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International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET) Volume 8, Issue 7, July 2017, pp. 1916–1928, Article ID: IJMET_08_07_213 Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=8&IType=7 ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359 © IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed

TURBOCHARGING A SMALL DISPLACEMENT

DIESEL ENGINE FOR URBAN VEHICLES

G. Chiatti, O. Chiavola, E. Recco

Department of Engineering, ROMA TRE University, Rome, Italy

ABSTRACT

Turbochargers are widely used in automotive industry to enhance the engine power

output without the need to increase the engine displacement, thus allowing the adoption

of smaller powerful engines.

This paper presents a development of a naturally aspirated small displacement

diesel engine, a light and compact engine that has a leading role in micro-cars in urban

areas. The engine was equipped with a small turbocharger in order to improve its power

output with the objective of letting this engine equip not only microcars but also urban

vehicles. The engine operative range was extended aimed at including engine speed

values where the turbocharger has the positive effect of increasing the engine

volumetric efficiency.

An experimentation was performed in the complete engine operative field of both

naturally and turbocharged configurations. The engine performance and emissions

were analyzed. The impact of engine configuration on the total number and size

distribution of particle emissions was investigated.

Key words: Diesel Engine, Turbocharger, Engine Emissions, Particle Size Distribution.

Cite this Article: G. Chiatti, O. Chiavola and E. Recco, Turbocharging A Small Displacement Diesel Engine For Urban Vehicles. International Journal of Mechanical

Engineering and Technology, 8(7), 2017, pp. 1916–1928. http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=8&IType=7

1. INTRODUCTION

Diesel engines face increasingly stringent emissions regulations through different technical solution. In an attempt to improve the efficiency, to increase the performance and to limit the fuel consumption and harmful emission, an important role is played by downsizing [1, 2]. Reducing displacement and the number of cylinders while maintaining or increasing the engine performance is made possible by turbocharging, which improves the engine’s volumetric efficiency by increasing the density of the intake air. The compressor draws in ambient air and compresses it before it enters into the intake manifold at increased pressure. This results in a greater mass of air entering into the cylinders on each intake stroke. The exhaust gases are used to drive a centrifugal compressor by converting their heat energy into mechanical energy.

Turbocharging A Small Displacement Diesel Engine For Urban Vehicles


Extensive investigations have been conducted to evaluate the performance and emissions characteristics of turbocharged diesel engines for heavy and light duty applications. Ranjit et al. [3] compared the performance and emissions obtained by running a single cylinder IDI CI engine with and without a turbocharger; one engine speed is explored and different load conditions are imposed to the engine. In [4], the emission characteristics of a turbocharged single cylinder diesel engine in naturally aspirated and turbocharged configuration using diesel and biodiesel as fuel are presented. Khalef et al. [5] experimentally investigated EGR and turbocharging concepts on a 4 cylinder light duty diesel engine. [6] Presents a study on the combustion characteristics and emissions of a 4 cylinder turbocharged diesel engine. Zamboni et al. [7] analyzed the influence of EGR on fuel consumption and pollutant emissions of an automotive turbocharged diesel engine. Karabektas [8] examined the effect of a turbocharger on the performance and emissions of a 4-cylinder diesel engine. Arnold S. [9] investigated turbocharging technologies and their linkage with the engine in ultra-low emissions turbo-diesel passenger and commercial vehicles. Rakopoulos et al. [10] evaluated the effect of turbocharger parameters on the emissions of a diesel engine during transient operation.

Several studies have been devoted to investigate unsteady flow turbine performance and correlate to steady flow behavior. In the case of extremely downsized diesel engine with reduced number of cylinders, due to the small volume between the compressor output and the engine intake valves, the compressor is also affected by unsteady flow. Costall et al. [11] investigated the effect of unsteadiness on turbocharger turbine operation. [12] is devoted to compare different boosting techniques in small engine applications. Kalpalki et al. [13] analyzed the pulsating inflow condition at the turbine inlet of an automotive engine.

The purpose of the study is to assess the impact in terms of performance and emissions of a naturally aspirated small displacement diesel engine mainly used for micro cars when it is equipped with a turbocharger, with the aim of analyzing the possible employment of the engine not only for micro-car but also for urban vehicles. A first set of experimentation was performed to characterize the naturally aspirated engine configuration, that was used as reference configuration both for performance and emission trends. Then, a small turbocharger was integrated into the engine architecture. Investigations were aimed at analyzing the engine behavior when ECU strategy was maintained unchanged to test how the increase of air mass affects the combustion process and the pollutant emissions. Experiments were also devoted to evaluate the effect of a variation the injection strategy on the engine performance and gaseous emissions. The influence of turbocharger on nano-scale particulate matter in terms of total number and size distribution of particle was investigated.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND TESTS

The experimentation was performed on a water-cooled two cylinder diesel engine manufactured by KOHLER Engines. It is mainly used for microcars, small commercial and leisure vehicles applications. Its technical specifications are summarized in Table 1. The engine is manufactured in naturally aspirated configuration; its intake and exhaust systems were modified in order to equip the engine with a turbocharger. Due to the small displacement of the engine, a very small turbocharger was selected, IHI RMB31; in order to let the turbocharger have a positive effect on the engine volumetric efficiency, the operative field of the engine (that is from 2000 rpm to 3600 rpm in naturally aspirated configuration) was extended up to 4400 rpm. The engine geometrical compression ratio was not modified.

The engine was installed in the test bed of the Engineering Department at ROMA TRE University and it was connected to a SIEMENS 1PH7 asynchronous motor (nominal torque 360 Nm, power 70 kW). Transducers were installed to measure torque (HBM T12) and fuel

G. Chiatti, O. Chiavola and E. Recco


consumption (AVL Fuel Balance 733). The engine speed was measured by using an angular sensor (AVL 364C) with 2880 pulses/revolution.

Pressure and temperature sensors were installed in different positions along the intake (Kistler 4007BS5F) and exhaust systems (water cooled AVL QC43D). In-cylinder pressure transducers were used to monitor the combustion development (the preheating plug was substituted by the piezoelectric pressure probe AVL GU13P).

Exhaust gases were sampled at engine outlet by means of Bosh BEA352 in order to evaluate the exhaust emissions. Particulate matter concentration and size were measured through the fast-response differential mobility particle spectrometer Cambustion DMS500. It is a classifier column able to compute the particle size distribution spectrum for both solid and non-solid particles for diameters in the range 5 nm- 1 µm, with a size resolution of 16 or 32 channels per decade. The integration of the spectrum allows to obtain the total particulate number court per unit of volume of raw exhaust gas. The sampling system consists of two dilution stages and a sampling line (a heated pipe 5 m long, that connects the sampling point to the dilution stages and to the instrument). Primary and second dilution rates were set to 5:1 and 400:1, respectively. The diluted gas sample passes through a corona charger and then into the classifier column. The charged particles flow within a particle-free sheath flow and are deflected towards grounded electrometer rings by their repulsion from a central high voltage rod. Their landing position is a function of their charge and their aerodynamic drag. The particles yield their charge to the electrometer amplifiers and the resulting currents are translated by the user-interface into particle number and size data.

Figure 1 shows the engine set up.

Table 1 Engine main characteristics

Two cylinder common rail diesel engine

displacement 440 cm3

60.6 mm stroke

bore 68 mm

compression ratio 20:1

Figure 1. Test bed.

All the signals were simultaneously acquired by National Instruments data acquisition devices (board’s type 6110 for analogical signals and type 6533 for digital signals). A custom program was developed by the authors in LabVIEW10 environment to manage the data monitoring and acquisition [14]. During the tests, the sampling rate was varied according to the engine speed value in order to guarantee a fixed angular resolution of 0.125 crank angle degree.

The first step of the experimentation was devoted to analyze the engine performance and emission in naturally aspirated configuration; the engine complete operative field was investigated, from 2000 rpm to 4400 rpm, with a step of 400 rpm, at full load condition.



Then, a turbocharged was installed and some preliminary tests aimed at investigating the turbine behavior embedded in the engine system. Instead of connecting the compressor with the intake system of the engine, it was connected to an instrumented pipe in which mass flow, pressure and temperature were measured. A spherical valve was placed at the end of the pipe thus to simulate the pressure losses caused by the engine intake system.

During the last step of the experimentation, tests from 2000 rpm to 4400 rpm were performed on the turbocharged engine configuration. Such a range was investigated in order to analyze the trends of the acquired data, more than the specific value of each measurement, even if the operative field of the turbocharged engine with CVT powertrain is expected to be in the field 3600-4400 rpm.

A fully opened electronic control unit (ECU) was used to manage the engine during the experimentation. The ECU allowed to control the injection system settings (injection strategy, timing and duration of each shot). A two-shot injection pattern was implemented for each engine operating condition investigated; during pre-injection, a fixed amount of 1 mm3/str of fuel was delivered. Main injection was set in order to guarantee the full load condition. At first, ECU strategy was maintained unchanged both for naturally aspirated and turbocharged configuration in order to test how the increase of air mass affects the combustion process and the pollutant emissions. Then, a variation of the injection settings was imposed to the engine in order to assess the effect of the injection strategy on the engine performance and emissions.

During tests, data were acquired after the engine warmed up, once it reached nominally stationary conditions; the inlet air temperature and humidity were about 23°C and 45%, respectively.

For each operating condition, 25 engine cycles were acquired, allowing the engine to stabilize for 1 minute before the acquisition started. An algorithm was developed to process the data and compute the average signals thus to attenuate the engine cyclic irregularities.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The first part of this section focuses on the engine performance evaluated in terms of torque, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and thermal efficiency of naturally aspired and turbocharged configurations of the engine in which the ECU strategy was maintained unchanged. The emissions are compared in terms of carbon oxide (CO) and dioxide (CO2), unburned hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particle size distributions.

The second part of this section is devoted to compare the performance and emissions obtained by imposing variations of the ECU strategy (in terms of timings and durations) to the turbocharged engine configuration.

All figures in this section show the results obtained in the complete engine operative field (2000-4400 rpm), with the aim of highlighting not only the specific value of each measurement, but also and particularly, the trends of the acquired data.

In the following figures 2-12, data related to naturally aspirated configuration are assumed as base line and compared to those obtained with turbocharged configuration with unchanged ECU strategy.

Figures 2, 3 and 4 show the engine torque, brake specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency, respectively.

The naturally aspired configuration is characterized by higher performance as compared with turbocharged one until 3600 rpm. Below such engine speed, the turbine does not allow the compressor to produce significant boost. At 3600 rpm, the compressor starts forcing more air into the combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure, thus improving the engine's volumetric efficiency.



Until such a value of engine speed, the presence of the turbine in the exhaust increases the restriction in the exhaust flow, thus back pressure is originated in the exhaust stroke, leading to increase the amount of exhaust gases remaining in the cylinder after the exhaust valve closing and to decrease in the power output. Moreover, the insertion of the compressor between the air filter and the intake plenum is responsible for an increase of the intake pressure losses.

The thermal efficiency gives a measure of quality of conversion the energy from the fuel into the output energy. The positive effect of the turbocharger starts when the exhaust gases are able to let the turbine to drive the centrifugal compressor thus increasing the volume of air and thereby of oxygen for the same amount of injected fuel injected (ECU unchanged) as compared to the aspirated architecture.

Figure 2 Engine torque vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

Figure 3. Brake specific fuel consumption vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

Figure 4 Thermal efficiency vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.



Figure 5 show CO2 emissions versus engine speed; emissions caused by incomplete combustion like carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively.

CO2 is formed as a product of combustion when sufficient oxygen is available. Its content in the exhaust gases mainly depends on the oxygen concentration and temperature. The comparison between the traces obtained for aspirated and turbocharged configuration do not show remarkable differences. At low values of engine speed, the turbine presence is responsible for an increase of the amount of exhaust gases remaining into the cylinders after the exhaust valve closing as compared to the aspirated configuration. This leads to a reduced availability of air in the cylinders and then to a worsening of the combustion process (all tests were performed at full load condition, where it is well known that EGR has a negative impact on combustion process). At high engine speeds, the trends may be attributed to the increased oxygen content in the cylinder (as shown in Figure 8) and the collective outcomes affecting the temperature values: reduction of available time and increase of air to fuel ratio (increased volume of trapped air for the same amount of injected fuel).

Figure 5. CO2 emissions vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

The higher CO values obtained with turbocharged configuration are related to the turbocharger behavior. The compressor, driven by the turbine, increases the volume of air at higher engine while at lower engine speed, the back pressure caused by the turbine presence thwarts the exhaust process, thus leaving in the cylinder combustion products for the following engine cycle. As soon as the compressor is able to produce significant boost pressure, more oxygen is available for the same amount of injected fuel, thus reducing the carbon monoxide.

Figure 6. CO emissions vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

In Figure 7, HC emissions trends are presented. These emissions are primarily of unburned fuel, consisting of decomposed fuel molecules, recombined compounds and lubricating oil [15]. HC emissions are strongly related to the air/fuel mixing and temperatures during the combustion process.



The increase of engine speed causes decreased value for naturally aspired and turbocharged trends, mainly due to the increase of temperatures and the improvement of mixing that favor the HC oxidation process.

Turbocharger has a negative effect on HC emissions, since the increase of engine speed is responsible for competing mechanism affecting the temperature trend: reduction of available time, and then inadequate time for the accumulated heat to be dissipated, and increase of air ratio. The second one is apparently more important than the first one, resulting in higher HC emissions.

Figure 7. HC emissions vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

Figure 8. O2 emissions vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

Figure 8 shows the oxygen concentration in the exhaust gases. The trends can be ascribed to the decrease of the intake pressure losses and of the amount of exhaust gases trapped into the cylinder at the exhaust valve closing as the engine speed increases.

Nitrogen oxides are primarily generated because of the high temperatures and presence of abundance of oxygen to oxidize the nitrogen during combustion [16].

Combustion temperature promotes complete fuel oxidation and particulate emission, while increasing NOx emissions.

Figure 9 shows the NOx emissions versus engine speed, expressed as NO equivalent.

Turbocharger configuration is characterized by less NOx since the increase of excess mass of air present in the cylinder decreases the maximum temperature of combustion.

The plots of Figure 10, 11 and 12 present comparisons related to the particle emission. In Figure 10, the total particle concentration is shown for naturally aspirated and turbocharged configurations. These trends were obtained by integrating the concentration size spectral density over the size range 5-1000 nm. The comparison between the data highlights that for all operating points, there is an increment of particle emissions for the turbocharged architecture. At engine speed values greater than 3600 rpm, the concentration of particles related to turbocharger configuration exhibits a decreasing trend due to the enhancement of the



combustion process caused by a higher quantity of available oxygen and a reduction of exhaust gas remaining in the cylinders at exhaust valve closing. Aimed at analyzing the size distribution of particles, the total size range was split into two categories: 5-50 nm and 50-1000 nm. Such a split provided the two main modes of particulate emission, nucleation and agglomeration modes, respectively.

Figure 9 NO emissions vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

Figure 10. Number concentration of particles vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

Figure 11 shows the obtained number concentrations versus engine speeds.

(a)

(b)

Figure 11 Number concentration of particles vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration; (a) dimeters in the range 5-50 nm; (b) diameters in the range 50-1000

nm.

Both modes are formed in the combustion chamber and depending on temperature, the particles undergo partial oxidation and further agglomeration [17]. Even if nucleation number court shows an increment at high engine speed, especially for turbocharged engine, such a mode



marginally contributes to the overall particle emission for both engine architectures, since most of the emitted particles belongs to accumulation mode. The court mean diameter (CMD) of accumulation mode was computed and Figure 12 presents the obtained values. The trends show that turbocharged presence is responsible for greater CMD as compared to naturally aspired for all operating points, due to the more favorable conditions for agglomeration and formation of larger particles.

Figure 12. Accumulation CMD of particles vs. engine speed for naturally aspired and turbocharged configuration.

Aimed at investigating how ECU setting affects performance and emission, variations of injection timing and duration have been imposed on the turbocharged engine configuration. A delay of main injection was considered in order to reduce the pre-mixed combustion and then the NOx emission. An increase of fuel delivered during main injection was imposed to enhance the power output; the increase of the resulting exhaust temperature might be used in after treatment devices.

Table 2 reports the settings related to 4000 rpm, full load condition: injection data for naturally aspired (nat asp) and turbocharged configurations when ECU setting was maintained unchanged (turb) are also reported (the turbocharger results related to such a ECU setting are assumed as reference values). Mode a has only a variation of start of main injection as regards reference settings; mode b differs from mode a for the increased quantity of fuel delivered during main injection. In mode c, a further increase of injected fuel was imposed to the engine.

Table 2 ECU setting at 4000 rpm, 100% load

nat asp turb mode a mode b mode c

prail [bar] 805 805 805 805 805

SOIpre [cad BTDC] 27,7 27,7 27,7 27,7 27,7

SOImain [cad BTDC] 15,2 15,2 7 7 7

Qpre [mm3/str] 1 1 1 1 1

Qmain [mm3/str] 14,4 14,4 14,4 15,8 17

Following Figures 13-19 show the comparison of the obtained results in terms of performance and pollutant emissions.

The plot of Figure 13 shows the engine torque variation with the injection settings. Mode c, where main injection is delayed and more fuel is available for the combustion, delivers more power output as compared to others ECU settings.



Figure 13. Engine torque

Figure 14 shows the mass flow rate and the turbocharger rotational speed. Mode c highlights the positive effect of the turbocharger in terms of increased boot pressure as compared to the other ECU settings. The more oxygen content of the combustion charge is then available for the increased amount of fuel injected for this mode.

(a)

(b

Figure 14. (a) Mass flow rate in the engine intake; (b) turbocharger rotational speed.

CO2, CO and HC data are shown in Figures 15-17, respectively. In mode a, b and c, more oxygen is available for conversion of carbon in CO2. The more fuel available in mode b and c does not significantly affect CO2 emissions.

HC and CO emissions are the consequence of collective outcomes related to the local temperatures and required oxygen concentration in the cylinder: as the boost pressure increases, more oxygen concentration is available but temperature declines.

Figure 15 CO2 emissions.



Figure 16 CO emissions.

Figure 17 HC emissions.

Figure 18 shows the comparison among the NO emissions. Injection timing is an important parameter influencing the combustion development and the resulting emissions. Retarded injection times gives a reduction of ignition delay as fuel is injected when higher pressure and temperature exist in the cylinder. NO formation is usually related to the pre-mixed portion of the fuel; the retarded injection timing reduces this portion and leads to lower NOx formation [18].

Figure 18. NO emissions.

The delay in injection time of mode b as regards ECU reference setting causes a reduction of the total concentration of particles in the exhaust to be ascribed to the air fuel mixing and combustion temperatures. Advanced fuel injection increases the time available for mixing of fuel with air, however fuel droplet size also increases due to lower temperature and pressure at the time of advanced fuel injection. These factors affect the particulate formation in opposite direction [19].



The increase of injected fuel of mode b and c is responsible for the increase of the number of emitted particles (Figure 19).

Figure 19 Number concentration of emitted particles.

5. CONCLUSION

This paper is devoted to assess the impact of a small turbocharger on the performance and pollutant emissions of a naturally aspirated small displacement diesel engine mainly used for micro cars with the aim of investigating the possible employment of the engine not only for micro-car but also for urban vehicles.

Experimentation was devoted to characterize:

• Naturally aspirated configuration, whose acquired data were used as reference trends for the comparison with turbocharged layout measurements;

• Turbocharged configuration with ECU settings unchanged and with injection variations in terms of timing and duration.

The obtained experimental data highlight that many aspects have to be taken into account. The pressure losses in the intake system due to the compressor, the exhaust back pressure due to the turbine are responsible for a decrease of the power output and for an increase of incomplete combustion species as regards aspirated configuration for low values of engine speed. When the turbine allows the compressor to produce significant boost pressure, the combustion process is enhanced. Air/fuel mixing, combustion temperatures and available times also play an important role.

The measurements demonstrate that the turbocharged engine equipped with a CVT powertrain may be employed in urban vehicles in the expected operative range 3600-4400 rpm.

The results obtained by imposing a delay of injection timing shows that NOx emission reduces but HC deteriorates significantly. More available output can be obtained by increasing the fuel mass delivered during main injection process. HC, CO and NOx also beneficiate. The further increase of injected mass is responsible for a significant increase of the power output, but NOx and soot increase, too.

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