Turing, Expert Systems, Turing, Expert Systems, and Neural Netsand Neural Nets

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial IntelligenceVirtual reality (VR) - a computer-generated Virtual reality (VR) - a computer-generated artificial reality which projects a person into a artificial reality which projects a person into a sensation of three-dimensional spacesensation of three-dimensional space

Virtual reality simulated air traffic controller training

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

RoboticsRobotics - the development and study of machines - the development and study of machines that can perform work normally done by peoplethat can perform work normally done by people

Security robot on patrol at the LA County Museum of Art

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Natural language processing - the study of ways for Natural language processing - the study of ways for computers to recognize and understand human computers to recognize and understand human languagelanguageFuzzy logic Fuzzy logic - a method of dealing with imprecise data - a method of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty, with problems that have many and uncertainty, with problems that have many answers rather than one.answers rather than one.

Fuzzy logic is a superset of conventional (Boolean) logic Fuzzy logic is a superset of conventional (Boolean) logic that has been extended to handle the concept of partial that has been extended to handle the concept of partial truth -- truth values between "completely true" and truth -- truth values between "completely true" and "completely false". It was introduced by Dr. Lotfi Zadeh of "completely false". It was introduced by Dr. Lotfi Zadeh of UC/Berkeley in the 1960's as a means to model the UC/Berkeley in the 1960's as a means to model the uncertainty of natural language. uncertainty of natural language.

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Fuzzy logic is used directly in very few Fuzzy logic is used directly in very few applications. applications. The Sony PalmTop apparently uses a fuzzy logic The Sony PalmTop apparently uses a fuzzy logic

decision tree algorithm to perform handwritten decision tree algorithm to perform handwritten (well, computer lightpen) Kanji character (well, computer lightpen) Kanji character recognition. Most applications of fuzzy logic use recognition. Most applications of fuzzy logic use it as the underlying logic system for fuzzy expert it as the underlying logic system for fuzzy expert systems. systems.

To date, fuzzy expert systems are the most To date, fuzzy expert systems are the most common use of fuzzy logic. They are used in common use of fuzzy logic. They are used in several wide-ranging fields, including: o Linear several wide-ranging fields, including: o Linear and Nonlinear Control o Pattern Recognition o and Nonlinear Control o Pattern Recognition o Financial Systems o Operation Research o Data Financial Systems o Operation Research o Data Analysis Analysis

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Genetic algorithm - a program that uses Genetic algorithm - a program that uses Darwinian principles of random mutation to Darwinian principles of random mutation to improve itselfimprove itself

Expert System - An expert system is a Expert System - An expert system is a computer program that contains stored computer program that contains stored knowledge and solves problems in a specific knowledge and solves problems in a specific field in much the same way that a human field in much the same way that a human expert would. expert would. The knowledge typically comes from a series of The knowledge typically comes from a series of

conversations between the developer of the conversations between the developer of the expert system and one or more experts. The expert system and one or more experts. The completed system applies the knowledge to completed system applies the knowledge to problems specified by a user. problems specified by a user.

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Expert system - an interactive computer program Expert system - an interactive computer program used in used in solving problemssolving problems that would otherwise that would otherwise require the assistance of a human expertrequire the assistance of a human expert

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Neural networksNeural networks - use physical electronic devices - use physical electronic devices or software to mimic the neurological structure of or software to mimic the neurological structure of the human brainthe human brain

Cyborgs - hybrids of machine and organismsCyborgs - hybrids of machine and organisms

Artificial life - field of study concerned with Artificial life - field of study concerned with “creatures”--computer instructions that are “creatures”--computer instructions that are created, replicated, evolve, and die as if they created, replicated, evolve, and die as if they were living organismswere living organisms

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TuringTuring

Who was Alan Who was Alan Turing?Turing?

Founder of Founder of computer science, computer science, mathematician, mathematician, philosopher, philosopher, codebreaker, and codebreaker, and a strange a strange visionary before visionary before his time: his time:

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TuringTuring 1912 (23 June): Birth, Paddington, 1912 (23 June): Birth, Paddington,

LondonLondon1926-31: Sherborne School1926-31: Sherborne School1930: Death of friend Christopher 1930: Death of friend Christopher MorcomMorcom1931-34: Undergraduate at King's 1931-34: Undergraduate at King's College, Cambridge UniversityCollege, Cambridge University1932-35: Quantum mechanics, 1932-35: Quantum mechanics, probability, logicprobability, logic1935: Elected fellow of King's 1935: Elected fellow of King's College, CambridgeCollege, Cambridge1936: The Turing machine, 1936: The Turing machine, computability, universal machinecomputability, universal machine1936-38: Princeton University. 1936-38: Princeton University. Ph.D. Logic, algebra, number Ph.D. Logic, algebra, number theorytheory1938-39: Return to Cambridge. 1938-39: Return to Cambridge. Introduced to German Enigma Introduced to German Enigma cipher machinecipher machine

1939-40: The Bombe, machine 1939-40: The Bombe, machine for Enigma decryptionfor Enigma decryption1939-42: Breaking of U-boat 1939-42: Breaking of U-boat Enigma, saving battle of the Enigma, saving battle of the AtlanticAtlantic1943-45: Chief Anglo-American 1943-45: Chief Anglo-American crypto consultant. Electronic crypto consultant. Electronic work.work.1945: National Physical 1945: National Physical Laboratory, LondonLaboratory, London1946: Computer and software 1946: Computer and software design leading the world.design leading the world.1947-48: Programming, neural 1947-48: Programming, neural nets, and artificial intelligencenets, and artificial intelligence1948: Manchester University1948: Manchester University1949: First serious 1949: First serious mathematical use of a mathematical use of a computercomputer

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TuringTuring

1950: The Turing Test for machine 1950: The Turing Test for machine intelligenceintelligence1951: Elected FRS. Non-linear theory 1951: Elected FRS. Non-linear theory of biological growthof biological growth1952: Arrested as a homosexual, loss 1952: Arrested as a homosexual, loss of security clearanceof security clearance1953-54: Unfinished work in biology 1953-54: Unfinished work in biology and physicsand physics1954 (7 June): Death (suicide) by 1954 (7 June): Death (suicide) by cyanide poisoning, Wilmslow, cyanide poisoning, Wilmslow, Cheshire. Cheshire.

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Turing TestTuring Test

Turing's prophecy that Turing's prophecy that computers would one computers would one day thinkday think

Turing's 1950 paper in Turing's 1950 paper in Mind, Mind, Computing Computing Machinery and Machinery and Intelligence,Intelligence, has become has become one of the most cited in one of the most cited in philosophical literature, philosophical literature, and heads the list in David and heads the list in David Chalmers' Chalmers' bibliography of the philosobibliography of the philosophy of Artificial Intelligencephy of Artificial Intelligence..

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Turing TestTuring Test

Turing's claimTuring's claim Turing held that computers would in time be Turing held that computers would in time be

programmed to acquire abilities rivalling programmed to acquire abilities rivalling human intelligence.human intelligence.

As part of his argument Turing put forward As part of his argument Turing put forward the idea of an 'imitation game', in which a the idea of an 'imitation game', in which a human being and a computer would be human being and a computer would be interrogated under conditions where the interrogated under conditions where the interrogator would not know which was interrogator would not know which was which, the communication being entirely by which, the communication being entirely by textual messages. textual messages.

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Turing TestTuring Test

Turing argued that if the interrogator Turing argued that if the interrogator could not distinguish them by could not distinguish them by questioning, then it would be questioning, then it would be unreasonable not to call the unreasonable not to call the computer intelligent. computer intelligent.

Turing's 'imitation game' is now Turing's 'imitation game' is now usually called 'the Turing test' for usually called 'the Turing test' for intelligence. intelligence.

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Turing TestTuring Test

The central role of computabilityThe central role of computability The most fundamental statement of Turing's The most fundamental statement of Turing's

thought in this paper is that the operations of thought in this paper is that the operations of the brain must be the brain must be computable.computable. The famous The famous Test is secondary. Furthermore, the main Test is secondary. Furthermore, the main point of his paper was to put forward point of his paper was to put forward constructive arguments for how machine constructive arguments for how machine intelligence should be achieved.Turing himself intelligence should be achieved.Turing himself argued in this paper that the question of argued in this paper that the question of uncomputability in mathematicsuncomputability in mathematics was not was not in fact relevant. in fact relevant.

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Turing TestTuring Test

However the philosopher Michael However the philosopher Michael Polanyi, at Manchester in 1950, disputed Polanyi, at Manchester in 1950, disputed Turing's view. In 1961 the Oxford Turing's view. In 1961 the Oxford philosopher J. R. Lucas published philosopher J. R. Lucas published a paper on the significance of Gödel's tha paper on the significance of Gödel's theoremeorem which also argued to the contrary. which also argued to the contrary. Turing's view was defended by I. J. Good, Turing's view was defended by I. J. Good, and then later much elaborated by and then later much elaborated by Douglas Hoftstadter in his 1979 book Douglas Hoftstadter in his 1979 book Gödel, Escher, Bach.Gödel, Escher, Bach.

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Turing TestTuring Test

In 1989, Roger Penrose published In 1989, Roger Penrose published The The Emperor's New MindEmperor's New Mind which took a which took a completely fresh view of Gödel's theorem, completely fresh view of Gödel's theorem, connecting uncomputability with the connecting uncomputability with the unknown laws governing quantum physics. unknown laws governing quantum physics. His work His work Shadows of the MindShadows of the Mind followed in followed in 1994. A good entry point into this argument 1994. A good entry point into this argument is the on-line paper is the on-line paper Beyond the Doubting of Beyond the Doubting of a Shadow,a Shadow, Penrose's response to criticisms Penrose's response to criticisms of of Shadows of the Mind.Shadows of the Mind.

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Turing TestTuring Test

Turing test - a human Turing test - a human judge converses by judge converses by means of a computer means of a computer terminal with two terminal with two entities hidden in entities hidden in another location--one another location--one a person typing on a a person typing on a keyboard, the other a keyboard, the other a software programsoftware program

Following the Following the conversation, the conversation, the judge must decide judge must decide which entity is which entity is human. In this test, human. In this test, intelligence--the intelligence--the ability to think--is ability to think--is demonstrated by the demonstrated by the computer’s success computer’s success in fooling the judge.in fooling the judge.

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Turing TestTuring Test

Human judge

Human entity

Computer program