Understanding Social Science Research

Participant observation and the Ethnographic method

Michael PalkowskiM.Palkowski@napier.ac.uk

Defining participant observation

“The participant observer gathers data byparticipating in the daily life of the group ororganization he [sic] studies. He watches thepeople he is studying to see what situations theyordinarily meet and how they behave in them. Heenters into conversation with some or all theparticipants in these situations and discovers theirinterpretations of the events he has observed.”(Becker, 1958: 652)

Key elements of participant observation

●‘Living in the context for an extended period of time’●‘Learning and using local language and dialect’

●‘Actively participating in a wide range of daily, routine and extraordinary activities with people who are full participants in

that context’●‘Using everyday conversation as an interviewing technique’●‘Informally observing during leisure activities (hanging out)’

●‘Recording observations in fieldnotes’ and●‘Using both tacit and explicit information in analysis and

writing’(Dewalt and Dewalt, 2001: 4)

Where did the method originate and why did it become popular in the social sciences?

• Two concurrent areas of investigation. Empirical based sociology focused on the urban landscape in America and cultural anthropological studies of far off tribal populations.

• Empirical forms of sociology emerged particularly in what is termed the “first” Chicago school of sociology (1920-1932) and the ‘second’ school, which was just as influential as the first (1940-1955)

• To the Chicago School the city itself was of utmost value as a laboratory for exploring social interaction. The city was like an organism. For the Chicago School researchers, true “human nature” was best observed within this complex social artifice. Wandering around observing in a natural environment became a powerful way of exploring a whole range of issues like social class, immigration, homelessness, poverty and race relations.

Ernest Burgess• Using the city of Chicago as

an example, it was proposed that cities were environments like those found in nature

• In his influential “concentric zone model”, Burgess theorized a ‘structure’ to the city he lived and worked in, using participant observation. He observed people’s living habits and daily routines and how people lived.

Social/Cultural Anthropology

• Cultural Anthropology became popular with researchers like Malinkowski (1922) and Mead (1928) who immersed themselves in the norms and values of tribal societies as participant observers. Ethnography thus became associated with studying cultures and societies that were far removed from our own. Researchers eventually turned the gaze back to our own values, norms and subcultures and studied them in much the same way that these researchers studied tribal communities.

Stages of Participant Observation

1.Preparation

2.In the field

3.Recording Observations

4.Analyzing Data

Basic principles of site selection

• Select a site so that the issue (be it academic/theoretical or of a current-events nature) can be studied in a reasonably clear fashion.

• Select a site in which the research will not come to be seen as a burden on the local population

• (Angrosino 2007)

Site selection examples

• Site selection for theoretical interests

• Site selection for policy issues

• Public spaces such as airports and parks.

Being in the field

● Becoming sensitized to what is happening around you

● Taking in the bigger picture and then focusing in on selected areas of interest

● Using time between blocks of observation to make analytical memos, to make connections between what you

are observing and your research questions, and if necessary, to pose new questions

● Leaving the field sensitively and courteously

What to consider when beginning to observe in the field

• How the observation may be affected by the sex, sexuality, ethnicity, class, appearance, age, language, personality, temperament, attitude, interpersonal behavior, familiarity with the situation, involvement and concern of the observer

• Whether the observer will stand or sit, or move around a setting. • How systematic, structured or descriptive the notes will be• The ‘unit’ of observation (e.g. a teacher, a student; a pair, a small

group, a class)• What resources are necessary• Problems that might be encountered

Issues to consider when sampling

• Participant Observation tends to use theoretical sampling.• Three points:• 1)- Time: attitudes and activities may vary over time so a

study may have to represent this• 2)- people: people vary so a range of types should be

investigated• 3)- Context: people do different things in different

contexts so a variety of these will have to be studied. Contextual sensitivity is vital to an ethnographic project.

Ensuring ethical participant observation research

• Gaining ethical clearance from the university is important, but it gives you an opportunity to make your observational goals and participation agenda clearer.

• Gaining informed consent and protecting participants from harm. Depending on the context, process consent might be a better fit, especially if living within and studying a host community (remember evolving observer role earlier)

• Confidentiality of participants in transcripts, the use of pseudonyms. This includes the blurring of faces in photographs and so on.

Bad ethics in participant observation (continued)

• Howard Parker’s (1974) participant observation with a group of young males in Liverpool, UK.

• He found they stole car radios to fund their lifestyle which involved heavy cannabis use, heavy drinking and fighting. Parker joined in some of their activities and admits he got so involved that he actually kept watch while they stole car radios. When some of the boys were prosecuted for their activities, they turned to Parker for support and advice.

Strengths of Using Participant observation

• There is a depth to the data (uses multiple data sources and attempts to triangulate)

• The method is highly flexible and many different data sources can be used (Interviews/Observation/Diaries/Focus Groups etc.)

• Naturally occurring data - able to observe how people actually behave

• Can bring subjugated narratives, stories and cultures into view.

• Allows us to develop theory from the ‘ground up’

• Gives us a good understanding of context

• Helps people to record their way of life

Weaknesses of Using Participant Observation

• It can be time consuming • Can result in significant ‘culture shock’ (in a sea of unfamiliar people,

symbols, activities, social cues)• Depending on the context, it can be costly. • Arguably lacks the ability to generalize as meaning is specific to the group

being studied• Can lose focus of what the field is: the problem of going ‘native’• Depending on the context, the research can be potentially dangerous to

the researcher.• Depending on theoretical perspective, the data is subject to observer bias

and thus lacks objectivity• Can have significant ethical issues as we have discussed.

Summary

● Participant observation requires a questioning engagement with life in a particular setting.

● Participant observation facilitates deep and vivid insights into the cultures and practices of different groups

● Achieving these insights requires time, patience and good rapport

● Rich participant observation data is evidenced in part through ‘thick description’ and through field-notes, which

should bring the setting and its participants to life.