be joined by William Heard Kilpatrick of Columbia University.

Progressivism declares that change is the essence of reality. Educa- tion is always in the process of development. That is why educators must endeavour to modify their methods and policies in the light of new knowledge and change in the environment. The perennial standards of goodness, truth, and beauty should not be used in detcrrnlnlng the apechi quality of education. Rather, education should be wan er r . .

con thued reconstruction of experience, '

The following six assertio~~:; ;HI be ilsed to summarize the progressivist's view:

1. Education sh~luld I , , . !itc ltscif. I t is not a preparation for life. The i n t e r p r c ~ ; ~ t ~ o t l ;nid rcc~nstruction of experience are involved in intcll~~:~.;~! I~ying.

2. Learning should 1 ) ~ . , !u~.~.rly rcixcu to the interest of the child. Education s l ~ ~ u l t ! be chl:,i-~entred. The process o f schooling or learnull: 1s ~ictern~ine:: by the child.

3. Learning through prc,blcni solvins is preferred to the calcu- lating of subject 111.111.~1. Knowlr~;: IS J "tool for managing experience". 11 helps , V I C to deal x i rh each new experience as it arises. -

4. The teacher's role IS I I , B [ to d i m 1 but to advise. Children should be al1owi.d 111 i!i;li~ <heir 0v.n development. because their rieeds and L ! C S I I . ' l~:!t~lllii~e what they learn. The work o f the i c ; l ~ h t ! ~ :r :a guide the learning involved.

, 5. The school s[laulil crl,.~>urlge cooperation rather than competition. " L J . ; ~ ,111ii ,,g:nzrsliip are more appropriate to education tl1;ln it\~:i~ri:!itiqn and personal gain". Stu- dents can howc\.c.r i~;l!pcs: with one another insofar as that competitioi? I;?sli.;s j>i'~sonal growth.

, 6. Only democrat! p i . i ; ~ ~ i : ,. indezd encourages, the frce interplay of i d e : ~ j p j ;,:->ol~;iiiries that is necessary condition of true grow:!^. L ? ~ : : i , ~ i ; x y for progressivists is a mode of associlted l i t i i i ~ . t 3 i ; . ~ ! ~ i o i n t communicated experience.

RECONSTRUCTIONISM ..

Reconstructionism wanted to :.i*li.r,l\ : i~ r : ibier isan social ills through education. Education was io ,I,:.! ;(. rrform the society. The school was called , . by r e c o n s t r u c t i t ) ; - : t,. : r . I;! !hi. way in creating a "new" - and "more equitable" socie;. . Ce:, g:. l 'o<~its snc! Harold Rugg were

, . the main spokesmen. T h e o d , ~ : i ~ 3 : . ..; . . . i d rh;. f 'oundation~ of "social reconstructionism". Knelic: . .: : , -:. i;l:jri.i.d Brarnelcl's main t i \ w x i

under five headings. Tl i~sz :', ;- ,.. ; .::. .: rc~.c:-,srrilctionists' vic\vs . The theses are as foll,)ws.


power will be used for the good of man and not for destruc- tion.

2. The new society must be such a democratic one in which the people control their institutions and resources.

3, The child, the school, ar?d education are all conditioned by social and cultural forces.

4. The teacher must convince his pupils of the validity and urgency of the reconstructionist solution, but he must do so with scrupu- lous regard for democratic procedures.

5. The means and ends of education must be completely refashioned to meet the demands of the present cultural crisis and to accord with the fu~dings of the behavioural sciences.

Reconstructionism wants to have a fresh look at the whole of educational system: how the curricula were drawn up, the subjects in the curricula, the methods used, administrative structure, and the way teachers were trained.

Summary

Idealism sees the world of the senses as a replica of a real world, the world of ideas. What we can see, touch, taste, hear, and smell are only imitations, or shadows. The realists on the other hand hold that the world of our senses really exist. Everything that exists in the world of the senses is real. Perennialism as a system holds that human nature is the same every time and everywhere and therefore man should use his reasoning to control his instincts to achieve his end. Essentialism re-establishes the authority of the teacher in the classroom and holds that only the essential aspects of education should be retained in the curriculum The child should assimilate prescribed subjects through mental discipline. Pragmatism which influenced American education holds that schooling is real life. It depended on scientific method. Progressivism holds that change is the essence of being: Education is a continued reconstruction of experience.

REVISION QUESTIONS

/ 1. What area of the curriculum does the realist lay emphasis on and what skills would an idealist's curriculum aim at developing?

I ! 2. Compare and contrast the idealist's theory of education with that

of a realist. 3. "Reality is what we can experience". Comment. 4. How does the theory of education according to the pragmatist or

I progressivist differ from that of a perennialist?

40 Phil~m~phical and Socblogicol Foundatiotrs oj'I:'clucatioti

5. What four fundamental principles, according to Kneller, did essentialists agree on?

REFERENCES

Akinpelu, J. A., An Introduction to Philosophy of Education, London; Macmillan Publishers, 1984.

Hutchin, R. M., Kneller, G. E., The Conflict of Education, New York: Harper, 1953.

Okafor, F. C., Philosophy of Education and Third World Perspective, Virginia: Brunswick Publishing Company, 198 1 .

CHAPTER FOUR

The Significance of Philosophy in Education INTRODUCTION

From the concepts of philosophy and education, and the branches of education treated in the previous chapters we saw the relationship between philosophy and education. The importance and meaning of philosophy of Education can best be assessed, if we examine the significant role Philosophy plays in helping us understand educational values, issues and statements. If we look at Philosophy as a tool for understanding or explaining educational goals and objectives, we may then have a clear picture of what Philosophy of education is. "General- ly, Philosophy collects various branches of knowledge, analyses them, and gives explanations to enable us to understand them better. Thus Philosophy as a discipline tries to understand and explain every field of h u m n endeavour or knowledge" (Kneller, 1972).

Philosophy may be used to explain various discipines like medicine, Religion, History, Engineering, Science, Politics, Sociology, Psychology and Education. There is a basic or underlying Philosophy behind every aspect of human knowledge. The significant role Philosophy plays in explaining educational issues can be seen from the point of view of the great importance attached to education in Nigeria and indeed elsewhere. Every day, we hear of suggestions or discussions on educational matters or theories. These are based on some Philosophy of education. or they are attempts to explain or formulate new educational Philoso. phies. These ideas stem from the understanding that one system of education is preferable to another. The society needs some guidance or direction of course in attaining some goals through Education. It is Philosophy of Education which'prolides this guide or direction. While attempting to explain and give direction, philosophy of Education is not specific in its language. It only deals with broad outlines of what is to be done or what is the expected outcome. There is an argument as to whether Philosophy of Education should prescribe solutions to educational problems or should describe those problems and leave the solution to the teacher or the educationist. However, this i:critrove~y


should not arise. Philosophy of Education does actually expose issues and statements on education and those who come across such issues are better informed to understand them:

It is obvious that Philosophy of Education is a necessary tool for all educators, parents, governments, voluntary agencies and religious orga- &ations who are interested in the cause of education. Each group formulates its Philosophy of education from its general or underlying philosophy. Thus each interested group as mentioned above has its peculiar or particular Philosophy of Education based on its needs and experiences. Thus Nigeria as a federal democratic nation, has a Philo- sophy of Education based on her political principles and beliefs. Chris- tians have a philosophy of education based on Christian religious philosophy. Moslems are not exceptions as they have a comprepnsive philosophy of Education based on the teachings and philosophy of Prophet Mohammed. Every religious group or shade of political philosophy adopts a mode of Philosophy of education in educating its pupils. In doing so, such a body would be indirectly inculcating in its followers, the norms, values and ethics of the group. Philosophy of Education in all cases focuses attention on certain key issues, namely man and his earth, human conduct, and the contents of our subject matter or epistemology. All these areas of concern to Philosophy need further explanation. Firstly, it is wise to consider the relationship between philosophy of Education and man. Man is the most important subject in the whole world of creation. In fact, the Christian religious view is that man is the sum of divine goodness; that is, man resembles the all-perfect divine creator in many ways. The most important issue at stake here is, what type of education can enable man to attain this perfection in whatever he is doing? How can education enable man to be a master of his own destiny and the universe? Philo- sophy of education will focus attention on those areas of interest to man and his purpose on .earth. This purpose o i man is controversial because many views are expressed on it as there are various shades of opinion and philosophies. Secondly, Philosophy of Education takes interest in the conduct of man. Evey society has its set of values and conducts. There are norms or standards of behaviour expected of every reasonable nian or woman. Any deviation from this said standard of behaviour is frowned at. The philosophy of Education based on the political or religious philosophy of the State or society in question; we

. then explain as well as interpret the types of values expected of the members of that society. Philosophy of Education is then the instrument used in defining the aims and objectives as well as visualizing the

The Significancr of Phibsuphies itr Education 43

end products of the system of Education in view. Where there is n o vdue or target in view, then there is no way of knowing what to achieve. It is like one stiirtir,g off from Enugu on a journey. Suppose ;~ uu meet this person and he tells you "I am going somewhere", the 11ar~l1a1 question that folioivs is "Where?". If he or she says I don't k ; : ~ , then something is ilclually wrong. But if the person is sure of his J ircclion and destination. it is better and h e will reach his goal ,earlier :I::,! i:lorc conveniently. ~ i l i i o ~ o ~ h ~ of education directs our educa- , ..,..i,.. ,... .,! xterprise by way o i making it clear. Having said that Philosophy

::" E:dccation is a clear directiyn for attaining educational aims and .C:jc.:ti:es it is also good td ~ o i n i out that sometimes our aims are quite - ,:il'!;.rcnt from rhz goals wz eveutuolly achieve.

-,!.:iother significant aspcx o f Pkilosophy of Education is that it - 1 ... .::., ,: itl: Episternologlcd prohlcms. We have read earlier that Episte- ;;:J:.:,;:; is the theory of k~lowledge. Ln it we discussed the various s:lad~.s and sources o f !aowledge. Tile important note here is that philosophy o f education tries to spell out the contents o fwhat we teach and !&-;I in school. Wz d o not teach or learn everything. We d o not teach din is negative or bad in value, so to say. It is vzry essential to know L! 'the course contents or thc body of what we teach and learn is very inrportant if we must imbibe t h c x quaiities desirable for qualitative A x a t i o n . The significance of phdcsophy o f education is then of i;.irsr;iount importance to ths ;LC!:::..! individual, government and the z d ~ i a t o r s . Let us then e s ~ i r . 2 SOX: ieiated concepts in Philosophy of Education.

T!ia: is a close rzlationrhip bet wee;^ ''kncwledpz" and value in Educa. t i e L , Generally spzaking, tile ciicti;!i::~i:.: meaning of knowledge is 'xiderstanding" or "well-infoiman. Value ,has been defined as "qua- iiry of being uszful or ilzsixbic.". Y:~m we consider knowledge and . i ; i l~:c in Education we .re hi!;. i ,:,~iisiil:ring what knowledge is, in .. .,,!~:iun , t o its value or us;.fulr:ri.: i , , :!re 'A'h:i~ rypi: o f knowledge ought \:A: acquire? \\.hat typz c!' 2 : - : .: ;-$ tni' best help us to attain the . . .',si-cd goals which we c:i;;.:: ; :-i!~~\:;.,i!? Hoiv can our knowledge ir1,im cilucatian enabk us Lr: 151 ,,,;,-.; i.::.~ i;:ir socicry? What reasonable . . o:~tcornes can we expect t'r!;i;i m r r~.!:ic:!!ion'! The type o f knowledge ?..2c acquite is of par t icul~r kt2rc:'t to ri;c educationist and philosopher I : : zduc:!tion. Our kno..~;'~,:,- i;-1s L, ;. . .:' : :::;.; in order t o attain some ~ ' e i i t a i ~ ! e end. O u r v i l i ~ .~? a;.:\:<:(! 1 , : ~ : : : . . . . . . j ~ i ; . :;,,.;iu: ofsubject


matter or course content. We have said earlier that the need of the society determines its philosophy of education. In other words, the society has certa'in c e d s to meet, and therefore must direct her educational curriculum to achieve it. What the society teaches as the body of knowledge in its curriculum must be of value and useful to that society. For example, recently emphasis has been placed on what can bring unity and oneness in Nigeria since the end of the civil war. The type of knowledge that would be of value to us in this country would be one that could foster unity, peace and harmony.

On the other hand, having said that the knowledge to be acquired in our schools must be of value and useful to us, we are only saying that what we teach and learn in our schools must conform with what is ethical or desirable in the society. The communists would place empha- s7s on what could help them to uphold the principles of communism or Gcialism. A democratic society will also place emphasis on those pieces of information or body of knowledge that will enhance the cause of democracy. No society will allow its schools to teach what is not valuable to its needs and desires. What is of value entails what the society has accepted as a normal way of living and behaving. In other words we do not include in our course content every piece of knowledge. We concentrate on certain things that will help us to attain perfection in society. Do we teach our pupils how to steal in our schools? No, of course not! Do we teach our pupils how to become heroin sellers? No, again! We concentrate on what is valuable. For example, we teach our pupils to be productive, honest, reliable, decent and in general how to be good citizens. The society needs the inculcation of the right values in its citizens in order to be peaceful ahd prosperous. What we hold as valuable or worthwhile must be in our course contents in schools if we are to achieve positive results in the end. Where there is no value system the end result is chaos and confusion.

From the above we can emphasize the relationship between the knowledge we acquire and the value we have in mind. The knowledge and value we acquire must serve the needs of the society and the indivi-

I duals in it - the society, because it needs peace and progress. The individual has need for valuable knowledge in order to survive as an individual in the larger society.

I

VALUE AND EDUCATION

What is. the essence of education? In other words, what value do we attach to education? Do we attach importance to the extrinsic values

The Significance o f Philosophies in Educarion 45

we attaig through education? On the other hand, do we place value on the intrinsic values? There are certain things we associate with good education. These include good position in life, money, hrgh office, big houses, etc. When we acquire these things after our education, they are said to be the extrinsic values from education. In actual sense good position in life, h g h offices in the society, flashy cars, mansions, etc. are not educational values. This is so because there are many people who are not educated who have them. Indeed most of the rich men in Nigeria today are not educated in the strict sense. So we can see that these values often mistaken to be educational values, are not educational. When they come after we are educated, we should not regard them as the real values we derive from eduation.

But where is the real value of education? This type of value is described as the intrinsic value of education. The emphasis of this type of value lies in the development of the mind. The mind of an individual is regarded as the more important aspect of the person. We can know this because when a man has mental problem or is mad, he may be physically well but lie is said to be ruined since he is no longer useful either to himself or to the society. The intrinsic aspect of education aims at the development of the mind of the individual. The mind is opened up to perceived vision unlike the uneducated person. He can see things from different shades of meaning and understanding. He should be able to tolerate criticisms and must be able to contribute to the development of his society. His development as an individual is total and whole. He is distinct from the Uneducated man who has an obscure view of things. This distinction is not manifest physically or in terms of economic wealth but can be seen in terms of mental development. Education must b e seen as an end in itself. That is self-actualization. It is a hlfil- ment of all that man intends to achieve in life. It is not necessarily a means to other ends as I have mentioned above, especially in terms of wealth, property and good position.

From the foregoing, we can clearly see that we cannot easily quan- tify our values in Education. What we derive from education can best be imagined when we consider the advantages of the educated man over his uneducated counterpart. The educated man is of greater value to his society in terms of what he can do or produce for his society. The educated man can more easily adapt to changes and situations. He may acquire some skills which will help him to contribute to the economic development of his society. He can do various types of work unlike the uneducated who is limited in his scope of performance. This is not to say that when one is educated, one becomes more productive than the uneducated person. This is yes and no. Sometimes, it may be so, at

46 Phlbsophical and ~ciological Foundations of Education

wnns other times it may not be so. Apart from the social values attached to education, education implies personal fulfilment and total attainment o f what man ought to be when he is fully developed.

Lastly, it is good to conclude that the value attached to education has various shades of meanings. Some are real while others are not. The v h e is positive when it meets the needs of the society and the individual. When the mind of the individual is developed, the society will benefit from it because his contributions to the society will be quite different from those of the uneducated. His contributions will help the society to achieve progress. The value the society places on education is important. Every day when we tune our radio set, we hear people discussing or making a point on educational issues. When we read our newspapers daily, we see the amount of commentaries made on education. Thus we can adduce from these comments that the society attach- es great value to education. The essence of what we have said is that this value is not one ofmaterial gain from education. It is one based on the quality of our mental development.

ETHICS AND EDUCATION

What is Ethics and what is Education'? We shall define Ethics as the theory of value, norms, or standard behaviour of a society or an individual.. In-other words, how should mcn and women behave as individuals? What is the right or correct way of behaviour? What makes an action to be wrong or condemned? Philosophers b e Plato and Aris- totle in their various books have discussed the universal nature of Ethics. That is to say what is good in Nigeria must be good in Russia. Other writers however disagree with this view, saying that everything is relative. That is to say that something may be good conduct in Nigeria but may be bad conduct in Russia or any other part of the world. However, whatever view we are to take on what makes a conduct g ~ o d or bad. we shall consider in detail why human conduct is very important to the educator arid the leamcr.

Education may be defined as the development of the individual, mentally, physically, emotiondly. I t deals wilh tllc sum total of the development expected of mm. A3 \VC said ei~rlier. we must view education from its real or intrinsic v d u c and nut from what we can get after we have been educatcd. S o w , then, w l ~ a ~ is the relationship between ethics and education. Thc reiatiu~:sliip is n c ~ ! thi. to be seen. Daily, we lay emphasis on certain codc of corilt~~ct as prope'r behaviour in our homes, society, school or work placss. Ethics is bnportant for harmony and peace in our homes, society :,r p!~::: vt'bu>in.:ss. Without set stan-

The Significance o f Philosophies in Education 47

dard or behaviour for the individual in the society, people will do what they like and the attendant result will be chaos and confusion. What makes an action bad is because it is frowned at or condemned by the society. For example, if one commits murder in Nigeria it is an offenee or unethical to kill. The society does not approve of it. But the society or the State approves the killing of armed robbers by firing squad. Killing in Nigeria is as bad an offence as it is in Russia or Britain. In this sense we see the universal implication of ethics or moral law forbidding the killing of an individual. The school as a seat of education has a very vital role in ethical development. The tender age of the pupils in schools form o good basis for the inculcation of the right type of values and norms for the development of the individual in-the society. Educa- tion has a lot to offer in t e n s of standard b e h a v i o ~ . The controversy over the use of the cane in our schools is on the understanding that the cane can be used to dissuade pupils from repeating undesirable or unethical behaviours. When we enforce discipline in our schools, homes and society, it is fundamentally to help our pupils to develop the right type of values so as to Se responsible and respectable citizens in our society. The New National Policy on Education (1981) stresses the importance of developing good ethics in pupils when.it-states in section 1 subsection 3(3) the inculcation of "Moral and. Spiritual Values in interpersonal and human relations".

The aim of education is the total development of man, morally, intellectually and in all aspects. Recently, there have been conscious efforts to engender ethical behaviour in Nigerian public life. Here, the school comes in as a good base for the war against indiscipline (WAI). The controversy over Government take-over of schookoriginated from the argument that the missions are better disposed. to inculcate in pupils, the highest moral standards in mission-run schools. However, others view such an argument as inward looking, sating that if schools are left in the hands of various religious denominatiofis, the curriculum would be narrow and would only meet the religious standpoints of the various denominations. They say that such an arrangement would not engender National development and the spirit of oneness. It is incon- trovertible to state that schools are good basis for the enhancement of discipline and moral standards among pupils. When we discourage late coming with punishment, flog our pupils for fighting or stealing, encourage ob~dience to our elders and constituted authorities like prefects, teachers, the school administration, we awcreating law and order in our society. These healthy habits imbibed at a tender age help in no small way in shaping man in the larger world of adulthood. In thi: way we shall be helping in our classrooms and schools to produce

48 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations o f Eduaction

rational and decent citizens, able to tolerate others and respect the norms and standards of our society. As we said earlier, no society can enjoy peace and harmony unless it has cultured and well-groomed citizens who hold moral standards in the highest esteem.

The close relationship between ethics and education is, therefore, not far-fetched for each is complementary to the other. In fact, some philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas believe that education cannot be said to be achieved without high moral or ethical standards. Much as this can be argued, all human beings must be moral and not just the educated, it is however not to be disputed that morality or ethical behaviour is a vital ingredient of good education. - The problem facing Nigerian educational system today stems from

.- the 'fact that our educators and educationalists are ill-prepared for the - onerous task of handing the right values to future generations. f i e

chaotic arrangement whereby every one becomes a school teacher whether he is qualified or not, and whereby those who are qualified to teach are not given adequate incentives leaves much to be desired. There is the constant I-don'tcare attitude on the part of school admi- - nistrators and teachers towards the inculcation of moral and ethical standards thereby leaving ethical values which are a vital element of

. successful education unconsidered. If Nigeria must produce citizens that would positively-perpetuate her hi the future, our emphasis must not be only on academic excellence, but a combination of acadeniic excellence and high ethical standards. Any nation illat must succeed and advance, needs discipline and high ethical bellaviour. Nigeria can take a cue from the highly industrialized world, Britain, U.S.A., Japan,

. Germany,etc. Hence we may conclude that the significance of ethics in education cannot be overexaggerated for they are both important andcomplementary toeachother.

- - CRITICAL THINKING AND SClENTlFlC METHOD

It is known that those who own or run scllools and educational institutions are governments, states, individuals and religious bodies. Although these people advocate that men should possess knowledge through education, they have seldom encouraged any disruptive elements within the system. Therefore, any person or group of persons who wake up one day with differing opinions are not viewed kindly by those in authority. It is also clear that no major event has taken place in history without critical outlook and thinking. To get the notion rightly, we must assert that critical thinking is not the same thing as destructive criticism. Critical thinking has to do with a closer examination, discussion and

The Significance o f Philosophies in Education 49

debate on issues, facts, statements, or opinions. This is done with a view to correcting misconceptiorls and misunderstandings. When men hold views, they are often blinded by it and sometimes they become so domineering that whoever examines or analyses such views may be inviting their wrath. This should not be so. Man is critical by nature. But when we say critical thinking,.stricter dictum, we are implying a conscious effort t o re-examine an issue with a view to bringing out certain salient features, or making amends as the case may be.

Educationists hold the view that one of the ends of education is to let man examine his environment, issues, statements and ideas and to understand them not just on the surface value. When one understands - such issues one will be in a better position to appreciate and evaluate . statements. When we live a life of what philosophers call the "un-, examined life", we are not contributing to the stream of human development. The "unexarnined life" is to accept every thing as it is. But one of the essences of education is to enable us to critically appraise situations and make meaningful contributions. This does not mean we - want to criticize for the sake of criticism. In order to attain some level- of independent thinking, certain amount of critical thinking is v'ery- -- important. All societies that have witnessed critical thinkers have evolved to major development and advancement. Our education should- aim at enabling us to question issues, exadne facts more closely and see the relevance of ideals with reality. The absence of critical thinking or a life of "any-thing-goes" leads to stagnation.

Secondly, we shall examine critical thinking and the scientific '

method. It is when people critically examine issues that they investigate -. for further meaningful understanding. Science, as a discipline, investi- ,

gates and probes into new ideas in order to discover new facts. Scienti- fic method is said to be empirical; that is, it examines data collected - from facts and arrives at conclusions after examining them. Science = &es not speculate or assume that one plus one is two. Science would .

examine one to see its quantity and weight. The scientific method is a careful and gradual probe into theories and basic assumptions. Unlike philosophy, the answer to scientific problems is absolute, that is, there can be no two answers. For example, if a stone is thrown up, it must fall down according to the scientific law of gravity. But in philosophy one could make the assertion that "a politician is always corrupt". Well, when we examine this statement universally, there may be politi- ciens who are not corrupt. Again, if we say teachers are ahvays hardworking, there is also a flaw because there are cases of teachers who are not hardworking. While science deals with facts and figures, close examination and analysis, philosophy sometimes deals with o p h l o n ~

SO Ph&5ophicd Md Sociobgicd Foundations o f Education

w h b h have n b direct answers. Consider the question, "what ought a ~IM tc do when he is annoyed?" There is no straight answer to this question. You may need to ask many other questions before you can answer this question. As we observed earlier, when men are educated they become critically minded and would not accept things or situa- t b n s on the surface value. They Would reexamine, analyse and evaluate issues before arriving at conclusions. It is this attitude of critical thinking and evahation h a t has given room for an empirical or scientific approach t o discovering new ideas. These stem from education as they open new horizon to us.

SUMMARY

This chapter has dealt with the following concepts: (1) knowledge apd value; (2) value and education; (3) ethics and education; and (4) criticaI thinking and scientific method.

We have seen that knowledge is part of education, but not all knowledge is education. Our education must select those pieces of knowledge that are positive. Education entails knowledge and understanding.

We examined the various types of value in relation to education, the ideal value and the real value. We also considered the fact that values are matters of taste and opinion, values differ from place to place, but nonetheless there can be a universal notion of value in education. This is what is known as the intrinsic value unlike economic or social value.

Ethics, we have also pointed out, is an essential ingredient in education. When once we talk of education as a process, the inculcation of moral standards and values is a vital tool for encouraging our pupils t o become good citizens. When there is no moral standard; the attendant situation is confusion and the education thus acquired cannot be said to be complete.

Lastly, critical thinking and the scientific method have been examined and we said that developed minds must examine things, criticize, instead of accepting everything as it is. If not so, no m e t t ~ h g h l progress can be made in life and in the society. The scientific method is also important since it deals with accurate examination and investigation whereas philosophy as a discipline depends on opinions. The scientific method is specific, accurate in detail and investigation. Hence we can say that education as a process needs all these tools to succeed as we have illustrated. Hence the importance of these concepts in our understanding of the concept, education.

77re SiRnificonce of Philosophies in Education 51

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Assess the significance of Knowledge and Value in the Nigerian educational system.

?. Examine the rehtio!lship between value system and education in Nigeria.

3. Ethics is a parmiaunt issue in educating people. Comment. 4. Critical thinking should be synonymous with good education.

Comment on the Nigerian situation. 5. Examine the relationship between philosophical reasoning and

the scientific method of investigation.

\

REFERENCES . Doyle, E. J . F. "Educ~tlondl Judgements" in Petea, R. S . , London:

Routledge Sr Kegsn Paul, 1975. Hirst, P. H. & Peters, R. S. rhc Logic of Education, London: Routledge

& Kegan Paul, 1970 O'connor, D. J . An Imtroduction t t the Philosophy of Education, -

London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980. Mocre, T. W. Educationnl Theory, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul,

1976. Popkin, R. H, et a1 Philosophy made simple, London: W. H. Allen,

1975. Ekezie, R. E. C. Philosophy of Education for Nigerian students, (1984

in Press). Peters. R. S. Philosophy o f Education, 0.U.P.. 1973. Peters, R. S. Ethics and Education, Allcn & Unwin, 1966.

(3IAPTER F N E

Philosophy end the Development of the Individual '

INTRODUCTION - Philosophy, whether as a word or as an academic diScipline or as a human activity, tends to scare the average man. It is even dismisSed as a dry, abstract, theoretical, academic and time-wasting business by many practice~riented people. It see& useful, therefore, to devote this chapter to visit an important human concern, the development of the individual, with philosophy both as an academic discipline and as a worthwhile human activity.

It is hoped that by the end of this chapter the student will be con- vinced that, after all, philosophy is not such a difficult or wasteful exercise; that it has a lot that is positive to offer man in his pursuit of full maturity. Secondly, the reader will be clearer on the meaning of development in general and human devel~pment in particular. Third- ly, he will be able to appreciate what it means to be an individual, a person. Finally, the role of education in making an authentic individual person will be highlighted.

To be able to 'achieve these objectives, we sha. divide the chapter into sections where we shall consider the concept of development, the development of the individual, the development of the mind, the role of education in developing the individual, and finally, theiole of philosophy in this development.

- THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL

Before we can discuss usefully the problem of the development of the individual, it is necessary to inquire separately into the meanings of development and individual. Very often the word developmrnt causes some ill-feeling, especially when used in connection with dividing the

- peoples of the world into developed, developing and underdeveloped countries, In education, the controversy centres on whether develop* ment l a that of specialist knowledge or rather the development of the

PMIosophy and the Development of the Individual 53

&Id h h a l f . In all these cases, o m needs to be clearer on the meaping of devebpment.

Development What then is development? Ernest Nagel, in his article published in a book edited by D.B. Harris (1957), gives us a conceptual framework with which to understand the meaning of development. Using several cases of transition from being potential to becoming actual, as in the case of an acorn becoming an oak tree, Nagel points out that three criteria mark development. These involve:

(a) a Preexisting structure; (b) sequential processes of an irreversible nature; and (c) the end-state.

There is a growth or movement from what can be to what is; from being a grain of corn, to take a more homely example, through the germination and growth processes, until the production of the corn cob which is ripe for eating.

It is easier to understand Nagel's model if we are speaking of development in physical and observable terms, as in biology. There, it is easy to observe "the preexisting structure" which means relations among parts or items. It is also easy to observe the grain of corn sprout, leaves grow, tassels emerge, pollination take place, all constituting "'inever- - sible sequential processes". Finally, it is easy to observe "the end-state" of a mature corn-cob ready for eating.

In the case of human development, where mental rather than physical structure is involved, it is more problematic to observe the structure. Yet, the structure is there in the form of logical or conceptual network of relationships among the various modes of consciousness such as understanding, wishing, feeling, and so o n What is not so clear . is that the structure can be described as "preexisting" according to Nagel's model. This will raise the whole controvetsial question of "innate ideas" sponsored by philosophers like Plato, Descartes, Locke, Leibniz, Kant and, most recently, Noarn Chomgky. (Hirst & Poten, 1970) A d we have no intention of delving into it here.

Irreversible Sequential Pracesses In applying Nagel's second criterion of irreversible sequential proceaaer to human development, it is again more difficult to observe than in the case of physical deveIopment, Nonetheless, it is possible to notice

$4 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations o f Education . different levels of understanding, desiring and feeling. The process is usually conceived as happening in the form of teaching-learning activity. The learner, by a personal act of decision and choice, internalizes or makes his own the content - be it a belief, a rule, a way of life - which is displayed before him. Growth is brought about by contact with social enviro nrnent , unlike physical growth that results from physical and chemical reactions between the organism and its environment.

f Piaget and KO hlberg on Stages o f Development

Two educational philosophicalLpsychologists who have demonstrated that the development o f the mind is possible are the famous Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget and the contemporary Ameri- can scholar Lawrence Kohlberg-Piaget illustrates this happenirig in the fields of mathematics and elementary physics as well as, to a more limited degree, in the field of morals.

Kohlberg has done extensive proving of this theory in the field o f morals. He shows that a child looks at a rule differently according to his level of moral development. The child moves upwards from the lowest level where he sees a rule as merely dependent o n power and external compulsion until the highest level where h e sees a rule as articulating a social principle (eg. justice, fairness, honesty, fidelity) considered necessary for living together equitably with other people. From keeping the rule in order to avoid the displeasure and anger of the authority (usually the parent) and escape the accompanying punishment, the child moves a step higher to keeping the rule because it is the law, until h e reaches the third and highest levelsf basing his action rationally on a universal ethical principle. What can be said of moral development applies equally to the other aspects of mental development, cognitive as well as affective. For, besides physical development in man, there is clso intellectual, social (which brzadly conceived includes moral) and emotional development (Hirst & Peters, 1970: 49).

The end-state

With regard to human development. Nagel's third criterion of the end- state is equally applicable, however differently. What corresponds to the mature oak-tree or corn-cob of the physical and biological life is a variety of ideals of human life in the case of-human development. The end-state of human development is the type of human quality or ideal envisaged and valued by a particular culture or particular person.

It should be possible to say that some people are more or less developed than others if we confine ourselves to one specific field of human

fiUosophy and the Development of the Individual 55

experience, eg . morality, the knowledge of mathematics, science or art. But can we make a sweeping statement that one person is more developed than another, generally speaking? It would appear that this is possible to some degree. For example, ordinarily one who is familiar with manv fields of human knowledge - e.g. mathematics. science, law, etc.-should be considered more developed than one who has not such a wide exposure. One who has integrsted different forms of experience should be said to be more developed than one who h u not such a differentiated consciousness. One who confuses the meaning of "law" in morality and in science is not as developed as one who can make the relevant distinctions.

The problem with aU these is that there is an element of value-laden conception of man. Knowledge of science, mathematics, law and so on may be a matter of values which a particular culture sets for itself. One society may value people with mathematical and scientific knowledge. Another society may value more the art of wrestling and music-making. Making a sweeping comparison, therefore, becomes problematk.

But there are other ideals that would seem not to be culture-bound. Rather, they result from the mere fact of stage of human development so far attained. For example, creativeness, critical thinking and auto. nomy can show themselves in the knowledge of mathematlcs and science as much as in wrestling and music-making. They are simply a result of a higher stage of human development. Such ideals or human excellences are valued in our concept of human development not because of any cultural considerations but because they are concerned with what it means to be a 'person', an individual human being. This naturally leads us to asking our second question, what does the individual mean?

The Individual

Our concern in this chapter is with the development of the individual as a person. This development differs from what we can call societal development where we take the whole group of human beings together. Such is the development of a society from primitive agrarian status to a more sophisticated industrialized s t a t s . Societal development is not our concern in this chapter.

That does not rule out that we are interested in the social development of the individual person by which the individual is fashioned to flt better as a relevant and contributing member of his society. We can never lose sight of the two inseparable dimensions of man: the individual and the social being. To fully develop.him enta'ils developing both aspects of him. To develop him as an authentic individual includes to

36 Philosophical and Sociological Fowrdatdonr ofEducation

get him ready to live his lifs creditably in a given society. Conversely, his relevant living in society hrther helps him develop his individual personality.

What then does it mean to consider man as the "individual"? To be an individual in the ordinary senas of the word, it suffica for a being to possess separate existence. In this broad sense even animals are indbi- duals in so far as they are separate entities. Thus 'person' is a much narrower concept than 'individual'. In our present discussion, we cannot accept this broad sense of individual, but a narrow philosophical and professional sense in which we mean "rational" or Ytuman individual" which is interchangeable with "person". In o t h e words, by indim vidual here we undezstand not simply a living being who is individuated into a distinct centre, linked with distinct physical body. We mean a living being who is conscious of his distinct existence, his r&ts and obligations. We mean one who is aware of himself as a centre of valua- tion, decision and choice; one who has distinct point of view as well as distinct physical body; a rational being who makes his independent judgements, appraisals, intentions, and decisions that shape events; an agent or determiner of his own destiny who also takes responsibaity for his decisions and actions.'He is one who has capacity for self-direction with regard to his interest, present and future, (R.S. Peters, 1966: 210.1 1).

Every human being is a potentially individual person. But it' is pos- siile for someone to remain at the level of womblike or childish existence, not aware ofhis personhood but only ofhis particular social roles and general kinship with other members of the society. He becomes more a person to the extent that he becomes more aware or conscious. That he can become more a person means his mind can be developed.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MIND

Throughout the history of thought, the human mind has been conceived in different ways. To be able to know how the mind can be developed, it is important to inquire into what philosophers have thought about the nature and the working of the mind.

Philosophers have not agreed on the exact nature of the mind, It is purely spiritual or has it the element of matter? Plato speaks of the mind as a mental substance. Others like Hurne (1975) speak of the mind a8 "nothfng but a bundle or collection of different perceptions, whfch succeed eech sthqt with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a psrpqfud flux and ~ v q m e n t " , Stffl others, following William James,

Philosophy and the Development of the Individual 57

tltk+ tks mind to be a "stream of consciousness" What is more important is to consider the workings of the mind.

For most thinkers, consciousness has been singled out as the hallmark of the mind. And the highest form of consciousness is found in reasoning. Plato and Aristotle (one idealist, the other realist) were so awwtricken by reasoning that they regarded it as a divine characteris- ric Qeters, 1966:47). However, they did not stress that consciousness has a common core for the varied mental activities like mathematical reasoning, purpose, pain, dreaming and emotional states. Indeed Aristo- tle thought there were three souls in all - plant soul, animal soul and human soul, and these served mainly in directing the organisms to their goals. -

For British empiricists (Locke, Berkeley, Hume, et ai.), the development of the mind is a very slow process. The educator, in order to promote learning or nientil development, has two options: either provide a suitable environrnmt (according to the tabuh rusa group) or implant appropriate ideas (Berkeley group) in the child's mind through a carefully organized programme.

With ~e development of more individualism in thought (of Stoics and Epicureans) came greater interest in the will and the emotions. Further turning inwards of Christianity led to introspection and revelation as sources of knowledge. St. Augustine prepared the way for Descartes' Cogito; ergo sum ("I think; therefore, I exist").

By far the most current conception of how the human mind works is that of the school of social construction of knowledge. Of course,

.more ancient philosophers had held a similar view. In this thought, the development of the mind happens through the initiation of the individual into the public traditions enshrined in a public language, concepts, beliefs and rules of the society. Thus a child when born has a consciousness not yet distinguished into beliefs, intentions and feelings. He is not immediately *are of space and time. Nor has he notions of permanence, continuity, cause connections, meansend relationships. He . : gradugy becomes aware in this order: material substances, space, time and reason by asking these questions, respectively: "What is it?" "Where is it?"'When did it happen?"Vhy did it happen?He thus develops categorical apparatus. Along with the development of this mental structure, he develops p w i fiassu the different modes of consciousness. Before our contemporaries (e.g. Peter Berger and Thomas L u c h n ) of this school of social development of the human mind, Hegel and Marx, for example, had demonstrated that human consciousness could be developed in the interaction with the social environment.

58 PhilosopC11cal and Sociologscal Foundarions o f Education

The child, in the process of mental developn~ent, learns to want what is pleasant, to fear what hurts or threatens, and to believe things he can check out or conflrm by experience. He learns to make himelf predictable by stating intentions and making promises. He regulates his behaviour in accordance with societal norms and rules. Each mode of thought or awareness gives rise to a 'body of knowledge' and public procedures through which this content has been accumulated, criticized and revised. Each individual in the society internalizes the thought and at the same time contributes to the criticism and development of its content. In that way he lives his individual impression on the public world.

As Leibniz says, "each one mirrors the world from a particular point gf view". Thus the contours of the public world are transformed. The process by whkh other new members of the society are initiated into such socially constructed modes of thought and awareness - the fruits of the development of the human mind - is the process of education. It follows naturally that we should next examine that process, education, and what it does to the individual,

EDUCATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL

Education, according to Hint and Peters (1 WO), is a family of processes which have as their outcome the development of an educated man. And the concept of an educated man is characterized by an all-round &Vslopment - moral, intellectual, and spiritual. Of course physical development is presumed.

More specifically, the learned authors assert that to educate means to be concerned with bringing about desirable states of mind in people characterized by some depth and breadth of understanding (Hint & Peters, 1970: 57). We can now begin to see the close relationship between education and development. As we saw while discussing the concept of development, the highest form of desirable human qualities @urnan excellences) which are realized as a r'esult of development are those intimately comected with what it means to be a 'person'. Shce man is a rational animal, the highest of those human excellences are those that promote his reasoning ability. Hence we think of critical thinking, creativity, autonomy, self-direction.

It belongs to educational philosophy to attempt to identify sped- fically those exqellent qualities. It belongs to educational metilodology to design ways of cultivating them in the students. ~ u t a more fundamental question which bothers a philosopher of education is whether we can teach those excellent qualities and thereby bring about human

Philosophy and the Development o f the Individual 59

beings who are developed in all respects -physical, emotional, intellectual, social and moral. And if we can teach them, what would be the best method to achieve the desired results?

Take moral development for an example. Some thinkers have answered, positively, that children can be taught the various levels of moral judgment. Others think the child simply matures into those levels. Yet, others like Kant, hold that the various forms of conceiv- ing ples are innate or inborn moulds into which various specific experiences are fitted. But both Piaget and Kohlberg reject all these theories. They rather argue that the various levels of looking at rules arise from the interaction of the child with his environment, both physical as well as social.> the cpurse of coming in contact with objects and persons, including himself, a child makes progress in his social, moral and other cognitive-or mental judgments. Mentaldevelopment, in this view, is nqt a question of unfolding of innate dispositions nor stamping in sornetk- ing from outside. Rather, the mind simply interacts with environment and in the process leams to classify and discriminate it. The child moves from learning that his parent and society say he should not steal (and if he steals he is punished by his parent and is mocked by the society) to coming io a personal decision that stealing is not good and should not be done because it is unfair to the other person, annoys him terrib- ly and disturbs social order. Thus, it is in the process of interacting with his environment, physical and social, that an individual develops all his potentialities. He develops his moral sense, as we have just seen; develops his imagination, feelings and above all, his intellectual stature. The development of the mind is the development of the individual. We shall therefore h u m to our original question and ask how philosophy can help the development of the individual.

PHILOSO-Y AXD THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL

To be able to answer what we think is the role of philosophy in the development of the individual, we should recall what philosophy is all about. Philosophy is an academic discipline or a conceptual activity in which strenuous th~nking is done by raising and trying to answer fundamental questions about all that there is in life, analysing concepts and issues, and in the process get clearer ideas about the meanings of things as well as build a consistent and coherent world view that helps one to make sense of this earthly life.

Through philosophy, we clear the human mind of its many precon- ceived notions, prejudices and en~otions or what Francis Bacon (1561- 1626) calls the four "idols" of the mind. Through philosophy welearn


to reason and think clearly, critically and logically, avoid contradictions and partial truths, justify or bring out evidence to support our claims, test out our ideas against those of others thereby leading to objectivity. Through philosophy we develop a questioning spirit, an open mind, an enlargement of our intelligence; we scrutinize and question our beliefs, motives and values to see if they need revision. After all, i t was Soctates who advised that "an unexamined life is not worth living". Through philosophy, we learn what other serious thinkers have said, analyse and evaluate their ideas and propositons, if only to build up our solid personal philosophy.

For examp1e;it-is through philosophy that we have sufficiently discussed here and improved on ou; understanding of concepts like development, education, the individual, person, etc. We have b y n able to examine what Ernest Nagel, R. S. Peters, Paul Hirst, Piaget, Kohl- berg and a host of others have said towards getting a clearer idea of how we can develop as individuals. Of course, if we only end up with merely learning what other philosophers had thought out and said without ourselves thinking and saying, we are not philosophizing or "doing philosophy", as we call it nowadays.

SUMMARY

By way of summary let us review what we have tried to do up to this point. We set out claiming that philosophy is a worthwhile academic discipline and human activity that has a lot to offer to the development of the individual. We went o n to do a philosophical analysis of such concepts and issues as development, the individual, person, mind, the development of the mind and education. Using Einest Nagel's conceptual model, we were able to demonstrate that development involves three hierarchical criteria:

(a) A preexisting structure; (b) Sequential processes of an irreversible nature; and (c) The end-state.

The end-state of development contained human excellences such as creativeness, critical thinking and autonomy which constitute what it means to be a person, an individual. We were then pushed to examine what it means to be an individual and a person. From there we went over to examine the mind and its development. Here Piaget and Kohl- berg brought a lot of insight, highlighting the social construction o f knowledge as a fruit of the development of the mind. Tbe initiation of other members of the society into the socially constructed body of knowledge or mode of thought gave rise to the discussion of Education

Philosophy and the Development o f the Individual 61

and the development of the individual. On a fmal note, and to end up where we began, it was necessary to reexamine the concept of philosophy and what it can do towards the individual. Philosophy was seen then to be helpful in developing the highest powers in man and therc- fore crucial in the deVelopment of the individual.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Can Ernest Nagel's three criteria for d'evelopment apply also to education?

2(a) When is an individual said to be fully developed? (b) .IT it possible to claim that one person is more developed than

another? 3. Is being an individual the same t h i n ~ a s b,eing a person? Discuss. 4. In what possible ways can a human mind develop? Discuss a

current view. 5 . Show that philosophy is a usehl activity by demonstrating how

it can help to develop an individual. :

Akinpelu, J.A., An Introduction to Philosophy of Edtccation, London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1981.

"Berg~r, P. and Luckman, T. The Social Reconstruction of Reality, Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co. Inc., 1966. Paul Edwards (Ed.), The Encyclopediaof Philosophy, New York: ~acmi l l an Publishmg Co. Inc., & the Free Press, 1967 (1972). Hirst, P. and Peters, RS., The Logi2 of Education. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970 (1 979). Honer, Stanley, M. and Hunt, T. C., Incitation to Philosophy: Issues and Opinions, (Second Edition). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1973. Hume, David, A Treatise of Human 'Vature. L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988 (1975). Kneller, G.F., ~ntroduct ion to the Philosophy of Education, Second Edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1971. Peters, R.S., Ethics and Education, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966 (1 960). Piaget, Jean, The Moral Judgment o f t k e . ' ~ h i l d . New York: The . Fre-e Press (Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc.), 1965. Ryle, Gilbert, The Concept o f Mind. New York : Barnes & Nobles Books, 1949.

CHAPTER SIX . .

Philosophy and Educational Objectives of Nigeria: Analysis and Assessment

INTRODUCTION

Having surveyed phrlosophy and development, let us now relate philosophy to the educational objectives of Nigeria. Philosophy and objectives of education differ from time t o time, from people t o people. In our treatment of the philosophy and objectives of Nigerian education we shall consider philosophy and objectives o f those educational systems that were cmployed t o prepare young Nigerians for life. While we shall address ourselves to specifically wester11 formal education we shall however touch the philosopl~y and objectives of Nigerian traditional method o f education and the muslim educational system briefly.

The western system of education in Nigeria will be considered according to their stages o f developnlent. Since the moment the missionaries introduccd scl~ools in Nigeria in the first half of the nineteenth century, the philosophy and objcctivcs ofNigerian education have gone through nlany changes. They evolvcd from a philosophy and objectives that sought to satisfy the nceds o f the rnissionar)rcolonial-merchant masters to a philosophy and objectives ofeducat ion that attempted and continues to attempt to satisfy the needs of ~ i i c r i a n s both as individuals and as a nation.

As we shall sce in this cluprer the philosophy of education of any nation depends on so many variables. Among tllc factors that deter- n~iilc the pl~i losopl~y and objccrivcs o t ' a people arc: (1) The needs o f the people tl~crnselves: ( 2 ) The nccds of those whose work it is to deter- nliric ths p l~ i los t~p l l~ . of' c c l ~ ~ c ; ~ ~ i u n : ( 3 ) T!le 11istoric;ll nlorkilt in which the philosopl~y ;~nd objcctivcs arc being fi,r11n113tcd; ;md (4) The age and the lcvcl of underst;r:ding o!' tiic pcoplc to receive education.

Philosophy and Educational Objectives of Nigeria 63

TRADITIONAL EDUCATION

The people of Nigeria have had fiom time immemorial the system by which they prepared young Nigerians for adult life before the M u s h and Western educational systems. It is this original way by which Nigerians were brought up, and in many places, are still being brought up that we call traditional education. Those Nigerians who have not got the opportunity to go through either the koranic or western formal' education have this traditional education as their only education. In spite of the differences among ethnic groups, and among communities in Nigeria, the aim of traditional education is the same. The main objective is to prepare the child to "grow into a functional member of his family and group" (Taiwo, 198 1). -

This system of education can be divided into three types accordhg to contents. Each of these types has its objective. The first type is education in those aspects of life which enable the young person to l iveh conformity with the traditions of the community. This is basic education. '

In the second type of education the individual learns an occupation. This will enable the young person to learn a trade which will make h h economically self-reliaiit. In the real Nigerian traditional socie-ty; unemployment was very uncommon. Every member of each family was occupied growing food, practising some crafts related to the needs of the home and the community, or maintaining the home. The third type of the traditional educational process includes learning special occupations such as crafts, secret organizations, religious priesthood, medicine, and even surgery. Every child must undergo the first and second types of education. Through this education1 system young generations are prepared to live responsibly in the community.

MUSLIM EDUCATION

Many Nigerians do not get their education from either Western formal= educational system or the traditional form of education. They go to the Koranic schools. In other words, they are educated only in the Islamic system of education. This system differs from the regular fomal education in objectives, content and method of primary education. Accord- ing to Taiwo's (1981) suggestions, there are three stages of Islamic education.

1 The flrst stage can be taken to correspond to the primary education. The aim of education at this stage is to prepare the child for adult life as a Muslim. He is taught not only to profess Islarn as a religion but to live a m u s h life. It is not enough just to believe

44 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Educanon

and to worship but one has to think, live and even dress as a Muslim. The aim of this educational stage is to get thekMd com- mit to memory the contents of the Koran in Arabic. He also learns all the prayers in Arabic and the code of Islamic ethics. This stage takes ten to twelve years.

2. The second stage of Islamic education is the 'iim school. The main objective of this stage is to educate the student in the way of reading and interpreting the Koran and its commentaries. In this stage of education, individual differences of the students play an important role. If the student has the ability, a curriculum o f secular education is included in the study of the Koran. Such subjects as Arabic grammar, literature, poetry, the Islamic law and other subjects pertinent to Muslim religion are added.

3 In the third stage students go through professional studies. &eas ofcspecialization include law, medicine, astrology, theology, and my st ic ism.

MYSSIONARYICOLONIAL PHILOSOPHY AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

By ~ a ~ b f . ~ r e ~ a r a t i o n for the treatment of the philosophy and objectives of-.Nigerian formal education, we have briefly treated the philosophy and objectives of traditional education and m u s h education. L e t us now. start the treatment of the.philosophy and objectives of Nigerian formal education by considering the philosophy and objectives of the Missionary/Colonist/Merchant educational system. From these early days of Western formal education in Nigeria, we shall discuss important' stages of the dcvclopment of Nigerian philosophy and objectives Q f education. Full analysis and assessment shall bc given and assessment:shall be given to the prcscnt philosophy and objectives of Nigerian education.

In order to undcrstnnd thc philosophy 01' Nigcrian formal education one has Ci go a little further back to a point in time whcn Wcstern education was introduced in Nigeria. In thc same way, it will be impossible to treat the philosophy of any educational systcm without knowing the aims and objectives of thosc who established tlic system.

Westcrn cducatiori was brought uito Nigeria for thc first tune by christian missionaries. Thcir origuial purposc for coming to Nigcria was not to build schools but to propagate the gospcl. Two othcr groups who invaded thc Nigcrian territory Illat I in~c wcrc t hc colonists and traders. Each of thcsc groups had its own pu~posc for being in Nigeria. Thc colonists c m c in ordcr to plant the British Etripirc in the country while thc busincssn~cn wa~itcd to acquire thc cheap raw rnarcrials of

Philosophy and Educational Objectives of Nigcrio 65

Nigeria which they would market with profits in their home country. The presence of these three groups of people in Nigeria influenced the educational system established in the country that time.

Western education in Nigeria has a relatively long history. Right from the entry of Missionaries in the persons of Rev. Thomas Birch

Freeman and Mrs. William de Graft, into Badagry on 24 September 1842, Nigeria got some sort of philosophy of education. The philosophy of the missionary education that time, as it is now, was that of propagating the Christian faith. Schools established by these missionaries were conditioned to offer good English education. The students were taught to read and write. This would enable them to read the Bible and in that way the missionaries would prepare students who would be teachers, catechists and'rninisters. Some of the less intellectually inclined students were apprenticed to some colonists to learn practical trade. Girls, however, receivedetraining in needlework and sewing.

When the Roman Catholic Missionaries came into the scene, buildiflg schools became central in their work of evangelization. Schools became a powerful means of spreading the good news. Training teachers, catechists and the clergy became an important function of the school. Clerks, government officials and politicians were also prepared in the mission schools. These people would help the colonial masters to run their government. Father Liberrnann put it well in his letter t o his missionaries who thought that establishing schools and teaching in them was not part of missioniry work. He told his Holy Ghost Missionaries that schools would be a means of consolidating their efforts and that abandoning the school would mean that the missionaries were "com- promising gravely with h e future of the mission." This letter could serve the purpose of any of the different missionary groups or societies in Nigeria.

In order to establish the British government in Nigeria, the colonists would also establish the British way of life: the language, the culture, &d the mentality. School programmes were a replica of the school programmes in England. The learning of English was compulsory in all schools. His majesty's Inspector of schools for West African Settlement recommended "that instruction in English be duly enforced as the chief condition of a grant-in-aid" (Taiwo, 198 1). Nigerian languages were discouraged. They would be used only to explain English. The effort was to produce a perfect English gentleman In black skin.

66 Phflosophical and Sociological Foundations o f Education

COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION

The educational activities of the missionary helped the traders from Europe. The school trained local clerks, interpreters, men and women who would work both as cooks and as helpers to transact business with the natives. The missionruy, the colonist and the trader influenced and continued to influence the Nigerian philosophy of education until very recently. This is in an effort to give the Nigerian "a good English educationn and to use education to foster their different interests.

Many educated Nigerians criticized this kind of educational philosophy and objectives. In a letter to John Pope Hennessy, Governor of West African Settlements, Bishop James Johnson (1873) expressed his concern as a nationalist. He said that foreign teachers who regarded Africans as inferior did everything to give the African a foreignpmodel without taking into account the African peculiarities, modes of thought and local circumstances. In doing this the African lost his self-respect and love for his race. "There is evideritly a fetter upon our minds even when the body is free; mental weakness, even where there appears fertility." The Lagos press made bold and sustained attacks on the educational system which tended to denigrate the African institutions and customs.

All the aims and objectives of the missionaries, colonists, and traders were achieved through the school programmes. English language and Arithmetic were the main subjects. Of course religious classes had a prominent position. Optional courses included the English Grammar, English History, and Geography, particularly the Geography of the British Empire. Until quite recently these have been the main educational programmes in Nigeria. Even now English language is still compulsory in the Nigerian educational system. It is interesting to note that the concern of those who planned the country's educational system was not the need of the people of Nigeria. The .philosophy and objectives of Nigerian education had been extraneous ones.

It was the PhelpsStokes Commission on Education in Africa (1920- 1926) that laid emphasis for the first time, on the adaptation of education to the needs of the individual and the communitj in Nigeria. In 1943 Asquit and Elliot Commissions on Higher Education recommended the establishment of universities in British West Africa. They emphasized that the training of secondary schgpl teachers must be given priority among vocational subjects. Next was the Ashby Report of 1960. Tlus report recommended, among other things, that post-secondary education should be designed in such a way that before 1970 high-level manpower which would be needed could be produced. This should be done in such a way that it might meet the national ne-ds by 1980.

Philosophy and Educational Objectives o f Nigeria 67

These commissions on education have brought in a new era in the Nigerian philosophy and objectives of education. Prior to the time of these cmmissfons the philosophy and objectives of Nigerian education had be;- to foster the interests, goals, and objectives of other people rather than those of Nigerians.

THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM CONFERENCE 1969

The genesis of the National Policy on,Education is ultimately traced back to the National Conference on Curriculum Development which is titled 'A Philosophy for Nigerian Education! This conference reviewed the existing educational goals so that it could suggest new ones in accordance with the' societal needs at the time. Primary as well as secondary levels of -education were partly terminal and partly prepa- ratory stages for the next level of educational institution. This meani that education was meant to prepare children for adult life and at the . same time prepare those who went to the next level. There were goals and objectives at different levels of education and at different ages, abilities, aptitudes and interests of the children.

The following Nigerian educational objectives were formulated into a national philosophy by the conference, (Nigerian Educational Ra search Council 1972):

(1) The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and of the society.

(2) The trainihg of the mind in building valuable concepts, generalizations, and understanding of the world around us.

(3) The acqui&ion of appropriate skills, abilities and compe- tences, both mental and physical, as equipment for the individual to live in his society.

(4) The acqai t ion of a relevant and balanced knowledge of facts about local and world phenomena.

It was hoped that these would lead to "self-realization; better human relationship; self and national econoqic efficiency, effective citizenship; national consciousness; national unity; social and political progress; scientific and technological progress, national reconstruction."

The conference set the following goals for the primary education: (1) Primary education should prepare most children for life and .

the curriulum must be weighted towards this end;

(2) Primary education should serve to help the child towards self- realization;

68 FRilosophfcal and Sodological Fbundatbns of Education

(3) Primary education should inculcate citimuhip education and a sound moral character; and

(4) Primary education should not consciously be geared towards specifk occuptioaal goal.

The above mentioned goals am highly theoretical. They, with the guidelines for the Third National Development Plan J (1975-1980). formed the basis on which the National Policy on Education (1977, revised in 1981), was formulated. Among the major objectives of the Third National Development, the fonowing have been hcluded for the Third Pian period.

(1) To expand facilities for education aimed at equalizing individual access to education throughout the country;

(2) To reform the content of general education to make it more responsible and responsive to the socioeconomic needs of the country;

(3) To nationalize and strengthen the machinery for educational development in the country; and

(4) To rationalize the financing of education with a view to making the educational system adequate and more efficient.

THE NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATlON 1977/1981

With the knowledge of the evolutionary process of the Nigerian formal educational philosophy and objectives through ou_r discussion so far in this chapter, we can now consider the philosophy and objectives of Nigerian education according to the National Policy on Education. The philosophy and objectives of education contained in this document had been conditioned by economic, political, and geographical circumstances. The philosophy of Nigerian education is supposed to be anchored in the five main objectives of Nigeria contained in the second National Development Plan. Theykclude the building of: (1) a freed and democratic society; (2) a just and egalitarian society; (3) a united, strong and self-reliant nation; (4) a great and dynamic economy; ( 5 ) a land of bright and full opportunities for citizens.

With these national objecti.ves as a foundation, the policy says that the nation's philosophy of education is based on "the integ'ra- tion of the individual into a sound and effective citizen and equal educational opportunities for all citizens of the nation at the

Philosophy and Educational Objectives of hr&& 69

primary , secondary and tertiary levels, both inaide and outside the formal school system."

In order to make the national philosophy on education effective, the quality of instruction at all levels h to be oriented towardsin- culcating the following values: (1) respect for the worth and dignity of the individuals;

(2) Faith in man's ability to make rational decisionp;

(3) moral and spiritual values 4 inter-personal and human, relations;

(4) shared responsibiljty for the common p o d of society; ( 5 ) respect for the dignity of labour; and (6) promotion of the emotional,~physical and psychological health

\. of all children.

This document incorporated t6 a large extent the objectives of education proposed by the curriculum conference of 1969. and they hclude: (1) the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity; (2) the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the

survival of the individual a id the Nigerian society; (3) the training of the mind h the understanding of the world

around; and I

(4) the acquisitionof appropriate skills, abilities and competence8 both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of his society.

The end result of these objectives should be "self-realization, better human relationship, individual and national efficacy, effective citizenship, national consciousness, national unity, as well as social, cultural, economic, political, scientific 'and technological progress."

Emphasis is laid on the need to foster the unity of the nation, ahd to correct the "imbalances in ink?-state and intra-state development." Education is seen as the greatest force which can be used to bring about quick development of its economic, political, sociological and human resources as well as a corrective measure to remedy different inequalities that exist in every sphere of life in the country.

In the interest of the national unity every child should learn one of the following major Nigerian languages besides ,his mother tongue: Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba.

Just as there are general objectives of Nigerian education, each level of education has its own objectives according to the child's abilities, age, aptitude and interests.

Q

70 Philosophical and Sociological Fourr darions o f Education

ASSESSMENT

In as much as this philosophy of education is praiseworthy for being the first attempt to give the nation a philosophy of education that is common to every Nigerian educational institution, it ran into serious problems from the start. The philosophy of education as contaip- ed in paragraph two of section one of the document does not seem to relate to the five national objectives of Nigeria (paragraph one) which IS the necessary foundation for the National Policy of Educa- tion. Logically and analytically speaking, it would be very difficult to relate the present philosophy of education to the five national objectives in the way those who "compiled" the document would want. The more logical way would have been to base the philosophy of Nigerian education strictly on the five nationd objectives.

The five national objectives which we have seen are couched in philosophical and abstract terms. They portray the ambitions of those who wanted to build on an idem Nigeria. The philosophy of education as contained in paragraph two of section one, however, went straight into the basic needs of Nigeria at that material time. This was on the practical side of the Nigerian siruation. It must be remembered that Nigeria had just emerged from a civil war which had fragmented the nation into differing and different ethnic groups whose members needed to be integrated into one united Nigeria. The imbalances that existed in the educational development between different parts of the nation were aIso disturbing. These facts can explain the disparities existing between the national objectives and the 'philosophy of education which was supposed to have taken its roots from the objectives.

The national aims and objectives of education which are taken from the resolutions of the curriculum conference of 1969 are quite related to the national philosophy of education.

Paragraph six of section one of the document is an attempt to link the nationaI objective with the philosophy of education. 'The desire that Nigeria should be free, just and a democratic society, a land full of opportunities for all its citizens, able to generate a great and dynamic economy, and growing into a united and self-reliant nation cannot be overemphasized. In order to realize fully the potentials of the contributions of education to the d ievement of the objectives, all other agencies will operate in concert with education to that end. Further- more, to foster the much needed unity of Nigeria, imbalances in inter- state and intra-state development have to be corrected. Not only that education is the great force that can be used to bring about redress, it is also the greatest investment that the nation can make for the quick

PhaOsophy and Educational Objtxtfvcs of N&r& 71

dsyolopment o f itj economic, pollfical, sodological and human resow- ces", Section l(6). This paragraph seems to be "artificial". It seem again that the first two sentences of the paragraph are imposed on the last two sentences of the same paragraph. It is the last two wntenwa which implicitly emp- the philorophy of education enundated in the document and the aims and objectives which Nigerian education set out to achieve, namely: "to foster the much needed unity of Niger- ia, imbalances in inter-state and intra-atate development have to,be corrected."

Many scholars are questioning the relevance of the five national objectives in the present day Nigeria. The question of the relevance of these five national objectives puts into sharp focus the fundamental

- issue of the meaning of "a free and democratic society", "a just and

. egalitarian society", "a united, strong and self-reliant nation"; "a great . ana dynamic economy"; and "a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens" in a country being run by decrees, where injustice abounds both in private and public fora and inequality is in every aspect of life in the society; in a country whose citizens depend on their tribe : of origin to share or not to share in the resources and opportunities -

of the nation, where rssential needs of the nation are imported; a -

country whose depression is threatening to bring the whole economy to a collapse; a nation whose rate of unemployment offers a go'od segment of the society no hope for the future and whose great nurn. ber of children are denied basic education.

The implementing of the objectives of the poIicy has run into serious problems from the beginning. Just one example. The attempt8 made to implement the Universal Primary Education (UPE) turned out -: to be a colossal failure. The problems that faced the implementation'of the U.P.E. were many.

- - There were no proper census of the children to benefit from the

'

U.P.E. Because of this lack of accurate census of the U.P.E. children, an underestimation was made. As a result of inappropriate census, the budget made was not enough to carry the programme through. Hence primary school children continue to pay tuition. There was a general lack of infrastructures to accommodate the regis tered'children. The existing infrastructure was ill equipped. There was lack of materials to aid the teachers. Many of the teachers and their pupils had no desks, chairs or tables.

72 Phdloiophical mrd Socloiogical Foundations of Education 1 (5 ) mere were not enough sachen trained to handle the overwhelm- 1 hg number of children who registered for the U.P.E. Very w

~

qualified individuals were recruited to teach the children. In general, there was no proper preparation for the U.P.E. before it

took off. Because of this lack of preparation the whole project failed.

~UkIMAR-i

Philosophy and educational objectives of Nigeria have been analysed and assessed in this chapter. The philosophy and educational objectives have been traced from the traditional and Muslim systems af education to the ~sionary/Colonial/European traders philosqphy and objectives of education in Nigeria. It was seen that the educational philosophy and objectives of these people (the missionary, the colonist and the merchant) were to advance their own interests and satisfy *eir needs. he suggestion that the philosophy and educational dbjectives should'suit the people of Nigeria was proposed for the first time by the PhelpsStokes Commission. followed by Asquith and Ellioth Commis- sion and later by Ashby Report. It was the Curriculum Conference of 1969 ;hat laid the foundation for the National Policy on Education (1977). The Policy which was supposed to have been based on the second ~a t iona l objectives plan did not seem to have derived the philosophy and objectives of the Nigerian Education from the objectives. he philosophy and objectives of Nigerian Education in the Policy are juxtaposed on the Second National Objective Plan.

The main problem of the philosophy and objectives as contained in the document is that of implementation. The proposals are rather too ideatistic and ambitious. They need to be more humbly re-stated and diligentl$tested and planned out for local implementation.

REVISIQN QUESTIONS - 1. What are the aims and objectives of Nigerian traditional educa-

tion? Compare them with those of the Muslin. 2. Compare and contrast the missionary/coloniai philosophy and

objectives of education for Nigeria with those proposed by the current National Policy on Education.

3. Relate the objectives of the Second National Plan with the Philosophy of Nigerian Education contained in the National Policy on Education.

4. What role did the Curriculum Conference of 1969 play in the formulation of the National Policy on Education?

Philosophy and Educational Objectives o f Nigeria 73

5. What is the main problem facing the educational objectives in the Policy? Give one example.

REFERENCES

Adesina, S. Planning and Educational Development in Nigerio, Ibadan: Board Publications Ltd., 1982.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, National Policy on Education Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information, Printing Division, 198 1 .

Nigerian Educational Research Council, A Philosophy for Nigerian Education, Ibadan : Hei~emann Educational Books (Nigeria) Ltd., 1972.

Taiwo, -0. The Nigerian Education System, Lagos : Thomas Nelson (Nigeria) Limited, 198 1.

Part Two

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

CHAPTER SEVEN

Sociology and Educatioo

INTRODUCTION

Scientific investigation sometimes supports uncritically accepted conclusions. For example, it has been supported by scientific research that people with similar interests and other thing in common tend to associate with one another. This supports the old saying that "Birds of a feather flock togehter"

Many common sense conclusions, however, are based on ignorance, prejudice and mistaken interpretation. For example, there is one old saying, "spare the rod and spoil the child". Scientific investigation has found that serious delinquents have usually been punished more sevore- ly than most nondelinquents. Similarly, there is no evidence to support the old idea that the black race is especially talented in music but inferior in intellect. Scientists have found no convincing evidence of differences in h a t e racial capacities.

By the end of this chapter, we shall be able to un&rstand the meaning of Sociology; the development of Sociology and Sociology of Education; Sociology as a Science; the meaning of Education; and an outline of relatianhip between Sociology and Education.

WHAT IS SOCWMGY?

The study of Sociology provides a way of understanding human behaviour. This is not to say that Sociology is the only way of studying human behaviour. Certainly, there are other ways. The poet uses his imagination and creative ability to describe human behaviour. The psychologist studies man's organic processes and activities. The historian records the past expressions of human behaviour. Sociologists use the scientific method to study man's relationship with other men. In order words, Sociology is a science. To be specific, Sociology is the science that deals with the investigation and analysis of human relationships, their causes and consequences (Thomas and Enderson 1972:3). Ezewu, (1 983 : 1) agrees with this definition of sociology as a scientific study of human behaviour in groups, having for its aim the discovering of

78 Philosophical and S~ciological Foundations of Education

regularities and order in such behaviour and expressing these discoveries as theoretical propositions or generalizations that describe a wide variety of patterns of behaviour.

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is one of the youngest of social sciences. Although human beings had been interacting with one another before the start of written records, it was not until the nineteenth century that man began to study the causes - - and consequences of human relationships as a separate dtscipline.

The e d k s t man had very little time for thought about the nature and problem of society; all hlr energies were required for surviOal in a harsh. unyielding environment. Later, when man had developed a Wtem of agriculture and labour-saving tools, he had more t h e to develop systems of social thought. He flrst explained all phenomena in terms of gods or a God, and through group life he evolved systems of' ethics and norms to control human relationships. '

The Greeks ma& a large contribution to early social thought in Western civilization. Plato provided the first complete philosophy of human Ufe and society in the Republic, in which he described the nature of ideal state in terms of the Greek city-state. In fact, it was from the field of Philosophy that Sociology eventually emerged as a separate discipline.

During the Middle Ages, the power and influence of the Catholic Church affected the Ufe of every- individual. The discussion of social life in tnat period was related to the belief that Cod controlled the temporal society of man. All human institutions wen evaluated in their relationships to the attainment of a heavenly saivation.

By the eighteenth century, there-was a trend away from the scholas- ti'cism of the Middle Ages and toward the use of observation, inquiry and reason. The French Revolution helped to promote this development in social thought by destroying the feudal system, ending the concept that king ruled by divine right, and showing that people do not have to live under irresponsible and oppressive government. The Industrial Revolution also contributed to a change in social thought and social conditions. Along with an increased production of goods, the amassing of capital, the rise of the middle class and the existence of appalling factory conditions, came a movement toward social reform.

Sociology, then began to emerge as a discipline only after the French Revolution. In ancient times, Aris totle had laid the foundation

b

Sociology and Education 79

of logic. New philosophers such as Bacon, Descartes, Kant and Hume began to build a modern-scientific method upon this foundation. By the nineteenth century, science was making great studies as new experimental methods of research were being developed. Men were searching for ways of understanding and preserving order, without hindering progress and social change. Let us now discuss briefly early pioneers in Sociology.

Pioneers in Sociology

Auguste Comte. It was during these crucial times that Auguste Comte (1 789-1 857) gave sociology its name. Comte, a French Philosopher, is known today as the father of sociology. He offered a solution to the problem of-how order could be maintained without limiting progress with his maxim: Progress k the development of order. One of Comte's most important contributions w& his classification of abstract sciences into a unified hierarchy of science. At the top of the hierarchy he placed sociology.

Herbert ~pgncer. A second important pioneer in the development of sociology w k -the Englishman, Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Just as Comte was able to separate sociology from philosophy, Spencer was able to separate it from the religious and metaphysical ideas of the time. He did tius by linking society to natural phenomena and applying the rules and ideas of the natural sciences to its study. Spencer's best known contribution was his concept of social evolution. He believes that aU things change. Social changes involve adapation and survival of the fittest. society evolves according to Spencer, it becomes more complex by progressing through various stages of development.

Max Weber. No list of early sociologists would be complete without Max Weber Cf-864-1920). A German social theorist, Weber contributed greatly to the'development of sociology. He wrote on such subjects as the methodology of the social sciences, bureaucracy, comparative religion annd political sociology. His works contain extensive historical comparisons displaying a high quality of scholarship, Many of them are still read and vigorously discussed today.

Pioneers of Sociology of Education

John Dewey. Jdhn Dewey (1859-19'52) was the first sociologist to appreciate the essential relationship between the school and the SO- ciety. Writing at the period when the simple life and village community life was breaking down, Dewey felt that the institutions of school and

80 Philosophical and Socioiogicul Foundations of Education

church had done little to make the child aware of the new society into which they were born and will later work.

Perhaps Dewey's major contribution in the field of Sociology of education, was a social spirit, cooperation and mutual aid and his provision within the classroom the sort of living situations in which such spirit of cooperation will continue to thrive. He saw the school as a second home of the child and emphasized the need to make that second home a real home indeed.

EmiLe Durkheim. Another famous pioneer in Sociology of education was the Frenchman, Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). At Sorbonne, he was the first professor of sociology of education. He was very much interested in social integration, or the forces that hold societies and groups together. Durkheim's greatest contribution, however, may have been his development of the concept of social fact. To Durkheim, (1956:71-72) education is a social thing. He said: -

It is society as a whole and each particular social milieu that determine the ideal that education realizes. Society can survive only if there exists, among the members, a sufficient degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in tne child, from the beginning, the essential similarities that collective life demands. But on the other hand, without a certain diversity all cooperation would be impossible; education assures the persistence of this necessary diversity by being in itself diversified and specialized.

In chapter nine, you will read more about socialization and education.

SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIEXCE

Science is often associated with laboratories, elaborate equipment, and such fields as chemistry and physics. Some people think only of the natural sciences when they hear the term science. But actually, there are two major divisions of science: the natural sciences and the social sciences. The natural sciences deal with the physical, chemical and biological environment. The social sciences, along with history, government, economics, psychology, anthropology, sociology and philosophy have become known as the behavioural sciences, because their primary concern is with human behuviour. Although these disciplines overlap in certain arcas, in general the anthropologist studies the ways of life among prc-literate (and some literate) communities throughout the world. The sociologist, on his own part, focuses on social group relations in complex societies, and the psychologist is concerned with the individual behaviour of organisms, both man and animal.

Each of rhc sciences has its own particular field of inquiry. However,

Sociology and Education 81

there is one unifying element common to all sciences, both natural and social. Every science uses the scientific method in the accumulation of knowledge. Both the natural and social scientists apply the scientific method to their particular field of study. At this point, let us briefly explain the term 'scientific method'.

Scientific method

What is this method used by all scientist.? Scientific method is an empirical, objective and logical method of collecting data and arriving at conclusions. What is empirical? By empirical we mean a method of study of analysis by which different researchers may reach the same factual conclusions regardless of their differences in personal values. In this case, t o be objective means to take a ' detached, impe&'onal approach, independent of subjective ideas and bias. What is logical? By logical we mean that the scientist practises the principles o f valid reasoning and correct inferences. The use of logic and human reasoning is important because facts cannot speak for themselves-they must be interpreted. A fact by itself is meaning& unless it is related to some other fact o r series of facts. If, for example, we say that froin the University of Nigeria, Nuskka, to Opi Junction is "six kilometres"; the statement has meaning only if you know what 'St" is and compare it t o other distance of equivalent measure. The Scientist must make logical conclusions from his data by relating them to other data through the use of human reason. . We have seen that sociology is 3 science; which means that it is a

body of knowledge accumulated through empirical and objective research, analyzed by human logic and reason, and verified by the research of many scientists. Since we have stated that sociology is2he science that deals with the investigation and analysis of human relationships, their causes and consequences, the next important part of our definition to consider is investigation. What is the meaning of in&- gation? An investigation is a careful and thorough study carried out by the use of the scientific rne:hod. Scientists have devised many kinds of good research techniques t o investigate their objectives of study. These include the historical approach. the correlational approach and func- tionalist approach.

THE MEANING OF EI)CCATIO?;

Education means many thing, to many people, and differznt things to ?;.-r. , . . .~Lren t people. To the elementary and secondary school child it can

82 Philosophical and Sociological Foutldario/u of Educarion

be an intellectually exciting experience; t o the poorly motivated, when presented with a dull and unimaginative curriculum, it can be a deaden- $ ing ordeal; to the university student, education could be a means of 3 acquiring the qualifications for a job. a wav of escaping !owly sccid class origins, or a time for experimenting with a variety of social and = personal identities; t o most Nigerian parents education for their child; : ren may present the realizationn of their own unfulfilled aspirations; to political officials education is something to be financed often at the .'

resistance of a penurious electorate; to those who operate the schools -teachers, principals and administrators-education means a job. a place where-'career . . aspirations may be realized or thwarted. where viable relationships with colleagues and supervisors niust be. worked out , ~ a v a l k ~ ( 1 9 6 8 : 3 ) . *

We have, so far, examined what education nreans to many people. Let us now turn our attentionn to what education n~eans to the sociologist and how he begins to structure and make nieaning out of this multi-faceted phenomenon called education.

In the words of Pavalko (1968:4). basically. sociologists regard euucation as a distinctively social phenonienon or 'institution' which. like' other social phenomena, is amcnable to objective scientific analysis Thus, a sociological perspective on education requircs tirat thc sociologtst steps back from that which he is exanlining. set aside his cultural and.persona1 biases and take a long hard look at the pllenonle- non of education. This helps him to build a body of verified and verifiable knowlGdge about education. The findings and colrclusiolrs s o built become important reference guide for educa t io~~al practitioners. Let us next examine the relationship between sociology and cducatiori -- SOCIOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Sociology focuses upon the study of social systems and sub- systems - the purpose each serves in the society. the relationship among the sub-systenis and the effects upon other sub-systetrrs wlrcn one sub-system changes (Dubey, Edem 8r Tliakur. 198 1 :3) . For cducation to be meaningful, it must relate to all other institutiotis iri tllc sa- cia1 system, particularly thc political, the economic and the f;lriiily i~lsti- tutions. Sociology of education thus examines the relationship of educational system to thc processes of social and cultural change or the maintenance of the status quo; the functioni~ig of the fornlal c d u w -

Sociology and Education M

tional system in the process of social reform in such areas of h u m relationships as those between ethnic, cultural and other groups; the functions of educational system in the process of social control; the1 relationship of education to the social class or status system; the relationship of the educational system to the public opinion, and the significance of education as a symbol of faith in culture and national unity.

Sociology of education helps to andyse the social structure within the school. To do this, sociology of educatim makes a number of sociological analyses that would throw light into the patterns of interaction among the persons in the school system. These include the school culture, particularly as i t differs from the culture outside the school; the nature of pattern of stratificaticn within the school; the relationship between teachers and pupils; the analysis of school clique, and the nature of leadership patterns and power structure in the school groups.

Through sociology, the rela tionship be tween the school and community is e x k n e d out of which functional relationship between the school and community is suggested. In this process, delineation of the community as it affects school organization is made; the analysis of the community power structure as i t impinges on the school; and analysis of the relation between the school system and other social systems in the community.

Very many schools in Nigeria are community schools in the sense that the community provides for their erection and, in most cases, sustains them. Part of the community objective in this endeavour is to foster intimate relationship between it and the school. Thus, sociology provides acceptable concept of community schools which is intended to achieve an educational system that is better integrated with the life of the community which it serves.

SUMMARY

Sociology is the science that deals with the investigation and analysis of human relationships, their causes and consequences. The subject of study is man himself, and man is a very interesting creature. However, man is also very complex and changeable. Sociology is an interesting discipline of study for every endeavour of investigation brings to light many new and exciting facts about human beings and their patterns of relationships.

Education'mearis so many things to so many people. However, it is a - - - means by which society ensures its stability. Young people are taught norms of behaviour of the society and the rules of rhe polity

84 Philosophical and Sociological Founaarions o f Education

:.The howledge of sociology helps.. #e school administrator to run the school better and understand social relation within the school. While education is the combination of social acts, sociology deals htti the analysis of human interaction. Such analysis in human interaction in education may include both formal education occurring in other places as well as the school and the multitude of informal communication processes which Serve educational functions. The communication processes, when analyzed, do lead to development of scientific generalizations about human relations in the educational system. Finally, socialogy of educ@ion helps in the development of the teacher's personality which includes the social roles of the teacher; ;he nature of teacher's personality; the impact of teacher's personality on the behaviour of the student, the role of the school in the growth, adjustment and maladjustment of children and the nature of-behaviour resulting from varying degrees of authoritarian or democratic school situations.

1. Define sociology as a science. 2. What are the basic differences between physical -sciences and

social science? 3, How does the Nigerian educational system-relate, functionally, to

the Nigerian polity and family? 4. Suggest any five contributioris which sociology could make to an

educational system.

REFERENCES -. 1. Dubey, D.L., Edem, D.A., and Thakur, A.S."An Introduction to

the Sociology o f Nigerian ,Education, London: Macmillan Press Ltd. 198 1.

2. Ezewu, C . Sociology o f Education. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Limited, 1983.

3. Pavako, R.M. (ed.) Sociology o f Education: A Book of Reading Itasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers Inc. 1968.

4. Thomas, W.K.,and Anderson R.J., Sociology: The Study o f Human Relationships, New Yark: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. New York, 1972.

5. Durkheim, E. Education and Sociology. Glencce: Free Press, 1956.

CHAPTER EIGHT

Culture, Society and Education

INTRODUCTION

The science of Sociology of Education has come a long way since its inception in the nineteenth century. In the previous chapter we discusses a few of the important contributions made by well-known sociologists in education. We also discussed the contribution of sociology of education in the analysis of human relationship, their causes and consequences. This chapter will examine culture, society and education.

In day-to-day conversations, we hear people use the word "culture" to mean refinement and an apprec~atian or admiration. Sometimes, we hear people say, ' h e needs more culture", to mean that one needs more training on acceptable ways of behaving. Sociologically, however, this use of the term is incorrect. It is also sociologically incorrect t o describc any person as "culturally deprived person." Every human being has a culture. This chapter therefore $scussses the meaning o f , culture, culture and society, parts o f culture and social institutions and their functions.

WHAT IS CULTURE?

Culture is the way of hfe-the shared, learned behaviour of a people. It ~~rc ludcs cvcrything we think, d o and have as members ofsociety.Ti-lere- fore, it includcs the idea, values, beliefs, literature, religion and philosophy of a people. It also includes the rules by which those people guide their behawour and the material objects that are found among thcm. Tylor (1 907 :20-27) defines culture as that complex whole which ~ricludcs knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs and any other capab~l i t~es acquired by man as a member of society. For Reuter (1950: 1 2 6 . 2 4 ~ ) . culture is the sum total o f human creation, the organized results of grohp experience up t o the present time; thus it includes all that man had made in the form of tools, weapon?, shelter and other - I < . I

material goods. As a social heritage, ~ u l t u r e represents the distinctive way of life of a group of people and their complete design for living.

86 Philosophical and Sociological Foundarions of Education

The most important aspect of culture is that it is shared, learned behaviour. It is shared by all the people in a given society. However, the more complex the society, the less its culture is universally shared. A second aspect is that the behaviour generated by a culture is leamed by the members of that society. This, of couse,does not mean that all learned behaviour is cultural. A small proportion of what we learn is .acquired simply through individual experience and it is not shared by us with others. In other words, we might say that all of our behaviour that is cultural has been learned, but not all that we have learned is culture.

Culture and society are not the same thing. The sociologist uses the term society to refer to a number of persons living within a certain geographic area who share a common culture and have a *feeling of solidarity that binds them tbgether into a social unit (Thomas and Anderson, 1972:42). The society is the people who populate a nation. When we speak of Nigerian society we mean all of the people who live in the Nineteen states that make up Nigeria. The culture is the way of life of these people. The Nigerian culture refers to the shared, learned behaviour of the people. who make up the Nigerian sodiety. Every society has a culture which members of that society transmit from generation to generation as the cultural heritage.

Society learns its culture through socialization process. In the words of Landis (1974:53), "the soci&ation process might be viewed as the process whereby one learns and internalizes the norm$and roles of the culture in which he lives." The culture determines for us what we will want to eat, whom we will like to hate; what we will fear, eg. snakes, mice and evil spirits; how we will express our emotions; how we will dress; our manners; and how. we will celebrate various feasts in the society. Thus, culture determines who we are and how we will live. Now, let us turn to parts of culture.

Culture Traits

One part of culture is the culture trait. A culture trait is an individual tool, act or belief related to a particular situation or need. Our use of hands in eating fou-fou or folk and h ive when e?ting is a culture trait. Another. culture trait is the specific, 'Nnoh', 'Ke:. ' 'Hello', 'Hi'. The greeting you use is related to the particular situG. : or need. . .

Thus, culture trait can be a tool, such as a spoon, or an aL:, such as greeting a friend. It can also be a be!ief, such as the belief in most Igbo culture that a young man breaking his jar of wine on his way to

getting a wife is bad luck. Culture traits may be either material tool or non-material tool. They may be simple or highly complex. An example is the simple operation of lighting a fire with a match or the complex synchronization of Mkpoki t i dance.

Culture traits are a part of your every day life. You are continually ch~oosing the correct culture for a specific situation. Supposc you fmd yourself in the company of friends and elders in lgboland and kola nuts were given to you to present to the people present. suppose you had carried the kola to any woman member of the group. you will be sure that you will not only be condemned for your lack of appropriate cultural behaviour but you may find that people no longer want to go out to such places with you or trust you with kola presenr arion. .

Culture Complexa . A culture complex is a cluster of interrelated traits. For exoniple. tile game of football is a culture complex that combines a variety of traits. First, we have a number of material traits. or tools. such as the football. goal post and net. Second, we have a series of specific acts. such as kick- - ing the ball, passing it, dribbling, blocking and tackling. Third, we Iiave a group of specific beliefs related to the game. sucli as tlic belief tint the players should show good sportsmanship, that ccrtain rules sliould be followed in playing the game, that penalties should be in~poscd for violation, that 'our' team must win.

Culture Pattern

Culture complexes combine to form larger cultural units callcd culiurc pattern. ~ u l t u r c p t t e r n s are combinations of a number of culture t r~ i t s and complexes into an interrelated whole. For example, the couiplcxcs of football, basketball, hockey, wrestling, boxing, track and others 311 combine to form the Nigerian athletic pattern. The Nigerian cduca- tional pattern might include classrooms, textbooks, students, tcacliers. desks, homework assignments, teaching aids, courses, school assentblics. marching bands, junior and senior high schools and scliools clubs.

Ethnocentrism

In studyigg cultu ;IOU will notice that they tend to be eth,iaccntric. . 'Ethno rneahs rat nation, or people. Cmtr i c means centre. Ethno-

Centrism is the belie. ?.at one's own race, nation or group is tlic bcst. When we are ethnocen~. : we tend to ? - .: other cultures by corn-

/ paring them to our ow: For exr ; . r , within Nigeria wc tend to F. ;

88 Phifosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

compare Yoruba culture with Igbo, Hausa w t h Igbo or Yoruba vice- versa. A teacher should recognize this in class.

Ethnocentrism has a tremendous inflGence on human relations. When i t takes the form of nationalism, i t makes national and interna- tional unity and peace impossible. The ethnic rivalry in Nigeria, the Arab-Israeli disputes and the Iran-Iraqi war are recent examples of disruptions involving nationalistic ethnocentrism.

Other Parts of Culture

Cultural universals which are learned behaviours that are widely accepxed are required by a particular society. Cultural universals are very important to the individual because they prescribe behaaours that are required for all members of the society. If an individual violates the universals, such an individual is considered a deviant and may be severe- ly punished. In Nigeria, wearing of clothes in the public is cultural universal. In the spirit of W.A.I., (War Against Indiscipline) queueing up to take turns is now cultural universal in Nigeria. -

Often, the culture prescribes certain universal behaviour that must be followed, it usually gives the individual a choice about how he will mset these universals. The example of wearing clothes in public, we have already said, is a cultural universal in Nigerian society, but the styles of those clothes is a cultural alternative. Individuals may choose

- between chieftaincy 'agbada', french suit, e tc . Cultural alternatives, then, are the many choices open to the individuals for meeting the requirements of the cultural universal.

Now that we have examined the meaning of culture, culture and society and parts of culture, we will next consider what essential needs of a society are, and how the members of a society meet these needs. We will determine what social structures or institutions a% and how societies us& them to regulate the fulfilment of the basic needs.

\

SOCIAL INSTITUTION

Institution has a variety of meanings. The term may refer to prisons, mental hospitals, children's homes, remand homes, the Supreme Court or the Church. However, sociol~gists use the term with specific definition in mind and they are consistent in their usage. Horton and Hunt (1972:177) define an institution as "an organized system of socia1 relationships which embodies certain common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of society". According to Bierstedt (1970: 320), an institution represents an organized way of doing something.

In other words, a social institution may be defined as an enduring

Cltlture, Society and Education 89

cultural structure through which certain fundamental needs of the society are met and social control is established. By enduring we mean that social institutions exist over a considerable period of time; in fact, they are quite permanent. By culturol stnrcture, we mean a complex collection of values, norms and roles that are common to evejone in the society and that regulate human relationship. A social institution is the way these values, norms and roles are put . together or organized. Social institutions have functions, which include meeting' the fin&- medtd needs of the society. Bfr findamentol we mean that if these needs were not met the society would not survive.

It must be stated that social institutions have no physical structure ,

and so cannot be seen. We cannot obskrve values, n&s or roles except as they are reflected in the way people behave. Similarly, social institutions do not of themselves carry out the fundamental needs of the society. Instead, they regulate the way which the individuals, working separately and in groups, will meet those fundamental needs. Social controls help institutions to regulate human behaviour in the society. Which are those human needs that social institutions help human being to meet? In other words, what characteristics do all social institutions I have in common that enable them to meet human needs?

THE FUND~ZMENTAL NEEDS OF A somm We have already stated that basic needs of a society must be met if the society is to continue to exist. Let us next consider five fundamental needs for which a society must devise social structures-social institutions-if the society is to survive.

I . The replacemenr o f members: If we don't replace old members with new members as the older members die, our society cannot suryive fqr long. In Nigeria as in all other societies, members of the population are replaced through sexual reproduction and by immigration. This sexual reproduction is through the "cultural universal" system of marriage, the family.

2. The socialization of new members: If a society is to exist, the new members must be taught the cultural heritage and the skills and knowledge they need to become part of that society. The infant must be taught how to feed himself and how to protect himslef from the danger of the envuonment. He must be taught the language so that he can communicate with others. He must learn'how to find his place in the division of labour so that he can provide for his needs. The institution of education is responsible for this very important responsibility.

3. A sense of purpose: If a society is to survive, its members must have

90 Phihsophicol and Socio lo~al Foundations o f Eduaction

a mse of p u r p e so that they feel that their lives are worth living. There is a mearmre of correlation between sutcide and people whe feel hopeless in life and see no point in Ufe. The structure that has most provided a sense of ultimate purpose is the institution of refigion. A church b not a social fnstltution,but ia an association connected with the institution of reUgIon. The imdtudon of religion fs the totality of vatuea, norms and roles relatnd to reUglous beliefs.

Reproduction of members

Socialization of members

A same of purpose

The production and distribution of goods

and services

Maintenance of order. and protection of the

A Fundamental need over which the social institution has control: -

primary regulation and control

a reasonable amount of secondary control - - - - the power to apply formal sanction

4. The production and distribution of goo& and services: If an hdi- vidual is to survive, he must have food, water and shelter from the elements. The system devised to supply these needs may be very simple or very complex, depending on the society. For example, in a traditional society, the father may provide food for his family by hunting, fishing or farming. But in a more modern complex society, there are many secondary groups, such as the canning company, the processing company that produce and distribute food. Nigerian society, however, has some division of labour. If there were no division of labour every one of us would have to supply his own needs.

5. The maintenance of order and security: TO survive, a society must

CMture, Society and Education 91

be able to. keep order among its members. This involves the distribu- fim of power in the society. The society cannat exist unless it maintains some orderly control over the sources.and distribution of power. Some type of machinery must be set up that has the ultimate authority to resolve conflicts between members of the society and to impose sanction on those who violate &e norms. The structure that provides this function is the institution of government.

Society is defined as a number of people who have lived together long enough to become organized. Culture is made up of the learned, shared pattern of behaviour and knowledge common to a society. Cutlure may be material and non-material. Every society must meet all its fundamental needs if it is to continue to exist. Therefore, every society has values, norms and roles related to each of these fundamental needs. The values, norms and roles make up enduring cultural structures, known as social institutions.

. - REVISION QUESTIONS

1. What is social institution? 2. Describe the fundamental needs of a society- and the social

institution that regulates each need.

3 . How .are social institutions and fundamental needs interrelated? 4. What is culture? Why do cultures vary so much $roughout the

world? 5. What are culture traits, culture complexes and c&ure patterns

and how do they relate to one another?

REFERENCES

Bierstedt, R., 7he Social Order (3rd Edition), New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1970.

Hortor., B., and Hunt, C.~ociology(3rd Edition) New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1972.

Ladis, J.R. ~ o c i o l o ~ ~ : Concepts and Characteristics (2nd Edition), Belmount, California: Wadsworth Publishing company; Inc., 1974.

: Reuter, E.B. An Inboduction to Sociology, New York: MacGraw- Hill Book Co., 1950.

92 PhiI(;iophical and Sociohgkal Fuundarbns of' Educaf iorr

Thomas,, W.L., Anderson, R f . Sociology: The Study of Human Rela- tionships, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1972.

Tylor, E.B., ~ A i t i v a Culture, Where? John Murray, 1902. -

CHAPTER NINE

Socialization and Education INTRODUCTION

In chapter eight, you read about culture, its relationship wid.1 society and education. After reading t h s chapter, you should be able to:

- Defme socialization - Explain socialization process - Describe the relationship between socialization process, the

individual and society. - Discuss socialization, school and other agents of social control. To understand the process of socialization and the control of socia-

lization in school we should be able to answer these questiotrs: What is Socialization? How does socialization take place? What is socialization in relation to the individual and the society? What is school in relation to socialization agents of social control and social integration?

WHAT SOCIALIZATION If

for Socialization

1. The child has biological nature (inheritance). That is,biological influence transmitted by heredity through human' reproduction. ' 2. Sdcial inheritance, Hutt and Gibby (1959: 51) have said, are those . I

social experiences which the child learns from his predecessors. He is -: :.

not born into a social vacuum, alone and unattended, but. into a society. From the moment the child is borq, others care for his needs. u Not long after, he is taught to think and behave as others (Uche, 1980: 54).

3. The child has the opportunity to interact with the society around him. In respanse he becomes, according to' Uche (1980, bid),-his own teacher, as he interpretes the world around him. He may accept, reject or modify what he experiences. This he does in a selective process in order to become an individual. This means that he becomes socialized. Socialization, therefore, is not an automatic process that evolves from in-born potentials. Its development depends on group experiences. This point is best illustrated with a case by Kingsley Davis

94 Philosophical and Sociological fh/rljarior~s c~'1~lir~~crri l 111

(1947: 432437) in which a child was totally isolated l i c m l1rr111n11 contact. The child, Isabelle, is an example of the effects of total ao la - tion from society.

Isabelle was isolated with her deaf-mute mother in a dark nwni I;w the first six years o f her life. When she regained contact w ~ t h t tie at. d e t y , she was discovered to be making croaking noise for speecl~. Slit was extremely fearfui of other human beings and was in poor hcaltli. After two years o f contact with other human beings and exposure t o a special training programme, however, Isabelle had reached her 1iormaI educational level.

T h e above case shows that c h i l d h who are denied sufticient contact with other hurA1an beings exhibit physical and mental retardation. These effects are especially evident-among the children raise; in such institutions as orphanages like S.DA. Motherless Babies Honie. Ngwa Road Motherless Babies Home, Owerri Motherless Babies Honic wtlcrc little- emotionally supportive human interaction is provided. Contact with other human beings and expkrience as a member of a group arc absolutely essential in the process of socialization.

From our discussion s o far of &e ihree pre-requisites for socialization, we see that socialization is important in order to be able to trans. mit our physical and social experiences to our other generations. So- cialization (according t o Uche 1980: 54) "Is a process o f learning 2nd adjustment whereby the individual acquires and internalises the values, beliefs, and behaviours which are bo th customary and acceptable t o his fellows". It simply means the process by which a personality is developed by internalizing the culture 6f a given society. For example. tlirough socialization the child is: (a) disciplined and trained in toilet habits, punctuality , cleanliness

and school routines. -- @) given aspirations (to become a doctor, a teacher, a solider, a

priest, etc.) that are superior to material rewards and given a purpose for being disciplined.

(c) taught the norms, habits, traditions, and values of a society including the relationship of a younger one to an elderly person; the need to adjust to changing circumstances mainly by learning various roles and by playing the part expected of h m .

(d) taught skills to enable him to take part in society as an adult.

FAMILY AND SOCMLiZATlON

In the family, children are taught to conform to society's customs or folkways, obey them because to d o so is a matier of custom or usage.

Sociolltation and Education 95

For instance, they are taught to close their mouth while chewing or srthg., Girls, especially, are taught to seat properly, how to prepare special meal for a particular occasion and to put. on appropriate dress for given occasions, etc. However, there is n o strong emotional feeling attached to customs

Unlike folkways or customs, children are taught not to violate the norms of society. This is because norms are more related to moral conduct than to mere customs or folkways. Children are, therefore, taught norms which are the expected pattern of behaviour. Thh may be behaviour pattern of working, marriage, courtship, b o y and girls relationship and other social activities in the society. Violation of norms involves threat to values regarded as important in the society.Take, for example, the taboo against incest (going to bed with one's sisters, daughter or nice). Our society values brother, sister, daughter, son, father and mother relationship very much. Because our society places high value on its norms, any person who violates these norms suffers both social censureship (ostracism) and legal harassment. This is characteristic of mores or norms. For instance, if a person marries a cousin, he may feel some guilt and shame because society does not approve of cousin marriage. By so marrying, he violates the society's mores or norms. It is through socialization, therefore, that the child is taught the society's customs, norms or mores and values. The vehicle for socialization is language.

THE PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION

Socialization frequently takes place through deliberate-(planned) and unconscious actions. The school, the family, the church and the club transmit to the child rules and values through verbal and tangible rewards and punishments. For example, the class or school gives a prize to the child who learns well and comes out first in the examination; parents whose child finds a missing purse containing some amount of money and returns same have cause not only to be happy and proud but may decide to take the child to the zoological garden; the Catholic church demands penance for sins committed. various rewards and punishments are used to insure the child's acceptance of these rules (Broom and Selznich, 1968:86).

The most effective type df socialization is unconscious. There may be little or no deliberate intent to train the child according to certain rules, yet socialization takes place. For example, some parents may set up rigid routines for studying, resting and time for eating for the child solely for their own comfort, convenience and peace. These

96 Philosophical and -Sociological Foundations of Education

are important values and attitudes being passed from adults to children through behaviour cues and expressions. That is, the parents' (adults') behaviour toward the child conveys values that are n6t plainly expressed. Sociologists consider this form of socialization more effective than conscious attempts.

Socialization of a person, -child, student, father, mother etc. -develops as he learns to perform various roles expected of him. These roles require him to learn certain skills or to perform particular duties. He .must also acquire the attitudes and expectations appropriate to each role. For example, Horton and Hunt (1964: 118) are of the opinion that a man will not be an efficient father unless he has been socialized to the values of the role of a father.

I

SOCULIZATION, THE lNDlVIDUAL AND THE SOCIETY

The individual's reactions to socialization develops through socialization. The self-ihage, I (individual), results from social interaction and language. For example, when the child's verbal development progresses to the point of anticipating a certain word or sound, first to come to him is the sense of r; that is, the awareness of physical separateness and individual existence. But, as the child perceives the attitudes and opinions of others towards him, he sees himself, (reflected image of self as it were), in a "looking glass". This concept was developed by Charles H. Cooley (1902: 102-3). If, for example, Nkem is told by everyone around her that she is pretty or beautiful, her self-image expands to include the fact 'l am pretty."

The ideal self of the child is created through socialization. From the reactions and attitudes of others toward him, the child also forms a concept of w h c h e ought to be so he can attain his goals or receive love and,approval of those around him, especially those of his parents. Broom and Selznich (1968: 92) point out that this concept of ideal self is the child's reaction in identifying himself with the values, ideals, and goals that he hopes to achieve. The concept of ideal self may motivate the child. It may also cause frustration and failure if a real discrepancy or conflict exists between the child's potential self (individual) and ideal self.

SOCIALIZATION AND EDUCATION

Uche .(1980: 5 5 ) reports that children gain impression of the self primarily from parents, teachers, friends and a few other adults with . . . . . 9 , s . . . .. . .

Socilaization and Education 9 7

or parents that he is dull, unintelligent and inferior may develop a feeling of inadequacy even though he has fantastic success in later life. In the same manner, a child who receives self-confidence from his teachers' reactions may preserve that feeling even if his adu1thood. i~ full of disappointments. Significant others: George Herbert Mead (1934: 1.54) developed this concept. This is the early stage of socialization in which the child accepts o r internalizes the attitudes and roles of individuals who make impression on him. Mead calls these individuals "significant others" (or reference groups). These people consist of individuals whose opinion the child values and whose judgement he considers competen:. Such individuals include parents, friknds, teachers, brothers. uncles. cousins and people in authority whose influence helps to shape his life.

Generalized others: Mead (1 934: Ibid) also used the term generalized others to mean a generalized concept of what others. who occupy different positions, expect of the individual as he assumes more complex role. An example is learning to participate in games like football, basketball, hockey, group and other co-operative activities. It & the attitude of the whole community.

The child, therefore, is socialized by his peer group as well as by his parents.

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

The School

The school is a social institution established to impart culturil values to the children. It is one of the socialization agents. The school teachcs new values and new life which are different from tllc ones Icarnt at home. I t transmits traditions, cultural values or hcritagc through tcach- ing-Nigerian history, language arts and literature; religious and 1nor31 beliefs. The school teaches both how to be a good citizen-patriotism. and also general knowledge and technical skills. The school provides the mechanism or opportunity for determining life chances. bcrtcr status: helps t o determine motivational directions and opportunity for fur t i~cr education. School socialization provides the child the developnmt of his cognitive abilities which other socializing agents, like thc I ~ o n ~ e and peer group, cannot provide adequatcly .

The socialization function which was once exclusively the rcspon- sibility o f parents, has now been shifted to thc school and is 11ow quitc strongly invested in the teacher. The school also assumes thc I'u~~ction of providing the background for peer group expcriencc for tllc chilil.


The reason is because pupils are of the ,same age, background and gmeral ability. The school is also rigidly structured with regard to the formation of affective peer groups.

The Peer Group (Age Grade)

The peer group is the child's own friends and equals. They are play- groups (siblings, neighoun' children, school mates), the cliques and many gang. They take shape early in the child's life. The exact time varies with both the nature of the family and the c u h r a l situation and availability of age-mates.

In later years, however, they become more formdly organized groups like clubs, societies, Boy Scouts and Girl Ghides. Pker groups are social groups that ipfluence the behaviour of their m'embers (Uche, 1980: 74).

Fac*ors Determining Peer Groups Formation '

(a) The objective of the group is to realize oneself in ;ociety. @) They have common goals to achieve. It can be : -. .

- (i) educational objective or purposes; (ii) political activities; (iii) social or an ti-social activities;

(c) In most cases they are from conimon cultural backgrounds; (d) 'Tne immutable factors prescnt arc scx, cthnicity, agc, etc.

Characteris tics

1. The peer groups interests are short-rangc and tcniporary. 2. Any long-rangc ififlucnce of pccr group on its incmbcrs is cither

unintentional or accidcntid. -- 3. Pcer groups have customs and org~ni~at ion. 4. Its mcnibcrs' rolcs arc lcss wcll dctincd and tlicy elrange rrcqucnt-

ly. For cxamplc. cliildrcn cllangc tlicir pccr group nicnibcrsliip as tlicy go through differcri I stages ol' dcvclop~iicnt.

5. Pcer groups cxcrt a protbu~itl soci;~li~irig inllucncc and as such have decp conscqucliccs, 11 Icads a n d ~iioultls peoplc ant1 al'fccts. i F not actually protluccs tllcir :~ttitutlcs. opinions and clioiccs of occupatio~i. I'ccr groups swtait~ aml protect tllcir ~iicliibcrs against p ~ o h l c ~ i ~ s of isolalio~i. clc.

the socialization of the child in Nigeria: Ethnic distinctions. There are in existence within Nigeria schools. ethnic and reIigious distinctio~s and tensions among some groups in our society. Co-education: During adolescence, especially during secondary school period, boys and girls learn, to mix with the opposite scs. At some stage of 'this, inter-relationship between the opposite sexes, some problems in the co-educational schoors are bound to arise. Language: In most urban primary schools, children from different linguistic or ethnic groups come together. Under such circum- stance, the friendstup groups among students may Be formed on language level as well as on the basis of social class.

Other problems: Parental occupation, education, income, religion, family background, etc. play an important role.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIALIZATION OF THE CHILD

In modem times, the function of the school has considerably changed. The traditional function of imparting the basic skills of numeracy, reading and writing are no longer considered adequate for the present challenge. Today, the schoul has to perform some of the functions of the family. The school develops certain desirable moral attitudes and good social habits in the pupils. Schools attain this process of socialization through its curricular and extra-curricular activities. For example, . - -

at the Nursery school, instruction is given informally. The greatest. emphasis is put on developing good manners and etiquettes. A major emphasis is on training the child to become less dependent on his - ... -

. parents and other siblings. The child is trained to imbibe and practise equality by sharing toys and play materials. In the elementary school,

\: .

efforts are made to turn the child into a responsible citizen of the schooi community. Work habits are inculcated in the child. The child is trained to cooperate with fellow students as well as take orders urgrud- gingly from the teacher and other school authorities. The school provides expenses of relationship with the senior adults as well as those of the age grade.

The teacher plays a vital role in the socialization of the child. For example, he exerts a great influence upon the development of his personality. The teacher unknowing!y influences the behaviour patterns ofhis pupils. For proper socialization of the child, the teacher may take his pupils from time to time to public places like courts in session, mu- seum, and places of historical importance. He may introduce his pupils

100 Philosophicul and SocioIo~~icaI Foundations o f Education

to work experience in school. This will enable the child to have flrst hand experiences of the activities pursued in farms and other places of work.

SUMMARY

This chapter has defined socialization as the process of learning and adjustment whereby the individual acquires and internalizes the values, beliefs, and behaviour which are both customary and acceptable to his fellows. It is the teaching of a society's culture, values, norms, and behavioural patterns thereby transmitting it to its younger generation, The pre-requisites for socializati6n were identified as biological inheritance, and social inheritance. ~ h e ~ r o c e s s of socialization was explained AS A DELIBERATE (planned) i n d an unconscious action. The effect of socialization on the.individual was discussed. Socialization develops different personalities.

The child first develcps the sense of I - looking glass and then the ideal self. Socialization was treated in relation to education using the individual, significmt others, and generalized others in the assumption of roles.

-Three agents of socialization were described. The family was implied at various illustrations, the school and the peer groups were funy discussed showing how they also serve as agents of social control. Functions of education in the socialization process and problems of socialization of the child were discussed. The teacher's role in socialization process was also emphasized.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. (a) What is socialization.

@) Describe who is a socialized person. (c) Identify and describe the pre-requisites for socialization.

2. Explain socialization process and how socialization takes place in the home.

3 . Explain how the individual reacts to socialization. 4. Discuss the functions of education in the socialization process

and show the relationship between socialization and education.

5. (a) Identify 'the major agents of socialization in this.chapter and discuss each.

(b) What are the functions of each? (c) How does each agent serve as a social control?

Socialization and Education 101

REFERENCES

Ezewu, E E. et. al.. Sociological and Philosophical Foundations of Education. Ibadan: Heinemam Educational Books (Nig.) Ltd. 1981.

Broom, and Philip. Sociology, New York: Harper and Row, 1968. Cooley, C.H. The Nature of Human Nature, New York: Scribner's,

1902. - ' " " "3 ' 8 ' #

Davis, K., "Final Note on a Case of Ex t rem~ Isolation" in American . < '

/oumal of Sociology, Vol. 52 ( ~ a r c h , i 9 4 7 ) . Horton, P.B. and Hunt, C.L. Sociology, New York: Mcgraw Hill 1964. Uche, U.W. Sociology of Eucation for NCE Stduents, London: George

Allen & Unwin Publishers, 1980.

CHAPTER TEN

The School, Classroom Socialization and the Teaching Profession INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, we discussed socialization in relation to education. The school was identified as one of the socialization ?gents. It teaches new values and new life different from the one learnt at home. The school transmits our traditions and cultural values. Uche (1984: 71) says that in school, students are socialized into a pattern of be. haviour. They are taught to respect teachers' authority; they are treated as a group rather than as individuals. The school therefore is both a social and bureaucratic form of organization.

At the end of h i s chapter, you should be ablc to: (a) Discus sociology of the school in terms of school bcing a small

society; @) Describe the relationship k twecn o w school, socicty and class-

room ; (c) Explain the teachcr and studcnt intcraction or rclation and social

controt in classroom; (d) Examine the teacher and !caching profession in Nigcria.

THE SCHOOL

The school is a small socicty or organizaioti, I t is niadc up of groups of teachers, pupils and othcr pcrsonncl. Thc classroom is within a school. It is a part of it. Thc classroo111 is also composcd of thc tcachcr and thc pupils. Thc school tlicrcfbrc is a sn~allcr socicty or unit tnaclc up of: (1) a set of stilallcr cntitics callcd classiooi~n arid each clsssroom has

its ow11 particular cliarnctcristics; (2) a set of tcacl~crs. and pupils goups.

It has a sct oi' goals ;IIILI ccrtah routirlc proccrlurcs. T l ~ c goals OF a scl~ool rcvcd t l~c aims ol' tlic ~s ;~c l~c r s i ~ i ~ i l pq i l s or s tudc~~t s . Tllc school as ii social orga~~iz;~lion "pirs~ics spccilic goids which i t is struc- turcd to scrvc. I t Ir;is an explicit goids lo ;icl~icvc. Tlic scl~ool has a . I : : I . . . . - . 8 . I . . . . ''A h 3 - I 8' I

The School and CIassmom Socialization I03

cedure" (Uche, 1984: 72; quoted from Banks, 1972). For example, the five main goals o f Nigerian schools as endorsed in the National Poiicy on Education (1 9 8 1 : 7) are the building of (a) a free and democratic society; (b) a just and egalitarian society; (c) a united, strong and self-reliant nation; (d) a great and dynamic economy; (e) a land o f bright and full opportunities for all citizens.

These goals are, therefore, based on the integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizenry and equal teaching opportunities for all citizens of the nation a t the primacy, secondary and tertiary levels. The goals of the NigerianSchool reveal the aims of her teachers and . students.

It therefore follows from the Nigerian idea, that a school must care for all aspects of the pupils' development for their character as well as their academic attainment. In Nigeria, the school tends to lay down the way in which pupils are to behave and i t holds itself responsible for en- forcing the Nigerian schdol code o f conduct, rules and regulations (values and norms).

Once the Nigerian teaiher-is in his classroom with his pupils, he has the academic freedom. But how and what he teaches is largely his own affairs, but must be guided by the State ar.d national syllabuses under the supervision of the Headmaster/principal aild the Ministry o f Educa- tion inspectors. However, one thing is certain; Nigerian pupils o r students, like their counterparts in Western world, are curious and influence the way the teacher runs his class. This is because the pre-con- ceptlons, attitudes teachers 2nd pupils bring into their classrooms affect their behaviour there. Classrooms are within the school. But they are partly independent because of social conditions which surround them. This is because each class__contains a group of pupils who may be .

"well disciplined and studious with one teacher but rebellious and bored with another". This statement is clearly illustrated with our dis- 1 cussion on classroom interaction that follows. There are other factors

: that affect pupils such as intelligence, home background, willingness t o work hard, etc. (blakemore and Cooksey, 198 1 : 1 17-1 18) but class-

j room interaction can have a decisive effect on his academic success. r.

. THE TEACHER A S D PUPIL IN THE CLASSROOM

The history o f the relationship between each teacher and cach class reveals the level of understanding and friendliness, possible conflict and

- disagreement. This means that a gradual learning proccss of each other takes place in classroom. It i s a process in which the students in the

104 Philosophical and Sociological Foundorions o f Education

class assess the teacher and the teacher as well learns about the class. For example, some classes after being taught by teachers have a reputation among them of being good academically or being lazy. Teachers as well earn a reputation among pupils arising from the subjects they teach. Hence, "my Home Economics teacher", "my Maths, Music teacher", etc. From the same. subject the teacher might be known as a strict disciplinarian, bad and hateful, cheerful, etc. The individual pupil earns a reputation of bang known as clever or dull. These kinds of reputations influence interaction and relationship between teachers and pupils. This shows that the social relationship between teachers and students have effect on the academic performance of pupils (Blakemore and Cooksey, I98 1, Ibid).

The Clasroom I

The classroom, accordingto Parsons1(1966), is a small society. The purpose of claaroom is learning. Tlus is achieved through human interaction. Such interaction takes place &tween the teacher and the students and between one student and another. The second kind of interaction that takes place in classroom is between student and subject matter. This kind of interaction is characterized by the experiences of the student and the way the class as a little society is organized for the learning of subject matter.

The discussion here is on classroom as learning societies through hunian interaction that goes on within them. Our observation of what goes on in classroom shows that much depends upon the hutlian relationships witliin the classroom. For example, the teacher, the pupil or student, and the class environment that make up the little society can inspire the child to want to learn in order to achieve the goals of the classroom. The classroom can make children not to want to learn, rcjcct than and make them want to fail. This means that the little socicty can stimulate, cast down and cause them depressed. .~

Social Factors in the Classroom

Now Ict us cxaniine hcw social factors within the classroom can help us cuntrol thc class and determine the quality of learning and how well Icarninp takcs place. Each incident illustrates how the socia.! climate of i l~c classroo~ir fosters discipline or detracts children from learning.

I . hlrs Ike's Pupils Idctrtify diffrent kinds of Edible Vegetables

51rs, l kc. is an A.C.E. teacher. She speaks Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo and Elik I ' l ~ ~ c ~ ~ t l y , Slie is regarded by her pupils as "Big Auntie". Some of

The School and Classroom Socialization 105

her pupils involuntarily address her as "auntie" instead of the usual "madam".

She is very understanding, patient with her pupils and even p l a v "snakes and ladder" with them on some rainy days when the pupils cannot go outside to play.

The class is having a discussion on different kinds of edible vegetables. Mrs Ike asks for examples of edible vegetables. Nkechi who b from Olokoro in Umuahia zone in Imo State mention ukazi. Obiyo who is from Imerienwe in Owerri zone shouted, 'you have left out acham. Your people use acham as a meat substitute and it goes along with every ukazi soup.' The class started to rock with laughter. Mrs. Ike in- tervened. 'Obi', as she always calls him, 'it appears you have eaten u h z i and a c h r a soup before.' Obiyo replied, 'I have, auntie, but I could' not swallow the achara. ' Mrs. Ike then told- the class that she lived at Umuahia when her father who was an engine driver lived there. She said that she could not remember any Sunday that they missed achara and ukazisoup. The pupils looked at each other with dismay.

Mrs. Ike thanked Nkechi for the good example. 'Now, Obi, give us ;our own example', Mrs. Ike demanded. Uha, replied Obiyo. ' T h k k you', said Mrs. Jke. 'Yes, any other example? said the teacher. Ewedu, said Obiageli from Adazi'. The other pupils started to ask what ewedu was. The teacher explained that ewedu is grown all over Nigeria but mainly eaten by the Yoruba. Obiageli raised her hand up again and said, 'I forgot the one I eat always, Onugbu! 'There you are', said Mrs. Ike. 'You have all forgotten u p which goes with what?' asked the teacher. Chinyere said okro.

Mrs. Jke's pupils are spontaneous,and she obviously runs a dernocra- tiic classroom. She is not an aloof teacher but rather does all she can to level the distance between herself and her pupils. She accepts being theii "Auntie" and, like her pupils, can tell jokes. Yet, she does exercise control when she wants to and can command-the class to quiet down.

; though perhaps not for long. The class seems to enjoy laughing together, not a t somebody but with one another. There seems to be little question that the pupils are fond of Mrs. Ike. Everyone, including the teacher, teems to have a good time.

i t I , 2. Mr. Anyanwu 's Geography Classroom * i On Monday morning, Mr. Anyanwu, elementary siy class teacher dis-

cussed with his class the continents of [!l : world'. 3lr. Anyanm: 'T~e're are seven continents in the world. Thcse are: Europe, Asia, Ausxdia,

' Africa, North America, South America and the Arctic in !he South

*Thsnlu t o mv 1984 ACE dudent from whom this situation r:,.em:i'- w ~ c

106 Philosophical and Sociological Foundatiot~s of Eduaction

Pole. Of all these continents, the largest of them b Asia. The smallest is the Arctic in the South Pole and it is very cold. Many pe'ople d o not,live there because of its cold condition. The only people that live there are the Eskimos'.

'Excuse me sir', said Uzoma. 'Yes, Uzoma'. replied the teacher. Fearfully and quietly Uzoma stood up. 'Sir. my mummy told me that "Arctic region" is in the North Pole and it is not a continent. She told me it is called "Arctic Region". The smallest continent is in the South Pole and it is called Antartica.

'Oh! my God' exclaimed tlie teacher, Uzoma's fear increased. He sat down with his face bent on the desk. 'What a mess' continued Mr. Anyanwu. He dashed to the class reading corner where some books were exhibited. Within a twinkle of an eye he came back with an Atlas. With a grim command,'Now class, get your Atlases. opeu at the map of the world', he ordered. Quickly and confidently he opened the world map. With a very smart search he discovered that he was wrong. Reali- zing his mistakes, he carefully closed the Atlas.'Now children. put back your atlases. You are slow in finding out the answer'.

Uzoma knew he had won. but puts his face down. Other pupils started asking him to show them the positions of both Arctic and Antartica. He did not make any move. his head was still bent on the desk realizing that it was some sort of approval from other pupil; who secretly rejoiced to see a teacher humiliated by one of them. Class. when you reach'.-home today, find the positions of both Arctic and Antartica. Uzoma, thank you', said the teacher.

The first and second examples 'have been primri ly concerned with the interaction between. the teacher and the group-the class. The inci- dents described, involved the interplay of students. teachers and subject matter. The second example further shows how even the teacher who appears t o be completely certain that he has the right alswer can bc caught by his own pupils. The second exan~ple also shows tlmt chi- lenges t o a teacher's classroom authority rnay not be as dircct as in this example, but sometinles pupils resist in a way which is safer for t l~eni by: (a) pretending never to know the answer to t l ~ c teacher's q11esti011; (b) remaining silent for as long as possible; and (c) doing written work extremely slowly.

By adopting these methods, they d o not break any ot ' the classroo111 rules but manage t o con~n~unica te hostility and passive rcsistnr~cc t o tlw teacher (Blakemore and Cooksey, 198 1 : 123).

The School and Classroom Sucializatfon 10.7

Tho two examples indicate the range of social functions of the classroom. These functions include the relationships of students with one another, of teachers with students and of both with subject matter. .

In the remaining part of this chapter, our discussion will focus on sociology and the teacher. Basically, we shall be discussing the teaching profession in Nigeria. We will try to fmd out whether teaching in Nigeria is a profession or riot. We will finally examine professional characteristics of teaching in Nigeria and its functions in relation to Nigerian education.

PROFESSIONAL AND SOCIAL STATUSES OF THE NIGERIAN TEACHER - -The professior~al and social statuses of the Nigerian teacher have for a - long time been in some doubt. One of the reasons is that of the teachers

themeives. For example:

(i) the graduates who teach in secondary schools or teacher Training Colleges or PostSecondary institutions;

: (ii) the NCE and the HND graduates who also teach in secondary - schools;

- (hi) Associateship Certificate holders and Grade I teachers who teach in lower secondary schools and primary schools;

(iv) Grade I1 tcachers who manage and teach in our primary schools; constitute themselves into a hierarchy which may breed doubts among themselves. For example, they create different unions and professional associations like the NUT; Graduate Teachers. Association; the Con- ference of Headmasters; the Science Teachers Association. : These factors certainly militate against a unified profession of teaching or make the recognition of teaching as a profession difficult.

"Teaching as a Profession

.Teaching in Nigeria has not yet attained the status of a full profession. Thc major task of present Nigerian teachers is how to professionalize the teaching field. What Nigeria has is a majority of teachers: (a) who tell instead of teaching (b) who inform instead of teaching (c) a few of who only teach and inspire.

Alongside the obligation felt by both Fedcral and Statc. :..$!-

tucnts to provide education for the ma& has grown an a c ~ t e shortaL of professionally qudilied tcachers to teach the dramatically increase school-going age population. This experience forced the governments


t o open teaching doors to pupil, auxiliary or unqualified teachers, as the case ,nay be, who, at least, may be able to teach their pupils how to read and write. This desperate situation should by no means tempt the outside observer to question the professional status of teaching.

However, teaching in Nigeria can fully be called a proposal for meeting the qualities that make a profession. For example:

(a) to pass for a professionally qualified teacher like the history or mathematics teacher in a secondaryy school, one requires com- petent knowledge in history or mathematics as the case may be. The teacher is required t e be knowledgeable.

(b) to qualify as a teacher, Nigeria requires a long period. of training as it happens in our colleges of edycation and university faculties

of education. n

For teaching to be accepted as a profession in Nigeria, it must possess certain characteristics similar to those of other professions such as:

long period of training for specialization in a particular field. For example, Ezewu (1983: 126) identifies eight categories of Niger- ian teachers below university level education. members must possess intellectual ability, special knowledge and skills. admission requirement must be relatively high. Field of study and specialization should be regarded as a life career. the profession must have an effective organization like the NUT to regulate activities and ~erformance of its members. the profession must require a licence or certificate to practise by its members, e.g. Registration in the Register of teachers. it must establish a defined ethical principle or code of conduct. This is yet to be established by the Nigerian Union of Teachers. it must set standards which members must attain to qualify. it must promote and protect the welfare of its members. it must provide in-service courses for the professional growth of its members (Chamberlain e t al, 1966 .)

THE NIGERIAN UNION OF TEACHERS (NUT)

Thc Nigerian Union of Teachers, (NUT) was founded in 1931. Its first President was Kansome 0. Kuti. Its founding fathers cllimed it as both trade union and professional organization. The major factor that gave birth to NUT was arbitrary cuts in teachers' salaries which was as a result of the 1926 education code and the need for the cut was very much necessary because of the economic depression of 1929-1930s.

The School and Classmom Socialization I09

Government wanted further cuts of teachers' salaries. There was stiff fight by the NUT Government, therefore, succumbed and withdrew from the cuts. Salaries that had earlier been slashed were restored.

NUT am a Professional Organization and a Tra& Union

One of the major characteristics of a professional organization is the existence of organized association which enforces the ethics or code of its membership. If we accept the assumption that teaching is a profession, we may ask whether its organization (NUT) enforces the ethics or code of conducts of the teaching profession.

Earlier, teachers' organization had been found weak and ineffective when compared wi? other professions. Stanley et a1 (1956: 578- 579) states that teachers, like other professional groups, have common interests and collective responsibilities, common interest in salary, conditions of service, teaching facilities, in-service courses, etc. Teachers can protect these interests and discharge these responsibilities only throigh effectively organized action.

At present, most Nigerians feel that the vigorous collective action by teachers in the defence of their common interest is below the dignity of the noble profession. The reason is because teachers' organization had' been weak compared with other occupational organizations.

Today, the extent of quality of work done by teachers and the security of the members of NUT as an organization are influenced by the strength of NUT itself as an organization.

Therefore, teachers have an organization that can regulate their professional conducts but such code of conducts has not been established. Teachers by the same token could be said to have professional organizations as in other parts of the world; e.g. in the U.S. with the organization like National Association of American Teachers (NAAT). In Britain, i t is called National Union of Teachers. In Nigeria, it is Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT).

NUT as a Trade Union

NUT has claimed to be a trade union organization as well as a professional organization. NUT plays dual role. Its dual role started since its 42 Annual Conference at Kaduna in 1976. Its former National Presi- dent, Chief A.A.O. Ezenwa (1975) in his presidential address said, 'whi!e the fight to ensure that our conditions of service improve pro- gressively, we should now concentrate sixty percent of our efforts to imprwing the methodological skills and professional competence of

110 Plrilosophicd and Sociobgicai Fawndgtiong of Edueatb11

our members. To that end, this aumgt awernbly &ould amalder tho advisability of haviqg a full-time R i i e c t ~ ~ of In-service Training whew duty it will be to liaise with the various Ministries of Education.."

Achievements of NUT

I. Restoration of 1926 Salary Cuts

T h e stiff fight to resist the arbitrary outs kr teachen'ralarlua by government in 1926 under its education code. The restoradon of its earliar slashed teachers' salaries.

2. Harrigan Comm&sion sofaq Reulrion

Government offer to Include voluntary agency teachers after it haa left them out of the Harrigan ~ o m m i g ~ i & Salary Revision Recohmenda- tionsin 1947. This was achieved after teachers' threat to embark on a Nation-wide strike. But die offer wgs net as attractive as those in the civil service. However, i t led to an incream In toucher's salaries.

3 . Gorsuch Salary Revision

(a! The Gorsuch Report of 1955 did not include voluntary agency teachers. This was because teachers were not ria at that tlma regarded as public servants. NUT i m e d i n t d y reopened negotia- tions with the government in each of the segiona except in the East.

(b) The Eastern Regional Government refisbd to negotiate with the NUT.

4. Udoji Review Commission 19 77

(a) The NUT memorandum was regarded as the best tho Review Commission received. This was so because the logical way the arguments were presented reflects a sign of goad work.

(b) Udoji Commission salvaged the teachers from their former poor conditions of service. This was probably a landmark in the teachers' fight for good conditions of service.

5 . Professional Role

The NUT has had several activities in educational innovation: (i) curriculum development (ii) professional seminars for teachers (iii) planning of the current (1976) UPE education scheme, NUT

timely warned the nation in 1974 toallow some time to produce teachers and other infrastructures needed for the UPE project.

(iv) other activities connected purely with the achievement of education in Nigeria.

(v) NUT has, at State levels, established professional develop~iicrit committee with objectives as follows: (a) to strive to improve the quality o f education given to the

pupils and students o f pdmary and p o ~ t ~ p r i m a r y institutions in the state.

(b) to defend the union on all issues pertaining to the pru1i.s- sional aspect of the Union's work.

-.

. Problems of NUT

\

In recent past, some people have called for the dissolution of NUT for having outlived ifs usefulness. Some of these calls have come from teachers and non-teachers alike; for example the Nigerian Press some of which launch attack as a result of what they call : (a) ,the 'incompetence' of the present day teachers; (b) an 'insatiable' group demanding one fringe benefit after

another; (c) heavy monthly levy collection from members; they say that

nothing is done after the monthIy levy collection to ensure teachers' welfares.

NUT as a professional body does not have a register of its rnemb- ers prescribing length o f course o f study in: (a) Theory, and (b) Practice before a member is admitted to register such as.

found in the Nigerian Medical Association, Bar Association, etc. - -

NUT as a professional organization does not have a malor hand in determining the curriculum, length of course. examination and

certificate after internship of its new entrants (or new mem- be rs). Until recently the standards of' professional training to enter the teaching profession were comparatively low, e.g. in the past the basic general education was completion of primary education and two years of post-primary educa?ion. This however, has changed in recent time.


SUMMARY

The discussion in this chapter has focused on the school as a society and social organization. The components that make up the school have been identified to include the classroom, pupils, teachers, etc. The characteristics of each classroom in particular and the goals of the school in general were explained. .

The relationship between teacher and pupil in the classroom is seen to result in the assessment of each other in terms of status and reputation. Each status and reputation influence the level of interaction, social relationship and academic success:

The classroom as learning societies through human interaction was examined. Social factors within the-classroom were identified and explained. The interplay between the students, teachers and subject matter was examined. This revealed a range of social functions of the classroom.

Teaching in Nigeria was discussed. Characteristics of a profession were identified. The image of teaching in Nigeria and the Nigerian Union of Teachers were pointed out. The problems and achievements of the NUT were identified and examined.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Define school in relation to society and as a social organization. 2. Explain, with examples, the relationship between the Nigerian

school, society and classroom. 3. Describe the teacher and student interaction, and social control

in the Nigerian classroom. 4. Discuss whether it is justifiable to call teaching in Nigeria a pro-

fession or not. \-

5. How far would you regard NUT as a professional organization? Discuss.

REFERENCES

Blakemore, .K. and Cooksey, B., A Sociology of Education for Africa, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1981.

Ezewu, E. Sociology of Education, Lagos: Longman, 1983. Federal Republic of Nigeria, National Policy on Education, Lagos:

Government Press, 198 1. Pasons, T.S., Naegelc, K.D. and Pitts, J.R. (Eds) Theories of Socie-

ties, New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 196 1 .

The School and Classmom Socialization 113

Stanley, W. 0 . et a1 Social Foundations of Education, New York: Holt- Rinehart and Winston, 1956.

Uche, U.W. Sociology of Nigerian Education, Owerri: New African Publishing Co. Ltd.. 1984.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

Education and Social Stratification INTRODUCTION

In chapter ten the role of the school as an agent af socialization of the child was discussed. It was seen that whatever coatributions any other social setting made towards the all-round devel~prnent of the young child - social, emotional and intellectual, they were formaliz6d and perfected by the school. The- school, as one of the major socializing agents, supplements the home in this very important responsibility.

It is Landis, (1974: 112) who said that people areunequal; they are constantly evaluated and ranked by their fellow men on a number of criteria. The idea exists that we are all created equal, but what is really meant is that we all have an equal chance to become unequal and that is not true because some people have an obvious head start and others are blocked from the time they are born. This chaprzr discusses the meaning of social stratification; the social claa and education,; effects of stratification on education; and approaches to the study of social stratification.

.. SOCIAL 'STRATIFICATION

The organization of society is very much affected-by the social process of stratification. The term stratification comes from the word s t ra ta , meaning layers, and i fL , meaning to make in; or to form. "Social stratification", according to Thomas and Anderson (1972: 127) "refers to the layering of social categories into higher or lower positions or prestige or respect".

Status

Status is the individual's position in the social structure. For example, . some people are Supreme Court Justices in Xigeria, others are doctors,

lawyers, bankers, teachers, successful business people, carpenters or tradesmen, labourers and unemployed. Each of these persons has a particular ststus, or position in the Nigeriar, society. Status does not deal with the individual himself but with the social category (position)

Edtrcdtion and Social Stmtification 115

lnto whlch the lndlvidual ha, been placed. Status does not refer to the persor~rlity of the ttldividds ifivul~ed, but only to the positions the lndlvldudn hold,

Haw doer the hdividuel p t hls J t r t h and what detetinines it? The individual gets hls status in two ways:

Ascribed Stattts: Ascribed statuses afe dLigned by society on the bade of some fured category, without regard t o a petSon's abilities or perA formncc. Etewu, (1983; 2 1) describe9 this as status "one wtupies by tlght of birth". You have the status of a teenager ,shnply because ydu have been alive for at least thlrteen years, YOU have no chdice about the status arcribed to you, The son of the Obi of Onit~ha, or the son of the On1 of Ife Is a prince merely by the fact of his birth. The son of an Osu in traditldnal lgbo soclety, Itas been that low status becau6e of his t'emlly beckground. Ite dld 1\01 have the opportunity to choose his parents. YOU do rlot detentiine your ascribed statues and for the mort part. must slnlply learn to live with them smce you cannot change them yourself.

Generally speaking. caste represents a social class system in which members are determined at, and by, birth and frnni which there Is llttle vertical (upward) ntobility. Maclver and Page (1953: 358) clearly Illustrate ascribcd status with 'caste' 111 an openclass society when they say:

For the coste prhiciple, assigning status strictly in teniis of birth. cnti~rchig endoganlous marriage, vastly limiting social - . co~ltacts between groups. and restricting certain occupa- tiom lo the "right born". is one Illat. in wnie degree is lnanifcsted in ;ill societies including our own. Whenever -

status is predetcnnhed by birth. wlwncvcr one's colour or etllnic origin or rcligion or "nune" autonlatically assigns one special prcstige. or special 11andic:tps. the principle ol' caste is at work".

And this prctty wcU ill~~stlatcs ascribed slatus in cvcry society.


achieving various statuses. You can see that statuses are essential t o the process of stratification.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

There are three basic approaches used by sociologists in studying stratification. They are: the objective approach, the subjective approach and the r e p u t a t i o ~ l approach. These approaches help us to determine which social class levels. exist and how people are placed in them.

The Objective Approach

In the objective approach, sociologists observe certain people, study their interests and interactions as impartially and unbiasedly as possible. to determine the criteria-used by the people themselves. To do this, we derive a number of indicators, such as income, occupation, h6using or education. The study is objective because it relies on these indicators, which can be measured.

The Subjective roach - This approach does not use objective indicators. Instead, it relies on the fmdings that people have about where they belong in the class syitem. In the subjective approach, the sociologist asks the individuals where they place themselves in the social class structure. For example, in February 1985 the Nigerian Television Authority (N.T.A.) carried out a countrywide survey trying to 'fmd' out who the common man is. The exercise was carried out in the major cities of the country, stopping people on the street andysking them whether or not they are among the common people.

Advantages of this approach include: it is relatively easy to carry out; it is usually possible to obtain a sufficiently large sample and it shows an important aspect of class status that is not often revealed by themother methods.

However, a major disadvantage of the subjective approach is that the results obtained are often related to the specific choice that the individual is given. For example, the survey carried out by the N.T.A. was inconclusive since it was r ~ o t possible to identify who the common m'an was. Almost everybody interviewed during the exercise, including car owners claimed L!ey belong to the class of common people.

The reputational approach

In this approach the people of the community themselves classify indi-

Educariort and Social Stratifiaction 11 7

viduals into social class levels. They rate each individual on fhe basis of his reputation in the community. The sociologist simply asks the people how they classify each other, what classifications they use, how they evaluate each individual and how they rank the various classes. This approach can only be used in communities small enough that the people know each other fairly well.

One of the great values of this approach is that it is closely related to what actually takes place in the community. The people in the community are constantly ranking one another. The sociologist simply questions a sufficient number of people in the community to find out how they do it.

EFFECT OF SOCLAL CLASS STATUS

Our individual life is very much affected by individuals social class. Social class is one of the most important factors in predicting a person's life chances, 'attitudes and patterns of behaviour. The rerm life chances refers to the probability that a person will have certain experience. These experiences are greatly influenced by our social class status. The following are some of the significant experiences or life chances that are related to class position.

Physical health: Because persons in higher classes live in more comfortable homes, have more facilities to medical care, enjoy better diet. their physical health is often better than the health of those in other lower classes.

Mental health: Since people in-the higher classes can afford the cost of medical t r eah~cn t especially psychiatric care. they are usually more mentally healthy than people in classes below tliem.

Life Expectancy: Because of such factors as better physical and mental health services, more comfortable homes, less dangerous jobs and more leisure time activities, life expectancy is longer in the Irigirer class sralus- es.

Education: There is high positive rela tionship between years of sclrool- ing completed and social class. Among the students who are attending Universities today in Nigeria, higher class status children are, most likely, in the majority. We shall discuss more about this later in the chapter when we examine stratification and education. . .

Vacations and travel: Persons from upper cfasses travel widely. As wc move down the class levels, individuals travel less 3nd less. You notice that every long vacation, most of thc passengers in various cliartcr

I I8 P:dosclr~hid and Sociological Foundations of Education

flights to Europe and North America are students of h@ status background.

Group membershtir) and activities: Both the kinds of groups one belongs to and the amount of participation in those groups are very much class- related. People in the upper classes, for example, tend to join professional organizations and clubs, Peoples Club of Nigeria, Rotary Interna- tional, Sports Club are few examples to mention.

Occupation: The occupation that a new graduate enters is related t o the social class family. The sons and daughters of men and women at the top of the social class system are much more likely to get top jobs than those from the lower classes.

EFFECTS OF STRATIFICATION ON EDUCATION . It is Emile Durkheim, (1956: 67) who once said that there were as many different kinds of education as there were social milieux in any given society. Giving some examples of such different kinds of education available to different social strata, Morish, (1978: 130) observed that in ancient Rome the education of the Plebeian was very different from that of the Patricians; in India, until recent years, the education of the Brahmin was considerably different from that of the Shundra; wlde in medieval Engiand, the education of the Knight or his attendant Squire, was far removed from that of the villein or peasant. One may ask, how different are educational opportunities in Nigeria with the social class?

The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1979. Section 1, under philosophy of Nigerian Education stated as follows:

Nigeria's philosophy of education, therefore, is based on the interaction of the individual into a sound and effective citizen and. equal educational opportunities for all citizens of the nation at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels both inside and outside formal school system.

By implication, the just and egalitarian mciety of this constitutional provision presupposes that every Nigerian child has equal access to all types of education. In actual practice this is not so.

Equality of opportunity cannot be provided through constitutional provisions. Nigeria is a classic case of hierarchical society. Each child in- our society has certain social position by ascription. He is born into a particular family, in a particular place, and of a particular social class. Thus the social class fortunes of the child will greatly affect his educational options or opportunities.

Education and Social Stmtification 11 9

We have already stated that two of the most important functions of the family toothe child are economic and educational functions. How these help children s academic achievement is made clearer in Uka's Crowing Up in N i g e ~ n Culture (1966: 89) where he declares:

The results of objective tests revealed no innate differences between boys and girls on the basis of sex but children from improverished homes showed poorer performance than those from higher socioeconomic families where children are provided with educational toys, books and better sleeping and feeding facilities.

We know that, ord&arily, children do not want to go to school because they want really to.be in school. Children of Egrl social class attend the school more easily because of the complimentary support or their family background. It may be difficult t o force children from the lower socioeconomic status to attend school than it will be to force those from higher socioeconomic background to school. In the process of forcing the former to attend school, he may react by turning a truant who, with time, dfop out as a deviant.

Parents of higksocial class students as professionals in their various fields understand the value of education. They not only motivate the children to learn but they, also, provide some incentive to reinforce the desire to learn. They make sure that children go to school because schooling provides one way of keeping the children out of mischief.

Ezewu, (1983: 24-6) identifies areas in which social status affects school education. These include:

1. Early attendansr to school: Studics. Milner (1951), Obanya and Ezewu (1 981) found h higl~cr correlation betwcen social,class status and early attendance to educational institutions. High sociul class Fmilies send their children and wards to scliool niuch carlier than those of low social class status. Ert of thc reason for this is that they know all the benefits associated with education atid. bcsidcs. tlicy have the nlcans and opportunities o f s~liding llicir cl~ltlrcn cvcn lo thc Ilurscry schools. In many Nigeriui L'nivcrsitics. childrcn ;IS young as lil'tccn years old rnakc it into the university wllilc cliildrcu ol' low social class status are just about lcaving prlnlary scl~ools I>ctwecll Illirtccn ai~tl lin~rtecn ycars of age.

2. Prouisio?l oJ' books 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 o l h ~ ~ r 11111fcri11,v: 111 Nigcria, eili~cat ion is a very expcnsivc cnlcrp risc. 'Wc niorc 111;1Icri;1l and financia l rcsourccs availablc to the i~idivid~~d. ~ I I C marc m d h c ~ ~ c r quality cduc;~tion that '

I will bc a t his tl ispos;~l. -

120 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Eduactbn

3. Attendance at the best schools avdable : We know there are few good schools across the country. Qualified teachers in sufficient nurnb- er, provision of teaching equipment and conducive infra-structure make good schools. In Nigeria, Federal Unity schools, located in each of the 19 states; few private/voluntary agency schools and most university primary and secondary schools come under the category of "good schools". A close study shows .that majority of students in the "good schools" across the country are' drawn from high socioeconomic fami- I~es. Addae-Mensah's study in Ghana, reported by Ezewu, (1983: 25) corroborates the practice in Nigeria. Addae-Mensah's study shows that in the admission into Ghana's ten most prestigious secondary schools between 1968 and 1970, 43.5 percent of places went to children of high class statuses, 27.3 percent to middle and low class families, while only 14.4 percent went to children of farmers who constitute more than 57 percent of the total population.

4 . Encouragement in school Education: Millier and Swanson (1 VbO), Popo, (1 98 1 ) examined the differences between high social class status and low social class counterpart in the expressive style which would be evident with home encouragement. They found that social class differences have been found to be one of the sources of differences in expressive style. They also found that child-rearing practices in low socioeconomic status homes tend to foster a motoric style, while child-rearing in the high sccioeconomIc homes tend 40 foster a conceptual style. High socio-economic status families already have lifestyles which tend to encourage educational pursuit for their children. Such families, in Nigeria, attach preponderance of value to schooling a i d provide a mmsurc of motiwtion to their children to realize that objective.

5 . f 'w~. is in i ! (?,f goo'! model u j English: When compared, the language of low social ;tatus children with their high social status counterpart, the language of low social status students has been found to be restricted to rt re!:;rivzly srn;tll rcpertoire of stereotyped phrases and exprcssio~b. T!lcir usc of i . i : ~ ~ : ~ . ~ ~ g d a c k s the overall sequential organization and lo~ical prqrzssion essential for learning and expressing abstract prirlci;)lcs so iri~porta!lt lor academic success.

In her own corltribution? Milner, (1981: 95-112) found a high correlation bctwt~il social class and reading readiness and she attributed this to a ricI1~1. verb~il enviroiu~~cnt in high-scoring, high-soci~economic status !wrncs. This, 01' io \~rse , must affect performance.

Education and Social Stratificorion I21

SUMMARY

Sociologjsts examine social organization o f society by studying layers o f groups in that society. Our study of social stratification here includes the numerous factors that stratify people, differing descriptions o f social class in Nigeria. Every person is classified according to such characteristics as .sex, age. occupation, education, religion, tace and intelligence. He is next. placed in a social category along which all others in the society who have the sanie characteristics. Each social category becomes ranked according to his relative position with other social categories.

On approaches t o the investigation o f social stratification, this chapter discussed objective approach, subjective approach and reputa-- tional approach. As a social institution, education was found to be an - important instrument of change in Nigeria. Its mobility function is not - only well known in Nigeria, but regarded to be a motivating force for sending children to school. Piigerian schools, like other social institutions were established to serve the general public, but in practice, what we have is unequal opportunities to those schools. The unequ'al opport: unities arise because the facilities available in those schools vary, and - they are not available for all. The method of selection is more of the - - social status o f the students than their naturzl intelligence.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between ascribed and achieved status? 2. What are the three approaches used by sociologists in studying .

social stratification? Name the advantages of each. I.

3 . Education has been described as both an instrument of stqbility : and o f change. Discuss this statement with some examples. .

4. Explain, with illustrative examples from the Nigerian socio.. .

cultural setting. the statement that any educational system is - Tunctionally related to its society.

5 . What are the functions of social institution?

REFERENCES

Addue-Me~lsd~, I., Djangniali. J . S., and Abenyega!l. C. 0.. " F m i l y Background and Educational Opportunities in Gh;\ria". Unpilb- lished Paper, University of Cape Coast. 1973. . .

Durkllei"~,' E., Educatio,t a d S o c i o t o . ~ ~ , C,lt.~l;oe, Free* !'+"'. . - ,+ I n 5 6 Ezewu, E. Sociology o f Education, Lagos. Longnan Nigeria Limited

1983:

122 Yhilosophical'&d Sociological Foundations of Education

Landis, J. R Sociology: Concepts and Chmacteristics, Belmount Cal: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1974.

Maclver, R. M., and Page, C. H., Society: An Introductory Analysis. London: Mamillan, 1957.

Miller, B. A. and Swanson, G. E., Inner Conflict and Defence, New York, Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1960.

Milner, E., "A Study of the relationship between reading readiness in grade one school children and patterns of parentchild integration" in Child Development, NO. 22,1981.

Monish, I., The Sociology of Education: An Introduction, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1978.

Popo, C. A. T., "Relationship between Socio-Economic Status and Academic Achievement in Three Selected Schoots in Sapele, Bendel State". Unpublished, M.Ed. Thesis, Depr: of, Texher Education, University of Ibadan, 198 1.

Thomas, W. L. and Anderson, R. J. Scciology : The Study of Human Relationships, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1972. -

Uka, N., Crowing Up in Nigerian Culture, Occasional Publication, No. 6, Institute of Education, University of Ibadan; 1966.

CHAPTER TWELVE

Education and Socio-Cultural Change in Nigeria LNTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, culture, society and education were discussed. This chapter discusses the part education plays in sociocultural change particularly in our society. You should therefore, at the end of this chapter, be able to:

1. discuss the place of school and culture in the sociahation of the child.

2. explain the role of school culture. 3. explain sociocultural change and discuss the relationship between

education and sociocultural change. 4, describe the part education plays in the process of social change;

explain how education makes it possible for social institutions to change as well as make people change their views, values and customs.

5 . identify and examine the problems of education in relation to social change and role of education as instrument of social change in Nigeria.

School and Culture

The School

The school according to Imo State Education Law (1980, p. 4 ) is "an assembly of not less than ten persons for the purposes of receiving regular instruction in a form of education of whatever kind, but does not include a class or institution solely for the training of catechists, priests or other ministers of religion, or a class for religious instruction." This is a legal defmition of a school. Sociologists view school as composed of groups of teachers. It is a small society or unit whose gods are characteristics of:

- "a set of goals which define the aims of the institution. - "a set of rules (both official and unofficial). which regu-

late or at least influence the behaviour of teachers and other workers in the institution." (Blakeulo~e and Cooksey, 1981: 103).

124 Philosophicad and Sociological Foumhtions of Education

School imparts social training as well as instruction in school subjects. Early schools in Nigeria were started by the Church Missionary

Society (C.M.S.) in 1859 and the Roman Catholic Mission (R.C.M.) in 1876. They were .the "grammar" or classical education schools, the teacher training and pastor-training institutions and the vocational and agricultural schools. The curriculum consisted of scripture, Greek, Latin, Reading, Writing, ~ n ~ l i s h , History, Music, Mathematics, FWo- sophy and Recitation.

Today, the idea of a school in Nigeria has changed. The range of school types in modern Nigeria varies. For example, the National Policy on Education (1981 : 10-17) view$ school and its curriculum at different stages. The goals of Nigerian greprirnary school, for instance, are to:

(i) effect a smooth transition frsm the home to the school;, (ii) prepare the child for the primary level of education; (iii) provide adequate care and supervision for the children while their

parents are at work (on the farms, in the markets, office, etc.); (iv) teach co-operation and team spirit; (v) inculcate social norms ; - -

(vi) inculcate 'in the child the spirii of enquiry and creativity through the exploration of nature, and the local environment, playing with toys, artistic and musical activities, efc.;

(vii) teach the rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes, forms, etc. through play; and

(viii) teach good habits, especially good health.

It follows that the Nigerian ideaof school is that it must care for,all aspects of the child's development: This includes his character as well as his academic attainment's.

- - School Cultlire

The school has a character of its own. It has its own social acts to perform. This raises the question: how does the school perform its social functions? The school performs its social functions in ways peculiar to its setting. Each school by its peculiar setting has a characteristic culture. Through its culture, its social purposes are achieved. PLpils in the school belong to one group or the other. Social groups have their own norms, values and regulations. Pupils learn the way of life existing in the school. The pupil in school is exposed to new social experience beyond the family and community. All their experiences form part of the school culture.

Education and Social Cultural Change in Nigeria 125

Culture is concerned with the content and meanmg. of the ways of our society. It is also concerned with how this content and meaning is learned and expressed in our behaviour. Culture, therefore, is learned and shared behaviour. For example, the child in school learns and shares cultural behaviour of keeping persons1 cleadiness - to comb his hair, wash his uniform, take his bath, brush his teeth or chew his stick because the value of personal cleanliness is learned and shared in the school. This may be called cultural value. Thaschoolhelps to transnit it. The school transmits some cultural values which the school as a society learns and shares. These include Nigeria's belief in a united country, music, art, ethnic language, English language, ways of dressing by teachers, school uniform, morning assembly. inter-house sports etc. Culture undergoes some changes as discussed below.

SocioCultural Change

Socio-cultural change means alterations or changes in the way cf life of a people and the structure of a society over a period. This alteration or change may occur in the social customs, culture, ideas, values and social relationships within the society. Sociocultur~l group, therefore. is a system made up of kinship, neighbourhood. language, and ethnic. occupational, economic, religious and educational groups. There are characteristics to be observed in a socio-cultural group or system.

From the above definition, you will observe that: 1. a situation alters the mode of life of a social group: 2, the situation that encourages altenrion leads to a definite dis-

ruption of the set norms, values, customs and social relationship;

3. the disruptive situation or process may lead to modification of the norms of the society; and

4. it may affect the standards and other inst~tutions of the society. For example, you will remember that when the whi:c~nan Erst came to Lagos, Bonny, Benin City, Calabar, etc. life was quite different from what it is today. Our forefathers lived then in small conmunities and villages. There was respect for culture, norms, laws and values. No one in the village dared challenge their system. Changes wcrc made or forced on the people by the elders or rulers. Today, times have cliang- ed, our ways of life have as well changed. For c:iariiplc. our food, mode of dressing and kind of education have all changed.

The arrival of the whitemen changed our tr;idrt~onal soclcty through

Y

126 Philosophical and Sociologicd Foundations of Education

cultural contact. Before their arrival, trade was by barter, farmiog was the major occupation and the main source of money econmy. Farming implements were basically hoes and cutiasses. Male or female adoles- cents did nat engage in sexual acts until they were married. But today, contraceptives are available t o the unmarried young ones. This is because of crosscultural contacts with the western world. With these contacts came the invasion of our traditional value system such as religion, education, politics and modes of mobility.

IMPACT OF EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY

The impact of education and technology brought new systems of production and employment. Our population as well as educational institutions increased. For example, the population of Nigeria is esti- mated to be about 98.1 million in 1985 because information !?om the Nigerian fertility surveys shows a fertility rate of 6.34 children per woman. death rate of children came down and life expectancy rose to 48 years (RAPID, 1985. pp. 7 and 19). These increases are as a result of change in our positive attitude toward education and health.

Between 1955-1957 and 1976-1983. tlie new change in education was tlie goverrinient policy of universal prinury education for children beyond thc age of six years. lni~iiediately the policy was launched. "primary e~lrol~lients increased from about 3.7 million primary school pupils hi 1970 to about 12.7 nill lion in 1980 and about 14.8 million in 1982." By 1980, primary e~irolnients equalled about 89 percent of the 6 to I2 year olds age group (though some pupils were older than 12 ycars and others youtigcr than 6). (KAPID. 11)85. pp. 57-58).

However. somc tli~usa niaionis still resist the rltange which would make education conipulsory for their children. Sonie of' them argue that such would Ieod to u rcductio~l 01' lllc I a l ~ ~ u r tbrcc ~iecded in the fann. Another rcoson is the f'e:~r that li)niial schooling would bring about "n~oral losity anlong tlwir wonlcn" (Uchc. I W4: 14). For example, tlicir da i~gl i tm would 11ave uo~itaut with Western culture which has co~iie down to us through Ibrml education, a Ibruc that brou&t change' in our tritditional systc~l~. Bccausc of all tllcsc changes, we becarnc rliorc intcrdepend.cnt in our social i111d ~naterial I I C ~ ~ S . Our tratlitio~~al pattern of' trade clia~lgcil ti.om barter to irltcrnatiotial trade. Both Westcrn cduu:~tii)n anit i~ltcrnation;~l C I I I I [ ; I C ~ produced a ncw set

. of'values. nor~ns and ~llodc 01' lili'. Tliis change was ni;~iIc possihlc bccausc our pcoplc wcse no loiiger

sntistied h~ our traditiontll n~odc 0 1 ' l i l i ' . s y s l c ~ ~ 01' pl.oductio~i. ways of doing things and cduci~tion. Tllcy now prefer new system of educa-

Education and &&I CMtuml Chrmge in Nigeria 127

t b n - formal or Western education, trade, employment and ways of doing things. These changes have also affected their mode of life and modified their social and economic institution programmes.

FAC'IORS AND ACENClES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

One of the factors of social change is that it is introduced from the outside - external factor. It is through contact and exchange of ideas in the field of agriculture, medicine and technological equipment used in the home. Changes, therefore, take place in any society through certain agencies. These agencies are:

Education Religion . Health Ministry

. Communication . Government Policy Econornic/Occupation Institution.

Let us find out how one of these agencies influences or brings about - social chnge.

Education as a Process of Sdcial Change

Education is an instrument of social change. It is the realization of the country's aspirations which involve changes in the knowledge skills, interests and values of the people. Education is made possible through social coritact by the daily flow of human interaction. Education as Uche (1980: 49) puts it has'"five or more major functions". Socio- logists would call these major functions "manifest functions" because they are both recognized and iniended as goals of education. It :

1. instills in the youth cultural national pride and responsibility. 2. teaches behaviour patterns for diverse roles in thc society. 3 . leads to acquisition anckrans~llission or culture. 4. encourages formation of.tlie basis for cstublislling status. 5 , promotes change, thus, providing knowledgc about new fa'cts and

methods md encourages rcadincss to adapt to change. It is, therefore, through the school that educationd systcnl passes on the cultural ski!ls, valucs, belict's and knowlcdge.

The Role o f School

Tllc scllool is a social institution in which Icar~~i~lg takes place. I t is madc possiblc through socl;~l co1113ct by daily {low 01' 11~11iimi i ~ i t e r ~ c - tion. For exanlplc. thc h~ni ly tcacllcs tllc child in all inlbrnial way

128 Phibwphicol and Sociological Fourulotions of Education

through the daily interactions (instructions) that take place in family living. The family does not organize its teaching or schedule or learning in the sense that the school does. School learning, on the other hand, is planned, organized, and scheduled. Thus, the main purpose of education iu t o give, through the school, new knowledge and encourage innovations that lead to social change. The school therefore is socialization agent that plays an important fbnction in the process of social change. For example, it is in the school that the child learns new values and new life different fiom the family's life style. It is the school that transmits the conflicting sochl and cultural values.

The school influences set values which help to determine the individual life chances. For instance, by sorting out on the basis of academic achievement which helps to detemine motivational direct;lon, the school teaches the importance of being less emotional but rather to be more rational in our relationship.

Education may bring about or cause a direct change. For example, education has noticeable effects on ideas, levels of knowledge, values and ways of life in general through teaching in school. Education has important effects on ideas, level of knowledge, values and way of life. If a society has low rate of educational development, it would not en- harice change, rather it would hinder development or progress.

PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN RELATION TO SOCIAL CHANCE

The problem of education in relation to social change is two-fold: I. The ability to adjust to the changing situation; and 2. The creation of a n-ew order or education for social progress.

Education is both conservative and progressive. It transnits the culture of one generation to another. The younger generation conveys . the activities and experiences of the past generation, carries on those activities and makes changes in these activities and experiences to meet the new situations. An integration of the old must take place with the new ones. It means therefore. that activities and experiences of the present day generation have to be built on the past. The present, therefore, will guide the activities of the future. Thus, education is the integration of activities and experiences. It is a constructive agency for improving our society. It brings changes in behaviour. But if its main functions are mere transmission of culture, it will fall short of its role in a dynamic society. Education, especially the Western type, has been regarded by Nigeria and uther Third World countries as an instrument to meet up with the West and thc East.

Education and Sock1 Cultural Change in Nigeria 129

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN NIGERIA

The national objectives (1981 : 7) recognizes the dignity and the basic rights of the individual child and holds the promise of an order in which social, political, and economic justice and equality will prevail. This means that Nigerian education should be oriented to the fuIfdment of the child as an individual person, as a creative worker, as a member of his society regardless of ethnic origin or religious belief. It should relate to h e needs of the individual and society.

From the Nigerian education experience over the last 100 years, it can be said that formal education has brought about positive and negative changes in our people's way of life, value system, customs, ideas and &ial relationships. For instance, today, respect for our elders has dwindled as new generations emerge because of the new power offered to them by literacy and the aspect of formal education which claims superiority over the elders. Anothef change is seen in marriage pattern. In modem Nigeria, choice of wife (partner) has to a great extent ceased to be group or family arrangement. It has become the choice of the individual due to a greater awareness of the individual's personal'rights brought about by formal education.

o u r society places value on human life. Today, attitude towards birth control has changed as a result of formal education. Ethnocen- tricity has lessened because formal education has widened the vision of the modem Nigerian educated youth.* It is through formal education that scientific explanation is given to illness and calamities rather than attribute them to magic and other superstitious interpretations. It is because of formal schooling that modern Nigerian women have ceased to be religated to the background. They are more aware of their rights; and favourably compete with men in school. Men are ready now to accord them with their rights as colleagues.

Our discussions in this chapter have focused on education as a social process; a process of social contact having its major functions as "inani- fest functions." The school has been described as a social institution where learning takes place - through daily contact and human interaction. The school was both legally and socially defined. The idea of a school in Nigeria was identified and discussed. Its culture has its own social functions to perform. The main purpose of education was identified as giving through the school, new knowledge, innovations,' etc.

*Credit is extended to Reverend Father Okafor and other discussants at the ACE Co-ordination meeting, 1984.

130 Philowphical and Sociological Founclarions ofk'ducatio~~

Sociocultural change in general and in Nigeria in particular was discussed. The problems of education in relation to social change were identified as the ability to adjust to the changing situation and creation of a new order. It brings about changes in behaviour. The factors and agencies that bring about social change were explained. Education produces negative and positive change.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Describe education as a socialization process. Z How far do you agree that .the school brings about social and

sociocultural changes? 3.(a) Identify and discuss problems of education-related social change.

(b) What are the characteristics and factors of social change? , 4. Explain the process of education and social change in Nigeria. 5(a) Define school from legal and social points of view. - @)Describe the functions of the school culture. -

REFERENCES

Blakemore, K. and Cooksey, B. A Sociology of Education for Africa. - London: George Allen & Unwin Publishers, 198 1.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, Natioml Policy on Education, (Revised) Lagos: Government Press.

Img State Government, Education,Law, Owerri: Government Press, 1980.

RAYID, "Nigeria: The Effects of Population Factors on Social and Econonomic Development: The Future's Group", U.S.A.I.D. and School of Medicine, University of North Caroliina, Chapel Hill, N.C. USA, 1985. U. Sociology of Education for NCE Students, London: George

Allen & Unwin, 1980.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Social, Economic and Political Context of Education in Nigeria' INTRODUCTION

We noted in chapter twelve the part education plays in sociocultural change in Nigerian society. The chapter also dealt with the impact of education and technology which brought new systems, production and employment. We identified social structures such as economic, cuhural. political or government (regulative), that bring about social changes. The changing economic, social and political role of the Nigerian women in the past was made possible by education and technology.

You should, at least, at the end of this chapter be able So:

1. discuss the social effects of education particularly in Nigeria; 2. explain how the economic system or structure of the society

affects education in Nigeria; 3. examine political influence on Education; and also 4. discuss the issues and problems of private agencies and govern-

ment on management and control of education.

First, let us explain 'what we mean by social, economic and political context of education.

SOCIAL CONTEXT OF EDUCATION: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Sociologists and other social scientists differ as to the importance of formal education for social change. For example, the same scholar who writes on the positive importance of education may take different positions according to the particular issue.

Let us illustrate. Is schooling determined by the main features of a society? Or is schooling the determining fkature of a society? The answer is simple because until a society has developed a functional system of formal education and auxiliary training, together with the other cultural influences of complex societal life, it will not possess a sophisticated technology and a high productive economy. It may be education that leads out the first step to develapment, or it may be the economy or the polity. In Nigeria, it will be difficult to decide which

132 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Educarion

of them brought our country to its present status or level of development. What we should bear in mind is that all. these factors support each other. ' h e question as to the effects of education is difficult to answer directly.

In another way, the effects of education on a society depends largely upon the acceptance of other social institutions to make use of the capacities that schools have transferred or implanted in children. For example, in an oil-rich nation like ours, none of our university graduates is .able to carry out oil productin except under expatriates' guidance. In countries without oil or other income yielding natural resources, a high level of average education cannot be achieved, except the people produce most of the resources to finance or support schools. There is not a high correlation between a country's level of schooling and its percapita income. What emerges here is that skills taught in school can only be effectively utilized if they are incorporated in broader patterns of behaviour. But whether such behaviour will be learned and used well is only in small part, determined by schooling or formal education. It is therefore misleading to try to keep education and economic processes of a society at the same level.

For example, our education, until 1980s, had tended to reject farrn- ing or agriculture as an occupation. We had shunned manual job and pre'ferred white-collar jobs. But today, if the present 6-3-34 system of education with emphasis on vocational and technical education suc- ceeds, vocational choices will be made and many pupils will be interested in becoming modem farmers and have confidence that they will succeed. The 6-3-34 system offers social reformations of our previous education structure. For example, vocational qualifications are no longer tied to a particular course of study or certificate. Secondary schools have a broad differentiated curricula. General education is now heavily at the senior secondary level with strong emphasis o n science. There is now more than one academic road to most vocations and linkages between formal schooling and specialized training.

Today, there is a high concentration of the best educated men like doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, in urban cities and towns, who are in official positions. This reduces the impact of each o f them upon the society, There are, today, a few serious economic, political and social activities in local government areas linked with these educated elite groups of the urban cities and towns. The social effects of education in any piven society cannot be overemphasized.

So&, Economic and Political Context of Education in Nigeria 133

Chacteristics of Social Context of Education

Thompson (1981: 173-174) notes that education systems are not the sole determinants of the outcome of education. Societies ... are not passive receivers of educational stimuli but have both an immense capacity for absorbing and for manipulating these stimuli. ThiS means that Lhrough the response of the society to education, the society encourages the development of formal schools and discourages non-formal alternatives. Take Imo State for example; in February, 1976, when it was created, it inherited from the then East Central State, 1,925 primary schools, 147 secondary schools and twenty-one teacher training colleges. By December 1983, these figures had increased substa&lly to 1,987 primary schools with an enrolment of 1,243,587 a d 467 secondary schools, including fourteen teacher training colleges with a total enrolment of over 338,133 students (Imo State Government, Progress in Education, 1984: 3).

Even though the effect of education has been felt by the society that every community now desires to establish its own school, yet, education has encouraged the perpetuation of bookish and knoyledge- accumulating studies. It discouraged the development of practical and knowledge-apply ing studies (Thompson, 198 1 , bid). It has encouraged the rapid expansion of the existing provision of resources by the society that it tends to absorb more than fifty percent of the state or national expenditure. Education has emphasized certification thereby relating or tying employment in our society to the certificates'one has acquired.

Inequality in Society

Studies have shown that there exists relationship between class, e-hca- tion and occupational achievement in a society. Jencks (1972: 265) in his report of a careful and detailed review of all American studies on the re~a'tionshi~ of class and race to educational and occup~ional achievement summarized in part, that:

(1) through education, inequality in u society is reduced while at the same time, educational opportunities continue to be unequally distributed.

(2) Family background strongly affects education - the school output. Today in our society, child souiuliz3tion pattern ernpha- sizes self-reliance and working towards remote goals.

This is evident 'in the hidden goals and aspirations of the child's parents or even that of tlic child himsell'. For cxmple, poor and illiterate parents niuy see education as Jn opportunity to improvc their children's

I34 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations o f Education

lifechances. But unfortunately, they hardly know how best .to help their children achieve their academic success.

Sociai Class in Society

Some of our educational programmes have resulted in double standard '

approach in the provision of facilities and teachers in our schools. Uche (1980: 98) maintains that the educated elite in the society, who run the education service mabtain two different and unequal school systems. This can be seen as a tool of social control. a way to hold people in their place. In other words, education has been used to keep or suppress some segments of the society. For example. it has been observed that "the private primary and nursery schools are open to all in theory but closed to many in fact for, with the high cost of fees, only the high . social class can afford to pay" (Uche, 1980, ,bid). Education therefore, provides the society people with specific skills; that is, manpower needed, such as in medicine, law, engineering, teaching. technology. Educa- tion becomes a source of gaining income, status, class, occupation, and skill in the society. It breaks up old values, especially traditional society values and new- societies - towns and communities are developing. -

- Education, therefore, prepares our young people to enter new societies -

- industrialized and urban cities. The acquisition of education incieases one's chances for social mobility.

Education has been regarded as an opportunity to secure employment. Our attitude to education is that it is a means of acquiring prestige; influence and economic security. But since the 1980s, many school leavers of different categories have to stay without employment. Between r983 and 1984, many have had their appointments terminated while maily more others have been retrenched or forcefully retired. By the use of law and budget control, government stopped massive employment of her citizens. Government by this measure encouraged young school leavers to apply their skills and knowledge in private jobs or employment.

THE ECONOMIC STRUCTURE AND EDUCATION

In our society. it is no longer enough to regard education just as the "development of the whole man" in relation to the society. Education now is seen as a means to enable the individual to develop for the good

Social, Economic and Political Context of Education in Nigeria 135

of the society. So, education is seen in relation to economic development. Today, it is because of the economic development of the Niger- ian nation that ou? society is changing fast. This is because Nigeria is fortunate to have oil and other natural resources. To really develop Nigeria like the industrialized nations, we need a developed economy and a developed education system. As the economy develops, it will become less agrarian but will be more technical and schools would be charged with the responsibility of meeting up the technological impro- vements or demands in order to update the workers of the future. Education enables workers to increase their productive capacity. For example, education leads to the acquisition of an experience, increase the efficiency and productivity or the working force. Education chan- nels the economic system towards a national development.

The demands of the economy have strong effects on the structure of education. For example. the changes in our curriculum in 1969-1973, the UPE programme in 1976, the effort to upgrade our educational structure 6-3-34 system, the response to our demand for more scientific and technological education, are the indexes of education that is sensitive to the changes in the occupational requirements of a modern economy. "This means that as the Nigerian economy grows, her educational expansion may continue to increase because more and more resources would be realized for her use" (Uche, 1984: 121).

POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON EDUCATION

The school is espected to implant or inculcate in our children our national philosophy, goals and objectives'in terms of our social, political and economic system. Politics. therefore. is the means by which the society is organized. It is an organization of the society which ensures law and order for both the strong and the weak. the rich and the poor.

The enlightened political leadership is given to 3 country by its educated elite. For example. it was our educated elite like Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, etc. wlro inspircd and Icd our fight for political indepcndence. Education is a powerful means for welding together into one nation various ethnic groups ol' different origin and culture.

Political priority often aid economic and education stability. This is. because our puliticoecor~omic system has influenced or controlled our educational systeni in a variety ofw;~ys. For instar~cc. there is today the e ~ e ~ - ~ c c u r r i n g issue of "the State takc+jver of school^", the 1970s od-boom education policies or programmes. the ever-increasing debate and concern for educational efficiency. "tllc qualitative aspect of education". Thus, our educational institutians, schools, college and uni-

136 Philosophical and Sociological Foundations o f Eduactlon

versities, derive their political legitimacy, power and economic sustenance from laws and authority of the national or state government. Voluntary agencies, private individuals were not strong forces at the post-secondary institutions. The political structure of our ins t i tu ths can be divided into three major divisions. That is, the structure of formal political control of our education, namely:

Under normal political circumstances, citizens of the nation, each State or Local Government elect representatives who make laws to regulate and control all'educational institutions. The national and State policy- making 'bodies, their advisory bodies and civil servants employed in miriistries of education make constant input in the day-today school administration, local school boards through the board of governors, principals, headmasters, or headteachers, Parent-Teacher Associations and staff members. The effect of the national, state and local govem- ments, and their political systems on the economics of school is clearly reflected in their'annual budget expenditures, programmes and policies. For example, "the rapid growth in education overtook any other sector in the national budget by 1974175". Public funding of education at national level &od at about 15.9% of the rota1 public expenditure as against 14.7% in other sectors of the national development (Uche, 1984: 136); the establishment of Federal Government Colleges (the "Unity Schools"); the introduction of the new national education structure, the 6-3-34 system.

Another means by which political and economic systems influence our education is through various roles of those who serve on national commissions, State Education Services Boards, Board of Governors, etc. They are privileged groups in the society to dominate educational .. policy becasue they serve either as chairnien of these boards or as members. It is these political leaden who formulate guidelines and regulations, that implement them for proper teaching and learning of children. But there is a powerful link between politico-economic system

I 1

1 The National Government

2 . -.

The State Government 1 .

P

. 3

Figure 1

The Local Government

Social, Economic and Political Context o f Education in Nigeria I37

because of the latent or implied function that education provides for the society. That function is providing social stratification system.

MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF SCHOOL

Education in Nigeria is both a matter of national and state policy. B is receiving an increasing shace of nation$ and state resources. The

. - - - - Nigerian education system became a national or Federal system afcr- the revision of the 1957 Constitution:The system consisted of three regional systems of education. Each region thereon enacted its own Education Law. But each of the laws reflected the model or structure of history, religion and culture, political structure, social and economic conditions of the people of each region. However, national standards were maintained for the unity of the country. For example, such matters as "the defmition of educational terms, the conditions, terms 4 service, and discipline of teachers and the statutory system of education" (Taiwo, 1981 128). The management of schools was the responsibility o f both the national or Federal and regional governments. The control of schools was the responsibility of both Voluntary Agencies, Federal, Regional and Local Au+ority governments. This means that in Nigeria,government controlled, through its ministry of education, its own schools and other agencies that could not afford to run their schools, especially the local authority schools.

Debate Over Management and Controlof Schools

Since the end of the civil war in 1970, the then national and state governments seized all schools. The first State to seize all the schools in 1970, was the then East Central State, now split into Anambra and Jmo States. Other states in the Federaion followed suit.

The states that seized schools within its jurisdiction took up the role of establishing, directing, supporting and'.controlling of education. The government by this act becarne'responsible for both the management and control of schools from pr&ary and secondary to Higher education institutions.

Private individuals or proprietors and church bodics: :A!..? formerly owned the schools were denied the right of privatc owilzrshp of schools in many states. By the middle of 1970s government management and control of schools had virtually become a national policy. Private proprietors and church bodies were forbidden to p-t,c'-Iiih or run schools.

The issue is that ever since then, voluntary agencies have been asking the government t o give them back their schools. Government on its

I


part claims that the schools were built by the community under the supervision or conrol of these voluntary agencies. The voluntary agencies maintain that what they needed in the school system was entering into partnership with the .government. That is, government was to control the school while they manage it. Voluntary agencies see a difference between management and control. Government on its part see both as working together.

One thing emerges from the debate. There is the fear on the part of government because educational institutions are agents of social change. They are agents of revolution. For example, at the beginning of the civil war in 1966, the educational institution of hrgher learning was used as a trigger or springboard. There is the antagonistic attitude of the teachers' professional organizations like the Nigerian Union of,Teachers (NUT) and Conference of Principals towards govemment handing over management of schools to voluntary agencies. These organizations also maintain that all schools are state directed and state operated.

The voluntary agencies are asking to enter into partnership with the government. By partnership*, it would be the responsibility of the government to financei make policies regulating the system, set standards and inspect schools. The volunta~y agencies would administer, bring expertise at its command, nianage and supervise schools at local levels and also take care of the nioral and religious education. An alternative. however, is to separate church bodies (voluntary agencies) and governnlent. each to operate independently. This may result in a healthy conlpetition and efficient education system. Some states have since 1984 accepted tlie partnership option. But a majority of the states still manage and control their schools. State governments have now shifted their policies to conimuriit y control of school as an alternative solution.

SUMMARY

In this chapter. we discusscd social context ofeducation from a theoretical framework. Our discussion led to a conclusion that education is the first step to national development. But in the case of Nigeria, it becomes diftici~lt to decide wh~cli of the two thctors, schooling and technology brought the country. to its present'level of development.

The effects of edi~cation on socicty depends on the acceptance of other social institutions. I t is niislcading to try to keep education and econonlic processes of a socic~y at tlie samc Icvel. The social effects of *Credit is extended to Rev. Fr. S. '0kafir and otllcr discussants at

A.C.E. Co-ordination nieetilig. 1984.

Social, Economic and Potitical Cbntext of Education in Nigeria 139

education on any given society is very important because we see it among our doctors, engineers, lawyers, etc. The characteristics of social context of Education were identified.

Social inequality still exists within the education system and society; family background is still recognized as a strong factor in child socialization and the achievement of equality of opportunity and academic success. Social class, on the one hand, is seen here as a tool of social control while education is a tool that breaks up old values especially in a society such as ours. Unemployment, on the other hand, has become a weapon or a factor for social change. Because unemployment exists in the society, school leavers now apply their skills and knowledge in private employment and jobs.

Economic structure and education are seen as inter-related. Educa- tion leads people to.the acquisition of experience, skill, increased efficiency and productivity. The demands of the economy, therefore. have strong effects on education. Politics is a means by which the society is oganized. Political leadership and decisions exert influence on education. PoliticaI priority often aid economic and education stability. Political structtlre of Nigerian institution is divided into three major divisions for formal-politicd control of the system.

Manageinent and control of schools in Nigeria, 'in the past one decade have been an issue of controversy.The debate has been between the government, the voluntary agencies and professional bodies on the question of scbool take-over and hand-over. The voluntary agencies want to manage schools for the government while the government controls. An alternative to enter into partnership with the government. But the government and professional orga&ations do n i t agree with voluntary agencies. For a solurion however, government has now adopted a policy of community oriented or controlled school management and supervision. - -

kEVISION QUESTIONS

1. Explain what you understand by social context of Education. 2. Identify the characteristics of social context of Education. 3. How far is the economic structure of a society related to its

Educational system? 4(a) Discuss the influence of political structure of a nation and the

Educational system. (b) Explain how our schools, colleges and universities derive their

political legitimacy, power and economic sustenance.

140 Pliilosophical arrd Soiiological Foiirdarioris of Education - '--w.

5 . Discuss the debate between some state governments and Volun- tary agencies over management and control of schools.

REFERENCES

Imo State Government, Progress in Education, Owerri: Government Press, 1984.

Jencks, C. et al, Inequality: A Reassessnlent o f rhe effect o f Family and ~choC5ling' iti ~ m e r i & z , New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1972.

Thompson, A. R., Education and Development in Africa, London: MacMillan Press Ltd., 1981.

Taiwo, C. O., The Nigerian Education System: Past, Present and Fut- ure, Lagos: Thomas Nelson (Nig.) Ltd., 1981. .

LJche, U., Sociology of Education for NCE Students, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980. p ...

Uche, U. W., Sociology of Nigcrion Education for Uniuersities and Colleges;'Owerri: New Africa hblishing Co. Ltd., 1984.

university of nigeria and... · 2015-09-03 · university of nigeria virtual library serial no...

Documents