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GOC Management Inc. Final

December 15, 1999

Tobacco Warning Labels and Packaging:Issues, Prospects and Strategies

Presented to:

Bureau of Tobacco Control

Health Canada

by

Gurprit S. Kindra, Ph.D.

Professor, University of Ottawa

[email protected]



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GOC Management Inc. Final

December 15, 1999

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Faced with a complex environment, cluttered communications, limited processing capacity, and frequentlack of motivation to process, consumers often do not process all information, and tend to use mental rules

and decision-making short-cuts to for product choice decisions. For instance, in a real-life situation, consumers

may choose not to perceive, process, or retain information contained in HWMs. Typically, in case of decisions

that are perceived to be important, consumer involvement will be high, a higher processing capacity will be

allocated to the task, and the decision will be processed exhaustively. The habs can be internally grouped into habs

that are interested in cessation (interested habs) and those that are not (habs).

Neos decision process can be stopped at activation by influencing reference groups. This can be most efficiently

done by following an integrated marketing communication strategy. Habs that are not interested in cessation will be

extremely low information processors , so peripheral cues at the time of purchase and consumption will be very

important. Habs that are interested in cessation will process more significantly, therefore central messages will be

most effective to reach and persuade this group. Since neos and both type of habs tend to use heuristics or mental

short-cuts for decision-making, all will groups will benefit from an integrated marketing communications strategy .

Any communication with tobacco users must take into account the issues of processing capacity, motivation to

process, brand loyalty, message content, and as well as pulsing. Because both the neos and habs tend to be low-

involvement consumers, information processing is likely to be minimum and therefore messages must be easy to

process and understand. Messages should be personally relevant to have greater impact.

Incidental message exposure, brand loyalty, the social context, as well as packaging and labeling have an impact on

choice. Although incidental exposure is difficult to control, brand loyalty can be influenced through changes to

packaging and labeling. Color of package, font size and style, and the brand name communicate a coded message to

a specific group of consumers. This message has a strong impact on choice, which over time leads to brand loyalty.

Pictures, pictographs or graphics, in combination with HW messages are without a doubt, more effective than

words alone. Care should be taken to ensure that usage of symbols, pictures and graphics is based on the rule of

cross-cultural clarity, non-ambiguity and simplicity. Another reason for using non-verbal enhancers would be for

the purpose of reaching consumers that have difficulty with text comprehension. HWMs under consideration, in

our opinion, meet the criteria of non-ambiguity and relevance.

Information presented at the back of the inner packaging of cigarettes is not likely to be effective because the

cigarettes will fall out of the package if it is turned upside down. Inserts and brochures included inside the package

are likely to be discarded at the first opening of the pack, possibly without reading. A pop-out slider, on the other

hand, represents a good opportunity for increased communication. However, this concept will need to be designed

and experimentally tested, in order to ensure maximum efficacy. Design for such a study has been proposed.

The size of the HWMs should be large and dominate at least 50-60% of the package surface area. Colour should

be used in the words as well as pictures in the HWMs. It is not clear, however, if highlighting or full colour usagemight be more effective. The test of vividness might be appropriate; in other words, HMMs should be eye-catching

and bright. Black letters on a flourescent background should be considered. Some research also indicates that a zig-

zag boarder, rather then straight-line might be more effective in gaining attention. Unattractive, vivid, relevant and

forceful messages (reinforced with pictures and graphics) are likely to be more effective. In our opinion, HWMs

under consideration, meet these conditions.



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CMRDI Final Draft/December 15,

1999

The tobacco industry’s ability to communicate brand information is not impaired significantly by the

allocation of 50-60% surface area for HWMs. This is so because the space devoted to the commercial message is

still fairly dominant, irrespective of the exact size of the HWMs. Furthermore, the present set of actions being

contemplated by Health Canada, do not prevent the industry from using colour, graphics, logos, brand names, as

well as boarders and font types and size to communicate meaning and message to the consumer.



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I. Background

There have been various studies that have set out the correlation between tobacco use and

health problems, (Canadian Cancer Society, 1998; Canadian Medical Association, 1994: 1), and

the health care costs associated with tobacco use, (Health Canada, April 1994: Section 1;

Standing Committee First Report, 1994:27). It is possible that preventative education and

intervention may lessen or alleviate some of these effects, as will be discussed further, and to this

end, health warning messages, (hereinafter HWMs), have been placed on packages of tobacco

products, and in particular, on cigarette products. This report will focus on cigarette products,

although the information presented here could have general applicability to other tobacco

products.

This report is organized into several major sections. First, the consumer behavior

literature is considered. In this section, decision processes including choice heuristics and task

analysis, memory, market segmentation, brands and brand loyalty, inter alia, will be addressed.

Second, the consumer behavior research will be applied to the area of cigarette packaging and

labeling. Here, issues such as maximizing the impact of HWMs, in addition to the effects of

cigarette packaging on consumption will be addressed. Finally, some conclusions regarding the

application of the marketing literature to cigarette packaging will be made. It is hoped that this

report will contribute to the alleviation of the impacts that tobacco use has on Canadian society.



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B. Alternative Products and Information Sources: General Implications

First, it must be noted that consumers often face a large number of alternative products,

each described by a number of product attributes2, and many different sources of information

about those products and attributes3. Generally speaking, choice difficulty increases as the

number of alternatives and attributes increases, in the sense that consumers have to consider

more alternatives and more product features in order to choose, (Bettman, Johnson & Payne,

1991). This condition of increased consideration is known as increased information processing

requirements, (Bettman, Luce and Payne, 1998; Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997).

Consumers may not process all of the information that is available for several reasons.

First, consumers are said to have bounded rationality, which is a limited capacity for information

processing, (Simon, 1955); consumers may not have the ability to process all the information

presented4, (MacInnis, Moorman, Jaworski, 1991). This notion is well supported by the

2Such as price, nature of the product, warranties / guarantees, and so on, (Berkowitz et al, 1998;

Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham,

1999).

3Including advertisements, packaging, brochures, salespeople, friends and family, just to name a

few, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994).

4See discussion on memory limitations, section C below.




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literature,(for example, Keller, 1993; Chaiken, 1980, Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983;

Perrachio and Meyers-Levy, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1998). If too many choices or too

much information is presented, it may not be possible for the consumer to process it all: similar

to ‘information overload”.

Second, research has also shown that in order for information to be processed,

individuals must, inter alia, have the motivation to process that information. Consumers, may, at

times, lack the motivation to process, (Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993), since, ceteris

paribus, they, tend to minimize the cognitive effort used in decision making, (Bettman, Luce and

Payne, 1998; Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997). Generally, whenever possible, consumers

tend to use decision heuristics, which are simplified strategies or rules of thumb to make choices,

(for example, Keller, and Staelin, 1987; Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993; Perrachio and

Meyers-Levy, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1998). If people don’t want to hear a message,

and basically have a ‘just leave me alone, I don’t want to know” attitude, they may not be

motivated to process. This could occur if the information communicated was ‘too awful’ to

process, as will be further discussed.

Third, if the information is not effectively ‘perceived’ by the consumer, due to factors

such as selective exposure, perception and retention, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994) the

consumer may not actually have access to product and attribute information, in either through




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memory-based or stimulus-based processing5, (Haugeland, 1981, Newell and Simon, 1972;

Bettman, 1979; Cowan, 1988; van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et al, 1998). Sometimes

people remember what they ‘want’: people ‘rewrite history’, only remembering certain details.

Specifically, information must be both available and processable, (Russo, Krieser and Miyashita,

1975), to have any tenable effect on consumer decision tasks. Processability is a function of the

way the information is presented, and the ease with which information can be comprehended and

used. Information must usually be both available and easily processable to be utilized.

With respect to message design, which is further addressed in Section III, because people

have limited processing capacity, care must be taken not to overwhelm consumers with too much

information, a condition known as advertising clutter, (Janiewzewkski, 1998). This is particularly

important since research shows that consumers are likely to be ‘cognitive misers’, (Taylor,

1981),who will only use processing capacity when they either want or have to, (Bettman,

Johnson and Payne, 1991). If consumers feel to much cognitive pressure, processing will not be

maximized, in both cases of high and low levels of involvement. This theory is known as the

“Resource Matching Theory”, (Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1997) and is described further in

Section IIIB. Under this theory, consumers are also more motivated, inter alia, to process

information presented that is congruent with their levels of involvement, and cognitive capacity;

5Or, a combination of the two, (Biehal and Chakvavarti, 1983).




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if involvement is high, information presented can be complex, extensive, and require thought6,

whereas when involvement is low, information should be presented in such a way as to be as

visually available and easily processed as possible. Please refer to Section IIH of this work for a

more extensive consideration of theories of persuasion. Nevertheless, the use of pictures,

graphics, and other pictorial images will enhance the visual availability of a message, ceteris

paribus, as compared to text alone, (Leong, Ang, Tham, 1996, Childers and Houston, 1984), as

will be discussed in Section IIIC i of this paper.

A review of memory, processing, and information available to consumers when they

make choices is presented below, in order to understand the mechanisms that physiologically

limit consumers ability to process.

C. Memory, Processing, and Information

The set of memories and processes that interact with the environment to produce behavior

can be divided into three major subsystems: 1. the perceptual system, which includes sensors or

receptors, (such as the eyes and ears and the associated buffer memories, which translates

sensations from the physical world into symbolic code that can be processed more fully by the

cognitive system; 2. the motor system, which translates thought into action by activating patterns

of voluntary muscles, and 3. the cognitive system, which includes working and long term

6Or rather open-ended in nature, in that the information presented requires the consumer to

essentially ‘finish off’ the ‘arguments’ presented in the advertisement, (Meyers-Levy and Tybout,

1997).




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memories7, (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991). Long term memory holds the individual’s mass

of available knowledge, and is seen as infinite in capacity, (Simon, 1981). Long term memory is

created by the transfer of information from working memory8, (Bettman, and Kakkar, 1977,

Biehal and Chakravarti, 1982, 1983) and is conceptualized in terms of the encoding semantic

associations into memory nodes, (Sengupta et al., 1997). Not all information is initially

processed, however, because of the limited capacity of working memory, (Miller, 1956,

Friedman, 1966, Biehal and Chakravcarti, 1982, 1983; Isen, 1984). However, if information is

encoded into long term memory, retrieval is a process of spreading activation within a memory

network, (Anderson, 1983). In some instances, information is effectively unavailable from long

term memory because of an inability to use current retrieval cues or strategies, (Simonson, Huber

and Payne, 1988), or, of course, the fact that the information was not encoded into long term

memory, as described above.

More specifically, the information used in decision making that is available for

processing can be either internal, that is, within the memory of the consumers, or external, based

on perceived stimuli, (Lynch & Scrull, 1982). For example, decisions based on habit would use

internal information sources, whereas decisions based on ‘what your friends / reference groups

are doing’ would use external information. If choices are made using only information in

7A summary of this extensive literature is beyond the scope of this paper.

8Which takes about seven seconds of processing effort, (Card, Moran and Newell, 1983).




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memory, choice will be influenced by the characteristics of memory: information may be

incomplete, inferences made about missing information, and the information that can be recalled

may be a function of many factors which influence retrieval from memory, (Bettman, Johnson &

Payne, 1991). Similarly, stimuli-based processing may be impacted by issues such as selective

perception and retention, (van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et al, 1998 Kindra, Laroche,

Muller, 1994). Thus, the source of the information about a product is likely to have an impact on

what type of decision strategy is used, which will, in turn, have an impact on consumer choice,

(Biehal & Chakvavarti, 1983; Bettman, Johnson & Payne, 1991). Other issues, such as the

importance of the choice also have an impact on the type of processing that is likely, as addressed

below.

D. Decision Processes and Involvement: Implications and Issues

The importance of the decision task also has an impact on how consumers make decisions

and the type of decision strategies that are likely to be used. Many theories of consumer choice

suggest that there are three different types of decision processes: a simple, habitual process, a

process with moderate processing, and a process with extensive processing, as described in the

paragraphs below, (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Hansen, 1972; Howard, 1977; Engel, Blackwell &

Kollat 1978, Bettman, 1979).

Generally speaking, when purchasing a product, a consumer goes through a sequential

decision making process, which involves 1. activation: the individual perceives gaps between



REPORT ON PACKAGING OF TOBACCO PRODUCTS: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS- FINAL DRAFT

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1994). In situation of 1. “earlier learning”, which occurs when “decisions are made routinely

or habitually, without much apparent search and evaluation preceding the decision and

consumption” (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994), the decision process may be shortened, as also

may be the case when 2. “evaluation and attitude formation occurs during actual

consumption” , (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994). In the second situation, a consumer may

perceive that the identification and evaluation of many alternatives prior to the decision may be

greater than the effort and cost of trial and error learning during consumption. Under these

circumstances, the benefits of search may be limited, in the minds of the consumer, (Moorthy,

Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997) . The third occurrence of truncation may occur when 3. “The

duration of the process varies”. Some decisions may take fractions of a second, as in the case

of many routine, repeat purchases, whereas some decisions may take years, as in the case of

important consumption decisions that have serious personal, social, performance, physical,

psychological or financial consequences, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994, Berkowitz et al, 1998;

Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Habitual decisions

are often truncated, in that they are just made based on what the consumer usually buys, whereas

for new consumers of tobacco, the external information source of reference groups, which will be

further described, is largely definitive of choice:

EARLIER LEARNING MODEL

EVALUATION / ATTITUDE DURING

CONSUMPTION MODEL

VARYING DURATION MODEL

(HERE, THE LENGTH OF TIME FOR

EACH PHASE CAN VARY ACCORDING

TO INVOLVEMENT LEVELS)




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EARLIER LEARNING MODEL

EVALUATION / ATTITUDE DURING

CONSUMPTION MODEL

VARYING DURATION MODEL

(HERE, THE LENGTH OF TIME FOR

EACH PHASE CAN VARY ACCORDING

TO INVOLVEMENT LEVELS)

Activation: gap recognized Activation: gap recognized Activation: gap recognized

Intention: Decide what to buy

based on what consumer usually

buys.

Decision: Purchase product Search and Evaluation: consider

purchase options using internal and

external sources of information.

Decision: Purchase product Consumption and Evaluation

contemporaneously; evaluate as you

use product.

Intention: choose a particular

product based on search and

evaluation

Consumption: product is used Decision: purchase product

Consumption: product is used

The ‘important’ consumption decisions, those, that is, with ‘serious consequences’and

greater personal relevance, are generally referred to as high involvement decisions, (Petty,

Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983), and typically entail extensive information processing regarding

product attributes, whereas when there are less serious or relevant consequences, the involvement

of the consumer in the decision is said to be lower, (Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler,

Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999), and information processing in the decision making process is

also reduced, (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Hansen, 1972; Howard, 1977; Engel, Blackwell & Kollat

1978, Bettman, 1979). The type of decision process, the level of involvement and the type of

decision truncation used, (heuristics), will impact the type of marketing communication strategy

that will have the maximal impact on the consumer, will be addressed, including a discussion on

how to disrupt the consumption process.. A discussion of the types of heuristics that can




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potentially be used can also illuminate the understanding of these complex processes, will be

addressed below.

E. Heuristics: Types and Implications

In the case of limited processing, due to any of the factors identified in the previous

sections, it is likely that consumers will use some form of decision shortcut, known as heuristics,

in making their choices, (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991; Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993,

Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky, 1982). There are a number of different types of heuristics, and

they can be used alone, or in combination with other heuristics, can be constructed at the time

processing is occurring or could be planned in advance, (Bettman, 1979; Bettman and Park, 1980

a, b) and vary in terms of accuracy and effort needed in use, ( Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991;

Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993). Further, heuristics also can vary on a number of other

factors, as follows.

Heuristics can be compensatory, where high values on some attributes can compensate

for low values on others, or non-compensatory, where excellent values on some attributes cannot

compensate for poor values on other attributes. Heuristics can be consistent or selective, in that

the same amount of information may or may not be processed for all alternatives considered.

There may be varying levels of processing involved in each heuristic, and search for information

may be by looking at all the characteristics of each individual product, and then comparing the

products, or by comparing each product feature or attribute, one by one, amongst competing




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alternatives, (Schkade and Johnson, 1985). Some heuristics include quantitative reasoning

operations, whereas others do not. Finally, heuristics may or may not generate an evaluation of

each alternative9. Things purchased or used out of habit tend to be noncompensatory, selective,

alternative based, qualitative, and no evaluation of all alternatives are formed. Things bought or

used ‘because that’s what your friends buy or use’ are noncompensatory, selective, alternative

based, qualitative and no evaluation of all alternatives are formed.

A number of different types of heuristics have been identified, and have been summarized

by Bettman, Payne and Johnson, (1991), in the following table10:

Heuristic Compensatory (c)

versus Non

Compensatory

(nc)

Consistent (c)

versus Selective

(s)

Attribute-based

(at) versus

Alternative based

Quantitative (qn)

versus Qualitative

(ql)

Evaluation

Formed? Yes or

No

Weighted Additive c c al qn yes

Equal Weight c c al qn yes

Elimination-by-Aspects

n s at ql no

Satisficing n s al ql no

Lexicographic n s at ql no

Majority of

Confirming

dimension

c c at qn yes

Frequency of Good

and Bad Features

c c al qn yes

A general understanding of the possible heuristics that consumers use in choice is

9This section represents a brief summary on the characteristics of heuristics.

10Extracted from Bettman, Payne and Johnson, 1991, at 61.




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important, because different people use different heuristics in a different circumstances, and the

type of heuristic used will have an impact on the effects of a marketing communication strategy,

as will be addressed further. In addition, the type of heuristic used will impact where marketing

communications efforts could influence the decision process, as will be described in Section IIIC.

Besides the type of decision problem and cognitive processes that impact consumer

choice, there are two other main factors which have significant impacts on why people choose to

consumer certain products, goods and services. They are the characteristics of the decision

maker and the characteristics of the context of the decision. Each will now be addressed.

F. Characteristics of the Decision Maker: Individual Differences and Market

Segmentation

In order to understand what products, goods and services are consumed, and why they are

consumed, an important strategy is to identify relatively homogeneous segments of consumers

and ascertain what goods and services fulfill each group’s wants, needs and values, a process

known as market segmentation, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994). Segmentation variables

include, inter alia, demographic: age, sex, gender, and others, geographic: region, city,

metropolitan area, density of population, rural, urban or suburban areas, and others,

psychographic: the individual’s attitudes, interests and opinions, personality and lifestyle, and

buying situation information: benefits sought, usage rates and states, awareness and intentions

and type of buying activity. (Berkowitz et al, 1998; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Beckman,




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Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Further, issues such as ability11

and knowledge of decision makers, expertise, inferences, decision making process used, levels of

involvement, mood, (Sinclair and Mark, 1995) and other factors may impact the usefulness of

certain types of marketing communication. Specifically, the effect of all types of marketing

communications will have a differential impact correlated to the nature of the specific market

segment, or relatively homogenous group, under consideration, (Yoon, 1997; Law et al, 1998),

due to individual differences in choice. The specifics of the characteristics of the decision makers

in the smoking context is discussed in Section III of this paper.

G. Characteristics of the Decision Making Context

It is a matter of common sense, (that has been supported by marketing research), that

choice decisions are made within an environment of social context, (Aaker and Williams, 1998;

Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997); “decisions cannot be made in a social vacuum: rather, many

social factors can influence decision making”, (Bettman, Payne and Johnson, 1991). Two factors

pertaining to the decision making context will be considered here: the role of reference groups in

decision making, and the role of marketing communications in choice.

Reference groups are people that “serve as a point of comparison or reference, for an

individual who is forming general or specific values, beliefs or attitudes, or is learning modes of

behaviour”, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone,

11For example, some consumers may be inclined to use quantitative heuristics or processing

styles, if they have cognitive ability in this area, (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991).




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1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Rotheram-Borus et al., 1998). Groups tend to

have three types of influence on individuals; informational, utilitarian and value-expressive,

(Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994), where informational influences invoke a desire to make

informed decisions, utilitarian influences suggest compliance with group norms for rewards and

punishment avoidance, and value-expressive influences suggest the need for psychological

association, (the need to belong, fit in), as demonstrated by an acceptance of positions or

opinions of others. Different consumers are affected by reference group influence to varying

degrees, depending on whether the decision maker is typically a high or low self-monitor

personality. High self monitor looks to others for definition of self, and the low monitor relies

less on the opinion of others for such definition, (Aaker and Williams, 1998; Bem, 1974; Gill et

al., 1987; Ethier and Deaux, 1994). High self monitors will be influenced more by the actions

and norms of reference groups, as compared to low self monitors. As will be shown below, new

smokers are most highly effected by reference group considerations.

Marketing communications, as a context of decision making, includes any information

external to the consumer that, by design, has an impact on choice. These communications

include advertising, packaging, labelling, brand and branding information, personal selling, sales

promotion or direct marketing, sponsorships, or public relations campaigns. In this section, only

the concepts of incidental advertising exposure, brands, packaging and labelling will be

addressed, given the nature of the issues of this project.




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Incidental advertisement exposure occurs when an individual is exposed to

advertisements about a product that are not specifically targeted to that individual. In particular,

decision makers can be exposed to advertisements outside of their normal environment. For

example, if a consumer travels to different countries, or is exposed to information media that is

not subject to national laws, these exposures may have some influence on the consumption

choices of decision makers, (Aaker and Williams, 1998; Shapiro, MacInnis and Heckler,

1997).Smokers could be exposed to cigarette messages by these means, however, there is no real

solution or steps that can be taken to prevent this type of exposure.

Brands are a “colour, name, sign, symbol or any combination of these used to distinguish

one competing product from another”, and summarize many characteristics about the product or

service in question, (Kindra, 1995). More specifically, the Tobacco Act , 1997 defines brand as

‘a brand name, trade-mark, trade-name, distinguishing guise, logo, graphic arrangement, design

or slogan that is reasonably associated with, or that evokes, a product, a service or a brand of

product or service, but does not include a colour’. Brand is an important consideration in

consumption decisions, since brand name or symbol, itself, can increase or decrease demand for

a product, even when the products are identical. (Sullivan, 1998). Research has suggested that

brand loyalty may cause consumers to limit the amount of marketing communication

information they process, since brand loyal consumers, within certain limits, tend to selectively

perceive environmental information that confirms their brand opinions, and filter out non-




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congruent information, (van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et al, 1998). Specifically, brand

loyalty is the consumer’s identification and mental associations with these symbols or other

information, (Keller, 1993) which lead to the ‘consistent purchase of a single brand over time’,

(Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994); it is “the biased behavioural response expressed over time by

some decision-making unit with respect to one or more alternative brands out of a set of such

brands and is a function of psychological (decision-making, evaluative processes”, (Jacoby and

Kryner, 1973). Current research acknowledges the recognition, self-identification and ‘ego

significance’ of the consumer-brand relationship as a form of individualized recognition of

‘brand personality’. Consumers who thus identify with these personalities tend to have increased

usage, affect and preference (Aaker, 1997; Fournier: 1998) for that brand. Habitual smokers

typically have high brand loyalty, purchasing the same product over and over. New smokers,

however, start with no real brand loyalty, since they are not experienced with the product.

However, they see what their reference groups, including what friends and family purchase and

use, and once smoking is initiated, strong brand loyalty develops quite rapidly.

Packaging and labelling are other forms of marketing communication. Packaging is the

designing and production of the container or wrapper for a product, (Kotler, Armstrong,

Cunningham, 1999). Labelling is part of packaging, and identifies the product or brand, through

the use of colour, print size and font attributes, logos, as well as giving product information, such

as product content, country of production, date of production, use of product, and safety of




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product, (Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994). Both

packaging and labelling can be used for promotion, and increasingly, the nature of the package is

being considered by companies as ‘five second commercials’ and ‘the least expensive form of

advertising, about the product features, (Kotler, Armstromg, Cunnigham, 1999 at 281).

Packaging, and, by extension, labelling, (Kindra, 1995) can promote products by creating and

sustaining brand awareness, image and appeal, reinforcing all other marketing communications,

encouraging ready recognizability and product uniqueness, informing the consumer about a

brands characteristics, widening or narrowing a products’ appeal, enhancing product

performance, aiding in product proliferation, providing a symbol of corporate recognition,

protecting brand from copying and counterfeiting and reminding satisfied, repeat purchasers of

brand identity, Packaging and labelling represent important marketing communication

techniques to influence consumer choice12. It must be remembered, however, that where brand

loyalty exists, messages must be extremely pervasive to have any effect, (Vakratsas and Ambler,

1999).

H. Theories of Attitude Change and Persuasion

It is a generally accepted principle that purchase decisions are made, because of

consumer’s attitudes towards what they are purchasing, (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980: Bettman,

1986; Day 1973; Kassarjian, 1982; Petty and Cacioppo, 1983). Attitudes can be changed using

12See also, discussion in section IIIA.




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two distinct routes: the central route, which emphasizes the central merits of the decision

objects under consideration, and where persuasive arguments are considered and processed by

decision makers. In contrast, attitudes can be changed using the peripheral route, where

changes are made without consumers thinking about the central merits of the decision object:

peripheral cues, which are not diligently considered or processed have an impact on attitudes of

the decision maker, (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981). When levels of processing are high, due to

some combination of motivation, opportunity and ability to process, as discussed in section IIB,

messages relaying central merits of products should be used, whereas when levels of processing

are lower, peripheral message contents will have a significant impact and should be used.. These

findings were proposed, formally, as the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion,

(hereinafter, the ELM, Petty and Cacioppo, 1981; 1986), and is one of the most widely accepted

models in marketing and psychological literature. The ELM assumes that consumers are

interested in forming correct and valid attitudes that assist them in decision-making, but are

limited in doing so by the mechanisms discussed in section IIB of this work, including the

motivation, level of involvement, ability and opportunity to process communications.

The central and peripheral routes to persuasion are seen as a continuum; on the one

extreme, consumers are very effortful in processing information, and they “draw upon prior

experience and knowledge to carefully scrutinize and elaborate the issue-relevant arguments in

the persuasive communication along the dimensions that are perceived central to the merits of the




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attitude object”13

. At the other extreme, when motivation, involvement, opportunity or ability to

process are lower, attitudes are changed by peripheral means, including classical conditioning14,

on-line inferences15

, heuristics retrieved from memory16

, or category based processing17

. This

model, therefore, has implications for how to accomplish attitude change for smoking behaviour,

which will be addressed in section III of this paper.

Generally, however, in order to achieve attitude change, the level of processing that is

likely to be used must be identified. Once this identification has been accomplished, it will be

evident which of central or peripheral information will have a maximized impact on the relevant

decision makers. However, there may be issues about the persistence of persuasion, which are

the extent to which attitude changes withstand the passage of time, (Cook and Flay, 1978).

Attitudes may be resistant to change, particularly when attitudes are initially formed through

13Petty, Unnava, and Strathman, 1991.

14Where cues such as store atmosphere, pleasant music, color, or other features of the

communication that are not central to the decision object have an influence on the decision,

(Staats and Staats, 1958).

15Where consumers assume that how they behave (i.e. purchase and consumption) is indicative of

the attitudes that they hold towards the decision object, (Bem, 1972)

16See section IIE for a discussion of heuristic strategies.

17Petty, Unnava and Strathman, 1991. Category based processing is where the consumer looks at

a categorical feature of the decision object (i.e. low price), and assumes other features about the

object (i.e. low price, therefore must be poor quality), Sujan, 1985).




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direct experience, (Wu and Shaffer, 1987), or central processing18

.

The next section of this report is an application of the general consumer behaviour

literature to the issue of tobacco product usage and choice.

III. Tobacco Usage and Choice: Application of Consumer Behaviour Literature

A. Market Segments of Tobacco Users

The first step in the application of the literature to tobacco choice and consumption is to

divide the users of tobacco products into segments, as described in Section II E. This is an

important first step, because the nature of each segments is not the same, therefore different

marketing communication strategies must be designed for each segment. Only cigarette users will

be considered in this application.

These segments emerge on the basis of involvement, brand loyalty, decision processes

and use of heuristics, information sources, and the impact of context, including packaging and

labelling and reference group influence. As will be shown below, there are two main segments19

18Research concerning what makes attitudes consistent to change is sparse, but suggests that

attitudes are more resistant when they are accessible, supported by a network of relevant beliefs,

and decision makers are motivated to use these beliefs to defend their positions, (from Petty,

Unnava, and Strathman, 1991 at 264: see Wood, 1982, Wu and Shaffer, 1987). Research

specific to tobacco use should be initiated to determine moderator and mediator variables thathave an impact in this context.

19Only these two main segments will be addressed here, although, as is noted in this work,

‘interested habs’ also represent a communication opportunity.




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in the ‘smoker’ market: the new and potential users of cigarettes; the neophyte smokers,

hereinafter known as the ‘neos’, and the habitual smokers, hereinafter known as the ‘habs’.

Neos are largely of adolescents, at the ‘activation’ stage of the decision process. They

may feel a disparity between their own self-image and their perception of the ideal image of a

reference group, (Lackman and Lansa, 1993; Peterson and Rollins, 1987; Stafford, 1966; Kindra,

Laroche, Muller, 1994; Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler,

Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Neos are impacted the most by utilitarian and value-expressive

group influences, (Kindra, 1995). By participating in tobacco use, neos may rewarded on

tobacco consumption with a feeling of belonging, a removal of the threat of rejection, and thus

will meet the expectations of his or her referents, (Kindra; 1995). Because of the serious social

consequences involved for potential and new users, the other complex factors that impact the

process of beginning to smoke, and parental influence, (Lackman and Lansa, 1993; Millar and

Hunter, 1991, Foxman et al, 1989), it is likely that this decision process is one of relatively high

involvement.

However, it is also possible that this segment uses processing heuristics as well. In

particular, because one of the main influences on neos is what choices their reference groups are

making, it is likely that a satisficing decision heuristic is being used: processing is

noncompensatory, selective information processing is used, alternatives are decided not on

attributes, but more, what their reference groups are choosing, the decision is qualitative, in as




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much as no quantification of costs and benefits of smoking use are calculated, and no specific

evaluation of all alternatives is formed. Once the reference group choices are evident to the neos,

it is likely that they will display brand loyalty to the choice of the reference group. This makes

sense, given that neos search for identity amongst their peers: they are likely to be high self

monitors, and look to the external information sources of reference groups and product

packaging for consumption direction.

Specifically, the impact of packaging on the neos has been addressed in previous

research. An expert panel report to determine the prevention of smoking initiation through plain

packaging of tobacco products, entitled “When Packages Can’t Speak; Possible Impacts of Plain

and Generic Packaging of Tobacco Products’, (Health Canada, 1995), found:




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1. “that plain and generic packaging would have a noticeable impact by limiting the capacity of consumers to associate specific positive

images with specific brands,

2. that plain and generic packaging would lead to lowered recall, recognition and brand recall, without significant effects with respect to

recall and recognition of HWMs,

3. that packaging would be important and would have perceived utility for encouraging teen and adult smokers to stop smoking, and for

discouraging non-smoking teens from starting to smoke,

4. that plain and generic packaging of tobacco products, (all other things being equal), through its impact on image formation and

retention, recall and recognition, knowledge and consumer attitudes and perceived utilities, would likely depress the incidence of

smoking uptake by non-smoking teens, and increase the incidence of smoking cessation by teen and adult smokers. This impact

would vary across the population. The extent of change in incidence is impossible to assess except through field experiments

conducted over time.”

This tobacco-related research , shown above, supports the notion of the significant impact

of reference groups for adolescent smokers: an Environics study found that many subjects felt

that adolescents start smoking because of a feeling of “peer pressure, or need to project a more

‘positive’ self-image”, (1998), (also see Raj, 1985; Centre for Behavioural research in Cancer,

1992).

The uptake of smoking may require higher levels of selective information processing,

particularly in terms of brand personality and brand characteristics, is based on utilitarian

reference group influence. The identification with the reference group is tied into these

characteristics, and should this information be unavailable, the self-identification that enhances

and ensures brand loyalty is decreased. This may lead to a loss of attractiveness of the product

itself, and to a reduction in uptake figures of consumption. Plain packaging would have an

impact on brand loyalty, increase the efficacy of HWMs, and by extension, likely reduce

consumption. However, the issue of plain packaging will not be further addressed here.

Habs are quite different in nature than neos. Habs purchase and consume tobacco




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products out of habit and routine, and so it is likely that they use low involvement decision

processes when buying tobacco products, (Sengupta, Goodstein and Boninger, 1997). In

particular, once the habs regularly consumes tobacco, s/he tends to develop strong brand loyalty,

which reduces the probability that the first three stages in the decision process will be revisited,

(Raj, 1985). Habs also use a type of decision heuristic to make product choices: they purchase

and consume what they are used to. When strong brand loyalty exists, habitual or routine

processes which truncate the decision process may be expected, (Berkowitz et al, 1998;

Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Packages and

labelling will have less of an impact on this group, simply because research has shown that brand

loyalty is a more compelling influence on consumers of this type than marketing communication

of any sort, (Vankratsas and Ambler, 1999). Similarly, because habs have an established pattern

of brand loyalty, it is unlikely that reference groups will have a tenable impact on consumption

choices. Information sources for the habs is largely internal, that is, what that segment has

retained in memory.

It must also be noted that, within the habs segment, there are different identifiable groups.

Some of the habs are not interested in smoking cessation, whereas others are. The habs that are

interested in cessation likely have higher levels of information processing occurring, in that they

are likely to be motivated to acquire cessation information. These “interested habs”, which

display higher levels of processing, will be more likely to respond to HWMs, or other marketing




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communication techniques, and in particular, those communications that use some combination

of central and peripheral routes to persuasion, (ELM, Petty and Cacioppo, see section IIH).

In summary, the characteristics of neos and the majority of the habs20

can be set out as

follows:

Segment

Characteristic Neos Habs

Levels of involvement High: a new decision which

allows for social acceptance,therefore an important step with

serious social consequences

Low: a habitual, routine decision

Levels of information processing High for utilitarian

considerations only

Low

Brand loyalty Very low before introduction,

but once reference group

preferences known, high.

High: tend to purchase the same

product habitually

Decision process length Low: decision a reflection of

context of decision making and

utilitarian influence of referencegroups

Very low: habit, routine,

therefore all steps of decision

process not revisited

Heuristic used Satisficing Habit of purchase and

consumption

Impact of Marketing

Communications

Potentially impactful: if brand

missing, may lead to lack of self-

identification which decreases

appeal.

Not likely to have significant

impact since levels of

involvement and processing low,

unless marketing communication

carefully designed.

Impact of Reference Groups High Not Significant

Sources of Information External: reference groups and

packaging

Internal: memory

20See comments on “interested habs”, in the paragraph above.




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Given the identification of these market segments and their essential characteristics, the

determination of what marketing communications should be used and allowed is significantly

clearer. There are common communication principles that can be applied to both groups, as well

as segment specific adjustments that must be made in order to maximize the usefulness of

communication strategies, as addressed below21.

B. Strategies for Communication : General Discussion

For both the habs and the neos, there are some basic principles of marketing

communication which will lead to the maximal effectiveness of marketing communications, and

in particular, the impact of HWMs. First, the message content has to be carefully planned, with

consideration to the characteristics of the market segment targeted. The theory of ‘resource

matching’ in marketing communications suggests that persuasion is more likely to occur if the

type of message communicated is congruent with the type of information processing that the

segment is likely to utilize in its consumption decision process, (Perrachio and Meyers-Levy,

1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1998, Petty Cacioppo, Schumann, 1983). In the case of low

motivation to process, a message communicating an easily applied decision rule for impression

formation (Chaiken, 1989, Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983). In contrast, where high

motivation to process is higher , communications that encourage the forming of well reasoned

attitudes with relatively high levels of certainty ( Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983) are most

21The issue of the usefulness of plain packaging has been addressed by the Expert Panel in 1995, and will

not be specifically readdressed here.




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effective for persuasion.

In the case of the habs, there is a low motivation to process due to the nature of the

choice decision. Thus, a relatively easy to understand HWM would likely be the most effective

communication strategy. With respect to the neos, a message of requiring high levels of

processing would likely be effective, if concerning issues of an utilitarian and value-expressive

nature. However, if the HWM was informational, a lower cognitively demanding HWM would

likely have the most impact. In both cases, however, it would be important to relate the HWM as

directly and specifically to the individual, since research shows that individuals have an

unrealistic optimism which is reduced if the message is specifically made self-relevant. The self-

relevance works to enhance message accessibility and is used by the individual as a diagnostic

cue, (Raghubin and Menon, 1998). For example, if potential risks to the individual are made

salient, in the sense of pointing out that ‘it can happen to you”, the individual may start to realize

that ‘bad’ things can happen to them, too. In the case of low involvement, a HWM would have

to create strong memory associations in order to create meaningful memory nodes for the

individual decision maker, (Sengupta et al., 1997). In particular, using the elaboration likelihood

model as a basis for communication strategy (Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983), peripheral

cues could lead to attitude and message persistence if the cue was related to the product or

service being communicated about, (Sengupta et. al, 1997). The cue should be frequent, highly

memorable to ensure cue accessibility, and relevant to the product. (Sengupta et al, 1997.)




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In both groups, because brand loyalty and brand identification is relatively high, once use

is initiated, there may be many reasons why the processing of HWMs may be impaired. First, if

a brand loyal individual has pre-exposure to what s/he believes is predictive brand information,

further learning of equally predictive attribute information may be blocked, (van Osselaer and

Alba, 1998). Thus, in the case of HWMs, the brand loyal tobacco user may not typically

elaborately process information contained within that message format. Second, brand loyal

consumers could use processing heuristics, which are essentially mental shortcuts to decision

making, where only certain presented information is processed by those individuals, (Keller,

1993). The research indicates that the use of processing heuristics tends to reduce the probability

of elaborate information processing, (Keller, 1993). Third, prospect theory (Kahneman and

Tversky, 1991; Robertson and Kassarjian, 1991) would suggest that the immediate loss of the

pleasure of tobacco use may loom more significantly in the minds of habitual, brand loyal users

than the far away gains of good health, and as a result, users would be less inclined to include

HWMs in their consumption decision processes. Fourth, there is also an ambiguity of feedback,

a lack of immediacy of consequences, and an overweighting of certain outcomes, in that health

problems from tobacco use to not typically reveal themselves immediately and are not

completely predictable, (Bettman, Luce and Payne, 1998, Kahneman and Tversky, 1991, Thaler:

1980). These factors may also contribute to the blocking of learning about tobacco risks through

HWMs. Finally, the fact that brands and messages about brands are stored separately in memory




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nodes also has an impact on the processing of information about brands, (Pham and Johar,1997).

As a result, of these possibilities, much attention must be paid to the manner in which HWMs are

communicated to this segment.

In cases of low involvement, different versions of the marketing communication are

advisable and leads to greater recall, keeping in mind that the effect of a particular marketing

communication tends to wear out after a period of 3 to 15 months, (Vakratsas and Ambler,

1999). Messages should be rotated so that people don’t become used to the message content. The

pulsing of message content, which is ‘sometimes communicating a HWM, and sometimes not”,

might also be a useful strategy to prevent the wearout and decreasing marketing communication

effectiveness over time, which occurs in many messages, (Naik et al, 1998).

In both market segments, it is important to remember that the HWMs must be as self-

relevant as possible, since unrealistic optimism is reduced when subjects experience a negative

personal event, (Raghubir and Menon, 1998). This is known as the self-positivity bias. If it is

easier for the consumer to recall incidents of risk, perceptions of risk that are self-relevant are

increased, (Raghubir and Menon, 1998).

In summary, the decision processes of the Neos and the Habs are as follows:

Neos Habs




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Neos Habs

Activation: Neos see that members of reference group

are smoking, and in order to feel like they belong, also

try smoking. After a time, neos become addicted to

nicotine and begin to exhibit purchase (which is illegal

for underage smokers) or at least consumption

behaviour similar to Habs.

Activation: Habs feel the physical and psychological

need for tobacco and seek the product to fulfill these

needs. Habs tend to use an ‘earlier learning’ model of

decision making.

Search and evaluation: Neos generally smoke what

their friends smoke, so the search is limited to

observing their reference group choices and following

those choices: satisficing heuristic used.

Intention: Habs decide what to buy based on what they

usually buy: habit heuristic used.

Decision: The product is either purchased or acquired

through reference group who, if under the legal age for

smoking, acquire cigarettes illegally.

Decision: The product is purchased

Consumption: The product is consumed. Consumption: The product is consumed

C. Strategies for Changing Consumption Process

The consumption of cigarettes for the neos and the habs is governed by different

processes and influences, therefore different methods and strategies of communication should be

designed for each group.

The neos do not, at the early stages of consumption, have a physical addiction to the

nicotine found in cigarettes. However, they are ‘activated’ by another influence. Specifically, one

of the primary motivations for smoking is the gap that neos perceive between how they currently

(non-smoking) fit into their smoking reference groups, and how they would like to fit in (would

like to be the same as other smoking group members) . Since smoking appears to be a way to

become ‘one of the gang’, smoking seems to ensure that the experienced gap is decreased. One




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of the ways of stopping neos from smoking is to influence reference groups, as a whole, to not

take up smoking. This goal is likely to be best met with an integrated approach to marketing

communication, since the level of processing involved in cigarette use is likely low. In

particular, although HWMs on packages will be noticed, particularly if the communication is

designed for maximal effectiveness, as will be described in Section IIIC i, the advertising

message is not likely to be readily adopted, due to the principles of selective retention and limited

processing motivation and attitudinal resistance to change22. An integrated marketing

communication strategy would include “personal selling” of the message, where some

spokesperson could go to the schools, ‘hangouts’, or other places that the neos frequent, and

describe the dangers of smoking and the advantages of not being a smoker. The spokesperson

would have to be someone that could attest to these advantages or disadvantages, (congruency of

spokesperson with message), be someone with whom the neos could relate, and be someone

whom the neos look up to, (Pracejus, 1998, Petty, Cacioppo, Shumann, 1983). The

spokesperson, if congruent, would represent a peripheral cue which, according to the Elaboration

Likelihood theory, (Petty, Cacioppo, Schumann, 1983) is likely to have an impact on low

processing decisions23

.

22

See footnote 18.

23This theory suggests that there are two routes to persuasion, the central route, (for cases of

medium or high level of processing), and the peripheral route, for lower levels of processing,

(Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983). Thus, in the case of the neos, a spokesperson that is

carefully chosen may have a significant impact on smoking behaviours.




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Neos may also be impacted at the activation stage by increasing their motivation to

process in another manner. Competitions to quit smoking, with specially designed prizes that

would be attractive to a reference group, reduction of school detentions or assignments, or other

almost “sales promotion” style communications may also motivate higher levels of processing

for this group, (Kotler et al, 1999; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994). Flyers given out to students,

including “I am a non-smoker” buttons, pens, or other items could be distributed. Finally, public

relations events, such as non-smoker event sponsorships such as dances, free health and quit

smoking clinics in the schools, or other similar activities could also be held. If such a strategy is

implemented, it will be critical to identify what strategies and incentives are suitable for the neos

who are likely to smoke, so as not to either ostracize or further dichotomize the positions of

smokers and non-smokers, and actually be effective for getting possible neos to avoid taking

their first cigarettes. It is recognized that efforts have been made by schools to prevent smoking.

However, even more significant, national campaigns of this nature should be emphasized.

Research specific to Canada, the various regions, and cultural groups or other identifiable

segmentation variables for neos in this country should be undertaken to support and

operationalize these strategies.

Advertising, alone, will not maximize the impact of health warnings against smoking for

neos. An integrated marketing communication plan must be used to ensure that smoking simply

does not start.




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and attitude change for the ‘interested habs’24

, who are interested in quitting smoking, and are

more likely to be motivated to process information about cessation, and will be more likely to

take advantage of the other aspects of the integrated marketing communication..

D. Strategies for Communication: Additional Themes

There are two other main themes with respect to the communication strategies for

cigarettes that must be addressed. In particular, it must be determined whether pictures,

pictographs, graphics or words, or some combination thereof, are the most effective means of

communicating a HWM. Second, what size, colour, and level of vividness of HWMs would be

most effective, while not impairing the tobacco industry’s ability to communicate brand

information.

i. Message Design: Pictures, Pictographs, Graphics and Words

In the overwhelming consensus of current studies25, marketing research has found that, as

24See discussion of habs and ‘interested habs’, section IIIA.

25Virtually all current research finds that pictorial stimuli increases recall, and studies that imply

otherwise can be easily distinguished. For example, Mackenzie, 1986, has suggested that it is

attention to an aspect of an advertisement, rather than the pointing out to subjects of an inclusion

of a pictorial stimuli, ensures recall of messages. He does not, however, find that pictorial

stimuli do not enhance recall. Popper and Murray, 1989, find that for HWMs on smokeless

tobacco, neither font nor color background had an impact on message communication. However,

this study only tested extremely limited parameters, in that only two fonts and two colors were

tested, and visual images were not included. Thus, this study cannot be seen as evidence against

the increased recall for pictorial stimuli. Kisielius, 1996 suggests that vividness may not have an

impact on attitudinal judgments, however, does not specifically address pictorial stimuli in his

research. A further search of the literature did not reveal articles that suggested specifically that

pictorial stimuli do not enhance recall.




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compared to word-only communications, the inclusion of pictorial stimuli in marketing

communications increase levels of recall for messages, (Leong, Ang, Tham, 1996; Miniard et al.,

1991; Mitchell, 1986; Childers and Houston, 1984; Gardner, 1986; Kieras, 1978; Kisielius, 1982;

Lutz and Lutz, 1977; Nelson, 1979, Holbrook, 1981; Unnava et al., 1991; Costley and Brucks,

1992): there seems to be truth in the saying, “a picture is worth a thousand words”.

Theories postulating why this occurs include applications of the Elaboration Likelihood

Model, (Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983), and those that suggest visual and word and other

memories may be stored in different memory nodes,(Tarasolli, 1998, Pham and Johar, 1997). In

any event, it is clear that by presenting two kinds of stimuli, there are stronger memory

associations, or more memory nodes activated in the memory network, which lead to enhance

recall, (Leong, Ang, and Tham, 1996; Scott, 1994; Anderson, 1983; Sengupta et al., 1997). Even

though there is still debate about the actual mechanisms for this outcome, it is clear that the

current research supports the argument that both pictorial stimuli and words be included in

HWMs.

Another reason for including not only text, but also pictorial stimuli would be for the

purpose of reaching consumers who have difficulty with text comprehension. If clear pictorial

stimuli were included, these consumers would be able to more clearly understand the HWMs26

.

The actual nature of the pictorial stimuli requires a more careful examination. Section

26Similarly, braille lettering, for sight-impaired consumers could also be used to ensure message

communication.




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IIIA of this paper has identified that there are two possible market segments of smokers: the neos

and the habs. The habs typically will have a low involvement processing style, since the habit

has been established. The neos start off with a higher level of involvement for utilitarian

messages, however, once the neos start to purchase and smoke regularly, common sense suggests

that they likely will rather speedily evolve to a low involvement processing style as well.

Because of this, it is important that the HWMs are relatively easy to process, and that the

message and pictorial stimuli are very clear, in accordance with the resource matching theory,

(Keller and Block, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1997; Peracchio and Meyers-Levy, 1997).

Furthermore, applying this theory, the pictorial stimuli and the words of the HWMs should be

congruent, in that both communicate a related message to the consumer. As has been described in

section IID, consumers are not likely to process exhaustively, so combinations of words and

pictorial representations that have to be ‘figured out’ are not likely to be processed enough to be

encoded.

The valence of the picture and message, which is, essentially whether it creates, good or

bad moods is another issue that must be extensively considered. Research has suggested that

people who are in good moods tend to process more heuristically than when they are in poorer

moods, (Sinclair, 1995; Isen and Daubman, 1984), which would suggest that HWMS should be

designed to effectively worsen the mood of the potential consumers, (Brown, Homer and Inman,

1998). This would coincide nicely with prospect theory, (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979), which




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suggests that ‘losses loom larger than gains”: framing the effects of smoking as a loss of life,

family, health, and so on, should be an effective communication strategy, (Levin, Schnieder and

Gaieth, 1998). In addition, research also suggests that products that have negative messages are

less likely to be chosen, (Garabino and Edell, 1997), thus implying that a negatively framed

message should decrease product choice or usage. Both studies cited here used negative framing

only with respect to message content, and did not test if text or pictorial framing had differential

impacts.

There is also research which suggests that people prefer happy, ‘hedonic’ messages, and

choose products with those messages, (Baumgartner, Sujan, and Padgett, 1997). This study

considered television advertisements, only, and did not consider framing in the context of text,

pictorial or some combination of the two. However, even though research has not considered the

differential impact of framing for various media, it is a generally accepted principle, (Tversky

and Kahneman, 1981) that framing can lead to preference reversals. For example, suggesting to

individuals that beef was ‘75% lean as compared to 25% fat’, (Levin and Gaieth, 1988), or

suggesting mortality rates in terms of ‘lives saved’ or ‘lives lost’ , (Tversky and Kahneman,

1981), has been shown to impact preference. This principle, as stated above, can be applied to all

forms of communications, although research would have to be undertaken to identify any

differential impacts of framing on text, pictorial stimuli, and various combinations of each,

(Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991).




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Further, people may, in fact, tend to avoid processing messages that have such a negative

content that the message is difficult to process, (Luce, 1998). It is possible that if the image or

message is too ‘shocking’ or graphic, it might be just ignored, (Environics, 1998). From this

perspective, it may be worthwhile to run or at least pre-test different versions of the HWMS;

most that are negatively framed, but also a few that are positively framed, because of this

somewhat contradictory research27

.

Finally, with respect to the choice of a picture, a pictogram or a graphic, to be used in

combination with the word content, the efficacy of each will depend on what stimuli is used, as

well as how comprehensible it is. Arrows, circles and graphics of that nature do not relate to the

word message content, and therefore will not enhance the communication. However, graphics

such as skull and crossbones, for example, if related to the message, “Smoking Kills”, would be

effective. Pictures or pictograms of scenarios of smoking or hazards of smoking would be

effective, as long as they were easily understood, (Keller and Block, 1997; Meyers-Levy and

Tybout, 1997; Peracchio and Meyers-Levy, 1997). If the size of the HWMs is not sufficient to

make a detailed picture cognisable, a less detailed picture, or a more simplistic stimuli should be

used. Pictures have been found to be up to 60 times more effective at communication than words

alone, (Liefeld, 1999). Again, as discussed earlier, the critical issue is that the words and the

27“Industry bashing” was not well received by the subjects in the Environics 1998 study, and

current research also warns against it, particularly if it is perceived by the consumer as ‘unfair’,

(Shive, Edell and Payne, 1997).




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pictorial stimuli be congruent, and easy to process, given the nature of the target segments, and

the size of the HWMs.

In summary, text with pictorial stimuli will be the most effective method of

communication, and the efficacy of just text, or just pictorial stimuli will depend upon the

understandability and ease with which the message of the text or pictorial stimuli can be

processed.

ii. HWMs: Size, Colour and Vividness

The preponderance of marketing research shows that larger communication size tends to

be more effective than smaller size, (Hendon, 1973; Aaker, Batra and Myers, 1992; Finn, 1988;

Rouse, 1991; Vincent, 1991; Gronhaug, Kvitastein, Gronmo, 1991). Cunningham, 1999, sets out

the tobacco related studies that suggest larger health warning labels:

Environics Research Group Ltd., Qualitative (Focus Group) Report regarding Health warning Labels and

Images on Cigarette Packages: Final Report March 29, 1999.

Informa Market Research Co. Ltd. Focus Group research on New Health Warnings on Tobacco Packages, May 1999.

Environics Research Group Ltd., The Focus Canada Report 1999-1.

Borland, R., Hill, D., Initial Impact of the New Australian Tobacco Health Warnings on Knowledge and

Beliefs, Tobacco Control. 1997: 6:317.

Goldberg, G.E., Liefeld, J., Kindra, G., Madill-Marshall, J. Lefebvre, J., Martohardjonon, N., Vredenburg, H.,

When Packages Can’t Speak, Possible Impacts of Plain and Generic Packaging of Tobacco Products: Experts Panel

Report Prepared at the Request of Health Canada, March 1995.

Centre for Behaviourial Research in Cancer, Health Warnings and Contents Labeling on Tobacco Products

Prepared for Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy ,Tobacco Task Force, 1992.

There are two factors which may lead to the choice to use a larger sized HWM. First,

large message size may lead to inferences about the effort put into communication, or perhaps,




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even inferences about the importance of the attribute being communicated, (Kirmani, 1990,

Moriarty, 1986). It may be that smokers may infer that an increased size of HWMs means that

the communicator either has more definitive information about the message, (i.e. the government

has more proof of the health effects of smoking) or that it is increasingly more urgent or

necessary to communicate that message to the consumer, (i.e. people are having more ill effects

faster, or more dramatically). Of course, the hypothesized effects of this initial inference would

wearout within 3-15 months of initiation, (Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999), however, the

communication strategy could have significant impact over that time period. It is likely, based on

the research, that an increased size of HWM would be a signal to consumers, although the

strength of the signal would decrease over time. Alternative sizes, as well as varied message

content, could alleviate this wearout.

Besides the rather transitory benefits of increased HWMs size, as described above, the

prominence hypothesis, as briefly described in section IIIB suggests that those attributes that are

more visible, or more salient will be processed more than other attributes in the communication,

(Gardner, 1983; Coupey, Irwin and Payne, 1998; Schkade and Johnson, 1985). It can be therefore

hypothesized that in order for a HWM to get more weight than the brand information, it must

have greater than 50 per cent of the package although the actual amount greater than 50 per cent

would have to be established through experimental means, (Nowlis and Simonson, 1997). Less

visual competition with the HWMs, specifically with reduced brand information, would ensure




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maximized levels of recall and recognition of the HWMs, and possibly, as addressed in section

IIC, a greater likelihood of encoding28. This is largely because higher competition between focal

and non-focal objects reduces the amount of attention paid to the focal point of the message,

(Janiewzewkski, 1998). Legibility would also be improved, given a larger size, (Centre for

Behavioural Research in Cancer, 1992).

Colour can also have an impact on attention paid to a message. Research has shown

positive correlations between the use of multiple colours and message readership, and / or recall,

(Gronhaug, Kvitastein, Gronmo, 1991; Finn, 1988; Geboy, 1996). If few resources are devoted

to message processing, as they would be in the case of neos or habs reading the message,

messages with some colour outperform black and white messages, in terms of persuasions of

subject, (Meyers-Levy and Peracchio, 1995). This is because the colour may be used as a

heuristic cue to infer quality or goodness, because colour makes objects more pleasing, generally,

(Ball, 1965; Click and Stempel, 1976). Highlighting, where relevant aspects of the message are

given colour while the less relevant aspects are not, can be used, as well as full colour. Studies

have shown that black on white, (Human factors Association of Canada, 1993)or black on

fluorescent may be effective, in terms of wording, (Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer,

28Note, some research has suggested, “At least 75% of the package front and back should beallocated for health messages...”, Canadian Cancer Society, “Confronting the tobacco Epidemic:

Recommendations for Regulations under the tobacco act: A report submitted to the honorable

Allan Rock, Minister of Health”, March, 1998, p. 61. Other research implies 60 percent of the

packages is appropriate, as will be further discussed.




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43

1992)The efficacy of each method of including colour in the words, the pictorial stimuli or both,

will have to be determined by experimental testing, as these issues must be considered for the

specific context of HWMs29

.

Colour is also related to the message vividness. Vividness is a measure of how much the

message ‘jumps out’ at the consumer. This includes how bright, noticeable and eye-catching the

message is. Research generally shows that the HWM should be as vivid as possible, (Keller and

Block, 1997), which includes large size and brilliant colours, since vivid information tends to

have higher levels of information processing associated with it, (Keller and Block, 1997, Shapiro,

MacInnis and Heckler, 1997; Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999)30

. Since smokers are low level

processors, generally, stimuli that generate higher levels of processing are advantageous in terms

of readership, recognition, recall, and by extension, impact on choice.

As a result of the need for vividness and prominence, as discussed above, it would be

significantly less useful for HWMs to be communicated solely in the inside of tobacco

29Popper and Murray, 1989, suggest that neither the size of type of the HWM nor the use of

colour in the written message impact communication effects. This study is distinguishable from

the work proposed here because it is the size of the actual HWM, itself, not the size of font, that

will be changed. Similarly, colour will possibly be not only used in the word message, but also

in the pictorial stimuli as well.

30Kisielus, 1986 is less certain about the effects of vividness on processing, however, the

preponderance of evidence seems to suggest that vividness increases the possibility of higher

levels of processing.




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44

packaging. Maximal impact would occur if the messages were in both package areas.

It is also likely that people may be ‘embarrassed’ to carry unattractive, ugly, or ‘horribly

shocking’ packages of cigarettes, (Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, 1992). The

distinctiveness of the packaging can be used as one strategy to assist in cessation of smoking

behaviours. Care must be taken, however, that consumers, especially neos who may tend to use

‘fad’ or ‘fashionable’ novelty products, (Kotler et al, 1999) do not choose to carry distinctive

packages for ‘shock’, or ‘making a counter-culture statement’ values.

With respect to the ability of tobacco companies to continue to communicate their brand

information, research shows that even though the focal attribute,( in this case, the HWMs that are

greater than 50 per cent of the package front would get more attention than the brand

information), the non-dominant attribute will still be considered, (Coupey, Irwin and Payne,

1998; Brown, 1993 (t.v. advertisements); Heath et al, 1994; Janiszewski, 1990). Thus, it is

unlikely that the tobacco industry’s ability to communicate their products will be impaired by a

HWM more than 50 per cent of the surface area of the package31

. This is particularly true

because no attempt is being made to enforce plain packaging requirements at this time. The

industry can still use graphics, logos, brand names, borders, colours, font types and sizes to

communicate their products.

Messages : should include those that communicate:

-addictive nature,

31Of course, this statement only holds within specific limits: it is not being suggested here that

5% of the package would be adequate for brand information communication.




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-assist smokers to quit

-dangers of passive smoke

-dangerous contents of smoke-adverse health effects of smokes

-message should be made personally relevant

-symbols to be used with caution: often misinterpreted, multiple meanings

-people don’t like being seen with long warnings, top of pack warnings, fluorescent background warnings

-legibility is important: black on fluorescent and black on white very legible

Packaging /

Communication: -standard packaging should be used: (plain packaging)

-dangerous contents, including what each is and does, should be communicated

-panel not less than 25% of front and

-should be boxed with clear border

-top of package

-use strong contrast colours

-large enough font to be read at a distance

-space between lettering sufficient for legibility

-border inside boxed area to maximize legibility of warning statements-no word hyphenation

-back of packaging almost all other health information about smoking risks, and should say elaboration of front, health risks, passive

exposure risks, dangers of smoking in pregnancy, addictive nature of tobacco, benefits of quitting, where to get help

quitting (a help-line phone number should be included)

-background colour of package to be specified, as well as size, colour and font of brand name, minimum letter height

-message wearout (habituation) will occur, therefore rotate messages

Target market: should include:

-adolescents

-smokers contemplating quitting

-pregnant women

- parents

-smokers with smoking related illnesses

Other studies also support the fact that tobacco companies can still communicate:

Cunningham, 1999, states that a HWMs taking up 60% of the package front would not be an

appropriation of trademark, Environics, (1999) states that tobacco companies are “easily able to

display their trademarks in 20 or 40 percent of the package front. and in the June 24, 1999 report,

also states, “the size of the health warnings tested (60% of package) was seen to allow sufficient

space for brand trademarks, text and other identifiers used by the industry to distinguish their

products”.On the preponderance of evidence, tobacco companies can still communicate, even




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with significantly larger HWMs than are in place now. The research that is currently being

completed in this study has been also considered in other jurisdictions, such as Australia. In an

extensive series of papers and reports, the Australians found the results on the above.

These findings support many of the conclusions drawn in this paper. In particular, two

market segments have been identified in this paper. It has been suggested that the nature of the

message should be specifically aimed at each target separately, in order to make the HWM as

self-relevant as possible for each group. Pictorial stimuli be used, however, have cautioned

against the use of symbols or graphics, if they do not relate to the word message. This research

has suggested that the size of the HWMs be over 50 percent of the package to maximize impact,

based on current research. Colour should be used in the message, probably black on white or

black on fluorescent for the words, to ensure legibility, but it would be useful to have the image

attached to be as vivid (bright, eye-catching) as possible. Messages should be rotated, to prevent

message wearout, and different versions of the message, most negative, but also, some positive,

should be utilized. Of course, plain packaging would also be useful in ensuring the maximal

impact of a HWM, however, this possibility has not been considered in this work. It is clear that

the research that exists, both in consumer behaviour, and with respect to tobacco use, itself,

strongly supports the contents of this paper.

From the preceding discussion, therefore, it is clear that careful use of marketing

strategies will maximize the effectiveness of the HWMs in alleviating the effects associated with




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smoking.

iii. Other Packaging Considerations and the Use of Sliders and Inserts

The nature of the package also has an impact on consumption of cigarettes. Currently,

the package is very convenient: cigarettes fit nicely into shirt pockets, purses, other pockets, or

other limited space areas. The package holds the cigarettes conveniently in place, and do not

allow for much loose tobacco seepage into other areas. If the packaging was less convenient,

consumers might become ‘fed up’ with carrying the cigarettes, and it would potentially be less

likely for them to carry the product regularly. It is not feasible or practical to institute these

changes over the short term, although as a longer term strategy, this may be considered.

Sliders in the packages, which could contain HWMs could also be used in the package.

Sliders can appear in two formats; information could be on the back of the internal cardboard

section, which holds the actual cigarettes, and when the package is opened, the back of the

package would be visible. Although this strategy does increase the space in which information

could be presented by consumers, it is not practical, since, in order to look at this information,

consumers would have to turn the package upside down, which would make many or all of the

cigarettes fall out. Since the processing is likely to be low, consumers would probably not be

willing to risk the cigarettes falling all over the ground, in order to read the back of the internal

packaging information. This problem could be alleviated if packages could be designed to

prevent this cigarette fall-out.




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Given the current packaging, a better alternative would be to have a cardboard insert

between the two parts of the cigarette package, that would automatically pop out and in when the

package was opened and closed. When the package is opened, a HWM or information

concerning cessation assistance, or any other message could pop out. The action of ‘popping

out’ brings attention to the stimuli, simply because of the movement of the package, and could

possibly enhance processing. However, this proposed package design would have to be both

developed and tested, in both experimental and usage situation settings, in order to be certain of

the efficacy of this conceptualization. It is also recognized that such pop-out materials would

increase, to some extent, the costs of packaging.

Inserts, such as brochures or cards containing HWMs and cessation information could

also be included within the cigarette packages. However, because these would not be attached to

the package, it is possible that consumers would just throw the materials away with the plastic

wrap and foil. Pop outs, which are securely attached to the package, represent a better alternative

because, although they also increase environmental wastage, their duration will survive until the

package is thrown out, thus ensuring the greatest message repetition for a package message.

Different formats of packaging, once developed, could be readily tested in an

experimental setting. The experiment would consist of samples of neos and habs, and non-

smokers, expose them to different package formats, and record the verbal protocols that the

subjects state, as they are examining the packages. Moreover, if and experimental, behavioural




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laboratory32

, complete with video and sound recording devices were available for this testing,

both the verbal protocols, and the actual actions of the subjects could be analysed for use and

attention patterns. It is anticipated that at least33

100-150 of each of the groups of subjects would

be needed in this experimental design, to ensure the results of this experiment. Once subjects

were exposed to the packaging, the recording of the verbal protocols and behaviour would begin,

and after the trial was over, subjects would be asked for information concerning what they

thought about the packaging, their preferences with respect to the packaging, and other issues. In

addition, if other, less convenient package designs were developed, as suggested in the first part

of this section, they could be tested in this format.

Further details about the experimental design, time lines, and costs of the research will be

generated, if required. This research, however, is necessary to test the usefulness of slides on the

back of packages, slides that pop out, and other package designs. Since it is quite likely that

package design will have an impact on consumption and communication, this research would be

advisable.

IV Conclusions: Summary of Findings

The issues presented for consideration in the introduction have been considered in this

paper for two tobacco user segments, the habitual, routine, low involvement user, and the

32Such as the one developed at the University of Alberta, by Professor Richard Johnson.

33In some cases, because not all subjects are completely usable, more than 150 subjects per cell

may have to be tested.




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potential smoker. The following conclusions can be drawn from this analysis:

Consumer Behaviour:

1. Consumers face large number of product alternatives, and as alternatives and features

of alternatives increase in numbers, processing becomes more difficult: Consumers want to

minimize processing, and so will use mental shortcuts for routine product choice decisions,

(Kindra, Laroche and Muller, 1994; Bettman, Johnson & Payne, 1991; Bettman, Luce and Payne,

1998; Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997).

2. Consumers may not process all information because of limited processing capacity,

(Simon, 1995; MacInnis, Moorman, Jaworski, 1991;Keller, 1993; Chaiken, 1989, Petty,

Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983; Perrachio and Meyers-Levy, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout,

1998, Petty Cacioppo, Schumann, 1983), lack of motivation to process, (Payne, Bettman and

Johnson, 1993; Bettman, Luce and Payne, 1998; Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997), or the

information may not effectively perceived by the consumer, due to factors such as selective

exposure, perception or retention, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Haugeland, 1981, Newell and

Simon, 1972; Bettman, 1979; Cowan, 1988, also see van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et al,

1998). Consumers, for example, may not perceive HWMs, may not want to process the

information, or may not retain the information in memory.

3. Information must be both available and processable to be usable by consumers, Russo,

Krieser and Miyashita, 1975). Information can be external to the consumer or internal, (Lynch &




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Scrull, 1982), and may be subject to information retrieval problems, (Bettman, Johnson & Payne,

1991; Biehal & Chakvavarti, 1983). HWMs are external information sources, and so, in order to

have any impact, consumers must see the HWMs and the message contained within it must

match the level of processing that the consumer is doing. Both new and habitual smokers have

low processing levels.

4. Decision processes can be extensive or truncated, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994),

depending on how important the decision is to the consumer, (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Hansen,

1972; Howard, 1977; Engel, Blackwell & Kollat 1978, Bettman, 1979; Moorthy, Ratchford and

Talukdar, 1997; Ross, 1979; Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler,

Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). This level of importance is known as consumer involvement:

the more important the decision, the more ‘involved’ consumers are, (Petty, Cacioppo and

Schumann, 1983; Ross, 1979; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994, Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman,

Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Low involvement decisions

typically have little information processing done by consumers, whereas high involvement

decisions typically are processed more exhaustively, (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Hansen, 1972;

Howard, 1977; Engel, Blackwell & Kollat 1978, Bettman, 1979). Habitual purchasers of

cigarettes have low involvement in the decision of which brand to purchase, because they do it

out of habit. New smokers are also low involvement processors, in the sense that they tend to use




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or purchase what their reference group uses or purchases.

5. Behavior can be influenced using central or peripheral methods, depending on the

anticipated levels of processing in decision making, (Ajszen and Fishbein, 1980, Bettman, 1986,

Day, 1973, Kassarjian, 1982, Pett and Cacioppo, 1983). Because low involvement processing is

likely, for new and habit smokers peripheral cues are important. If smokers are interested in

cessation, there is will be a tendency towards higher levels of processing, therefore central routes

to persuasion should be used.

6. If consumers process less extensively, as is the case in low involvement decisions,

they tend to use heuristics, or mental shortcuts, for decision making,(Bettman, Johnson and

Payne, 1991; Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993, Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky, 1982), the

types which are outlined in Table One, (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991). Habit or routine

purchase, or just doing what the reference group does, (as the new smokers tend to do), are

heuristics.

7. The individual differences of decision makers also has an impact on choice,(Berkowitz

et al, 1998; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler,

Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Yoon, 1997; Law et al, 1998). The smoking market is divided up

into two groups for this paper: the neophyte smokers, the ‘neos’, and the habitual smokers, the

‘habs’.




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8. The decision making social context also has an impact on decisions, Aaker and

Williams, 1998; Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997; Triandis, 1989). This includes reference groups,

(Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997;

Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Katz, 1982; Rotheram-Borus et al., 1998). Reference

groups have an extremely large impact on the neos.

9. Incidental message exposure, (Aaker and Williams, 1998; Shapiro, MacInnis and

Heckler, 1997) brands and brand loyalty, (Sullivan, 1998; van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et

al, 1998; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Aaker, 1997; Fournier: 1998), as well as packaging and

labeling have an impact on choice, (Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Kindra, Laroche,

Muller, 1994; Gershman, 1987; Morrison, 1994; Hawkins, Best and Coney, 1992). No solutions

or steps can be taken to avoid incidental exposure, however, brand loyalty can be impacted by

changed labels and packaging, as will be described below. Font size, colour of package, font

style, borders, and even brand name communicate messages to the consumer about the type of

people that would smoke that type of cigarette. For example, a Matinee smoker would probably

be different than a Player’s smoker, even based on the brand name, alone, or even with the slight

variation in font that is shown here. These sophisticated, subtle messages have an impact on

choice, which develops, over time, into brand loyalty.




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Tobacco Usage and Choice: Application of Consumer Behaviour Literature

1. There are two market segments of smokers, the habs and the neos. The characteristics

of each segment is summarized in Table Two. Habs also can be internally grouped into habs that

are interested in cessation (interested habs) and those that are not (habs).

2. Communications must consider levels of involvement, (Perrachio and Meyers-Levy,

1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1998, Petty Cacioppo, Schumann, 1983) motivation to process,

(Chaiken, 1989, Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983) type of message content, (Kahneman and

Tversky, 1991; Robertson and Kassarjian, 1991; Raghubin and Menon, 1998; Sengupta et al.,

1997; Bettman, Luce and Payne, 1998, Kahneman and Tversky, 1991, Thaler: 1980) brand

loyalty, (van Osselaer and Alba, 1998; Keller, 1993) and pulsing issues, (Shapiro, MacInnis, and

Heckler, 1997; Naik et al, 1998). Neos seem to mainly care about what their reference group is

doing, so the decision is one that requires little thought: just follow the crowd. Thus, neos are a

low involvement group. Habs simply repurchase what they normally buy, therefore they are a low

involvement group as well. As a result, there is little information processing that is likely to

occur for either group, so the message must be easy to understand, in order to match the

cognitive resources of the consumer with the message difficulty. Specifically, consumers of

cigarettes have low processing, therefore messages must be easy to understand. Messages must

be personally relevant to have maximal impact.




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3. Pictures, pictographs or graphics that match the message content of the words in the

HWM should be used, (Leong, Ang, Tham, 1996; Miniard et al., 1991; Mitchell, 1986; Childers

and Houston, 1984; Gardner, 1986; Kieras, 1978; Kisielius, 1982; Lutz and Lutz, 1977; Nelson,

1979, Holbrook, 1981; Unnava et al., 1991; Costley and Brucks, 1992). Care should be taken,

however, that, if using symbols, the symbols are not ambiguous, and also, if graphics are used,

they must be relevant to the message.

4. The nature of the pictorial stimuli should be completely clear and easy to understand,

given that low processing is likely, (Keller and Block, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1997;

Peracchio and Meyers-Levy, 1997) for both the neos and the habs.

5. Neos decision process can be stopped at activation by influencing reference groups.

This can be most efficiently accomplished using an integrated marketing communication

strategy. Neos can also be prevented from consuming by stricter cigarette availability conditions.

Habs who are not interested in cessation will be extremely low processors, so peripheral cues at

time of purchase and consumption will be important. Habs that are interested in cessation will

process more significantly, therefore central messages will be most effective to reach and

persuade this group. Habs will all benefit, in terms of increased processing, from an integrated

marketing communications strategy.

6. Mood of the consumer, as generated from the message, may have an impact on levels

of processing, thus both positively and negatively framed messages should be considered,




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catching, which is known as ‘vividness’.




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10. HWMs should be as vivid as possible, (Keller and Block, 1997, Shapiro, MacInnis

and Heckler, 1997; Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999). Fluorescent backgrounds (black ink) and

colorful pictorials are recommended. Some research has suggested a zig zag border, rather than a

straight border. Messages should also be relatively distinctive, as discussed in conclusion 8,

above,(Centre for Behavioural Research, 1992).

11. The tobacco industry’s ability to communicate their brand information is not

significantly impaired because the non-dominant attribute still is processed, irrespective of the

size of the focal attributes, Coupey, Irwin and Payne, 1998; Brown, 1993 (t.v. advertisements);

Heath et al, 1994; Janiszewski, 1990). This is even more true because the industry can still use

graphics, logos, brand names, borders, colours, and font types and sizes to communicate their

uniquenesses, (Environics, 1999).

12. Marketing communications strategies, as discussed above, can contribute to

maximizing the effectiveness of HWMs.

13. Changes in tobacco packaging formats, to reduce the convenience of that form may

be considered for long-term strategic planning.

14. Information presented at the back of the inner packaging of cigarettes is not likely to

be effective because the cigarettes will fall out of the package if it is turned upside down. Inserts

and brochures included inside the package are likely to be quickly thrown away. Thus, a pop-out

slider represents a good opportunity for increased communications. However, the slider will




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need to be designed and experimentally tested, in order to ensure maximized efficacy.

It can be seen from the above analysis that an understanding of consumer behaviour, and

in particular, choice decisions in tobacco products is a multi-step process. However, based on

the current literature, it is clear that marketing communication strategies can be designed to take

these complexities into account. As described in the Section I of this paper, it is hoped that this

report will contribute to the alleviation of the impacts that tobacco use has on Canadian society

by enhancing the understanding of the factors involved in a consumer’s choice of cigarette

products.




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