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The contents of this Abstract Book
are solely those of the authors.
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DOI: 10.35578/eclss.52761
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ii
ECLSS 2018b
4th Eurasian Conference on Language and Social Sciences
EIROPAS SAVIENĪBAS MĀJA
Aspazijas bulvāris 28, 1. Stāvs, Rīga, LV-1050
MERCURE RIGA CENTER HOTEL
Elizabetes iela 101, Riga, LV-1010
RIGA, LATVIA
July 24 - 27, 2018
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Maija BURIMA, Ph. D., LATVIA [Chair]
Hasan KARACAN, Ph.D., TURKEY [Co-Chair]
Eva EPPLER, Ph. D., UK
Kalbike Omirbaikyzy ESENOVA, Ph. D., KAZAKHSTAN
Nadejda AÇAN, Ph. D., RUSSIA
Beata BOROWSKA-BESZTA, Ph. D., POLAND
iii
ECLSS 2018b
4th Eurasian Conference on Language and Social Sciences
EIROPAS SAVIENĪBAS MĀJA
Aspazijas bulvāris 28, 1. Stāvs, Rīga, LV-1050
MERCURE RIGA CENTER HOTEL
Elizabetes iela 101, Riga, LV-1010
RIGA, LATVIA
July 24 - 27, 2018
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Mark SZYMANSKI
Pacific University, USA
Prof. Dr. Maija BURIMA
Daugavpils University, LATVIA
Prof. Dr. Giuli ALASANIA
University of Georgia, GEORGIA
Prof. Dr. Baltabay ABDIGAZIEV
Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai Kunanbayev, KAZAKHSTAN
Prof. Dr. Janalik BALTABAEVA
Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai Kunanbayev, KAZAKHSTAN
Prof. Dr. Georgi GAGANIDZE
Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, GEORGIA
Prof. Dr. Vadim KUZMIN
Ural Federal University, RUSSIA
Prof. Dr. Sema ETIKAN
Ahi Evran University, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Kalbike Omirbaikyzy ESSENOVA
Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai Kunanbayev, KAZAKHSTAN
iv
Prof. Dr. Olga Nosova VALENTYNOVNA
Kharkiv National University, UKRAINE
Prof. Dr. Abdullah KIZILCIK
Istanbul University, TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nadejda AÇAN
Ural Federal University, RUSSIA
Assoc.Prof. Dr. Eva EPPLER
University of Roehampton, UK
Assoc.Prof. Dr. Semiha ŞAHİN
Dokuz Eylul University, TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sholpan Myrzakasymovna SHUINSHINA
Institute of Secondary Education Altynsarin National Academy, KAZAKHSTAN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Giovanni BORRIELLO
Università degli Studi della Tuscia / ITALY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zaharah HUSSIN
University of Malaya, MALAYSIA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rıza SAM
Uludag University, TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nagima Abzelbekovna ILIYASOVA
Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai Kunanbayev, KAZAKHSTAN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Raygul RAHMETOVA
Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai Kunanbayev, KAZAKHSTAN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gulnur SMAGULOVA
Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai Kunanbayev, KAZAKHSTAN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Beata BOROWSKA-BESZTA
Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, POLAND
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hajjah Jariah Mohd JAN
University of Malaya, MALAYSIA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tornike SHURGULAIA
Georgian National University, GEORGIA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mashitoh MAHAMOOD
University of Malaya, MALAYSIA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Raihanah Binti Hj AZAHARI
University of Malaya, MALAYSIA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Rouslan JALIL
University of Kentucky, USA
v
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Muhammet ÖZDEMİR
Katip Celebi University, TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurhodja Akbulaev
Azerbaycan Devlet İktisat Üniversitesi, AZERBAIJAN
Assist. Prof. Dr. Serkan TÜRKOĞLU
Gaziosmanpaşa University, TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ercüment YILDIRIM
Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nino CHIABRISHVILI
Ilia State University, GEORGIA
Assist. Prof. Dr. Yusuf Ziyaettin TURAN
Uşak University, TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ekin KAYNAK ILTAR
Akdeniz University, TURKEY
Dr. Katya DUNAJEVA
Eotvos Lorand University, HUNGARY
Dr. Marta R. JABŁOŃSKA
University of Lodz, POLAND
Dr. Mani Man Singh RAJBHANDARI
University of Johannesburg, Republic of SOUTH AFRICA
Dr. Alessandro PORROVECCHIO
Université du littoral Côte d’Opale, FRANCE
Dr. Rina Manuela CONTINI
Università degli Studi G. d’Annunzio Chieti e Pescara, ITALY
Dr. Paige WILLIAMS
University of Melbourne, AUSTRALIA
Dr. Wilkinson Daniel Wong GONZALES
National University of Singapore, SINGAPORE
Dr. Marek LUKÁČ
University of Presov, SLOVAKIA
Dr. Ljiljana Kaliterna LIPOVČAN
Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar, CROATIA
Dr. Bruno SURDEL
Renmin University, Beijing, CHINA
Dr. Salma HALIOUI
Brandenburgische Technische Universität Cottbus, GERMANY
vi
Dr. Anantha Raj A. AROKIASAMY
Quest International University Perak (QIUP), MALAYSIA
Kardo Karim Rached MOHAMMAD
University of Human Development, IRAQ
Dr. Lazlo MARACZ
Universiteit van Amsterdam, The NETHERLANDS
Dr. Faizal AYOB
Victoria University, AUSTRALIA
Dr. Cosmin Tudor CIOCAN
Ovidius University Constanta, ROMANIA
Dr. Almaz Rafisovich GAPSALAMOV
Kazan Federal University, RUSSIA
Dr. Tahir ISLAM
The University of Science and Technology, CHINA
vii
CONTENTS
Flute challenge in chamber music ............................................................................................................2
Lejla BEQIRI - VULA, BULGARIA
Managing Schools: The Epoch of Change or Resistance .......................................................................17
Lina BAİRAŠAUSKIENĖ, LITHUANIA
Teachers and Technology in Elementary Schools .................................................................................27
Rafail PRODANİ, Marinela TENEQEXHİ, & Klea PRODANI. ALBANIA
An Assessment of Impact of Information and Communication Technology in Enterprises of Korca
Region ................................................................................................................................................... 41
Rafail PRODANİ, Jozef BUSHATI, ALBANIA, Aigers ANDERSONS, LATVIA
Turkish Educational System in Context of Thinking Training ..............................................................51
Yüksel MARIM, Rıza SAM, TURKEY
Türkiye Turizminin 2023 Geleceğine İlişkin Yaklaşımlar .....................................................................65
Cüneyt MENGÜ, TURKEY
Dijital Ekonominin Ülke Ekonomileri İçerisinde Artan Etkisi: AB Üye Ülkeleri ve Gelişmiş
Ekonomiler Üzerine Bir İnceleme ......................................................................................................... 89
Müjgan DENIZ, TURKEY
Interpretation of Being of Dasein as the Language of Heidegger's Hermeneutics” .............................106
Abdulkadir CUCEN, TURKEY
On the language of European Integration ............................................................................................118
Elisabeth DONAT, Fabian ELBAKY, AUSTRIA
New Media as a Sphere of Shaping Religious Identity and Ecumenical Dialogue ..............................123
Bogdan ZELER, POLAND
2
Flute challenge in chamber music
Lejla Beqiri - Vula
New Bulgarian University - Sofia Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
My Doctoral Study is an Interpretive Thesis Artist -Flutist. This study analyzes and processes
vase and the role of the flute as a woodwind instrument in chamber music and through various
chamber pieces starting from duet to quintet in various compositions in a self-wind ensemble
with and without clavier, in a grouping of instruments of the same and different group (wind
instruments or string instruments) through the centuries that comprise different styles and eras.
The same study is followed by 6 recitals from various chamber compositions and programs as
well as with detailed analysis of the program starting from the Harmonical analysis, formal,
historical to the tiniest specifics of expression and interpretation.
Keywords: Flute performance, chamber music
INTRODUCTION
The material that I will be presenting in this
Conference is Flute in Chamber music of duo
flute ad clarinet with two of the most difficult
Sonatas about flute and piano from the
complex material in to the philosophic idea and
challenge of playing and performing the piece
in two.
Carl Reinecke – Flute Sonata Undine Op. 167
Sergei Prokofiev – Sonata for Flute and Piano
in D Op. 94
1. PROGRAM ANALYSES
1.1 Carl Reinecke (1824 – 1910) a remarkable
composer from Germany with very sensitive and
1 Chisholm Hugh , Reinecke, Carl Heinrich
Carsten, Encyclopedia Britannica, Cambridge University Press 1911
sophisticated taste. First music lessons were
taken from his father and his early composing
influences were Schuman and Mendelssohn that
he met later on in Leipzig (1845). This composer
was known for being a good pianist where at the
age of 19 he had his first concert tours in
Denmark, Sweden and north Germany. Later in
1046 he was named Court Pianist in Copenhagen
and later on in 1848 he went to Paris.1
The next few years were quite productive where
he wrote concerts for flute, violin, cello and
other instruments.
At age of 27 he became a Cologne Conservatory
professor and after few years he became director
of Gewandhaus Orchestra in Leipzig as well as
piano and composition professor of the
3
Conservatory. There he worked until the end of
his days performing, conducting and composing.
Being active as remarkable pianist he also has a
lot of piano recordings for well known
companies.
He died in Leipzig at age of 85.
1.2 His work
Being relatively known composer for the world
and best known for flutists, this composer has
many merits as great composer and musician but
one of the greatest would be being a teacher for
35 years and leaving behind him even greater
(famous) students like Edvard Grieg, Leos
Janacek, Waletr Niemann and others, with
serving for music so unselfishly. His
compositions were of the unique style, with
grace and such beautiful delicate themes. He has
written few operas, three Symphonies, solo
concerts and sonatas for wind and string
instruments, three fantasy pieces for viola and
piano, Organ Sonata Op. 284, Five string
quartets (Op. 16 in E-flat, 1843; Op. 30 in F,
1851; Op. 132 in C, 1874; Op. 211 in D major,
1890; and Op. 287), wind chamber music (sextet
and octed), Four Piano Concerts and he is best
known for flute Sonata “Undine”. He did most
of his composing after retirement and as so had
hundreds of publications. From all this we can
say he was a great composer, highly influential
and a virtuoso pianist.
1.3 The Sonata
Flute Sonata “Undine” Op. 167 was composed
by Carl Reinecke in 1882 based on Novel
UNIDNE written by Friedrich de la Motte
Fouque in 1811. The German writer was of the
romantic style and by this I must note that in
writing and other visual art the styles were
established much earlier for example
Romanticism in writing is late 18th until
beginning of the 19th century and happens
different in music more specific Classical
Western European Music that we find
Romanticism period form 19th century to almost
beginning of 20th century since music is abstract
art and people need to live the time, feel it and
then absorb, create and reflect.
The book was very popular for all 19th century
and so many art works of all forms were
dedicated and inspired by the book that this
name is still pretty known even today. Based on
the books’ story many other books were written
with the same name: Ondine, play by Jean
Giraudoux, 1939; Hunted Waters, book for teens
by Mary Pope Osborne, 1994; Ondine poem by
Aloysius Bertradem 1842 (based on this poem
years later was inspired Maurice Ravels’
Gaspard de la Nuit, first movement, in 1909 and
Claudio Debussy’ “Ondine” from Preludes book
II in 1913) and many others. Two films were
made with the same story, three ballets, many
paintings through the years to the most complex
music pieces, several operas from which most
important would be Undina of P.I.Tchajkovski,
1869, Undine opera of E.T.A.Hoffmann, 1815,
Rusalka of Antonio Dvorzak 1901 and others.
The books talks about fairytale creature called
Undine, a female water spirit, a mermaid who is
found in the shore in a form of a child and raised
by a fisherman and his wife. Parents raising her
did not know that she was a mystical creature
with no soul. The only way than undine can gain
immortal soul is by earning mortals true love that
is bound to be faithful to her. The first movement
of sonata is describing Undines’ living in the
beautiful Cristal castles deep under the waves
4
with magical calm flute theme. The second
movement describes her life on land with her
faster parents raising her with much love as she
was their own daughter but yet she did not
behave and was lively noisy child. The flute
plays chase structure with piano in very short,
fast notes and anticipation emotion.
Growing up in a totally charming and beautiful
yang girl she falls in love with knight Hulbrard,
as the author of the book describes her” The
longer he sought for her beneath the shades of
the trees and found her not, the more anxious and
distraught did he become. Once more the
thought that Undine was but a phantom, a vision
caused by the mysterious forest, took possession
of him”2, the mutual love crowned with
marriage. Then she turns in to her real form and
confesses her true story but Hulbrand loves her
above anything and they stay together in most
happy and romantic time. This is the third
movement of the sonata with most epic love
melody.
And human nature always betrays us by showing
its real face for good and bad we have and that’s
exactly what happens with our knight when he
fells again for his first love Berthalda. By this act
of betrayal Undine is forced to go back to her
water world. The forth movement is all about
Undines deep disturbance, disappointment and
anger. On Hulbrands wedding day with
Berthalda, Undine gives him a kiss becoming his
curs “trembling with love and with the nearness
of death, the knight bent towards her, and she
kissed him with a holy kiss”.3 He dies and she
2 Undine, by de la Motte Fouque , adapted
from the German by W.L.Courtney and
illustrated by Arthur Rackhman, London
1911Page 20
turns in to water nymph. This movement is
characterized with forte dynamics, impulsive
accent and pain. The very last bars are the
leitmotiv of their love theme in light, delicate
piano dynamic with the very last forces and is
described the knight funeral and Undine seeing
him above as a white shadow.
Another version of sonata can be seen as each
movement being one of the four elements, water,
fire wind and earth while love being the fifth
element watches among all the Sonata.
1.4 Sonata Analyses
Reineckes’ style of composing is based on
Classical frame with tempting ideas of
Romanticism expression. This sonata is built on
Classical form with few escaping moment in the
melodies so we can say that this sonata is mix of
both styles.
3 Undine, by de la Motte Fouque , adapted
from the German by W.L.Courtney and
illustrated by Arthur Rackhman, London
1911, page132
5
Full Sonata form
Movement First
mov.
Second
mov.
Third
mov.
Forth
mov.
Tempo Allegro Intermezzo Andante
tranquil
Finale
Key e –
minor
be– minor G –
Major
e-
minore
Meter 4/4 2/4 4/4 4/4
Form Sonata
Form
ABACA
ABA Sonata
Form
Duration 7 min 4 min 4 min 5 min
Sonata form is a musical form that appears for
the first time in Early Classicism as program
music with mainly three parts: an exposition, a
development, and a recapitulation. The word
sonata for the first time was used in early 17th
century and it mend music piece performed only
by instruments having no vocal as a part coming
from the Italian word suonare with the same
meaning.
Best example of the same is Pergolesis’ Trio
Sonata No. 3 in G Major. 1
Sonata is built in four movements. In the later
development of the form, the first movement of
sonata was sonata form itself. Still on the
subject of classification, it should be added that
sonata form was typical of the first movement
of a sonata, symphony, quartets, etc.2
The first movement is with very light and
sensitive theme. Hearing it for the first time,
immediately can be imagined the underwater
fairy world with all its idyllic beauty. This is the
1 The Analysis of Music, John D. White, 1976 page 20.
impression that every listener can experience
and as e performer, flute player it is very difficult
moment to be performed with precise intonation.
As we sad, the intonation is personal thing and it
should be solved in years but there are always
tricky parts that tempt the intonation and this
theme is one of them. Flute is this chamber piece
is not so challenging with the other voice piano,
since rhythmical is not so difficult because the
piano only accompany this melody and yet
performing it with flute is very difficult
regarding the intonation because it is in a long
legato, moving few interval notes in one octave
almost the same notes and in the dynamic of
starting calm than making little wide crescendo
in to decrescendo risks the intonation even more
and especially the fact that it is in legato. Here is
an example of the first theme of the first
movement of the “Undine” Sonata, see example
nr 1.
2 The Age of Mozart and Beethoven, Giorgio Pestelli, Cambridge University Press, 1984, Sonata form, page 14.
6
Example nr 1.
This movement is in stable intonations and
jumps are in natural intervals, the rhythmical
moment is not very challenging but the most
difficult part would be the interpretation of the
same, the way of expression. To be able to
perform this sonata it requires a certain amount
of wisdom let’s say or musical background with
high phrasal understanding. Yet it has to be in
round manner, horizontal with not high and low
amplitudes, in one motion and very delicate.
The moment that awakenes this movement is the
rhythmical texture in flute that appears by the
middle of the movement that warns a little
musical movement and yet in constant long
legatos that has to be performed in easy mode
but very precise rhythmical ground. In this part
also piano structure is more complex so it has
more communication and vigilance of following
the voices, being together and expressing the
upward or downward intensity together. See
example nr 2:
7
Example nr 2
The movement ends with the same calmness that
it starts.
The second movement is total opposite of the
first movement to its smallest detail. If in the first
movement we had lyrical themes with long
legatos and love meaning here we have
rhythmical structures with high staccato jumps,
powerful dynamic and very alive
communication with piano. It sympobyses the
uncalm childhood of Undine on Earth and all the
frustrations that a child can have with much
harsh atmospheres. As flute performer it is not
easy to play single tong staccato all time if forte
because the toung has tendence to be heavier and
here it has to be the same all the time, short exact
and strong. The same material is in the piano
score so precise is not te be discussed for in
return it is not playable and all the point of
catching the atmosphere is in this exact moment.
See example nr 3.
Example nr 3
The breaking moment is the slow short melody
in the middle of the second movement for in
short moment it turns to the random second
movement euphoria and finishes it strong.
The third movement is a love theme, the moment
when Undine falls in love with a mortal man,
live is a dream and such atmosphere is required
to be transferred in the flute sound. It has to be
warm, for is no coincidence that is in first octave,
it requires warm color, round movement and in
much much love. The piano accompanies with
the most classic accords and even question
answer communication. This atmosphere is to be
8
disturbed with fast euphoric piano entrance with
different rhythmical pattern with triples. Flute is
to take this atmosphere in to the next level with
short but big jump to the climac and gradually
pulling it downwards to accent trillers. All this
meets the calm end to melting for the last time in
the beginnings theme, with piece and relive as
easy as breath. Here you can see the example nr
4:
Example nr 4
The fourth movement starts with auftact (See
example nr 5), a motive that follows all the
movement with power that constant accumulates
power. For flute this piece is very challenging
because it requires very wide tome with
powerful color and yes moving one. It has to be
careful not to be overblown or over sad, yet it has
to be fully sad. The piano has symmetrical
motive patterns to certain moments with more
compressed text. To earn the explosion power it
also modulates few time for pomposing the
accent and in the end, after all the war and poring
hart, it finishes in the very calm and minimal
moment with the material of the love theme for
representing reminiscensa memory of the good
times and bitter curse at the same time since
Undine now stands upon the love of her life as a
white shadow while he has just died from her
kiss.
9
Example nr 5
2.1 Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev (1891 –
1953) from Ukraine is one of the most influential
composers of the 20th century. Being recognized
as leading Neoclassicist, his talent of embodying
rich harmony and new specter of colors remains
absolutely unique.
Growing up as the only child, his mother being
a pianist from St. Petersburg was the first guilty
person for the very early music involvement of
Sergei in music. Listening to her play he
composed his first piece for piano when he was
only five. At the age of 9 he was introduced to
music teachers and he had his first official
lessons of harmony, music composition and
polyphony for by the age of 12 he studied
1 Dorothea Redpenning, "Prokofiev,
Sergey," Grove Music Online.
Oxford Music Online, Accessed June 14,
2013,
composition in the St. Petersburg Conservatory.
He had his first debut as contemporary composer
in 1908 in the Conservatory performing his
pieces.
In his autobiography he confesses that being
exposed as musician to all this great works
written until now had him feeling jealous,
though he systematically tried to learn from their
“more mature” models.1 Also he speaks about
his not pleasant respect towards his colleagues
and having so it was “deep disappointment.”2
His highest point in the Conservatory time was
winning the piano contest in 1914 by playing his
Piano Concerto nr. 1.
<http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subsc
riber/article/grove/music/22402 2 Prokofiev, Soviet Diary, 235
10
After World War I he went traveling and living
in America where soon he was compared to
other famous Russian exiles like Sergei
Rachmaninoff. His debut solo concert in New
York led to several further engagements. After a
second season in America, Prokofiev divided his
time in London, Paris and Germany.
At the beginning of World War II Prokofiev
lived in Moscow where he was evacuated for
several years and this time was known as his
most productive time. After the War with his
performances he reached his best fame around
Soviet Union composers.
In his 1951 article “Music and Life,” Prokofiev
writes about the “artist’s mission.” “But can the
true artist stand aloof from life and confine his
art within the narrow limits of subjective
emotions, or should he be where he is needed
most, where his art can help people to live
a better, finer life?”3
Living in the time of Two World Wars with
every norm being disputable around everything
and everybody; living, feeling, absorbing and
creating an art of genius ideas among every other
personal and professional challenge, Prokofiev
by the end of his years suffered from anxiety and
hart health. He worked untill the very last force
and passed away in agony in1953, at the age of
61.
2.2 His work
His styles have been changing through years
starting from more simple music with deep
expressing moments (ballet Ala and Lolly) to
delightfully charming “Classical” Symphony no.
1 in D major moving to more sophisticated
3 Prokofiev, Autobiography, 135
expression (childrens’ story for orchestra and
narrator Peter and the Wolf) all the way to the
popular ballet Romeo and Juliet and the
Symphony no. 5.
There are no words or phrase that can comment
his composing style unless we are writing a book
on his name but just trying to capture the most
innovative and strong personal characteristics
among many like sharp dynamic contrasts,
melodies spanning in large pitch range, frequent
key changes and harmonic enrichments.
Prokofievs’ most important works are: Three
Piano Concerts, Piano Sonatas, Symphony-
Concerto for Cello and Orchestra in E minor,
Op. 125, (written for Mstislav Rostropovich),
opera The Gambler, The Fiery Angel, War and
Peace, The Love for Three Oranges, Peter and
the Wolf Op. 67, a children's tale for narrator and
orchestra, Ivan the Terrible Op. 116, Flute
Sonata in D, Op. 94 (later arranged as Violin
Sonata No. 2, Op. 94a), the ballet Chout,
Symphony No. 1 in D major Classical Op. 25, an
early neo classical composition, Le pas d'acier,
The Prodigal Son, Romeo and Juliet Op. 64,
ballet in four acts, contains the famous "Dance
of the Knights", Cinderella, The Tale of the
Stone Flower, 7 Symphonies, String Quartet No.
2 in F major, Op. 92 Violin Concerto No. 1 in D
major, Op. 19 Quintet, Op. 39, for oboe, clarinet,
violin, viola, and double-bass etc.
2.3 The Sonata
Sonata for Flute and Piano in D Major (1943) is
his first and only sonata for flute. It has four
movements having very complex / beautiful
texture with deep philosophic idea. The piece
was composed in a year during his evacuation
11
time and was requirement from Levon
Atovmyan, finance officer of the financial
division of the Union of Soviet Composers in
Moscow, for wich he was paid 8000 rubles.
Having it as a financial support and a challenge
at the same time about the intriguing instrument
he says: “I had long wished to write music for
the flute, an instrument which I felt had been
undeservedly neglected.” 4
The premiere was played on December 7, 1943
in Moscow by flutist Nikolay Ivanovich
Kharkovsky and pianist Svyatoslav Richter. The
next year Prokofiev made a violin transcription
as Op. 94a played by the violinist David
Oistrakh, whom he describes as “one of our best
violinist”.5 The project “proved not too difficult,
since we found the part of the flute is easily
adaptable to the violin.”6
2.4 Sonata analyses
Full Sonata form
This sonata among all has the philosophic idea
and reflects the cold beautiful Russian
atmosphere in was times. The first four first bars
of the first movement are the first theme and it
present cold beautiful white field of heavy snow.
The flute sound has to be very precise, specific,
to be heard through and mysterious. Piano has
simple structured accompany with interesting
movements inside. In this chamber piece the
communication and the fulfillment in between
the voices is very specific so both
instrumentalists have to have high musical
communication, both to understand the piece
and to have to deliver specific feeling. See
example nr 6 and 7. In comparison to the
previous Sonata here the piano has rhythm and
the flute melody and Reinecke has the opposite.
Here is second theme of the first movement
being more structured and more serios material
of was melodies vibe.
This piece is enriched with complex harmony
and technical requirement in both instruments
with slightly higher accent to the flute since it
has exhibitions in fast virtuoso passages with
high expression like in the second movement.
The meter is almost displaced since to the piano
entrance in the beginning of the second
movement flute enters in the first beat with
certain legatures that gives the feel of the two
voices not playing in the same meter. See
example nr 8 and nr 9.
Movement First mov. Second mov. Third mov. Forth mov.
Tempo Moderato Scherzo Andante Allegro com brio
4 Prokofiev, Autobiography, 131 5 Prokofiev, Autobiography 131
6 Prokofiev, Autobiography 131
12
Key D - Major a – minor F – Major D – Major
Meter 4/4 3/4 2/4 4/4
Form Sonata Form Trio and scherzo Ternary Rondo
Duration 8 min 5 min 4 min 7 min
Full Sonata form
Example nr 6
Example nr 7
13
Example nr 8
Example nr 9
The third movement has question answer
moment with the most evident moment of
communicating in the chamber piece. Legatos
have to be in very calm and melting motion so
has one voice to another. The meter helps it
being precise but while interpreting it has to have
a certain delay at one bar and that much moving
forward in the next bar so the music feels
humble.
And of course the accumulated energy and
phrasing has to explode like a rainbow in to
million colors or like marching army or horrible
hurricane. It starts with ouftakt entering
14
powerful forte in stable tonal harmony with
pompose piano accord for support. In this
movement there are the most difficult technical
figures for flute in big arpeggios, in very short
time, in big intervals and fast tempo in front of
important musical moment. See example nr 10.
Example nr 10.
Here is another very difficult technical moment for flute in example nr 11:
Example nr 11
15
3. Summary of chamber group duet flute and
piano:
Being compositions of structural texture with
deep philosophic ideas and not to pass by the
technical requirements; I have set few questions
about these pieces and at the same time it is the
analyzing method as followed:
1. The flute – piano musical and technical
proportion?
2. Technical difficulty?
3. Performance requirement?
4. Innovative moments?
5. Musical idea / atmosphere and style?
6. Similarity and difference?
1. The flute – piano musical and technical
proportion?
While analyzing formal, harmonic, historical
and performance difficulties or challenges let’s
say, we can come to the conclusion that
musically both sonatas require high level of
music understanding, music following,
complex ideas delivering and music size. As for
the technical part I must say that favored
chamber piece in this category would be
Prokofiev Sonata.
2. Technical difficulty?
For piano and flute is different if we speak for
the voices-instruments separately. For flute I
would say that by technical difficulty we speak
of personal weakness or abilities in expressing
certain speed in the instrument but by some
standards of technical measures by analyzing
both Sonatas I will say Prokofiev Sonata is more
difficult just by the difference of very fast and
virtuoso passages in third octavas by not leaving
so much further behind Undine Sonata with all
legato difficulties and tuning ones. For piano
my collage says that Undine is more complex
since it has more jumps and by listening it I
would agree.
3. Performance requirement?
To be able to perform this kind of material and
by performing I mean fully delivering the
musical/philosophical idea, the instrumentalist
has to have high understanding of music and
artistic maturity, mental condition that is
reached by year of effective practicing and
performing challenging material. In this
question I would not devide the two Sonatas in
any sense for in performance they both require
the maximum possible of both performers.
4. Innovative moments?
Since both Sonatas are written in Classical style
an by saying this I rely on harmonic analyses
firstly, formal analyze, the report of between the
tonalities, musical and technical building and
music idea. In this sence I would say there are
no innovations like something shown for the
first time in the history because it has all
features of Classical Sonatas but is worth
mentioning that: Flute Sonata is the only one
written by Prokofiev, it is so famous that later it
is transcript for all string instruments (which in
history usually is the other way around), this
chamber music pieces are with the most
philosophy from almost all flute chamber music
pieces, in both sonatas in almost every
16
movement there is a skip away moment with
very far away material that the usual movement
and probably the fact that in this chamber piece
the both voices have the same musical and
technical difficulties because usually in flute
piano pieces piano is accompany or even in
chamber music in general but in this sonatas
music material in present all the time in the both
voices.
5. Musical idea / atmosphere and style?
Both sonatas have high philosophic idea with
deep meaning even they are inspired of different
themes. Also both sonatas strongly stay in
Classical style with tiny exceptions of
Romantism.
6. Similarity and difference?
Similarities would be in formal building, the
way theme is treated and material is crumpled,
the genial way the high musical idea is
presented and treated while the difference
would be the themes they are inspired by, the
way they have treated the flute sound, the way
that communication in chamber music in treated
and richness of harmonies in different of
musical moment.
17
Managing Schools: The Epoch of Change or Resistance
Lina Bairašauskienė Klaipėda University, Lithuania,E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The article presents transformations of Lithuanian school management, describing key principles
of the difference between concepts of management and administration. It also unfolds the history
of Lithuanian education change, school management characteristics and its challenges, factors,
and tendencies in the period of independent Lithuania. Manager’s role is crucial in any
educational organization, being at that – attitudes, practices and values promoted – can transform
a school into a dynamic institution. Regarding educational management, it can be defined as the
science and art of performing managerial role which consists of a set of principles and functions
of management standards and methods for achieving the objectives of the educational system.
The confusion has arisen between the concepts of school management and school administration.
Scholars argue that management and administration should not be used synonymous.
In the rapid alternation of education external environment of school makes extensive influence
on school management. From the point of view of the influence of economical-political factors
everything related to investments and budget allocations is related to school performance
efficiency. Social factors should not be neglected, as most of the current existing elements of
school principals’ performance must be supplemented by social functions. Technological issues,
although conditioned by the economical and political ones, are of a high importance, as the new
trends, innovations in education are being introduced. Education changes bring instability and
uncertainty in understanding traditional school objectives, which now are related to the chosen
direction of educational process implementation. The resistance to change of individuals and
organizations usually occurs becoming a natural component of change. Such factors as emotional
instability, habits, excessive conformism, authoritarian tendencies and attitudes towards risk
affect school management transformation processes.
Keywords: school principals, management, administration, education change.
1. INTRODUCTION
18
In recent times, there has been
significant attention to changes in school
management. The role and functions of a
school principal are broadly understood as
initiator’s of innovations in educational
process. Contemporary education policy
determines school management as key
figure in organizational development while
implementing harmoniuous education,
upbringing independent, strong
personalities that are able to take motivated
decisions ensuring democratic future
society. The school is an organization of
complex activities, thus its management
acquires the importance of performance
results (Gunter, Grimaldi, Hall, & Serpieri,
2016). School management is concerned
with the institution, its policies, goals and
implementation of these policies. A school
principal is described as an individual
responsible for school setting who directs
affairs of a particular school and is involved
in planning, organizing, supervision,
monitoring, and evaluation.
The purpose of the paper is to analyze
changes in school management and
administration. The study focuses on the
concept of school management
and
examines state comprehensive school
management transformations influenced by
external factors and internal resistance to
changes.
The methods of scientific literature as
analysis, synthesis, and interpretation have
been applied. The research is based on the
approaches of concepts of postmodern
global processes, constructive perception of
procedures, principles of systematicity in
management, and theory of social
constructivism (Latour & Woolgar, 1986).
2. Complexity of the Concept of
Educational Management
Management as a science originated at
the end of 19th century with the emergence
of F. W. Taylor‘s report at the Association
of Mechanical Engineer in The United
States, and in 1911 H. Fayol’s published
book General and Industrial Management
that comprised universal principles of
management (Wilson & Thomson, 2006).
Later, in 1930s German sociologist M.
Weber supplemented the notion of
management with insights on bureaucracy
and formal organizations. Since 1960s
management has been considered as a
system that operates complex institutions
including human resources, various tasks
and technologies.
At the beginning of managerial science
development schools’ management was
considered in a different manner than it was
in business organizations. School
management was not widely researched
issue till the end of WWII, and only after it
with the spread of decentralization process
first prominent studies had been conducted
in Western European countries and in the
United States (Eacott & Evers, 2015).
Understanding Schools as
Organizations (Handy & Aithen, 1986) lead
the foundation to connect school and
business organization management into one
19
system (Wilson & Thomson, 2006),
emphasizing the factors influencing
effective management of education process.
Later Dalin (1978, 1993), Fullan (1991,
1992, 1993, 1997), Hargreaves (1992, 1994,
1997) contributed to the development and
improvement of school management and
change processes in educational
institutions.
Despite the fact that western countries
have deep centennial school management
traditions, in Lithuania until the restored
independence school management was
treated in a different manner due to high
level of predominant centralized and
authoritarian school administration. The
concept of management was not applied in
public use and school management was
determined as ruling and commanding
(Želvys, 2015). Contemporary management
theories widely spread only in 1990s.
Extensive education reforms contributed to
school management transformations with
the appearance of new concepts of
management, managerial competencies and
managerial knowledge.
Many scientists endorse (Želvys, 2003)
that education management is
comparatively a new branch of science not
only in Lithuania, but also in other
countries. It might cause polysemous
understanding of the concept of
management. There could be find plenty of
deffinitions to management but in most
cases it is similar to the one defined by H.
Fayol in 1930 as “to manage is to forecast
and plan, to organize, to command, to
coordinate and to control” (Fayol, 1930, p.
3). Freguently school administration is
interchanged with school management in
the same context. Concise Oxford English
Dictionary (2011) defines management as
“the process of dealing with or controlling
things or people”, whereas administration is
“the process or activity of running a
business, organization, etc”. Since only
things, people or manufacturing processes
can be managed these two concepts should
not be used synonymously. Therefore,
institutions and organizations should be
administered. Želvys (2015) distinguishes
school management as independent
planning and supervision of institution,
whereas administration involves activities
defined by legal regulations of other
institutions.
Three prevailing viewpoints exist in
appliance of managerial theories in school
management (Želvys, 2003). The first
viewpoint argues educational institutions
being of the same origin as the other ones,
therefore common managerial laws should
be applied in managing schools. The
proponents of this attitude claim that
representatives of education system
subjectively exclude education
management as an exceptional sphere that
is unique, though the main roles and
responsibilities of school principals’ are
mostly identical to other institutions
managers’. The opposing standpoint is
represented by the second group which state
that school management cannot be
equalized to business organizations
management because of completely diverse
goals and objectives. The third viewpoint
represents a transitional position
highlighting that common laws, theories
and practices could be applied to school
20
management after thorough selection and
consideration (Kochhar, 2013).
According to Chikoko, Naicker and
Mthiyane (2011) management is a function
of complex systems that is displayed in
orientation of activities and information,
internalization, decision making
accompanied by persistent search of
allocations. The complexity of education
system is reflected by interactions between
students and teachers, planning and
implementing of education process, as well
as monitoring it and seeking for higher
quality and efficiency. Hosgörür (2016)
notices that education is a social system that
encompasses not only management of
human resources but the main focus is laid
on constant development and improvement
of student’s personality. Moreover, school
principal is responsible for ensuring safe
microclimate that allows to build friendly,
regardful and equal relationships among the
members of school community.
Consequently Chikoko, Naicker and
Mthiyane (2011) claim that management of
education institutions is a science and an art
linked with the design of future goals
overpassing traditional concepts of banking
education and becoming a changing,
learning, creating, and satisfying global
needs institution. Therefore, education
management is a powerful tool in education
process that could be employed to promote
transformations in relationships between
students and teachers (Nicodim, Bucata &
Muscalu, 2016).
School management represents an
integrated approach and methodology in
planning schooling process, principles,
functions and rules ensuring fulfillment of
goals of national educational policy.
Thereby education management is
considered with different levels of practice
(Panfil, 2017):
Macro – systematic level of education –
involves national educational policy
that integrates national and international
standards defining education goals,
education guidelines, legal regulation,
implementation and monitoring of
school curricula.
Transitional – school level defining the
design of institution direction, creation
of contemporary learning environment,
implementation, monitor and correction
of schooling process, staff training.
Micro – classroom level – a set of tools
for establishing proper relationship
between students and teachers. The
main focus is reduction of stress,
intrusive behavior, negative external
influence.
Generalizing, it could be stated that
education management includes mastering
education processes, implementation of
managerial functions, construction and
development of students’ personalities,
promotion of staff improvement,
administration of allocations by applying
common managerial laws and principles
after thorough selection considering the
context of certain educational institution.
3. Factors of School Management
Change
In relation to the viewpoint that school
management should be considered as
21
management of other institutions, Kochhar
(2013) challenges school principals to react
to internal and external factors of change.
PEST analysis is used to describe a
framework of macro-environmental factors
used in the external environmental scanning
component of strategic management both in
business and education institutions (Panfil,
2017). It involves the analysis of political-
legal, economical, socio-cultural
technological factors that influence school
management and school performance. Due
to implementation of educational goals
PEST analysis is supplemented by
educational factors that substantially
contributes to changes in school
management (Mečkauskienė, 2010).
Political-Legal factors. Donaldson and
Weiner (2017) emphasize contradiction of
opinions that political-legal factors are
considered to be of low influence, thus in
reality it is hardly achievable as national
governments design education reforms
distributing responsibility of
implementation to local municipalities.
Changes in the political system directly
influence stability and continuation of
launched reforms. Political-legal factors
determine school performance and
administration, allocations, requirements
for pedagogical staff, etc. School principal
becomes an organizer and administrator of
complex activities ensuring safe
environment, satisfactory results and
achievements. Hence, the responsibility of
school principals‘s has inlarged within the
increased requirements for school
1 Retrieved from:
principal‘s quaificationsand competencies.
Moreover, the connection of political and
legal factors with economical, techological,
and socio-cultural factors has dimension in
determining school management direction
pathway (Munro & Belanger, 2017).
Economical factors. Ungureanu,
Rascu-Pistol and Ungureanu (2014)
indicate public institutions dependence on
economic state of the country. State schools
receive allocations from the government.
With the economic growth an increase in
funding of education can be observed
(Kochhar, 2013). Following
recommendations of international
organizations, UNESCO and OECD,
national governments must provide
education with the allocations of at least 6
% of GPD. Though, statistics in Lithuania
show that in 2016 the allocations comprised
4,3 % of GDP, and respectively 4,7 % in
20171. This demonstrates financial
instability in education system. Therefore,
school principals face challenges in
efficient finance management and
endeavour to employ competitive strategies
to attract additional funding. Furthermore,
with the outbreak and spread of
neoliberalism school management
experienced market economy domination,
as well as marketization, which lead to
financial competition provoked by striving
to survive.
Socio-Cultural factors reflect
multilayered reality of society. Kettl (2015)
acknowledges that attitudes of the society
members on saving and investment
https://osp.stat.gov.lt/documents/10180/3329771/B
VP.pdf
22
influence education system. Moreover,
Ungureanu, Rascu-Pistol and Ungureanu
(2014) highlight historical perspective
denying connections between public good
and high level of education, contrary in
seeking public good priorities are given to
other spheres of social life such as
healthcare, etc.
Social demographic changes within
countries, such as decrease in birth rates,
increasing emigration, influence the
declining number of students. Though due
to rapid changes in human social life the
number of students with special needs has
significantly risen (Sallis, 2014).
Consequently school principals face with
new challenges in solving students‘
problems related to intensified migration
that cause isolation and allienation. Due to
these factors school management has been
supplemented by performaning social
functions.
Technological factors. Panfil (2017)
claims that widespread use of ICT in school
management process has changed the
notion of working place and time that have
become open-ended. With techological
innovations new standards and
requirements have been implemented which
contributed to the improvement of effective
communication, presentation, perception
and dissemination of information.
Ungureanu, Rascu-Pistol and Ungureanu
(2014) highlight ITC as a powerful tool that
mediates teaching and learning. It is
obvious that with technological progress
administrative tasks have been facilitated.
though introduction and use of innovative
information and communication
technologies recognizes tension in search
for funding to purchase modern equipment
in order to satisfy the needs of
contemporary and progressive students
(Munro & Belanger, 2017)
Educational factors. Mečkauskienė
(2010) argues that educational factors have
a high impact on school management as
school principals are autonomous in the
ways school curriculum is performed
considering particular school goals and
objectives. Educational changes influence
the notion of school management and
principal‘s responsibilities to ensure
modern learning and teaching processes
oriented towards international education
standards and national reform issues.
Therefore, it is essential in managerial
process to incorporate strategic modelling,
monitoring and supervision (Chikoko,
Naicker & Mthiyane, 2011).
Multilayered external factors
influencing school performance indicate the
complexity of school management
transformation. Ungureanu, Rascu-Pistol
and Ungureanu (2014) consider internal
factors which influence resistance to
changes in school management. Kettl
(2015) defines resistance to changes as
natural process in school management
transformation due to psychological, social
and economic causes.
Changes as threat to stability (Ungureanu,
Rascu-Pistol & Ungureanu, 2014) is a
frequent standpoint in the face of change.
Many education reforms have been greated
with discontentment prefering status quo.
Panfil (Jašarevič & Kuka, 2016) recognizes
23
that consistent national education policy
minimizes public opposition.
Emotional volatility and uncertainty are
provoked by economic and political crisis
which require well-coordinated solutions by
optimizing strategic management decisions
(Chikoko, Naicker & Mthiyane, 2011).
Emotional dependence is followed by
person’s inability to implement
organizational changes. Thus, school
principals avoid creative solutions and
decisions in changing established way of
management that they are used to over the
years (Donaldson & Weiner, 2017).
Excessive conformism expresses a
conservative attitude towards preservation
of traditions, despite the fact of
implementing obsolete managerial models
(Kettl, 2015). Ungureanu, Rascu-Pistol and
Ungureanu (2014) relates excessive
conformism to authoritarian tendency,
which is common in post-soviet countries,
when authoritarian viewpiont is adapted to
new approaches of managerial theories.
Risk factor is considered to be most
influential in resistance to changes in
management (Kettl, 2015). This raises
concerns in relation to whether a school
principal is able to accept personal
responsibility for schooling and
management outcomes in cases they
contradict with the expected and planned
results.
The initiation of changes in educational
management requires promotion and
implementation of projects that are
dependent on political, social and
economical factors. The process of
management transformation is related with
dissatisfaction of current status and
situation, therefore, Stones and Hatswell
(2017) highlight necessity to overcome
challenges regarding socio-historic context
in the process of transforming sustainable
managerial changes.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In the beginning of this article, it
was stated that educational management is
a complex concept, whereas synonymous
use of manage and administrate is
frequently observed. Nevertheless, school
management should be considered as
independent planning, implementation,
organization and monitoring of the
performance, meanwhile administration
involves practices strictly defined by legal
regulations of other authorities. Three
distinctive viewpoints are highlighted
describing relations between school and
other institutions management. The first
claims that common managerial theories
should be applied to all kinds of institutions
without any exclusion, although the
opponents argue that schools are
exceptional organizations and managerial
process in schools is unique and cannot be
applicable in other institutions. Transitional
viewpoint provides more flexible position
stating that common laws, theories and
practices could be applied to school
management after thorough definition of
selected goals and objectives.
2. After examining influence of
external factors on school management it
could be claimed that economical and
political factors related to investments and
24
budget allocations highly influence the
efficiency of school performance. Social
factors, such as migration, children with
special needs supplement school principals’
functions with social attribution.
Technological factors have brought new
trends and innovations in school
management as well as demand for staff
competencies and qualifications
development. Educational changes lead to
instability and uncertainty in understanding
traditional school objectives, which now are
related to the chosen direction of education
process implementation. Thus, resistance to
changes in management is a natural process
of transformation and should be undergone
by executing consistent national education
policy.
25
REFERENCES
Chikoko, V., Naicker, I. & Mthiyane, S. E. (2011). Leadership Development: School Principals;
Portfolios as an Instrument for Change. Education as Change, 15(2), 317-329.
Donaldson, M. L. & Weiner, J. (2017). The Science of Improvement: Responding to Internal and
External Challenges in a Complex School Environment. Journal of Cases in Educational Leadership,
20(3), 65-75.
Eacott, S. & Evers, C. W. (2015). New Frontiers in Theorising Educational Administration. Educational
Philosophy and Theory, 47 (4), 307–311.
Fayol, H. (1930). Industrial and General Administration. London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons.
Gunter, H. M., Grimaldi, E., Hall, D. & Serpieri, R. (2016). New Public Management and the Reform
of Education: European Lessons for Policy and Practice. New York, N. Y.: Routledge.
Hosgörür, V. (2016). Views of Primary School Administrators on Change in School and Change
Management Practices. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16(6), 2029-2055.
Jašarevič, F. & Kuka, E. (2016). Management Change in Education. Metodički obzori, 11(1), 92-101.
Kettl, D. F. (2015). The transformation of governance: Public administration for the twenty-first
century (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Kochhar, S. K. (2013). School Administration and Management. New York, N. Y.: Sterling Publishers
Pvt Ltd.
Latour, B. & Woolgar, S. (1986). Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Mečkauskienė, R. (2010). Mokyklos valdymo kaitos veiksniai ir kryptys. Pedagogika, 99, 23-28.
Munro, M. M. & Belanger, C. (2017). Analyzing External Environment Factors Affecting Social
Enterprise Development. Social Enterprise Journal, 13(1), 38-52.
Nicodim, L., Bucata, G. & Muscalu, E. (2016). Aspects of the Transformation of Educational
Management in Schools. Ovidius University Annals: Economic Sciences Series, 16(1), 361-366.
Panfil, G. (2017). PEST Analysis of the Educational system from Romanian Police Academy. A Focus
on Modern Learning Technologies. In The 13th International Scientific Conference eLearning and
Software for Education. Retrieved from: http://ezproxy.biblioteka.ku.lt:3671/ehost/pdfviewer/
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Sallis, E. (2014). Total Quality Management in Education (4th ed.). New York, N. Y.: Routledge.
Simpson, J. & Weiner, E. (2011). Concise Oxford English Dictionary (12th ed.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Stones, R. & Hatswell, J. (2017). Applying Choice Theory and Lead Management to School Cohesion
and Performance. International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy,37(1), 31-39.
26
Ungureanu, A., Rascu-Pistol, S. & Ungureanu, A. (2014). Management and Change in Romanian
Education. Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice, 6(1), 371-378.
Wilson, J. F. & Thomson, A. (2006). Management in Historical Perspective: Stages and Paradigms.
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Želvys, R. (2003). Švietimo organizacijų vadyba. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.
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agentūra.
27
Teachers and Technology in Elementary Schools
Rafail Prodani
University “Fan S. Noli” of Korça, Albania. E-mail: [email protected]
Marinela Teneqexhi
University “Fan S. Noli” of Korça, Albania. E-mail: [email protected]
Klea Prodani
University “Fan S. Noli” of Korça, Albania. E-mail:[email protected]
Abstract
Along with other developing countries, Albania as well has embraced the technology
integration in education for his development. The success of this integration however is
not dependent on teachers only. They should use efficiently the Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in their classes. Tradictional teaching is living an
impetuous change, meanwhile the integration of topics, new curricula based on
competences and use of technology in service of integration along the curricula, is paving
the way for a more balanced education system for all students. This paper is focused
mainly on understanding the advantages and achievements as well as the methods of using
the technology in class for meeting the curriculum’s objectives. It aims to analyze how
elementary education teachers use the available technology in expanding the learning
capacities deepening and facilitating comprehension in classroom but also handling the
other tasks. The paper shows how teachers use technology in class to expand and improve
the learning process and students’ understanding. Object of the study is region of Korca.
Authors think that this paper will serves an even wider public audience as a recognition
of the problem, the comparison of the current situation of other regions, with the belief
that conclusions will be felt in an optimization of results.
Keywords: Information and Communication Technology, teachers, student , training,
classroom.
1. INTRODUCTION
28
Technologies such as the Internet, personal
computers and wireless telephony have
turned the globe into a network of
individuals, businesses, governments, and
ever-growing schools who communicate and
interact with one another (ITG CID Harvard
University, 2008).
Assessing the degree of inclusion of
education in this network is an important
task that governments of each country
should periodically do for some key reasons.
Firstly, the lack of such an assessment
creates a gap between the current level of
ICT and the perceived level of ICT
penetration in the country. This can also
cause problems with the effectiveness of
policies pursued in these areas. Building a
strategy for inclusion in online education is
more efficient and the results of its
implementation are measurable.
Second, another fact that makes such
assessment necessary is the fact that such an
assessment creates in the main actors in the
country a greater understanding of
developments in ICT related to education as
well as the tangible benefits that we may
have from their implementation.
Teachers have a variety of resources that
help them during classroom teaching such as
computers, smartboards, projectors, ipods
and digital cameras. In the paper we will see
how teachers use classroom technology to
expand and improve learning and deepen
students' understanding in their classrooms.
Restrictions on the use of technology will
also be seen. Here we can also say about the
limitations from the viewpoint of the
teachers' point of view. There is a tendency
today in all developed and developing
countries to incorporate technology into
their education systems. In our country, now,
decision-makers, policymakers and
educational authorities are trying to integrate
technology into our education system. There
is an expectation from them that teachers
integrate teaching technology into their day-
to-day activities. Decisions about the use of
teaching technology in classes are ultimately
taken from teachers. So teachers play a key
role in adopting technology. And if we
observe (Office of Technology Assessment,
1995) the US technology assessment office
"Making the connection between technology
and teachers - aid to 2.8 million teachers in
the public and private sector from
kindergarten to twelfth grade schools that
effectively incorporate technology into
teaching and learning - is one of the most
important steps the nation can take to
achieve the best from past and ongoing
investment in educational technology "(pg.
8) Similarly (Sheighold, 1991) stated that:
"It is well understood that the challenge of
technology integration in schools and classes
is more human than technological.
Moreover, it is not primarily about helping
people to operate with a machine, but it is to
help people, initially teachers, to integrate
these technologies into their teaching as
tools of a profession being redefined through
the process of incorporation. (p.1) "
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review on technology, reading
and teaching in class show how teachers use,
or hesitate to use technology in their classes
29
for expanding further the reading-writing
capacities, and comprehension in reading.
Many findings of these studies show that
teachers face difficulties in the appropriate
application of technology in their classes
because of the lack of training, resources and
support. Other findings show that lack of
time and professional development are very
important reasons why teachers fail in
introducing the technology in class while
teaching reading and comprehension.
Teachers should be able to use the
technology efficiently in their teaching and
learning activities. According to (Harris,
1996), “citizens of the information age
should not only learn how to access
information, but most importantly learn how
to manage, analyze, criticize, cross-
reference and transform it in useful
knowledge” (pg. 15); and the technology in
education sector can make this happen.
Many surveys have documented the
priorities in using the technology in
education. The technology was identified as
a catalyst in restructuring the classes so that
a promoting and encouraging environment
was created for developing a series of
thinking skills (Hopson, Simms, & Knezek,
2002). Also, it is important to point out that
positive impacts of technology depend on
how much teachers use technology in their
classes (Kozma, 2003). A number of studies
found that teachers use technology for non-
teaching activities (Becker, 2000). For
example, (Cuban, 2001) found that pre-
school and elementary level teachers used
computers for administrative tasks. Cuban
found out also that teachers used technology
for communication purposes such as
emailing parents. Similarly, (McCannon,
2000) found out that the majority of
elementary level teachers were using
computers for administrative tasks and not
as an integral part of the learning process.
Some studies showed an inconsiderable
efect if not a negative effect of the
technology on education. For example,
(Pelgrum, 2002) compared 41 countries in
terms of technology and mathematical
education. They concluded that students
who used technology “usually to learn math
has proved low progress compared to those
who rarely used it or at all (page 127).
Similarly, (Cuban, 2001) examined the use
of computers in Silicon Valley schools in
California. He was mainly focused on the
elementary education, pre-schools and
secondary education. He stated that “in the
schools under survey no clear and
substantial proof was found in increasing the
academic levels of students because of using
the information technology,’(page 133)
although “students and teachers had access
in computers and related technology
available at schools and homes (page 132).
(Barone, 2009) takes it further by stating:
“Introducing the technology in class is not an
easy task for a teacher especially when two
thirds of teacher are underprepared to use it”
(page 292). (Turbill, 2001) identifies that
there are three factors to why teachers do not
use technology in their classes: lack of time
and expertise to understand and explore the
software, lack of trust, and lack of training
and support (Hansen, 2008). (Merchant,
2009) indicates that now teachers feel the
burden of technology integration in their
classes where, as a matter of fact is a full
curriculum. (Hansen, 2008) states as
follows:
30
Often districts provide technological
resources for their teachers without ongoing
training or support so that they use the
resources better. For example, many
teachers were introduced to the technology
thorough a forced presence model of the
traditional staff development, in a workshop
held after the classes run by an expert who
runs the program and then leaves the school
(page 110). Another barrier in the
technology integration is lack of resources.
(Hew, 2007) identifies these barriers as one
or more of those that will follow; need for
technical support, time restrictions, and lack
of technology which involve scarce
technological means such as hard wares, soft
wares, computers and other resources. They
also feel that in order to use technology
effectively, teachers need to have access to
appropriate technical support. Lack of skills
and know-how also contributes to teachers’
hesitation to use technology in class. (Hew,
K. F., & Brush, T., 2007) also found that
there are institutional barriers that could
prohibit teachers in using technology in their
classes. These barriers are school
management, daily schedules, time planning
or its lack.
(Karchmer, 2001) also agrees with
(Groth, L. et. al., 2007) that maybe the most
essential reason as to why teachers do not
use technology in their classes might be lack
of training and education programs for
teachers and staff. Some suggestions for
helping teachers in overcoming barriers in
technology integration are, as suggested by
(Hew, K. F., & Brush, T., 2007), establishing
computers in classes instead of having them
in a computer lab, provide schools with
laptops cards, by teaching in small groups,
or approach with centers where computers
are used. Teachers might use computers if
they are in the class. The suggestion to the
teachers so that they overcome the barrier of
lack of time is to encourage teachers to
cooperate when they prepare lessons and
materials related to technology. Teachers
might deliver resources based on technology
such as good websites, web quizzes,
interactive sites and games.
3. Findings and Results
In this survey teachers were asked if they
believed they used teaching technology
sufficiently in their schools, how and if they
used computers and internet for teaching
purposes. This was a place where they could
express their total agreement or
disagreement for each of the questions. The
data provided from 54 teachers of six
participant schools making up the sample,
were processed and the average of responses
was calculated for each question as well as
digression. Also, a table with the number of
cases or frequency was created for each of
the questions. After having processed the
data, they were shown in the tables below.
Table 1: Teacher’s use of technology
Questions (M) Average
(SD)
Standard
digression
31
I think I use the teaching technology sufficiently while I’m teaching 1,77 0,89
I use computers for teaching purposes 1,66 0,81
I use the internet for teaching purposes 1,53 0,83
(Note: Scale of response: 1= I totally agree; 2=I agree; 3=Neutral; 4=I disagree; 5= I totally disagree)
It looks like teachers think they use
sufficiently the teaching technology in their
classes. They more than agree in this aspect.
It is interesting the fact that teachers almost
all agree that they use computers and the
internet for teaching purposes. What
consolidates this response is the standard
digression which is too low, thus, data are
too solid and they do not divert too much
from the average. Therefore, we can say that
teachers use computers and the internet for
teaching purposes and they totally agree
with this; there is stability in their part. This
is made clear in the second table which
shows clearly the distibution of teachers’
responses and the frequency number or
cases for each response. Obviously, internet
has the larger number of users, and
computers as well. It’s clear that there are
only a few who do not think they use
technology, internet or computers: only one
and this is a fact that consolidates the data
on using the technology generally and
computers and internet specifically. The
data is shown in charts, figures 1; 2; 3; 4
which give a clearer view and complete it.
So, teachers use internet as a working tool
and are conscious about it. Therefore,
internet oriented teaching is the main focus.
Teachers use the internet a little more than
they use the computer which is the result of
using smartphones and new apps.
Table 2: Use of technology according to specific cases
Questions
1
I totally
agree
2
I agree
3
Neutral
4
I disagree
5
I totally
disagree
32
I think I use the teaching technology
sufficiently while I teach 26 16 11 0 1
I use computers for teaching
purposes 27 20 6 0 1
I use the internet for teaching
purposes 33 16 3 1 1
Figure 1: Graph of technology use
26
16
11
0 1
27
20
6
0 1
33
16
3 1 1
I FULLY AGREE I AGREE I'M NEUTRAL I DİSAGREE I COMPLETELY DO NOT AGREE
Use of technology
I use teaching technology sufficiently in teaching I use computers for teaching purposes.
I use the internet for teaching purposes.
33
Figure 2: Comparative graph of frequency of use of technological equipment.
2
20
12
21
12
3 3
20
4
20
14
10
18
4 3
7
20
13 13
17 17
14
10
4
30
3
17
6
9
35
40
25
COMPUTER VİDEO VCR DVD DİGİTAL CAMERA
PROJECTOR INTERNET TAPE RECORDER
TV
The frequency of use of each device expressed in cases or frequencies.
Never Rarely Sometimes Often
34
Figure 3: Graph of computer usage expressed in percentages.
If we refer to Figure 3, the majority of
teachers who participated in the survey use
computers as assistants to their daily
scheduled activities, whereas 100% of them
use computers to make research on the
internet. It is obvious that all teachers are
constantly looking for materials on internet
as additional support to their plans. This is a
tendency that shows they are closer to the
latest developments and updated quickly.
Also, use of computers for test and
evaluation purposes constitute an important
percentage where 66% of them said they
make their use exactly for the above
88
100
69
25
69
67
53
47
29
35
0
25
12
4
78
43
43
82
49
39
63
71
35
57
65
49
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TO SUPPORT ACTİVİTİES İN MY DAİLY PLANS.
TO SEARCH FOR İNFORMATİON ON THE INTERNET.
TO MAKE PRESENTATİONS.
TO SUPPORT LEARNİNG USİNG COMPUTER EDUCATİONAL …
TO PROVİDE PROFESSİONAL DEVELOPMENT
FOR ACTİVİTİES SUCH AS EVALUATİON AND TESTİNG.
FOR COMMUNİCATİON WİTH FAMİLİES AND KNOWLEDGE …
FOR COMMUNİCATİON WİTH OTHER ADULTS AND …
1-2 DAYS A WEEK.
ONCE A MONTH OR LESS.
I DO NOT ALLOW THE USE OF THE COMPUTER.
TWO TO THREE TİMES A MONTH.
THREE TO FOUR TİMES A WEEK.
EVERY DAY.
MUSİCAL ACTİVİTİES.
PREPARATİON FOR WRİTİNG READİNG.
MATHEMATİCAL ACTİVİTİES.
NATURAL-SCİENCE ACTİVİTİES.
GAME ACTİVİTİES.
LANGUAGE ACTİVİTİES.
DRAMATİZATİON ACTİVİTİES.
ART ACTİVİTİES.
COGNİTİVE DEVELOPMENT.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT.
SOCİAL - EMOTİONAL DEVELOPMENT.
PSYCHOMOTOR DEVELOPMENT.
FOR
WH
AT
PU
RP
OSE
DO
YO
U
USE
TH
E C
OM
PU
TER
?
HO
W O
FTEN
DO
YO
U
PU
T C
OM
PU
TER
İN T
HE
AC
TİV
İTİE
S YO
U H
AV
E P
REP
AR
ED F
OR
YO
UR
P
RO
GR
AM
?
WH
İCH
AC
TİV
İTİE
S O
F YO
UR
ED
UC
ATİ
ON
AL
SUB
JEC
T P
RO
GR
AM
WO
ULD
GİV
E YO
U
MO
RE
RO
OM
FO
R U
SİN
G T
HE
CO
MP
UTE
R?
WH
AT
AR
EAS
OF
CH
İLD
D
EVEL
OP
MEN
T SH
OU
LD Y
OU
SU
PP
OR
T W
İTH
C
OM
PU
TER
TE
CH
NO
LOG
İES
?
Computer usage expressed in %
35
purpose. Not least important is the
professional growth estimated by 68%. So,
the majority of teachers use computers for
professional growth and qualification
activities. In short we can say that computers
are used for important purposes,
educational, professional and scheduled
activities, and what is striking is evaluation
of students through tests build carefully by
means of computer programs. As far as the
role of computers in class and the frequency
of its weekly use is concerned, only 29 % of
teachers used computers 1-2 times a week,
25% of them used it 2-3 times a month and
35% used it at least once a month. There are
several factors involved and figures change
according to schools. But in some of the
interviews, it resulted that teachers have
reasons why they do not use computers in
class such as lack of power, lack of internet
connection and inappropriate space. The
question of what activity do teachers use
computers most in, it was clear that
computers were mostly used in science
activities estimated at 82%. Considerably,
teachers use computers in music activities at
78% and artistic activities and school plays
respectively at 62% and 70%. For activities
such as reading, writing and math computers
are used in 43% of cases. The table shows
clearly that teachers through computers and
activities where they are used, sustain
mostly the area of social-emotional
development which takes the largest part of
it by 64,7 %; linguistic competence is
important as well by 56.8%. Thus, activities
such as plays, arts, music that had the
highest percentages support directly the
social-emotional aspect. Teachers are very
much aware why and how they use
computers in class. There is an internal
cohesion and coherence in their responses
considering even the general tendency for
the development of students’ personalities.
Following the findings on computer usage in
class we can state that they rely on literature
namely (Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J., &
Valcke, M., 2007) which defines three kinds
of computer use in class: basic skills,
computer as an information tool and
computer as a learning tool. They mention
the process of learning the basic actions such
as use of mouse and keyboard efficiently as
basic computer skills, computer education
objectives such as preparation of
presentations with a computer, information
research, correction and selection of
information based on the first and second
type.
On the other hand, it was noticed that the
majority of teachers use computers 1-2 times
a week. Computer and the internet display
multimedia sources that are too interesting
for the children and their music experiences.
Music programs accepted and supported by
computers, playlists of high quality, visual
and audio symbols, music communication
and performance provide children with new
music opportunities (McDowall, 2003).
36
Figure 4: Evaluation chart, expressed in percentages
Some evaluations are performed so that they
support the children’s development and
education and their learning skills are built
on the highest levels in the elementary
education stage. During the evaluation
period, there are children who have
information and motivation and the teacher
should be aware of the strategies and results
used in the process since they are very
important before children get the new
information. At this stage, activities assisted
by technology lead teachers positively
towards children’s evaluation. The teacher
is supposed to supervise each of the students
so that he/she encourages their learning in
computer centers (Judge, 2005). Moreover,
(Clements, 1999) stated that teachers can
understand the children’s intellectual
processes by supervising them.
Another question that was asked to teachers
was the benefits from using technology.
Teachers were asked what were their and the
students’ advantages from using the
technology. Benefits listed by teachers were
as follows:
Teaching class is materialized
further;
1
50,98
74,51
66,67
29,41
15,69
84,31
11,76
47,06
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I USE THE ANSWER QUESTİON METHOD.
I TALK TO KİDS.
I WANT CHİLDREN TO EXPRESS THEİR EMOTİONS THROUGH PAİNTİNGS.
USE THE CAMERA DURİNG THE ACTİVİTİES AND THEN LOOK BACK.
USE OBSERVATİON FORMS.
I PAY ATTENTİON TO THE CHİLD'S PARTİCİPATİON İN THE ACTİVİTY.
USE VİDEO CAMERAS DURİNG THE ACTİVİTY, THEN I SEE THEM AGAİN.
KEEP A REPORT AT THE END OF EACH OF THE ACTİVİTİES.
DO
YO
U M
AK
E A
N E
VA
LUA
TİO
N F
OR
C
HİL
DR
EN A
FTER
USİ
NG
TH
E C
OM
PU
TER
?
DO
YO
U V
ALU
E YO
UR
SELF
A
ND
YO
UR
AC
İTİV
İTY
AFT
ER U
SİN
G T
HE
CO
MP
UTE
R?
Evaluation in percentages
37
Connection with different subjects;
Facility in visual learning;
Building skills in technological
aspect;
Instant display of concepts and their
application;
Cultivation in research and survey;
Abundant information and speed in
finding it;
Accuracy in showing examples;
Increase of the interest and will of
students to become involved;
Concentration, better attention;
More encouragement for
interaction;
Faster exchange of information;
Integrated child development;
The work volume is higher per time
unit and facilitating for the teacher
and the students.
Better comprehension from the
student;
Increase of activities, cooperation
and interaction;
Better memorization of information
and experiences;
Attractive and interesting classes;
Monitoring authentic materials
more concretely;
Better argumenting;
High creativity;
Better control on the students’
tasks;
Keeping the pace all the time. Real
time information;
Meeting the curricula requirements
and additional materials;
Better student motivation;
Professional growth;
Students use all their senses in the
same time.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Use of technology in class in order to
support the teaching process is a necessity
especially for the today’s society. Students
should be able to navigate the internet, not
only read the traditional way; computer
technology and internet need and require
that students are capable of decoding the
information in a page containing other links
and be able to decide what sites and what
information is trusty.
Teachers need to have more opportunities in
professional growth as provided by higher
administrative bodies so as to support them
in using technology in class. (Hew, K. F., &
Brush, T., 2007 and Barone, D., & Wright,
T. E., 2009). In our country, generally most
of teachers in elementary classes use or have
started to use new methods that focus on
students. But still, the reminiscence of
traditional methods persists. There are
teachers who still use traditional methods
focusing mainly on the teacher, considering
38
themselves as distributors and only source
of knowledge. So, to integrate technology
completely, teachers should use new
teaching strategies (Jones, B., Gilbert, V.,
Novakowski, J., & Rasmussen, C., 1996).
Therefore, adapting technology is schools
will be unsuccessful is teachers do not want
to change. Change is a long process. There
are many factors that affect the change. Use
of technology in class is benefiting for the
learning process. By using it, teachers
increase students’ motivation to learn and
focus on teaching; also it helps in exercising
and applying important skills such as
reading and writing.
Teachers should use technology in their
classes to motivate their students, help them
concentrate and create authentic and
intentional activities for students’ learning.
Technology also increases students’
involvement, allowing them to have
educational opportunities of the 21st century
and helping them to acquire the necessary
skills to be successful in today’s society.
39
REFERENCES
Barone,D.,& Wright,T. E. (2009). Literacy instruction with digital and media. The Reading
Teacher, 62(4), 292-309.
Becker, H. J. (2000). Findings from the teaching, learning and computing survey: Is Lary Cuban
right? http://www.crito.uci.edu/tlc/findings/ccsso.pdf
Clements, D. H. (1999). Young children and technology Dialogue on early childhood science,
mathematics, andtechnology education. Në G. D. Nelson (Re.), Dialogue on early
childhood science, mathematics, and technology education, (fv. 92-105). Washington,
DC.
Cuban, L. ((2001)). Oversold & Underused: Computers in the Classroom. Cambridge, MA::
Harvard University Press.
Groth, L. et. al. ((2007)). Becoming technologically literate throughtechnology integration in
PK-12 preservice literacy courses: three case studies. Reading Research and Instruction,
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Hansen, C. C. ((2008)). Observing technology enhanced literacy learning. Contemporary Issues
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Harris, J. (1996). Information is forever in formation knowledge is the knower: Global
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Jones, B., Gilbert, V., Nowakowski, J., & Rasmussen, C. (1996). Plugging in: Choosing and
using educational technology. Washington D.C: Council for Educational Development
and Research.
Judge, S. (2005). The impact of computer technology on academic achievement of young
African American children. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 20(2)., 91-
101.
Karchmer, R. A. ((2001)). The journal ahead: thirteen teachers report how theinternet influences
literacy and literacy instruction in their K-12 classrooms. Reading Research Quartly,
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Kozma, R. B. ((2003)). Technology and classroom practices: An international study. Journal
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McCannon, M., & Crews, T. B. ((2000).). Assessing the technology needs of elementary school
teachers. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 8(2),, 11-1
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McDowall, J. (2003). Music Technology: new literacies in the early years. Young children and
learning technologies(Proceedings of the international federation for
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Merchant, G. ((2009)). Literacy in virtual worlds. Journal of Research in Reading, 32(1),, 38-
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Pelgrum, W. &. ((2002)). Indicators of ICT in mathematics: Status and covariation with
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Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J., & Valcke, M. (2007). Towards a typology of computer use in
primary education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23, 197-206.
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literacy curriculum. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 1(3),, 255-279.
41
An Assessment of Impact of Information and Communication Technology
in Enterprises of Korca Region
Rafail Prodani
University “Fan S. Noli” of Korça, Albania. E-mail: [email protected]
Jozef Bushati
University of Shkodra, “Luigj Gurakuqi” Albania. E-mail:[email protected]
Aigars Andersons
Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences Latvia. E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Ever-evolving and increasingly powerful Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
have fundamentally changed the nature of global relationships, sources of competitive advantage
and opportunities for economic and social development. ICTs have greatly increased the impact
on every area of human life. Technologies such as the Internet, personal computers and wireless
have turned the globe into a network of individuals, businesses, governments, and ever-growing
schools who communicate and interact with one another. Without doubt ICTs plays a strategic
role in managing organizations. This paper presents a part of the current state of ICTs for
enterprises by establishing comparative bases for further studies in this field. It also helps
academic institutions to evaluate and identify factors, as well as the specific role and weight of
these factors have in the process of developing ICTs towards a developed economy and society
in the context of digital Albania. It is presented as a scientific analyse, accomplished, detailed and
expressed in percentage and graphical analysis of a number of very important data sets of
enterprises in their full form, to unlock developments in the field of ICTs in our country, including
specific ones based on concrete data. This study tends to study the extent to which these but have
involved ICTs and what impact these technologies have in the daily work of these organizations
in part of Albania (Korca Region) and brings its contribution as a perspective of literature,
experience and international studies, the level of development of our country regarding the
assessment of electronic readiness of business organizations.
Keywords: e-readiness, businesses organizations, information and communication
technologies, internet, impact
42
1. INTRODUCTION
Success nowadays depends on the
penetration and impact of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) in the
society. New ICT values came into surface
and individuals are becoming more and
more aware of their usefulness. Changes in
attitude and behavior led to new solutions
and models that radically changed work in
businesses, hospitals, schools, and
government.
According to theorists of the network society
(Castells, 1996-2000), social structures and
activities are increasingly organized around
network forms, largely grounded in
electronically based information and
communication technologies. Technologies
such as the Internet, personal computers and
wireless telephony have turned the globe
into a network of individuals, businesses,
governments, and ever-growing schools
who communicate and interact with one
another.
Getting ready for the network creates many
new opportunities for businesses and firms
in the developing world by removing
barriers for both, information and material
goods. Educational institutions and large
businesses can extend their activities to this
giant network. Governance can become
more effective if it extends certain elements
of its services to this network. Thus, the
benefits of societies in general by the use of
this worldwide network are comprehensive
both in economic, social and political terms.
The common argument is that intensive use
of technology could transform the
operational rules of public administration to
increase its efficiency, simplify
administrative procedures (Fountain, 2006),
expand the processes of citizen participation
(Hague, 1999) and make government
activities more transparent and accountable.
Our paper is organized as follows: the first
part clarifies our use of the concept of
"network economy"; it follows with an
introduction to the previous state of the
business assessment reports on the network
and its general characteristics; then assesses
the level of business in the network for
Korça region, in order to take measures to
increase its level. It ends with a synthesis of
key findings and points, towards future
research topics.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND
METHODOLOGY
Preparing for the networked world creates
new opportunities for firms and individuals
in the developing world, eliminating the
traditional barriers of information and goods
for developing countries, and promotes
efficiency in a variety of activities. Learners
can learn more about the world and
themselves through the use of the network.
Businessmen can find new market
opportunities and the most efficient ways to
run their firms. Governments can provide
more efficient public services. Individuals
can communicate with friends and family
and become more informed about everything
in the network.
Participating in the networked world can
provide new ways for developing countries
to improve their economic, social and
political well-being. These opportunities for
43
positive change are increasingly important
and accessible as information and
communication technologies become more
powerful and less costly.
Businesses and governments that are capable
of effectively employing information and
communication technologies find more
sophisticated and efficient ways to manage
their external relations and communications.
For assessing the networked economy, we
have divided it into two categories. These
categories were selected based on several
analogous studies in Australia (Australia Ict
Data Collection Case Study, 2005) and
Greece (eGoverment in Greece, 2016) as
well as in the models provided by (ITG
Harvard University, 2008), (R .Prodani et
al., 2012) and (Oxford Analytica, 2015), but
also relying on the concrete features of our
country as well as on the needs and
opportunities it has for development. These
categories are:
According to (Oxford Analytica, 2015),
Network government is the transition to a
more transparent, cooperative and
beneficial relationship between
government, citizens and business as a
result of technological integration and
organizational connectivity. By enabling
active stakeholder participation and access,
it transforms government services by
placing users at the center of policy design
and implementation, and service delivery.
The concept of connected government is
derived from the whole-of-government
approach which is increasingly looking
Figure 1 Networked Economy
Networked Economy
Networked business
Use of the internet and the web in business
Employment opportunities for the areas of
ICT in Businesses.
ICT Infrastructure in Businesses
Networked government
Legal Basis and ICT Strategy.
Implementation of government services on the internet
ICT Infrastructure in Institutions
44
towards technology as a strategic tool and
as an enabler for public service innovation
and productivity growth (United Nation e-
Government Survey, 2008).
The assessment of the network economy is
also closely related to the other categories
of electronic readiness estimates, see (R.
Prodani, 2010), as network access,
networking companies, network education.
In this paper we will only deal with
modeling of business network assessment
and partial evaluation within our region.
This valuation model can be used for
similar assessments in developing
countries, their characteristics are similar to
those of our country.
(Porter, 1990) determines competitive
advantage as the heart of a company's
performance. It reflects a company's ability
to provide customers with greater value
either by lowering prices or offering greater
benefits and services that justifies higher
prices.
(Olugbenga, 2006) argues that ICT is being
used for strategic management,
communication and collaboration,
customer access, managerial decision-
making, data management and knowledge
management as it helps provide an effective
tool for organizational productivity and
service delivery. (Krishnaveni and
Meenakumari, 2010) claim that ICT has
played a major role in reducing operational
inefficiency and improving decision-
making in many areas of government.
Moreover, (Hengst and Sol, 2001) claim
that ICT enables organizations to lower
costs, enhance organizational skills, and
also assist in the formation of cross-
organizational coordination. Therefore,
ICT use can help reduce the cost of
coordination and increase external
resources in organizations. In addition,
(Irvine and Anderson, 2008) comment that
the use of ICT provides not only practical
benefits to overall management, but also
enables companies to overcome place and
space disadvantages.
(Apulu and Latham, 2010), claim that ICT
enables customers to get immediate
feedback that allows companies to react
quickly to customer requests and to
recognize new market gaps.
(Alam and Noor, 2009) argue that ICT
provides enterprises with ways to compete
globally with improved efficiency and
closer relationships with customers and
suppliers. Therefore, ICT should be
considered by businesses as an important
strategy to stay competitive. This implies
that organizations that are able to utilize the
potentials offered by ICT can address
different types of innovative processes in
their businesses as ICT influences the
performance of an organization in multi-
faceted ways. Thus, ICT can bring changes
to organizations and make them more
competitive, innovative, and help increase
organizational growth (Obijiofor et al.,
2005).
Case study, is one of the most common
methods applied in the Information
Systems (SI) field (Alavi et al., 1992).
(Sauer, 1993) argues that search in
information systems is best done by case
studies. The case study method was
considered appropriate, as the purpose of
the paper is to broaden our understanding of
the impact of ICT implementation on the
company. All businesses that are
considered are large businesses in our
45
region, with over 10 employees, with
typical representatives of all types of
businesses about 2.5% of them. Data was
collected through semi-structured
interviews, questionnaires, company
document reviews, and observations.
The business network level in our city will
not give it a certain value because the final
goal of this study is not to estimate a value
for it but to estimate its level as well as to
create opportunities to find solutions for
improving based on the analysis of several
factors that directly affect the online
economy. Data is collected in accordance
with International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) standards, according to (Core
List of ICT Indicators, 2016), Eurostat
indicators for evaluation digital ecomony
and similar studies in other countries.
3. FINDINGS
In Korça region and in Albania before 1990
there was no industry for the production of
equipment and software related to ICT but
even after the 90s during the economic
transition period we did not have a
significant development in these areas.
Other private and state companies and
institutions have too late implemented the
new technologies in the ICT field, showing
a tendency toward ignoring them. A greater
implementation of these technologies was
observed after year 2000 when the
implementation of new technologies
became irreplaceable and an important
factor of competition between businesses.
While after 2010, with the introduction of
ADSL, Fiber Optics, WIMAX and 4G
technologies, we are seeing an ever-
increasing implementation.
Let's analyze one by one the indicators of
netword business category:
1. The percentage of businesses that have
been using computers and internet during
the last year is 90% for both. There is an
increase in comparison to 62% and 52% for
computers and internet in the year 2012, see
(R. Prodani et al, 2012). This is because of
the real growth of online government
services, low cost broadband internet,
implementation of technologies such as
Adsl, Fibber Optic, 4G, use of smartphones
and other devices on the Internet.
2. The percentage of people employed in
businesses which work regularly on
computers in our region is smaller if we
take into account the level of developed
countries. The value of this indicator is
25%, somehow higher than the 19% value
that was in 2012, see (R. Prodani et al,
2012).
3. The percentage of regular internet users
in Korça region businesses is 23%. This
percentage for our region in 2012 was about
12%. This seems an increase not too small
but comparable with developing countries
where this percentage goes above 50%.
4. Nowadays the implementation of
networked businesses is an important factor
that guarantees the success of the business.
If we take into account the various internet
services provided, such as a website, social
networks etc. where we can put all the
information necessary for business
operation. At the moment when this study
started, Korca's businesses have a web
presence of 50%. We have a big increase
46
compared to the 5% we had at the beginning
of 2012, see (R. Prodani et al, 2012).
5. The percentage of businesses in Korca
region with Intranet is about 10%. We have
to be optimistic about this value if we take
into consideration the short period of these
technologies are present in our city. The
intranet has mostly second level banks and,
as far as other businesses are concerned,
they do not have the necessary capacity to
apply such technology. The study
conducted in 2012 on intranets in the Korca
region businesses almost did not speak at
all. In this survey, businesses with LAN
accounted for about 20% of large
businesses, whereas today they go to 90%.
Another important indicator that impacts
the largest involvement of large businesses
and their networking activities is the type of
internet installed in them. In 2012 only 31%
of businesses interviewed had access to the
internet breadband while today 90% of
interviewed businesses had such internet,
using technologies such as Adsl 30%,
Fibber Optic 60%, 4G 10%.
1. There are a growing percentage of
businesses offering online products. In the
study conducted in 2012, only 2% of the
businesses interviewed carried out online
sales. While today this percentage has gone
to almost 10%. This indicator in the
European Union countries in 2017 is worth
18%, see (Eurostat-Ecommerce sales,
2017). We are optimistic, although we have
to mention that the clients of these
businesses are not far from the geographic
location of the latter ones . They usually
prefer to order their product directly from
business wholesale sites. We can expect
that this indicator will increase in parallel
with Korca's businesses increase which will
bring to a growing number of clients. This
can be achieved by creating a website,
displaying different products on catalogs
and receiving client orders online.
Providing various services online requires
the business staff and IT managers training
in implementing the new technologies and
knowing the advantages and disadvantages
of internet services.
2. Extranets are widespread in banks and
large companies. The connection of
businesses by extranet is typical of contexts
when such businesses trade with each other
online, usually through the internet being
isolated from the other part of it. This type
of commerce is named B2B to the business
network and some of its advantages are
related to the fact that communication
between businesses becomes easier and less
costly, payments are faster and
transparency is generally bigger. The
number of these businesses in Korça is very
limited, only a few banks, therefore the
value of this indicator is very low.
3. The indicator that shows the Internet
business activities is one of the most
interesting ones to follow because it
basically informs us on how the business
uses the internet. The more computerized
public institutions are, and the broader
range of services they offer, the greater the
collaboration of businesses with them will
be. So the number of businesses using
online government services has increased a
lot. The percentage of businesses receiving
information from online government
services is about 55%, while the percentage
of businesses interacting with them is 45%.
Growth is also noticed in the percentage of
businesses purchases online, is around
18%. It is a big increase if we consider the
47
5% value that this indicator had in the 2012
survey. In European Union countries this
value goes to 26%, see (Eurostat-
Ecommerce purchases, 2017). Let's look at
Figure 2:
Figure 2 Proportion of businesses using Internet by activity
4. CONCLUSIONS
The IT infrastructure of the businesses of
our region has gone through a rapid
development during the last few years. This
same period has witnessed the
implementation of a great number of online
government services related to businesses
and we think that the penetration of
businesses to the network is tending to reach
maximum levels.
There has been growth in almost all the
indicators of this category and this has
happened for several reasons. The first
reason is the liberalization of the Internet
distribution market, the introduction of
technologies such as ADSL, Fiber Optic,
4G etc. Another reason is the
implementation of many government
services in the internet such as online tax
system, building permits, obtaining
certificates, online tenders, etc. all
incorporated in the e-Albania portal.
(Fullanteli and Allegra, 2003) emphasizes
that ICT provides enterprises with a wide
range of opportunities to improve their
competitiveness and provides mechanisms
for access to new market opportunities.
Also (Fink and Disterer, 2006) also
advocate that ICT provides many potential
benefits to organizations in order to make
them more efficient, effective and
competitive.
From the interviews with managers of
different companies we also have noticed
these direct reasons that could get
businesses in our region to incorporate the
100% 100%
55%45%
36%9% 18% 9%
Sending orreceiving e-mail
Gettinginformation
about goods orservices
Gettinginformationfrom generalgovernment
organizations
Interacting withgeneral
governmentorganizations
Internetbanking
Enterpricesselling online
Enterpricespurchasing
online
Other (SocialSofware etc)
Proportion of businesses using the Internet by type of activity
48
modern technologies into their business:
competition and effectiveness at work. This
implies that organizations need to invest in
ICT to stay independent of their competitors
and also to give them a sustainable
competitive advantage and also to increase
efficiency at work.
Despite these achievements, businesses in
European Union countries are far ahead in
the implementation of internet
technologies. What emerged from the
conversations that we had with heads of
local businesses, was the need of regional
businesses for qualified specialists in the
new ICT fields, especially those that are
connected to the Internet. These specialists
will be aware of the further benefits that
these businesses may have from applying
new internet technologies and will help
these businesses apply these technologies.
Implementing ICT in businesses also brings
about organizational and structural changes
in them, this is a challenge that businesses
and government institutions have to face.
This study will be useful to entrepreneurs,
policy makers especially in developing
countries, as well as researchers who are
interested in ICT development because the
study helps to identify ICT involvement in
businesses, the ways to take for increasing
the involvement of businesses in the
network as well as some of the positive
effects that this involvement has.
49
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51
Turkish Educational System in Context of Thinking Training
Yüksel Marım1 Rıza Sam2
Abstract
Thinking training has a history going back to founders of philosophy such as Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle. This training continued with J. Locke, J. Rousseau and E. Kant and it has survived until today.
Foundation of thinking training constitutes of benefit that such training makes to skills of interpreting,
processing, structuring and reproducing knowledge. In this way, education and training activities are
no longer a simple information transfer. That is because it activates skills and potential of individuals,
increases their levels of awareness and transforms into a creative process that develops self-
consciousness. According to Ibn Khaldun, the importance of this creative process emerges as obtaining
an advantage towards establishing a culture of living and creating a civilization for individuals and
societies that can train thinking skills. On this subject, Al-Farabi also indicated that societies with
thinking virtue developed very important understanding, perception, sensation and empathy. In this
context, considering the fact that good, beautiful and useful things emerge thanks to the virtue of
thinking, it can be said that such a virtue the highest value that individuals and societies can have.
However, thinking, acting reflectively and having virtue of thinking may exist in a unique educational
climate and on basis of institutional interaction. It should be noted that such an intellectual climate
makes it possible to train philosophers who can change the world. In such as structure in which
institutional sustainability is built, it can be expected that thinking and training of thinking create a social
habitat that stimulates skills rather than blunting skills and altering these skills intellectually within the
framework of sense of pluralism.
As is known, reformist educational movements developing in the history of Western education specify
traditional school as “reading school” or “book school” in their basic arguments of criticism they put
forward. On the basis of the criticism of reformist educational movements, there lies a necessity to adopt
“a new teaching approach that is determined based on realities and requirements of life and in which
children are active by themselves rather than an education in which children are rote-learners and in
passive state” in traditional schools.
In the light of this statement, it can be suggested that Turkish educational system also needs an education
and training renaissance that focuses on thinking. In this sense, it is possible to interpret and read
thinking and producing ideas as a deep warning in terms of our education and training universe. That
is because education expects return of its soul mate, which is thinking. However, “our lack of thinking
of thinking” is at a worrisome level. This level is expressed succinctly in Heideggerian discourse with
the following words, “the most worrying thing is that we still do not think”.
Therefore, teaching students high-level thinking skills in educational settings is of utmost importance
especially during school years, later on, in their business, private and social lives. Indeed, today,
1Dr., Ministry of Education, Tavas Zeybekler Anadolu High School, Denizli-Turkey, E-mail:
[email protected] 2Assoc. Prof. Dr., Uludağ University Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Sociology, Bursa-Turkey,
Email: [email protected]
52
supporting development of skills starting from early childhood has become a priority objective and target
in education and training policies of many countries. In this sense, this study focuses on “the thinking
training” that can save knowledge from being a simple transfer activity in the Turkish educational and
training system, that can activate students’ potentials, increase their levels of awareness, improve their
self-awareness and ensure that student will carry out activities making them creative and effective.
Especially, the study addresses the benefits of thinking education to interpreting, processing, structuring
and reproducing information. In accordance with this objective and target, a wide survey was conducted
in the research.
Keywords: Thinking Training, Turkish Educational System, Training, Thinking.
MATERIAL and METHOD
In the study, qualitative research methodology, technique and sampling were utilized.
A wide range of literature was reviewed related to the subject. Relevant documents were
examined by considering research technique with a supportive quality for qualitative
methodology, and obtained findings were tried to be interpreted based on convenience
sampling. Having such an aspect, the subject in question can be called as a pattern study at
descriptive level.
1. Conceptual Framework
It can be said that every community takes the opportunity to transfer their own values
of existence, thinking and perception codes, lifestyle, knowledge and experiences to future
generations through thinking training. Therefore, thinking training is a fundamental educational
activity in which all courses participate, rather than a specific course. That is because thinking
training is the most important component of knowledge acquisition, comprehension and
learning process. Information learned through this component is questioned, evaluated and can
be used in a functional way to produce new information. To understand meaning, importance
and necessity of thinking education adequately, it is first necessary to reveal what thinking is.
Generally speaking, thinking refers to something related to “combining, disintegrating
and comparing” (Aster, 1994: 43). In another words, thinking is “the skill of determining
possible differences and similarities among events” (Lipman, 2003: 23). Besides, this concept
also refers to imagination, remembrance, finding in mind, thinking imaginary, imaging,
stimulation and attracting attention, and it refers mental processes towards believing in a
particular thing, reasoning, problem-solving and criticism (Thomson, 1969: 13–17). In this
context, engaging in the act of thinking actually means not only speculating over reasoning
based on non-absolute evidence to shape ideas and emphasizing predictive character of
established opinions, but also reviewing mental skills to reach a precise conclusion by means
of inferences (Paul, 1995: 521-552).
53
By reviewing these mental abilities, individuals can measure data, apply rules of logic,
design projects, create valid results, pose assumptions, set up hypotheses, decide what to
compare and classify, generalize, make comments and criticize. Briefly, it can be said that
thinking is like a summary of all these statements (Clark & Star, 1991: 270). In that case, when
an act of thinking is mentioned, especially this action;
1. Contains symbols, words, map symbols, numbers, events and objects.
2. Arises within both mind or cognitive system and a certain behavior.
3. Cognitive system is a process that contains all of the knowledge-based processes in it
or some variables of the whole.
4. It is the result of a behavior directed toward solution or concluded with solution of a
specific problem (Mayer, 1992: 7).
Considering these statements, it can be suggested that thinking training is a type of
education in which thinking is glorified, that can express what is different than what everyone
says and that can educate criticizing minds. What is expected from those who have received
such a training is to make decisions that require responsibility in accordance with their
knowledge and skills, to make choices, to form their living spaces within the framework of their
experiences and to build their mental renewals every time without breaking tradition (Taşdelen,
2012: 21-24).
Due to the rapid changes and developments in recent years, importance of cognitive
thinking is becoming increasingly widespread, and therefore students are expected to develop
their high level of effective thinking skills and demonstrate performance. Achieving such an
expectation requires especially training of lifelong learning and thinking skills, also an
intellectual preparation that can process information in a changing world, that can predict the
future and that can adapt to it (Robinson, 1987: 13-16).
This requirement was first fulfilled at the scientific level by Matthew Lipman who
taught philosophy and logic in Columbia University (New York). Lipman’s starting point was
based on the 1960s. Lipman, while addressing his students, noticed that their thinking
development skills were weak. According to Lipman, the reason for this case should be sought
in students’ childhood period. Once it is accomplished, it should be examined whether
philosophical thinking based on bringing conceptual and mental evidence could be taught to
children in advance to gain intellectual skills during childhood (Martens 1999: 74). Lipman is
known for establishing an institute called “Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for
Children” in 1974 to be able to study thinking training with children more comfortably. One of
the most important activities of the Institute is that it has shown that the thinking education
performed with children can be done not only verbally but also through literary genres such as
tale, story, legend, theater, etc. and together with painting, music and sports (Martens, 1994:
15). The Institute is remarkable with methods and techniques that evoke wish and desires of
learning among children.
54
In this context, the foundation of thinking education constitutes especially a transition
from “from text to child” understanding to “from child to subject or object” understanding in
teaching of course subjects (Adıgüzel & Öztürk, 1999: 73). In such an understanding, the aim
is to teach how to access information rather than memorizing, and how to reproduce and use
that knowledge in a critical sense. The most important proof of indicating that these objectives
have been achieved is students’ ability to define, classify, apply, synthesize and evaluate the
subject they learn (Özden, 2005: 147). This is due to the ability to think critically and to study
thinking. Otherwise, it is not possible to successfully achieve these results.
Likewise, Norris indicates that children who have not yet developed ability to think
critically cannot achieve the desired level of results in exams measuring recognition of
assumptions, evaluation of arguments and inferences (Norris, 1985: 44). In addition, many
educators believe that, if the usual memorizing methods are not abandoned, not only ability to
learn and understand information, but also specific information are not important. For this
reason, it can be said that it is a must to provide thinking training and improve thinking skills
even among educated people to cope with today's rapidly changing word of information
(Gough, 1991: 1). This necessity must be fulfilled by successful implementation of appropriate
research methods, techniques and strategies.
2. How Should Thinking Training Be Done?
One of the most important considerations for thinking training is related to content and
format of conversation, i.e. communication and interaction that ensure dialog with children or
students. Firstly, the basis of speech in thought training, unlike other types of conversations,
constitutes ironic type of questionings related to discovering and proving backgrounds of
something that creates motivation towards increasing interest and curiosity among every
learner, and that contribute to production of a thought or idea. It is also possible to call this form
of speech, namely discourse, as “the Socratic Irony”.
In this way, those who are involved in learning something, begin to know source of idea,
realize that they do not know and control themselves, and then they are able to reach correct
information through detailed and guided questions. Undoubtedly, during the process of thinking
education, teacher himself is at the position of a learning student. That is because, to use
thinking skills widely, teachers also need to have or acquire these skills. For this reason, it is of
vital importance to provide teachers with programs related to thinking training. In short,
teachers who will implement a training program aiming to be functional for success and for
achieving productive results are demanded to bear qualified features.
In thinking education, teachers not only ensure by either their words or their actions that
students express their own perspectives and reveal their insights, but also prepare suitable
grounds as much as possible to allow students grow, improve and mature from intellectual,
social and emotional aspects. Thus, learning process has been saved from being taken under
55
control, teacher model expecting continuous approval has been eliminated, therefore, it is
attempted to support students by encouraging their questioning (Gould, 2007: 120-122).
Teachers are no longer considered as an expert in the process of thinking education but
as a facilitator who wants to explore philosophical questions with his/her students. For this
reason, it is argued that teachers should receive enough philosophy education, teach philosophy
at all levels, for this, they should develop the basic skills called “philosophical sensitivity”. In
other words, it is emphasized that it is a necessity to develop capacity to define and reflect larger
questions underlying fundamental concepts, expressions, discussions through which we
understand the world. What is meant by philosophical sensitivity here a detection capacity to
ask fundamental questions more specific to people and society, know these questions, analyse
them, improve skills and recognize non-absolute questions (Lone, 2013: 1-4). During the
process of thinking education, while it is considered important for teachers to have
qualifications related to philosophical sensitivity, it does not mean anything alone. Significance
of this philosophical sensitivity can only be crowned by teachers through proper creation of
thinking environments and use of research techniques that can refer students to thinking.
It should be remembered that development of students’ power of thinking and evoking
their feelings of curiosity cannot be realized without building proper thinking environments. In
this context, it is only possible in a place where a thinking climate or environment flourishes
for students to understand a topic, make comments, compare cases, feel group dynamics during
learning process, act freely within the society, realize their thoughts and express them freely
(Conatser 2000: 23). When teachers create such a thinking environment, they should first
consider age, developmental levels, experiences, objectives, objectives and expectations of the
interlocutors in the learning process, then they should know to transfer subjects or events
examined over answers given to question they ask, and they should continually support this
with thinking exercises.
Costa sorts general features of learning environments that focus on students’ acquisition
of thinking skills as follows:
1. Students study at the individual level, and they compare, classify, sort and evaluate
information.
2. Students solve problems in groups, plan projects, share their ideas, determine
necessary information, collect and analyze thinking processes.
3. Students communicate, discuss and listen to each other both with their teachers,
within and among groups (Costa, 1985: 131).
Undoubtedly, the selection of appropriate research techniques is crucial in order to
achieve the exact goal of thinking training. Techniques that are preferred in thought training are
remarkable with features such as role playing, demonstration, creative drama and didactic that
encourage students to participate in course, focus on attention, investigate and question. In
addition, each of the procedures performed during the implementation of techniques are
56
organized in the form of successive steps to teach students these specified objectives (Moore,
1999: 78). In short, there is no arbitrariness or casualness in question. The same is true even for
reading a book.
For example, Doris Daurer places great emphasis on developing independent thinking
and behavior in her book, “Thinking Teaching with Children”. To do this, first, a story is read
with the children, then questions are asked based on both text and thinking out loud, and each
of the questions is tried to be answered with logical, namely a philosophical answer. As is
known, it is only possible for a child to develop behavior by himself by means of deciding what
to do by himself. This method is known as “Jackson Method” in the literature. Feature of
Jackson Method is to predict basic philosophical measurements of child philosophers.
Therefore, these measurements are called the basic “toolbox” for smart thinkers (Daurer 1999:
31).
When readings are made with methods and techniques specified in a thinking training,
it can be expected that students’ awareness can become even sharper and their critical thinking
levels may increase. In fact, Bloom, who examined the importance of reading in terms of
thinking education, emphasizes that reading comprehension power gained during primary
school affects most of the learning process that takes place in the following years (Bloom, 1998:
59-60). Especially through informative texts, students can identify different levels of thoughts,
use them to organize their own ideas, and thereby improve their critical thinking skills (Pithers
&. Soden, 2000: 244). In this context, thinking training includes applications towards teaching
a critical and creative thinking skill that aims to educate individuals who can give their own
decisions independently different from traditional understanding based only on mere thinking
(Kuhn, 2005: 28-30).
All explanations on thinking training are related to formal dimension of work. The other
dimension is “informal”. In this second dimension, effects of parents or family environment
during early childhood are taken into consideration. For this purpose, education programs for
families should be prepared for “thinking training” in early childhood, seminars should be
organized by the Ministry, and the materials they can use in development of their children
should be provided. Thus, family members become a role model in the eyes of their children
depending on quality time spent and communication skills. Because there is a brainstorming
opportunity towards revealing the things that are mutually in the background of a certain event
or situation. Consequently, this brainstorm is far from the logic of “either all or nothing”, and a
suitable ground is built for the emergence of different options or thought forms.
3. Thinking Education in Turkey
It is very difficult to talk about a “thought education” in Turkey as in West which is
based on scientific basis and professionally maintained. However, considering the oral culture
tradition of the people, it can be said that especially proverbs, epics, diversions, ridicule,
57
bickering, folk songs, anecdotes and riddles related to pattern of everyday life, which keeps the
memory alive continuously, are the most common thinking training applications. Thanks to
these applications, not only was tradition itself preserved, but also was a type of personality
formed in which cultural heritage was tried to be transferred to future generations. In this sense,
it seems possible to establish a national thinking training program based on texts. Indeed, in
recent years, special interest is observed in the curriculum of public schools and some private
schools through studies carried out within the body of “Turkish Ministry of National Education”
specific to Turkey.
Foundations of thinking education course in Turkey were laid in June 2004 at the
“Symposium on Philosophy Teaching in Turkey” organized in collaboration with Head Board
of Education and Discipline and the Turkish Philosophy Institute. After a session titled
"Teaching Philosophy in Primary Education”, it has been principally adopted to implement a
course that will improve philosophical questioning in 6th, 7th and 8th grades. As a requirement
of this principle, Head Board of Education and Discipline has decided that name of this course
will be “Thinking Training”. After this decision, the thinking training course has taken its place
in course schedules for one hour per week as an elective course. As of 2006–2007 academic
year, this course has not remained only at 6th, 7th and 8th grades, at the same time, “many skill
activities with thinking training content” have been applied in curriculum of preschool
educational institutions (Ülger, 2012: 67-68). It was also indicated in the vision of Thinking
Education Curriculum (2007) prepared for this purpose, “to educate individuals who can create
a personal thinking tradition using basic thinking skills in thinking training process, who can
transform this into a life skill by establishing language and thinking connection, and who
respect different thoughts” (MEB, 2007: 6). This goal is closely associated with constructivist
approach vision of the Ministry of Natural Education which makes concrete steps towards
educating thinking individuals.
With a view to make such a vision sustainable, comparative studies are conducted from
time to time towards receiving feedbacks from private and public schools in which thinking
education is given. For instance, in 2011–2012 academic year, 28 students who took thinking
training course as an elective course in the 6th grade in a private primary education institution
in Polatlı district of Ankara province were selected as experimental group, and 24 students who
did not take thinking training course in the 6th grade in a private primary education institution
in Tepebaşı district of Eskişehir province in the same academic were selected as control group.
According to findings obtained from quantitative data of the research, it was observed that a
significant positive-oriented development occurred in both students’ critical thinking skills and
creative thinking skills during experimental process. In the analysis of qualitative data, a
noticeable development in focal students’ critical thinking skills was noticed during
experimental process according to findings obtained from teachers’ observation and interviews,
students’ interviews and researcher observations and diaries. According to the findings obtained
58
from the study conducted by Sönmez, students in the focus group receiving the thinking training
course;
a. Demonstrate their critical thinking skills,
b. Can participate in the course actively,
c. Can cooperate with others,
d. Can express their ideas and opinions effectively,
e. Can respect thoughts of others,
f. Can think emphatically,
g. Look for evidence of their thoughts,
h. Can match their knowledge with their prerequisites,
i. Can be open to criticism,
j. Can appreciate adequacy of their friend who reveals his/her thoughts,
k. Can identify irrelevant, improper and prejudiced information,
l. Can control validity and reliability of information,
m. Can evaluate and reinterpret thoughts of others,
n. Do not only have the ability to question, but also demonstrate cause and effect
relationship, and show ability to “reflect” (Sönmez, 2016: 136).
Findings obtained by Sönmez show similarity with findings of other studies conducted
on thinking training around the world and specific to Turkey. For example, Daniel et al (2005)
discovered as a result of their study that thinking training activates metacognitive thinking,
creative thinking and logical thinking-based processes among children. Likewise, Cassidy and
Christie (2013), as a result of the study conducted with 115 students between the ages of 5 –
11, determined that the process of thinking training had a contribution in children in terms of
providing samples and defining terms and words. Gregory (2008:55) and Kennedy (1994) also
indicated that children made comparisons and inferences in terms of establishing links and
finding similarities-differences in thinking activities (Gür et al, 2017: 161).
Acting on research findings, some researchers point out that pre-school period is a
period when children develop the fastest and most effectively (Sylvia and Lunt, 1982:183) and
suggest that thinking training should be implemented into education starting from preschool
period. Researchers emphasize that such training should be supported by activities such as
creative dramatization, drama and art studies in the classroom environment (Goffin & Tull,
1985: 29; Gehlback,1991: 137; Hughes,1995: 181). Considering all these aspects, the Ministry
of National Education give some remarkable warnings to teachers to achieve designated
objectives and obtain successful results in thinking training. In these warnings, teachers are
expected to carry out motivation studies with students;
a. To make students feel that thinking is an indispensable value for human life,
b. To make each student find their own ideas respectable,
59
c. To provide environments for students in which they can develop different ideas,
d. To prepare an environment where students can express their thoughts comfortably,
e. To ensure that students are respectful to opinions of others,
f. To ensure that students give value to original and creative ideas of both themselves
and others,
g. To encourage students to be rational and critical in their thoughts,
h. To pay attention to the use of non-class environments in teaching activities (MEB,
2016: 19).
There is no doubt that it is desirable to accomplish these expectations successfully as
expected. In this regard, a separate emphasis should be placed on Nuran Direk who is a
teacher herself and known for her studies on thinking training. Direk started her studies with
children at primary level in 1992. In these studies, Direk aimed at uniting children on the
basis of thinking action and educating generations that can think. In line with this goal,
Direk has reflected these positive results from studies conducted with children on books
called “Philosopher Child” and “Thinking on the Little Prince”. In both works, it is
emphasized necessity and importance of bringing in a qualified mental habit to children by
which they can question world by themselves and make healthy assessments.
4. DISCUSSION
Although qualified studies have been conducted on thinking education in Turkey, there
is insufficient level of representation in society due to problems arising from applications and
practitioners. Because there is a reluctance in terms of withdrawing from memorization at the
level of students and teachers. This problem is not based on memorizing something and putting
it on paper but based on failure in reproducing and reapplying existing information in a creative
way.
Emphasizing that thinking training should be done programmatically, some researchers
point out that students cannot improve themselves sufficiently in case of lack of such training
process, therefore, various problems may emerge (Nickerson, 1988; Pascarella, 1989; Romano,
1992). For example, an educational research titled “What Do Students Say for Education?” was
conducted in Maltepe University Faculty of Education to determine students’ approaches to
education problems experienced. The research was conducted in 20 different regions of Turkey
through 2500 students who prepared for university exams. According to findings of this study,
some of students’ opinions on education system are listed as follows: Among these students;
a. 63% of them find education as based on information loading and with parrot fashion,
b. 89% of them think that tests are the purpose of education,
c. 87% of them indicate that education does not prepare them for life and they could
not use what they learn in their lives,
60
d. 80% of them indicate that education does not bring in thinking and self-expression
skill,
e. 91% of them indicate that they receive an acceptance education not a questioning
one,
f. 80% of them suggest that education they receive does not give them independent
decision-making skills (işlekeller, 2008: 97-98).
When the subject is discussed in terms of teachers, a similar situation is also found out.
For example, according to findings of a research conducted in Turkey, although teachers gave
a positive opinion on teaching of thinking education to students with a rate of 65%, but they did
not reach the same ratio when they were requested to participate in a seminar on thinking
training (48%). When teachers were asked about cause of such reluctance, they suggested their
lack of formation training and economic factors in such choice. It is seen that the behavior,
attitude exhibited here and expressed words do not support each other. Undoubtedly, the
structure of institution where training is given, whether it is a private or public institution, and
being new in the profession are decisive factors (Mutlu & Aktan, 2011: 809–811; Keskin, 2009:
129). Another factor is related to introduction of the thinking training course within the scope
of elective course. For example, selection rate of thinking training elective course is 6.2% and
not enough proportionally. However, since there are informatics classes and teachers in almost
every school, school administrations encourage selection of this elective information
technologies course, and selection rate (55.5%) is continuously increasing (Ülger, 2012: 72).
Unfortunately, same incentives are not applicable for selection of elective thinking
training courses. In addition, another important problem is that teachers lose their motivation
and cannot adapt to changing world conditions, so they show a resistance to renewing
themselves, i.e. they cannot change. When it comes to thinking training, this means that
important changes will not reach students or will be delayed. Because students only face
teachers who seek answers (Yavuzer, 2002: 87).
Likewise, 98% of prospective teachers attending education faculties until 2004 have
indicated in their internship reports that teachers had already lost their motivation in courses in
which students attended as prospective teachers. In addition, in these reports, it was indicated
that 85% of teachers passed off subjects to be taught by giving homeworks, making students
narrate them or read from book etc., 90% of teachers taught subjects in a monotonous manner
without using any course tools and equipment, 75% of teachers could not lecture because of
constant warnings since students did not listen to the course and make commotion. In addition,
in these reports, participants mentioned that 80% of students could not apply themselves to
course and were interested in extracurricular issues, around 40% of students asked question,
make questioning and criticize but they are excluded by their teachers and peers (Sekin, 2008:
220).
Based on findings of these studies conducted, it may be suggested that teachers and
students do not make questioning both in school and outside school, they do not make analyses,
61
they do not have the ability to compare and differentiate, and they cannot save themselves from
being addicted to what others say and think (Freseman, 1990:26). Therefore, “deficiencies in
combining educational experiences should be addressed” in terms of trainers and learners. For
this purpose, it should be ensured that both sides make use of how to establish the connections
they seek. In this sense, it can be concluded that thinking training is both a tool and an objective
on its own that can give us what we need and that can meet our expectations.
5. CONCLUSION
Today, power of thinking on a global scale stands out, but some countries attract
attention by developing their own thoughts and others by copying thoughts of others.
The former solves its problems by its own cultural codes, and the latter
consults to imported prescriptions or solution paths. Therefore, with
reference to the thought “as the twig is bent so is the tree inclined”, thinking
training course programs and classroom environments must be created. In these environments,
if the idea itself is not learned, not produced and cannot be internalized, others will think on
behalf of us, and therefore history will be nothing more than repetition.
In this context, this study included scientific opinions and practices in the field of
thinking education. In many countries of the world, models have been developed for thinking
training, these models have been systematically implemented, trials were made, successful
outcomes have been achieved. In Turkey, however, ideas towards improving children’s
intellectual capabilities have been determined among basic objectives of national education and
included in curriculum programs, but systematic applications were not performed. Because the
primary education programs in Turkey could not get rid of the effect of “behavioral approach”.
The main characteristic of behavioral approach is that mind sees itself as a “black box”.
Therefore, as a requirement of behavioral approach, students’ behaviors rather than their mind
are taken into consideration, and studies aimed at improving their thinking and questioning
skills are not given weight. Therefore, since training programs do not include thinking training
courses, thinking skills are taught indirectly, in other words, improvement through information
given in course is emphasized. In this sense, students are expected to learn the same information
transmitted to them in training process without questioning, to constantly repeat such
information and learn through memorizing.
However, thinking training aims at bringing in basic skills required for social, cognitive
and vital processes. Importance of this training will be more understood when implemented
systematically and when successful results are obtained. This case is described in the most
succinct from in Uygur’s statement “events can open the eyes of people, but the most
appropriate thing is that people open their eyes to events” (Uygur, 1981: 22). Therefore,
thinking training course should be mobilized from elementary school to university like an
62
activator initiating chemical reaction without wasting time, our main philosophy should be
“Thinking Training at All Levels of Education That Is Consistent and Sustainable for All”.
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Türkiye Turizminin 2023 Geleceğine İlişkin Yaklaşımlar
Dr. Cüneyt Mengü1
Öz
Türkiye 2023 yılında Cumhuriyetin kuruluşunun 100. Yıldönümünü kutlayacaktır. Bu sebeple 2005
yılından beri Türkiye’nin turizmde 2023 hedeflerine ilişkin çeşitli kuruluşlar tarafından farklı
tahminlerde bulunulmaktadır. Yapılan tahminlerin hangi araştırma metotlarına dayandırıldığı
belirtilmediği gibi bazılarında da belirledikleri hedeflere göre yüzdesel aritmetik ortalama kullanıldığı
müşahede edilmiştir. Tarafımızca 2006 yılında yapılan ekonometrik analizi ile tek değişkenli regresyon
öngörü (aralık ve nokta tahminleri) modeline göre dünyada yıllar itibariyle gerçekleşen ve 2023 yılına
kadar tahmin edilen global uluslar arası turist çıkışlarına göre ülkemize yurtdışından gelen turist
sayısının tahmini yapılarak bir projeksiyon oluşturulmuştur. Yaptığımız bu araştırma sonuçlarından
anlaşıldığı gibi 2006 – 2015 yılları arasında ülkemize gelen turist sayılarının bahsi geçen yıllarda
öngörülen sayılarla hemen hemen aynı, hatta olağan beklentiler düzeyinde olduğu görülmüştür. Ancak,
2016 yılında ülkemizde meydana gelen olumsuz olaylar sonucunda bir önceki yıla göre Türkiye’ye
gelen turist sayısında % 30 oranında düşüşün yaşanması projeksiyon çalışma sonuçlarımızı olumsuz
yönde etkilemiştir. Bu çalışma kapsamında tarafımızca yapılan öngörü analizlerinde görüleceği üzere
Türkiye’nin 2023 hedefi ile ilgili olarak yıllar itibariyle normal akışı içerisinde elde edilen sonuçların
yanı sıra “force majeure” kaynaklı gerçek ve tahmini rakamların karşılaştırılmaları sonucu kötümser,
olağan ve iyimser beklentiler elde edilmiştir. Konuya ilişkin literatür taraması yapılarak ikincil
verilerden yararlanılarak ve hedeflerin gerçekleştirilmesi için sunulan öneriler sonuç bölümünde
incelenmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Türkiye’nin 2023 turizm hedefleri, Turizm tahminleri, Ekonometrik analizi, Aralık
ve nokta tahminleri.
1 E-mail: [email protected]
66
GİRİŞ
Uluslararası turizm endüstrisi ekonomik
yaşamın vazgeçilmez faaliyet alanlarından
birisini teşkil etmektedir. Bu endüstrinin
makro ekonomiye etkilerini üç başlık altında
toplamak mümkündür:
- Öncelikle ekonomik büyümeyi
desteklemektedir.
- Dış ticaret açıklarının kapatılmasında
son derece önemli bir ekonomik
enstrüman konumundadır.
- Bacasız sanayi de denilen uluslararası
turizm gerek doğrudan, gerekse dolaylı
olarak toplam istihdam konusunda
yadsınamaz bir öneme sahiptir.
Bu nedenle öncelikle de çağımızın en önemli
sosyal sorunlarından birisini teşkil eden
işsizliğin azaltılmasında çok önemli bir araç
konumunda olduğu görüldüğü gibi öte
yandan turizm faaliyetlerinin ekonomik
getirisinden dolayı uluslararası turizm
endüstrisinde dünya ülkelerinin ilgi odağı
olmuştur.
Uluslararası turizm dünya genelinde politik,
demografik, çevresel ve sosyo-kültürel
olaylardan doğrudan etkilendiği gibi dünya
milli gelir üretiminde kimya ve otomotiv
sanayisinden sonra üçüncü sırada yer alması
dikkat çekici bir gelişmedir.1
Öte yandan, küreselleşmenin sonucu olarak
dünya daha da küçülmeye başlamış ve
insanlar uzak mesafelere seyahat etme
eğilimine girmişlerdir. Bu gelişmenin
nedenleri arasında harcanabilir kişisel
gelirin artması, bilgi ve iletişim
teknolojilerindeki hızlı gelişmeler
sıralanabilir.2
Aşağıda tablo 1 de görüldüğü gibi 1980,
1995, 2010 yılları arasında bölgelere göre
gerçekleşen uluslararası turist varışları ve
2020-2030 öngörü projeksiyonu yer
almıştır.
Tablo 1: Bölgelere göre uluslararası turist varışları projeksiyonu (Milyon Kişi) 2030 dâhil
ULUSLARARASI TURİST
GELİŞLERİ (MİLYON) ORTALAMA YILLIK BÜYÜME (%)
PAY (%)
GERÇEK
VERİLER
PROJEKSİ-
YONLAR
GERÇEK
VERİLER PROJEKSİYONLAR
1980 1995 2010 2020 2030 1980-
1995
1995-
2010
2010-
2030
2010-
2020
2020-
2030 2010 2030
DÜNYA 277 528 940 1.360 1.809 4.4 3.9 3.3 3.8 2.9 100 100
1 Stephen J. Page ve J. Connell, Tourism A Modern Synthesis, Third Edition, South Western Cengage Learning
EMEA, İngiltere, 2009. 2 Chris Cooper, J. Fletcher ve diğerleri, Tourism Principles and Practice, Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall Financial
Times, İngiltere, 2008.
67
GELİŞMİŞ EKONOMİLER 194 334 498 643 772 3.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 1.8 53 43
GELİŞEN EKONOMİLER 83 193 442 717 1.037 5.8 5.7 4.9 4.9 3.8 47 57
BÖLGE BAZINDA
Afrika 7.2 18.9 50.3 85 134 6.7 6.7 5.0 5.4 4.8 5.3 7.4
Kuzey Afrika 4.0 7.3 18.7 31 46 4.1 6.5 4.6 5.2 4.0 2.0 2.5
Batı ve Orta Afrika 1.0 2.3 6.8 13 22 5.9 7.5 5.9 6.5 5.4 0.7 1.2
Doğu Afrika 1.2 5.0 12.1 22 37 10.1 6.1 5.8 6.2 5.4 1.3 2.1
Güney Afrika 1.0 4.3 12.6 20 29 10.1 7.4 4.3 4.5 4.1 1.3 1.6
Amerika 62.3 109.0 149.7 199 248 3.8 2.1 2.6 2.9 2.2 15.9 13.7
Kuzey Amerika 48.3 80.7 98.2 120 138 3.5 1.3 1.7 2.0 1.4 10.4 7.6
Karayipler 6.7 14.0 20.1 25 30 5.0 2.4 2.0 2.4 1.7 2.1 1.7
Orta Amerika 1.5 2.5 7.9 14 22 3.8 7.7 5.2 6.0 4.5 0.8 1.2
Güney Amerika 5.8 11.7 23.6 40 58 4.8 4.8 4.6 5.3 3.9 2.5 3.2
ASYA&PASİFİK 22.8 82.0 204.0 355 535 8.9 6.3 4.9 5.7 4.2 21.7 29.6
Kuzey Doğu Asya 10.1 41.3 111.5 195 293 9.9 6.8 4.9 5.7 4.2 11.9 16.2
Güney Doğu Asya 8.2 28.4 69.9 123 187 8.7 6.2 5.1 5.8 4.3 7.4 10.3
Okyanusya 2.3 8.1 11.6 15 19 8.7 2.4 2.4 2.9 2.0 1.2 1.0
Güney Asya 2.2 4.2 11.1 21 36 4.3 6.6 6.0 6.8 5.3 1.2 2.0
AVRUPA 177.3 304.1 475.3 620 744 3.7 3.0 2.3 2.7 1.8 50.6 41.1
Kuzey Avrupa 20.4 35.8 57.7 72 82 3.8 3.2 1.8 2.2 1.4 6.1 4.5
Batı Avrupa 68.3 112.2 153.7 192 222 3.4 2.1 1.8 2.3 1.4 16.3 12.3
Orta/Doğu Avrupa 26.6 58.1 95.0 137 176 5.3 3.3 3.1 3.7 2.5 10.1 9.7
Güney Akdeniz 61.9 98.0 168. 9 219 264 3.1 3.7 2.3 2.6 1.9 18.0 14.6
Ortadoğu 7.1 13.7 60.9 101 149 4.5 10.5 4.6 5.2 4.0 6.5 8.2
68
Kaynak: UNWTO
Öte yandan, aşağıda grafik 1 de, bu kez
Dünya Turizm ve Seyahat Konseyi’nin
(WTTC) hazırlamış olduğu kıtalara göre
uluslararası turizm gelişleri tablosu yer
almaktadır.
Grafik 1: WTTC’ye göre uluslararası turist gelişleri.
Yukarıda iki tabloda görüldüğü gibi, turizm
endüstrisi, son 20 yıl içerisinde son derece
yüksek bir ivmeyle büyüyerek 2000 yılında
yaklaşık 690 milyon kişi olan uluslararası
turist sayısı, 2010’da 940 milyon kişiye 919
Milyar ABD Doları gelire1, 2015’de
yaklaşık 1,2 milyar kişiye ulaşmış olmakla
beraber bu rakamın 2020 yılında 1,6 milyar
1 UNWTO, Tourism Highlights 2012 Edition,
https://www.e-
unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284414666, E.T.
10.07.2018
kişiye ulaşacağı ve yaklaşık 2 Trilyon ABD
Doları gelir elde edileceği, 2030 yılında ise
global turist gelişlerinin 1.8 milyar kişi
olacağı ve 2.3 trilyon dolar gelir elde
edileceği tahmin edilmektedir.2 Bu gelişim
doğrultusunda bazı ülkelerde geçmiş yıllar
itibariyle farklı gelişmeler ortaya çıkmıştır.
Zaman içerisinde birçok turistik
2 UNWTO Tourism 2020 Vision,
http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/vision.htm, Erişim
Tarihi: 01.06.2012.
69
destinasyonun uluslararası turizmden
alacağı pay azalmasına karşılık özellikle
gelişen bazı ülkelerin turistik destinasyonın
uluslararası turizmden alacağı pay artma
eğilimi içine girecektir. Böylece, dünya
genelinde ülkeler açısından yıllar itibariyle
turist varışlarının, turizmin gelişmesine, yeni
destinasyonların oluşmasına, ülkeler
arasında daha fazla turist çekme ve daha
fazla gelir elde etme konusunda yoğun bir
rekabetin geçen yıllarda olduğu gibi süreceği
ve daha da sert bir şekilde devam edeceği
anlaşılmaktadır. 3
Dünya Turizm Örgütü (UNWTO) verilerine
göre uluslararası turizm endüstrisinde
yaşanan sürekli büyüme eğilimini, yeni
çarpıcı destinasyonlar, etkili çalışma
ortamları, altyapıdaki gelişmeler, hayatı
kolaylaştırıcı tedbirler, pazarlamada yeni
teknikler ve insan kaynakları ile ilgili uygun
koşullar ve etkin politikalar
şekillendirecektir. Bununla birlikte,
turizmde fırsatlar yanında, olumsuz etkilerin
en aza indirilmesi, turizmin sosyal ve
ekonomik faydalarının en üst düzeye
çıkarılması ve turizm gelişiminin
sürdürülebilir hale getirilmesi devletlerin en
önemli hedefleri arasında yer almaktadır.
Turizm sınır tanımaz. Turizmin geleceği
ürün ve hizmetlerin geliştirilmesiyle
heyecanlı bir hal alacaktır. Seyahat
acentaları ve tur operatörleri de sınır
tanımayan bu endüstri içerisinde gelişmelere
ayak uydurarak her zaman en önde yer alan
ve ülke turizmine yön veren kuruluşlardır.
Uluslararası Turizm Endüstrisinde
Türkiye’nin Yeri
Türkiye, uluslararası turizm arenasında
doğal ve kültürel kaynakları, tarihi yapısı,
coğrafi konumu, iklimi ile her türlü turistik
çekiciliğe sahip yegâne turizm ülkesidir. Son
yıllarda turizm alanında gerçekleştirilen alt
ve üst yapı yatırımları, uluslararası
standartlar da inşa edilen havalimanları,
önceki yıllara göre hızla artan yatak
kapasitesi, turistik tesislerinin kalitesi ve
ürün standardizasyonu ile turizmde 2023
hedeflerine dayalı sürdürülebilir kalkınma
politikası sayesinde bölgedeki rakip ülkelere
göre çok daha avantajlı bir durumda
bulunmaktadır. Dünya Bankası, öteden beri
Türkiye’nin uzmanlaşması gereken
alanlardan biri olarak turizmi işaret
etmektedir. 2000 yılından itibaren yaşanan
dönemde uluslararası turizm hareketleri ile
doğru orantılı bir artış trendine sahip olan
ülkemiz dünya turizmindeki konumunu her
geçen gün sağlamlaştırmaktadır. Bu
bağlamda aşağıdaki tabloda yer alan
uluslararası turist çıkışları ve Türkiye’ye
gelişler hakkındaki verileri incelemek
faydalı olacaktır.
Tablo 2: Dünya’da yıllar itibariyle en çok turist çeken ilk 10 ülke ve Türkiye’nin yeri (Milyon
kişi)
3 Cüneyt Mengü, Ortadoğu Turizm Pazarının Türkiye
Açısından Analizi, Istanbul 2008,
Page & Connell, Tourism A Modern Synthesis, South
Western, Third Edition, UK, p. 620.
70
Yıllar Fransa ABD1 Çin İspanya İtalya Almanya Türkiye İngiltere Malezya Meksika
2000 77.1 (1) 51.2 (2) 31.2 (5) 46.4 (3) 41.1 (4) 18.9 (10) 9.5 (17) 23.2 (6) 10.2 (15) 20.6 (8)
2001 75.2 (1) 46.9 (3) 33.1 (5) 48.5 (2) 39.5 (4) 17.8 (11) 10.7 (16) 20.9 (7) 12.7 (14) 19.8 (8)
2002 77.0 (1) 43.5 (3) 36.8 (5) 50.3 (2) 39.7 (4) 17.9 (11) 12.7 (15) 22.3 (7) 13.2 (14) 19.6 (9)
2003 75.0 (1) 50.8 (2) 32.9 (5) 50.8 (2) 39.6 (4) 18.3 (10) 13.3 (14) 22.7 (6) 10.5 (17) 18.6 (9)
2004 74.4 (1) 46.0 (3) 41.7 (4) 52.4 (2) 37.0 (5) 20.1 (9) 16.8 (12) 25.6 (6) 15.7 (13) 20.6 (8)
2005 74.9 (1) 49.2 (3) 46.8(4) 55.9 (2) 36.5 (5) 21.5 (9) 20.2 (10) 28.0 (6) 16.4 (14) 21.9 (8)
2006 77.9 (1) 50.9 (3) 49.9(4) 58.0 (2) 41.0 (5) 23.5 (7) 18.9 (12) 30.6 (6) 17.5 (14) 21.3 (9)
2007 81.9 (1) 56.0 (2) 54.7 (4) 59.2 (2) 43.7 (5) 24.4 (7) 22.2 (8) 30.7 (6) 23.0 (9) 21.4 (10)
2008 79.2 (1) 57.9 (2) 57.1(3) 53.0 (4) 42.7 (5) 30.1 (6) 25.4 (7) 24.9 (8) 24.8 (9) 22.6 (10)
2009 72.2 (1) 54.9 (2) 52.2 (3) 50.9 (4) 43.2 (5) 24.2 (8) 25.5 (7) 28.1(6) 23.6 (9) 21.4 (10)
2010 77.1 (1) 59.8 (2) 55.7 (3) 52.7 (4) 43.6 (5) 27.0 (8) 27.0 (7) 28.3 (6) 24.6 (9) 23.3 (10)
2011 79.5 (1) 62.3 (2) 57.6 (3) 56.7 (4) 46.1 (5) 28.4 (8) 29.3 (6) 29.2 (7) 24.7 (9) 23.4 (10)
2012 83.0 (1) 66.7 (2) 57.7 (3) 57.5 (4) 46.4 (5) 30.4 (7) 37.7 (6) 29.3 (8) Rusya 25.7 Tayland 22.4
2013 -- 69, 8 (2) 55.7 (4) 60.7 (3) 47.7 (5) 31, 5 (7) 39.7 (6) 31.2 (8) Rusya 28.4 Tayland 26.5
2014 83.7 (1) 74.8 (2) 55.6 (4) 65 (3) 48.6 (5) 33 (7) 39.8 (6) 32.6 (8) -- 29.1 (10)
2015 84.5 (1) 77.5 (2) 56.9 (4) 68.2 (3) 50.7 (5) 35 (7) 41.6 (6) 34.4 (8) -- 32.1 (9)
2016 82.6 (1) 75.6 (2) 59.3 (4) 75.6 (2) 52.4 (5) 35.6 (7) 25.3 (10) 35.8 (6) -- 35.0 (8)
Kaynak: Tourist Arrivals Statistics (2000 – 2007), http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_tou_arr-economy-
tourist-arrivals&int=-1&date=2008, Erişim Tarihi: 09.06.2012.
UNWTO, Yearbook of Tourism Statistics, , (2007 – 2010)
http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/2012noteseng.pdf, Erişim Tarihi: 25.06.2012.
UNWTO, Tourism Highlights 2014 Edition (2010 – 2014), http://mkt.unwto.org/en/publication/unwto-tourism-
highlights-2012-edition, Erişim Tarihi: 27.10.2014.
UNWTO, Tourism Highlights Edition 2015,2016,2017
UNWTO, World Tourism Barometer, http://mkt.unwto.org/en/barometer (2000- 2011 için)
Yukarıdaki tabloda görüldüğü gibi bu
gelişim trendi içerisinde Türkiye, 16 yıl
1 ABD: Amerika Birleşik Devletleri
içerisinde uluslararası turizm endüstrisinde
yıllar itibariyle gelişerek dünya sıralaması
içerisinde 2000’de 17. sıradayken 2011,
71
2012, 2013, 2014 ve 2015 yıllarında 6.
sırada yer almıştır.
Türkiye’nin yıllar itibariyle Dünya
turizmindeki değişim oranları aşağıdaki
tabloda yer almaktadır.
Tablo 3: Dünya değişimi içerisinde Türkiye’nin Uluslararası Turizmdeki yeri (2000-2017)
YILLAR TÜRKİYE* % Değişim DÜNYA % Değişim
2000 10.428.153 0.08135 696.000.000 -0.00474
2001 11.276.532 0.14591 692.700.000 0.01486
2002 12.921.981 0.06031 703.000.000 -0.01991
2003 13.701.418 0.25556 689.000.000 0.10595
2004 17.202.996 0.19296 762.000.000 0.05774
2005 20.522.621 -0.03424 806.000.000 0.04218
2006 19.819.833 0.17765 840.000.000 0.04761
2007 23.340.911 0.12834 880.000.000 0.03977
2008 26.336.677 0.02811 915.000.000 -0.03825
2009 27.077.114 0.05743 880.000.000 0.06818
2010 28.632.204 0.0986 940.000.000 0.04468
2011 31.456.076 3.01645 982.000.000 1.41091
2012 37.715.225 3.61667 1,035.000.000 1.48706
2013 39.860.771 3.82241 1,087.000.000 1.56178
2014 39.860.771 3.94059 1,133.000.000 1.62787
2015 41.617.530 3.99088 1,186.000.000 1.70402
2016 25.352.213 2.43113 1,235.000.000 1.77442
2017 37.969.824 3.64108 1,322.000.000 1.89942
Kaynak: T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yıllar İtibariyle Ülkemize Gelen Yabancı Turist Sayısı,
http://www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr/TR,9854/sinir-giris-cikis-istatistikleri.html.
Yukarıdaki tablo 3 de görüldüğü gibi
Türkiye’nin 2000 yılından başlayarak
uluslararası turizmde mukayeseli bir
üstünlüğe sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Bu
açıdan 2015 yılına kadar Türk turizminde
turist gelişlerindeki artış düzeyinin Dünya
düzeyinin üstünde gerçekleştiği
görülmektedir. Böylece, 2000 – 2015 yılları
arasında küresel olarak uluslararası turizm
hareketleri yaklaşık 1,5 kat artmışken aynı
yıllar içinde Türkiye’ye gelişler 4 kat artış
göstermiştir. Ancak, 2016 yılında aynı
sıralamayı muhafaza etmemiz beklenirken
ülkemizde meydana gelen olumsuz olaylar
sonucunda sıralamamız keskin bir şekilde 6.
sıradan 15. sıraya düşmüştür. Ülkemizi
72
ziyaret eden turist sayısının 2016’da önceki
iki yıla göre yaklaşık %30 oranında düşüş
kaydettiği görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda
yaklaşık 10 Milyon turist ve 8 Milyar
Dolar’dan fazla gelir kaybı meydana
gelmiştir. 2017 yılında ise uygun bir
toparlanma yakalansa da 2015 yılı
rakamlarına ulaşılamamıştır. Ancak, 2018
yılının ilk 5 ayında ülkemize gelen turist
sayısı incelendiğinde düşük sezon olmasına
rağmen gerçekleşen rakam 12 milyon turiste
ulaşmış olup geçmiş yılların aynı dönemi
mukayese edildiğinde bir rekor teşkil
etmiştir. 2016 yılında yaşanan
olumsuzluklara rağmen 2018 yılı sonunda
ülkemizi ziyaret edecek turist sayısının 40
milyonun üstünde gerçekleşmesi 2023
hedefleri açısından ümit verici olacaktır. 1
Türkiye’nin 2023 Turizm hedefleri ile
ilgili yaklaşımlar
Türkiye, 2023 yılı için hemen hemen her
alanda büyük beklentiler içerisindedir. 500
Milyar Dolar ihracat hedeflenirken turizm
alanında çeşitli kurum ve kuruluşlar
tarafından çekimser ve farklı tahminler
yapılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda TYD, DPT
Turizm Özel İhtisas Komisyonu 2, T.C
Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 9. Kalkınma
Planı ve TÜRSAB tarafından ortaya konan
tahminler incelendiğinde tüm bu tahminlerin
tarafımızca yapılan bilimsel araştırma
sonuçlarıyla farklılık gösterdiği müşahede
edilmiştir.
DPT’nın 9. ve 10. Beş Yıllık Kalkınma
Planları (2007-2013 ve 2014-2018)
T.C Başbakanlık, Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı
tarafından 28.6.2006 tarihinde onaylanan 9.
Kalkınma Planı 2007-2013 yılları arasındaki
dönemi kapsamaktadır. Bu planda yurt
dışından gelen ziyaretçi sayısının yıllık
%7.4’lük büyüme ile 2013 yılında 38
Milyona, elde edilen gelirin ise yıllık
%9.3’lük büyüme ile 36.4 Milyar ABD
Dolarına ulaşacağı öngörülmüştür.3
Aşağıdaki tabloda ilgili veriler yer
almaktadır.
Tablo 4: Turizme İlişkin Hedefler
1 https://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/turizm-verileri 2 DPT (Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı) Dokuzuncu
Kalkınma Planı Turizm Özel İhtisas Komisyonu
Raporu,
http://plan9.dpt.gov.tr/oik49_turizm/49turizm.pdf,
Erişim Tarihi: 09.06.2012.
3 Cüneyt Mengü, Ortadoğu Turizm Pazarının Türkiye
Açısından Analizi, yayımlanmamış doktora tezi,
İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2008,
s. 61.
73
Öte yandan 2.7.2013 tarihinde onaylanan 10.
Kalkınma planına göre 2014-2018
arasındaki 5 yıllık planda ülkemiz için
öngörülen ziyaretçi sayıları aşağıdaki
tabloda yer almaktadır.
Tablo 5: Turizmde Gelişmeler ve Hedefler
Kaynak: T.C Kalkınma Bakanlığı 10.Kalkınma Planı, sayfa 126.
Yukarıdaki iki tabloda görüldüğü gibi
tahminlerin 5 yıllık dönemleri kapsadığı ve
2023 için tahminlerin yer almadığı
görülmektedir. Ayrıca her iki tabloda yer
alan büyüme oranlarının hangi esasa göre
saptandığı bilinmemekle birlikte tahminlerin
tarafımızca yapılan öngörü çalışmalarının
yalnız kötümser öngörüsü ile uyum sağladığı
görülmüştür.
74
DPT Turizm Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu1
Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı Müsteşarlığı tarafından Turizm Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu
adıyla 2006 yılında yayınlanan belgede 2023 yılında Türkiye’ye gelecek turist sayısı aşağıdaki
tabloda sunulmuştur2:
Tablo 6: Dokuzuncu Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı Turizm Özel İhtisas Kurulu Raporuna Göre Uzun
Vadede (2023) Yabancı Ziyaretçi Sayısına İlişkin Hedefleri
YIL ZİYARETÇİ SAYISI
(Milyon kişi) 2002 = 100
BİR ÖNCEKİ YILA GÖRE
YILLIK ORTALAMA DEĞİŞİM
2008 22.75 142 7,9
2009 24.41 153 7,3
2010 26.07 163 6,8
2015* 34.38 215 6,4
2020* 39.49 247 3,0
2021 40.35 252 2,2
2022 41.21 258 2,1
2023 42.08 263 2,1
*2010 – 2015 dönemindeki ortalama yıllık değişimi ifade eder.
*2015 – 2020 dönemindeki ortalama yıllık değişimi ifade eder.
Hesaplamada Yararlanılan Kaynak:
DPT (2006), Dokuzuncu Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2007 – 2013) – Turizm Özel İhtisas Kurulu
Raporu, Ankara, s.98.
1 DPT (2006), Dokuzuncu Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2007 – 2013), Ankara.
DPT (2006), Dokuzuncu Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2007 – 2013) – Turizm Ön İhtisas Kurulu Raporu, Ankara.
DPT (2013), Onuncu Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2014-2018), Ankara. 2 T.C. Başbakanlık DPT Dokuzuncu Kalkınma Planı 2007-2013, Turizm Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, Ankara,
2007, s.92.
75
Yukarıdaki tabloda görüldüğü gibi 2023 yılına ilişkin 42 milyon gibi çekimser ve çok düşük bir
öngörünün Türkiye için diğer kurumlar tarafından ve tarafımızdan yapılan öngörülen hedeflerin
çok altında olduğu dikkat çekmektedir. Nitekim 40 milyon turist gelişi 2014 ve 2015 yılında
gerçekleşmiştir. Bunun yanı sıra, yukarıda yer alan Dokuzuncu Kalkınma Planında belirtilen
tahminler ile çelişkili olduğu görülmektedir.
T.C Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Türkiye
Turizm Stratejisi – 2023
T.C Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı tarafından
2007 yılında yayınlanan Türkiye Turizm
Stratejisi-2023 Belgesi’nde Türk turizminin
gelişler ve elde edilen gelir yönünden 2023
yılında ulaşılması istenen hedefleri
gerçekleştirmek amacıyla öngörülen
tavsiyeler yer almaktadır. Bu bağlamda,
belgede Türk Turizmi’ni geliştirmek
amacıyla her alanda Kamu-Özel Sektör iş
birliği gerekliliğine vurgu yapılmıştır.
Belgede turizm sektörünün
güçlendirilmesine yönelik stratejiler
kapsamında etkin planlama süreci,
bürokratik engellerin ortadan kaldırılması,
yatırımların teşvik edilmesi ve firmaların
belgelendirilmesi gerektiği yer almakta ve
devamında Ulusal Turizm Konseyi
kurulması, havayolu ulaşımının
geliştirilmesi, demiryollarının yeniden
yapılandırılması, deniz turizminin
geliştirilmesi gibi konular ile Sağlık
Turizmi, Termal Turizmi, Kış, Golf, Deniz,
Eko Turizmleri, Kongre Turizmine (MICE)
vurgu yapılmaktadır.
Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi 2023 Belgesi’nde
belirlenen stratejik yaklaşımlar çerçevesinde
yapılacak çalışmaların tamamlanması,
geliştirilmesi, öngörülen bölgelerdeki
altyapı ve konaklama ihtiyaçlarının
karşılanması durumunda 2023 yılında 63
milyon turist, 86 milyar ABD Doları dış
turizm gelirine ulaşılması öngörülmektedir.1
Bakanlığın yukarıdaki tahminleri, diğer
kurum ve kuruluşların tahminlerine göre
gerçeklere daha yakın ve daha sağlıklı bir
yapıda olduğu görülmektedir. Ancak 63
milyon turist gelişi mümkün görüldüyse de,
86 milyar dolar gelir elde edilmesi
yönündeki öngörü bilimsel kurallarla
uyuşmamaktadır. Araştırmamızda da
görüleceği gibi yine Bakanlığın tahminleri
sadece turist sayısı itibariyle bizim kötümser
beklentimiz ile uyum içerisindedir. Öte
yandan bakanlık üst düzey yetkilileri
tarafından yapılmış olan 63 milyon turist
öngörüsü yerine yıllardır ve halen de “50
milyon turist, 50 milyar dolar gelir” olarak
dile getirilmesi her turizm platformunda
tekrarlamaktadırlar.
TÜRSAB
1 T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı,Türkiye Turizm
Stratejisi 2023, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara,
2007,
http://www.sp.gov.tr/documents/Turizm_Strateji_20
23.pdf, Erişim Tarihi: 01.06.2012.
Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi – 2023,
http://www.sp.gov.tr/documents/Turizm_Strateji_20
23.pdf
76
Türkiye Seyahat Acentaları Birliği tarafından 2023 yılında Türk turizmine ilişkin yapılan
sunumlarda T.C Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı’nın öngörüsüne paralel olarak olağan beklenti
hedefi “50 milyon turist, 50 milyar gelir1” olarak ile sürülmektedir.
Türkiye Turizm Yatırımcıları Derneği (TYD)
TYD tarafından 2023 yılı turist gelişlerine dair yapılan tahminlere göre 60 milyon kişi civarında
turist ülkemizi ziyaret edecek ve 60 milyar dolar turizm geliri elde edilecektir.2
Tablo 7: TYD 2023 Turizm Hedefi
Yıllar Turist Sayısı
(milyon)
Önce Yıla Göre
Değişim % Turizm Gelirleri
(milyar $)
Önce Yıla Göre
Değişim %
2010 29 8 21 0
2011 31 7 23 7
2012 33 6 24 7
2013 35 6 26 7
2014 37 6 28 7
2015 39 6 30 8
2016 42 6 32 8
2017 44 6 35 9
2018 47 6 38 9
2019 50 6 42 9
2020 52 5 45 9
2021 55 5 50 10
2022 57 5 55 10
2023 60 5 60 10
Toplam 611 6 509 8
Kaynak: Turizm Yatırımcıları Derneği, 2012.
1 TÜRSAB (Türkiye Seyahat Acenteleri Birliği), http://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/tursabdan-haberler/2023-turkiye-
turizm-stratejileri-sunumu_1913.html, Erişim Tarihi: 09.06.2012. 2 TYD (Türkiye Turizm Yatırımcıları Derneği), http://www.ttyd.org.tr/arama-sonuclari.aspx?q=2023, Erişim
Tarihi: 09.06.2012.
TYD Turizm 2023 Hedefi, http://www.ttyd.org.tr/2023-e-dogru-turk turizminde-yatirim-hamlesi.html.
77
TYD tarafından yapılan yüzdelik
değişimlerin hangi metoda göre saptandığı
bilinmemekle beraber T.C Kültür ve Turizm
Bakanlığı’nın Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi-
2023 Belgesi ve tarafımızdan yapılan
çalışmadaki öngörü analizi kötümser
sonuçları sayısı ile uyum içerisinde olduğu
görülmektedir. Ancak diğer önemli bir husus
da, gelen turist sayısıyla elde edilen turizm
gelirinin rakamsal olarak paralellik
göstermesi ile yukarıda belirtilen aynı hataya
düşülmüştür.
TARAFIMIZCA YAPILAN
EKONOMETRİK ANALİZ VE TEK
DEĞİŞKENLİ REGRASYON
ÖNGÖRÜ ANALİZLERİ VE
PROJEKSİYON UYGULAMASI1
Bu kısımda global gelişmeler ile yurtdışı
dinamikler esas alınarak ekonometrik
uygulamalara gidilecektir. İlk olarak 1985-
2006 yılları arasında Dünya’da yıllık olarak
gerçekleşen uluslararası seyahat hacmine
göre ülkemize yurt dışından gelen ziyaretçi
hacminin UNWTO öngörüleri dikkate
alınarak tarafımızca projeksiyon çalışması
yapılmıştır. Uygulamanın aşamaları üç
başlık altında toplanabilir:
İstatistiksel olarak anlamlı ve geçerli
bir tekli regresyon uygulamasının
kurulması,
Kurulan modele göre bağımsız
değişkene (Türkiye hariç dünyada
uluslararası ziyaretçi girişleri
yekûnu) verilecek değerlere göre
bağımlı değişkenin (ülkemize yurt
dışından yapılan girişler) alacağı
değerin nokta tahminiyle elde
edilmesi,
Kurulan modele göre aralık tahmini
yapmak suretiyle bağımsız
değişkene (Türkiye hariç dünyada
uluslararası ziyaretçi girişleri
toplamı) verilecek değerlere göre
bağımlı değişkenin (ülkemize yurt
dışından yapılan girişler) alacağı %
95 güven sınırındaki (% 5 hata
payıyla) en düşük (kötümser), olağan
ve en yüksek (iyimser) değerlerin
tespiti.
1985-2006 yılları arasında Dünya geneli ve
Türkiye’de uluslararası ziyaretçi gelişleri
aşağıdaki tabloda yer almaktadır.
Tablo 8: Dünya Geneli ve Türkiye’de Uluslararası Ziyaretçi Gelişleri (Milyon Kişi)
YIL DÜNYA TÜRKİYE HARİÇ
DÜNYA
TÜRKİYE LN (TÜRKİYE
HARİÇ DÜNYA)
LN (TÜRKİYE)
1985 330.0 327,8 2,2 5,7924 0,7840
1 Dr.Cüneyt Mengü, T.C İstanbul üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İktisat Anabilim Dalı
Doktora Tezi. İstanbul 2008.
TYD Turizm 2023 Hedefi,
http://www.ttyd.org.tr/2023-e-dogru-turk
turizminde-yatirim-hamlesi.html.
+
78
1986 341.0 338,6 2,4 5,8248 0,8743
1987 367.0 364,1 2,9 5,8974 1,0668
1988 402.0 397,7 4,3 5,9858 1,4505
1989 431.0 426,5 4,5 6,0556 1,5076
1990 459.0 453,6 5,4 6,1172 1,6860
1991 466.0 462,6 3,4 6,1368 1,2301
1992 503.0 495,9 7,1 6,2064 1,9607
1993 518.0 511,5 6,5 6,2373 1,8757
1994 546.0 539,3 6,7 6,2903 1,9015
1995 561.0 553,3 7,7 6,3158 2,0474
1996 595.0 586,5 8,5 6,3741 2,1446
1997 613.0 603,3 9,7 6,4024 2,2747
1998 629.0 619,6 9,4 6,4290 2,2440
1999 652.0 644,5 7,5 6,4685 2,0132
2000 696.7 686,3 10,4 6,5313 2,3445
2001 692.7 681,1 11,6 6,5237 2,4527
2002 703.0 689,8 13,2 6,5363 2,5839
2003 689,0 675,0 14,0 6,5148 2,6359
2004 762,5 745,0 17,5 6,6133 2,8649
2005 806,0 784,9 21,1 6,6655 3,0505
2006 842,0 822,2 19,8 6,7120 2,9866
Cüneyt Mengü, Ortadoğu Turizm Pazarının Türkiye Açısından Analizi,
İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, 2008, s. 64.
Kurulan regresyon denklemleri aşağıda sunulmuştur:
Estimation Command:
====================
79
LS LNTURKIYE C LNDUNYA
Estimation Equation:
====================
LNTURKIYE = C(1) + C(2)*LNDUNYA
Substituted Coefficients:
====================
LNTURKIYE= -12.70990368 + 2.334244874*LNDUNYA
Kurulan regresyon modeli istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olup, 0.94 gibi yüksek bir belirginlik
katsayısına sahiptir. Diğer bir deyişle model hem istatistiksel olarak anlamlı, hem de yüksek
temsilciliğe sahiptir. Aşağıdaki Eviews 5.0 çıktısında sonuçlar sunulmuştur.
Dependent Variable: LNTURKIYE
Method Least Squares
Date: 07/23/07 Time: 01:23
Sample: 1985 2006
Included observations: 22
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.
C -12.70990 0.812296 -15.64689 0.0000
LNDUNYA 2.334245 0.128793 18.12394 0.0000
R-squared 0.9426
Eviews 5.0 çıktısı
Yapılan LM testi neticesinde modelde otokorelasyonun olmadığı sonucuyla karşılaşılmıştır.
Diğer bir deyişle seriler, önceki yıllardan etkilenmemektedir. (Prob. Değerleri 0.05’ten büyük
olduğu için) Dolayısıyla model sahte veya yapay değildir. Aşağıdaki Eviews 5.0 çıktısında
sonuçlar sunulmuştur.
80
Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test:
F-statistic 0.191461 Probability 0.827412
Obs*R-squared 0.458266 Probability 0.795223
Eviews 5.0 çıktısı
Yapılan White Heteroskedasticity testi neticesinde modelde sabit varyans varsayımın
sağlandığı sonucuyla karşılaşılmıştır. (Prob. Değerleri 0.05’ten büyük olduğu için) Aşağıdaki
Eviews 5.0 çıktısında sonuçlar sunulmuştur.
White Heteroskedasticity Test:
F-statistic 0.359812 Probability 0.702461
Obs*R-squared 0.802841 Probability 0.669369
Eviews 5.0 çıktısı
81
Grafik 2: Beklentiler
Grafik 3: Beklentiler
82
Aşağıda tabloda ekonometrik öngörü analiz sonuçları yer almaktadır.
Tablo 9: Öngörü Analiz Sonuçları (Milyon Kişi)
Türkiye Hariç Dünya Kötümser Bek. Olağan Bekl. İyimser Beklenti
850 17,9 20,7 24,0
900 20,2 23,7 27,9
950 22,5 26,9 32,0
1000 25,1 30,3 36,6
1050 27,7 33,9 41,5
1100 30,5 37,8 46,9
1150 33,5 42,0 52,6
1200 36,5 46,3 58,7
1250 39,7 50,9 65,3
1300 43,1 55,8 72,3
1350 46,5 61,0 79,8
1400 50,2 66,3 87,7
1450 53,9 72,0 96,1
1500 57,8 77,9 105,0
1550 61,8 84,1 114,4
1600 60,5 80,5 110,0
1650 70,3 97,3 134,7
1700 74,7 104,3 145,6
1750 79,3 111,6 157,0
1800 84,0 119,2 169,0
1850 88,9 127,0 181,5
1900 93,9 135,2 194,6
1950 99,0 143,6 208,2
2000 104,3 152,3 222,4
83
Ekonometrik Öngörü Uygulama
sonuçlarının Analizi ve Tabloların
Karşılaştırılması
Yukarıdaki tablo 9 da Türkiye hariç dünya
toplamına göre yurt dışından geliş sayıları
850 Milyon ile 2 Milyar kişi aralığında
gerçekleşmesi durumunda, ülkemize yurt
dışından gelen ziyaretçi sayılarının ne
olacağına ilişkin yapılan ekonometrik
öngörü uygulamasının sonuçları yer
almaktadır. Bu tabloya göre; Dünya toplamı
olarak tahmin edilen 850 milyonluk
uluslararası turist sayısı ile Türkiye’nin
alacağı pay hakkındaki olağan beklenti olan
20.7 milyon rakamı ve ülkemizde aynı yıl
için gerçekleşen turist gelişlerinin yer aldığı
Tablo 3’deki 2006 yılındaki 840 milyonluk
uluslararası turist sayısı ve bu rakamdan
Türkiye’nin aldığı pay olan yaklaşık 20
milyon rakamı birbiri ile uyum içerisindedir.
Yine aynı tablo 9 da Dünya gelişlerinin 1
Milyar kişiye ulaşması durumunda,
ülkemize yurt dışından gelen ziyaretçi
sayısının 25.1 ile 36.6 Milyon kişi arasında
olacağı öngörüsü ele alındığında, Tablo 3 de
görüleceği gibi 2011 yılında Dünyada 982
milyon yurt dışı çıkışı gerçekleşmiş ve
Türkiye’ye gelen 31.456 milyon turist sayısı
olağan beklenti öngörümüzün de üstüne
çıkmıştır. 2012 yılında ise Dünya toplam
gelişleri 1.050 milyar olduğunda Türkiye’ye
gelen turist sayısı 37.8 olarak (Tablo 3)
olağan beklentimizin çok üstünde
gerçekleşmiş neredeyse iyimser
beklentimize yaklaşmıştır. Daha sonra 2013-
2014-2015 yılları incelendiğinde, Tablo 3 ve
Tablo 9 daki verilere göre Türkiye’ye gelen
turist sayıları öngörü analiz sonuçlarının
olağan beklentisi ile neredeyse uyum
içerisindedir.
Dünya toplamı 1.5 Milyara ulaşıldığında,
Türkiye’ye gelen turist sayısının 58-105
Milyon kişi arasında bir hacme
ulaşabileceği, 2 Milyarlık seviyeye
gelindiğinde ise bu aralığın ülkemiz için
104-202 Milyonluk yıllık ziyaretçi
seviyesinde gerçekleşeceği %95 güven
aralığında beklenmektedir.
Yine Tablo 9’da görüldüğü gibi uluslararası
turist sayısı 2020 - 2023 yılları için 1 milyar
600 milyon olduğunda, Türkiye’de
turizmin normal akışı içerisinde olacağı
var sayımıyla 2023 yılı için öngörümüz
kötümser 60.5, olağan 80.5 ve iyimser
olarak 110 milyon kişi beklentisi içinde
olması ihtimal dâhilindedir.
Ancak, 2016 yılında ülkemizi ziyaret eden
turist sayısının önceki iki yıla göre % 30
düşüş kaydetmesi yukarıda yer alan çalışma
sonuçlarını olumsuz bir şekilde etkilediği de
bir gerçektir. Bu durumda yine öngörü
çalışma rakamları dikkate alındığında, 2017
yılı ve 2018 yılı ilk yarısında gerçekleşen
rakamlara istinaden, 2023 için kötümser
beklentinin 60,5 olacağı kuvvetle
muhtemeldir. Bu vesileyle turizm sektörü
ile ilgili veri toplamasına devam ediyoruz.
2016 yılında yaşanan olumsuz olaylar dâhil,
geçmişte ve gelecekte diğer olumsuz olaylar
dikkate alınarak Türkiye’nin elde ettiği turist
sayısı ve gelirinde yapısal kırılma ve
değişikliğin olup olmadığının araştırılması
“Chow Testi” ile incelenecektir.
Öte yandan, geçen kısımlarda belirtilen
bilgiler istikametinde aşağıdaki tabloda
84
görüleceği gibi ilgili kurumlar tarafından
ileri sürülen öngörüler ve 2006 yılında
tarafımca yapılan öngörü analiz sonuçları
aşağıdaki tabloda yer almaktadır.
Tablo 10: UNWTO’nun ve ilgili kurum ve kuruluşlar tarafından Türkiye’ye gelmesi öngörülen
ziyaretçi karşılaştırmaları.
Not: Rakamlar milyon kişiyi ifade etmektedir.
Year UNWTO
UNWTO
Assumption
for Turkey
UNWTO
Assuption
Except
Turkey
International
Arrivals
DPT "State
Planning
Department"
9th
Development
Plan
DTP
"Tourism
Specialization
Commission"
Culture
&
Tourism
Ministry
of
Turkey
Strategy
for -
2023
TURSAB
Target
2023
TYD
"Turkish
Tourism
Investors"
Target
2023
Our Research & Vision
(Results of Predictive
Analysis)
Pessimistic Usual Optimistic
2020 1561,1 40 1521,1 - 39,49 - - - 58,5 77,5 108,9
2023 1.600 50 1550 - 42,08 63,00 50,00 60,00 60,5 80,5 110,0
Yukarıdaki tabloda daha önceki kısımlarda
incelenmiş farklı kurumlar ve tarafımızca
yapılan rakamsal beklentiler yer almaktadır.
SONUÇ VE ÖNERİLER
UNWTO 1 verilerinde görüldüğü gibi (Tablo
2) uluslararası turist çıkışlarının 2000
yılından başlayarak her yıl % 4-5 artarak son
derece yüksek bir ivmeyle büyüme
kaydetmesi ve önümüzdeki yıllarda da
artışların aynı seviyede süreceğinden
1 UNWTO General Assembly 19th Session,
Gyeongju, Republic of Korea, 10 Oct,2011.
hareketle ülkelerin en fazla pay alımı için
yoğun bir rekabetin devam edeceği
anlaşılmaktadır.
Araştırmamızın sonuçlarına göre normal
şartlarda 2023 yılı için “mücbir sebepler”
olmaksızın kötümser 60.5, olağan 80.5 ve
iyimser 110 milyon turistti. Ancak, 2016
yılında Türkiye'de yaşanan olumsuz olaylar
nedeniyle 2023 yılında ülkemize turist gelişi
bize göre karamsar hedefimiz olan 60,5
milyon ile en fazla 65 milyon arasında
olacağı kuvvetle ihtimal dahilindedir. Yine,
TYD Turizm 2023 Hedefi,
http://www.ttyd.org.tr/2023-e-dogru-turk
turizminde-yatirim-hamlesi.html.
85
yapmış olduğumuz tahminlere ulaşılması
sadece önümüzdeki yıllarda herhangi bir
“Mücbir Sebep” faktörünün ortaya
çıkmaması halinde mümkün olacaktır.
Bu bağlamda aşağıda gösterilen önerilerin
dikkate alınması Türk Turizminin 2023 yılı
hedefinin yol haritasının önemli bir
bölümünü teşkil edecektir:
Türkiye’nin bugünkü mevcut genel
yatak kapasitesi 1,2 milyon
civarındadır. Bu husus ile ilgili olarak
tarafımızdan yapılan başka bir
araştırmamızın sonucuna göre 2023’e
kadar en az 1 milyon 800 bin seviyesine
ulaşacağı öngörülmektedir.
Turist gelişlerinin küresel manada
sağlanması konusunda her bir ülke için
farklı turizm stratejisi uygulanmalı ve
ihtiyaçlar ona göre tespit edilmelidir.
2023 hedefine yönelik olarak mevcut
havalimanlarımızın kapasitesi yeterli
olacaktır. Ancak, özellikle marka kent
olma yolunda ilerleyen İstanbul ve
Antalya’nın önümüzdeki dönemlerde
herbirinin 15 – 25 milyon aralığında
turist kabul edeceği göz önünde
bulundurularak “Destinasyon Yönetimi
İlkeleri” dikkate alınarak gerekli
çalışmalar yapılmalıdır.
1618 sayılı Seyahat Acentaları ve
Seyahat Acentaları Birliği Yasası,
bugünkü haliyle yeterli olmamakta ve
2023 hedefine hizmet etmemektedir.
Önerilen yasa tasarılarına bakıldığında
genellikle outgoing konusunda
uzmanlaşmış acentalara yöneliktir.
Oysaki, döviz getirici nitelik taşıyan ve
gerçekten konusunda uluslararası
arenada uzmanlaşmış olan incoming
acentalarına belirli kriterler
doğrultusunda yasada geniş yer
verilmeli ve teşvik edilmelidirler. Bu
arada tur operatörlüğü yasasının da
mutlaka çıkarılması yararlı olacaktır.
Turizm şehir içi trafiği ile iç içedir.
Türkiye’nin büyükşehirleri ve özellikle
mega kent İstanbul’un trafik sorunu
mutlaka çözülmelidir. Aksi takdirde
bugünkü İstanbul’un trafik durumuyla
önümüzdeki yıllarda hedeflenen turist
akışına cevap vermesi mümkün
olamayacaktır. Üçüncü Boğaz Köprüsü
(Yavuz Sultan Selim) ve Marmaray
projeleri gibi alternatif projelerin hayata
geçirilmesi faydalı olacaktır.
Türkiye’nin ve özellikle İstanbul’un
konaklama konusunda arz-talep
dengesini dikkate alarak çalışmaların
yapılması ve özellikle İstanbul’un
Avrupa yakasındaki otel yapımları
planlı ve programlı şekilde
gerçekleştirilmelidir.
Doğu Marmara Bölgesi ve Trakya’nın
turizmde İstanbul’a destek olmaları
adına bu bölgelerin yatırımlarla teşvik
edilmesi ve yeni yapılacak otellerin
Doğu Marmara Bölgesine ve Trakya’ya
kaydırılarak hem İstanbul’un yükünün
hafifletilmesi hem de, bu bölgelerde
turizm adına fazla tanıtılmamış
güzelliklerin turizme katılması
gerekmektedir.
Önümüzdeki yıllarda özellikle İstanbul
için Kruvaziyer turizminin
geliştirilmesi yararlı olacaktır. Ayrıca
Kruvaziyer turizminin geliştirilmesi
konusunda mevcut Galata Limanı’nın
bir an önce hizmete alınması
gerekmektedir.
86
İstanbul gibi diğer turistik büyük
şehirler için metro sistem ağının yanı
sıra toplu taşıma amaçlı hafif raylı
sistemlerin inşa edilmesi ve
geliştirilmesi gerekmektedir.
Dünyanın en kalabalık ülkesi olan Çin
1.4 milyar nüfusu ile Dünya turizminin
en çok dikkat çeken ülkesi
konumundadır. Hâlihazırda Çin’den her
yıl yaklaşık 180 milyon kişi yurtdışına
seyahat etmektedir. UNWTO
raporlarına göre Çinliler en çok para
harcayan turistlerdir. Bu bağlamda
Çin’in ileriki yıllardaki turistik çıkış
potansiyeli göz önüne alındığında Çinli
turistleri ülkemize çekmek adına
sistemli tanıtım programları
yapılmalıdır.
Turist girişini arttıracak en önemli
unsurlardan bir tanesi de çok uluslu
sportif faaliyetlerin ülkemizde
yapılması ülkemizde yapılabilecek bir
olimpiyat veya dünya kupası
organizasyonu turist gelişini sadece bu
organizasyon esnasında değil ondan
sonraki yıllarda da belli bir ivme ile
attıracaktır.
Ülkemize yurt dışından gelen
turistlerin büyük miktarı deniz, kum,
güneş olarak tabir ettiğimiz tatilci
potansiyelidir. Bunun yanı sıra birçok
medeniyetin yer aldığı ve binlerce yıllık
tarihi olan Anadolu’muzun kültürel ve
inanç turizmine daha çok önem
verilmelidir.
Turizmin her kolunda gerekli
olan hizmet ve servis anlayışını,
gelişen teknolojilerle
destekleyerek geliştirmemiz
gerekir.
Yurt dışında yazılı ve görsel
medyaya büyük önem
verilmelidir. Kaliteli tanıtıcı
programlar yapılmalıdır.
Yurt içinde ve özellikle yurt
dışındaki tanıtım faaliyetlerinde
devletimiz gerçek pazarlama
ayağını desteklemelidir.
Kongre turizmi desteklenmeli ve
güçlendirilmelidir.
Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı
bünyesinde incoming yapan
seyahat acentaları ve tur
operatörleri arasından seçilecek
kişilerden oluşan danışma
kurulunun yer alması,
Otellerimizde uygulanan
yıldızlama sisteminin yeniden
ele alınması ve dünya
sıtandartlarına göre yeniden
yıldızlama yapılması,
Uluslararası alanda tutarlı,
anlamlı ve çekici bir Türkiye
markası yaratmaya yönelik
tanıtım stratejilerinin
geliştirmesi ve uygulanması,
Turizmde ucuz ürün yerine
pahalı ve markalaşan ürünleri
öne çıkararak kişi başı döviz
girdisi arttırma yönünde çok
ciddi çalışmaların yapılması ve
nitelikli turist sayısının
arttırılması,
Turizmde Ar-Ge ye önem
verilmesi ve geliştirilmesi
yönünde çalışmalar yapılması,
Kamu ve özel sektör
örgütlerinin katılımı ile Ar-Ge
87
Merkezlerinin oluşturulması,
istatistiklerin izlenmesi ve
değerlendirilmesi,
Bilhassa İstanbul başta olmak
üzere turistlerin ilgi odağı olan
şehirlerimizde çarpık kentleşme
ve yapılaşmayı önleyen,
bozulmuş kent ve çevre
görünümünü iyileştirecek
uygulamaların hayata
geçirilmesi,
Turistlerin seyahatleri esnasında
çok daha rahat anlayabilecekleri
“Turizm Gelişim Koridorları”
oluşturulması (ipek yolu
koridoru, inanç koridoru, yayla
koridoru, kültür koridorları,
Hristiyanlığın yayılış koridorları
gibi )
Sağlık turizmi kapsamında
Merkezi Hekim Randevu
Sistemi'nin (MHRS) farklı
yabancı dillerdeki uygulamaları
gerçekleştirlmeli. Türkiye'de
sağlık turizmi kapsamında
tedavi görmüş yabancı
hastaların devamlılığının ve
aidiyetinin güçlendirilmesi için
onlarla iletişim kurulması,
Termal turizm tesislerinin,
hastaneler, fizik tedavi ve
rehabilitasyon merkezleriyle iş
birliği yaparak faaliyet
göstermesine yönelik destek
mekanizmalarının planlanması,
Turizmde süreklilik birinci kuraldır.
Turizm mevsimsel değil tüm yıla
yayılmalıdır. Ülkemiz dünya ülkeleri
arasında mukayeseli üstünlüğünü devam
ettirmelidir.
KAYNAKÇA:
Chris Cooper, J. Fletcher ve diğerleri, Tourism Principles and Practice, Fourth Edition,
Prentice Hall Financial Times, İngiltere, 2008.
Cüneyt Mengü, Ortadoğu Turizm Pazarının Türkiye Açısından Analizi, yayımlanmamış
doktora tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2008, s. 61.
DPT (2006), Dokuzuncu Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2007 – 2013) – Turizm Ön İhtisas Kurulu
Raporu, Ankara.
DPT (2006), Dokuzuncu Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2007 – 2013), Ankara.
DPT (2013), Onuncu Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2014-2018), Ankara.
DPT (Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı) Dokuzuncu Kalkınma Planı Turizm Özel İhtisas Komisyonu
Raporu, http://plan9.dpt.gov.tr/oik49_turizm/49turizm.pdf, Erişim Tarihi: 09.06.2012.
88
Stephen J. Page ve J. Connell, Tourism A Modern Synthesis, Third Edition, South Western
Cengage Learning EMEA, İngiltere, 2009.
T.C. Başbakanlık DPT Dokuzuncu Kalkınma Planı 2007-2013, Turizm Özel İhtisas
Komisyonu Raporu, Ankara, 2007, s.92.
T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı,Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi 2023, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı,
Ankara, 2007, http://www.sp.gov.tr/documents/Turizm_Strateji_2023.pdf, Erişim
Tarihi: 01.06.2012.
Tourist Arrivals Statistics (2000 – 2007), http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_tou_arr-
economy-tourist-arrivals&int=-1&date=2008, Erişim Tarihi: 09.06.2012.
Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi – 2023, http://www.sp.gov.tr/documents/Turizm_Strateji_2023.pdf
TÜRSAB (Türkiye Seyahat Acenteleri Birliği), http://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/tursabdan-
haberler/2023-turkiye-turizm-stratejileri-sunumu_1913.html, Erişim Tarihi:
09.06.2012.
TYD (Türkiye Turizm Yatırımcıları Derneği), http://www.ttyd.org.tr/arama-
sonuclari.aspx?q=2023, Erişim Tarihi: 09.06.2012.
TYD Turizm 2023 Hedefi, http://www.ttyd.org.tr/2023-e-dogru-turk turizminde-yatirim-
hamlesi.html.
UNWTO Tourism 2020 Vision, http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/vision.htm, Erişim Tarihi:
01.06.2012.
UNWTO, Tourism Highlights 2014 Edition (2010 – 2014),
http://mkt.unwto.org/en/publication/unwto-tourism-highlights-2012-edition, Erişim
Tarihi: 27.10.2014.
UNWTO, Tourism Highlights Edition 2015
UNWTO, World Tourism Barometer, http://mkt.unwto.org/en/barometer (2000- 2011 için)
UNWTO, World Tourism Performance 2011 and Outlook 2012,
http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_pisa_2011_2.pdf,
Erişim Tarihi: 01.06.2012.
UNWTO, Yearbook of Tourism Statistics, , (2007 – 2010)
http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/2012noteseng.pdf, Erişim
Tarihi: 25.06.2012.
89
Dijital Ekonominin Ülke Ekonomileri İçerisinde Artan Etkisi: AB Üye
Ülkeleri ve Gelişmiş Ekonomiler Üzerine Bir İnceleme
Dr. Müjgan DENİZ1
Öz
Yeni ekonomi olarak tanımlanan dijital ekonominin önemli özelliklerinden biri bütün iktisadi
faaliyetlere bilginin entegre edilmesi, başka bir ifadeyle iktisadi faaliyetlerdeki bilgi yoğunluğunun
göreceli olarak önemli oranda artmasıdır. Çalışmada ilk olarak iletişim ve bilgi teknolojilerinde yaşanan
ve insanlık tarihinde dönüm noktası oluşturan ilerleme ve değişimin evreleri kısaca özetlendikten sonra,
yeni ekonominin doğuşunda etkili olan faktörler ele alınarak, son dönemde hızla yaygınlaşan dijital
ekonominin, özellikleri, etki alanları ve e-ticaretin ülke ekonomilerinin bilançoları üzerine etkileri
istatistiki verilerle ortaya konulmuştur. Yeni ekonomide değer kavramı, özellikle büyüme yani üretim
şekillerinde öne çıkmaktadır. Dijital teknoloji penetrasyonundaki yükselme, ülke genelinde
verimlilik ve Gayri Safi Yurtiçi Hasıla (GSYH) artışını da beraberinde getiriyor. Dijitalleşme artık
dünyada gelişmişliğin ölçütü olarak kabul edilmiş ve ülkeler için başarılacak bir amaç haline
gelmiştir. Bu bağlamda AB ülkeleri ve Türkiye Dijital Ekonomi ve Toplum Endeksi (DESI) açısından ele alınarak incelenecektir. Bu çalışmada, Avrupa Birligi'nin ‘’Dijital Birlik’’e giden yolda attığı
adımlar ortaya konularak, bu doğrultuda yapılan çalışmalar ele alınmış ve mevcut durum ortaya
konulmaya çalışılmıştır.
GİRİŞ
Bilgi teknolojileri sayesinde yaygınlaşan
iletişim ağlarının küresel ölçekte
gelişmesiyle birlikte “dijital ekonomi” ve
“bilgi ekonomisi” olarak da
adlandırılan yeni ekonomi kavramı ortaya
çıkmıştır. Özellikle küreselleşme ve bilgi ve
iletişim teknolojilerindeki gelişmeler yeni
ekonomi anlayışının gelişmesinde etkili
olmuştur. Yeni Ekonomi dijital bir
ekonomidir. Yeni ekonomide her türlü yazı,
1 İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi, İng. İktisat Bölümü. E-mail: [email protected]
ses, görüntü ve bilgi bilgisayar ağları
tarafından iletilmektedir. Büyük miktarda
bilgi son derece ucuz ve hızlı bir şekilde
alıcılarına ulaşmaktadır. Bilgi söz konusu
olduğunda, ülkelerin bilgiye ne kadar
ulaştığı ve söz konusu yeni bilgilerden ne
kadar faydalanarak bu bilgileri ne kadar
verimli kıldığı belirleyici olmaktadır
İnsanlar sadece bir tık düğmesi ile
hayatlarına yön verirken, alışkanlıklarımız
da teknoloji ve dijital ortamdaki gelişmelerle
90
birlikte hızla değişiyor. Şirketlerin ise bu
yeni çağa ayak uydurabilmek için
dijitalleşme noktasında doğru vizyona sahip
olmaları büyük önem taşıyor. Dördüncü
sanayi devrimi olarak adlandırılan bu yeni
çağda, bilişim teknolojileriyle endüstri bir
araya geliyor. Dördüncü sanayi devriminde
üretim sürecinin dijitalleşmesi, makinelerin
birbirleriyle doğrudan iletişime geçmesi ve
kişiselleştirilmiş üretimin yanısıra;
verimliliğin artması, enerji ve su gibi
kaynakların gereğinden fazla
kullanılmaması sonucu doğanın daha az
kirlenmesi öngörülüyor. Endüstri tarihinde
önce buharın ve kömürün gücü, daha sonra
petrolün devreye girmesiyle insanoğlu
büyük mesafe kat etti. Ne var ki, petrol ve
diğer fosil yakıtlar tükendiği gibi, doğal
yaşamı olumsuz etkiliyor. Ayrıca bu
enerjilerden türetilen ve bunlarla sürdürülen
teknolojiler de eskiyor. Şu an içinde
bulunduğumuz üçüncü sanayi devrimi,
bilişim ve iletişim teknolojilerindeki gelişme
ile üretim sürecinde otomasyonun mümkün
hale geldiği, internetin yaygınlaştığı,
yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının önem
kazandığı bir dönem olarak öne çıkıyor.
İnternet ve mobil teknolojilerle birlikte
başlayan dijital dönüşümün yarattığı dijital
ekonominin etkileri tüm boyutlarıyla ele
alınması gereken bir hale gelmiştir. İlk
etapta sadece bilgi teknolojilerinin konusu
gibi görünen ‘’nesnelerin interneti’’,
‘’endüstri 4.0’’, ‘’M2M’’, ‘’yapay zekâ’’,
‘’büyük veri’’, ‘’bulut bilişim’’, ‘’artırılmış
ve sanal gerçeklik’’ gibi yeni teknolojiler
artık şirketlerin ve ekonomilerin de odak
noktası haline gelmeye başlamıştır. Dijital
ekonominin ortaya çıkışı ve gelişmesi
incelendikten sonra, Avrupa Birliği'nin
dijital birliğe giden yolda attığı adımlar
ortaya konularak, bu doğrultuda yapılan
çalışmalar ele alınmış ve mevcut durum
ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır.
1. Dijital Ekonominin Gelişimi
Dijital ekonomi iletişim ve bilgi işlem
faaliyetlerinden kuruludur. Doğru ifade tarzı
ise ‘’bilişim’’dir. İlk zamanlarda e-ekonomi
olarak adlandırılmış olan ‘’bilişim
ekonomisi’’ ikiye ayrılmaktadır. Birincisi
bilişim ürünlerinin ister yazılım ister
donanım olsun üretim ve pazarlamasını
kapsar, ikincisi bilişimin ‘’ağırlığı olan
madde üretimi ve pazarlamasına’’ yaptığı
katkıdır. Sanayi demek birşeyden çok sayıda
üretmek demektir; bu bağlamda, sanayi
ekonomisi ’’dijital ekonomiyi’’ de
kapsamaktadır. Ekonomist Cansen’e göre;
‘’Sanayi büyük küme, dijital ekonomi onun
içinde küçük küme’dir. Geleneksel sanayi
maddenin hal, şekil ve yer değiştirmesini
kapsayan süreçleri içerir. Süreçlerin ortak
yanı ‘’material processing’’ yani malzeme
işlemidir. Bilişim ise bilginin hal, şekil ve
yer değiştirmesi süreçlerini kapsar. Farklı bir
deyişle, ‘’information processing’’ (bilgi
şleme) süreçlerinden oluşur. Fiziksel
mesafelerin ve lojistik kaygıların önemini
yitirmesi dijital ekonomileri geleneksel
ekonomilerden ayıran önemli bir faklılıktır.
Ayrıca, sanayi ekonomisinden bir diğer farkı
global bir son kullanıcı erişimi olmasıdır.
Daha önce de belirtildiği üzere, dijital
ekonomi; iletişim ve bilgi işlem
faaliyetlerinden oluşmaktadır ve bu sebeple
‘’bilişim ekonomisi’’ diye de adlandıranlar
vardır. Dijital ekonomi tanım itibariyle çok
91
geniş bir kavramdır ve ikiye ayrılır.
Tanımınınde e-ticaret olsa da yeterli
değildir. Bu ekonomi tarzında önde gelen
yönetim fonksiyonu iletişimdir. Yerinden
yönetimin bu yeni ekonomide önem
kazanmasıyla sanayide verimlilik de
artmıştır. Daha az kaynakla aynı mal ve
hizmet üretimi yapılabilir oldu.
Ekonomistlere göre son yıllarda meydana
gelen teknolojik gelişmeler ve bilişim
endüstrisinin kapsamının giderek artması
sonucu dijital ekonomiyle gelen verimlilik
artışı hızlanarak devam edecektir.
Bu bağlamda, ekonomist Ege Cansen’e
göre; ‘’Dijital ekonominin gelişmesi ile
sanayide verimlilik arttı. Daha az kaynakla
aynı mal ve hizmet üretimi yapılabilir oldu.
Yakın gelecekteki yıllarda öngörülen ise,
son yıllarda gerçekleşmiş
bulunan dönüşümün diğer bir deyişle
“verimlilik artışının” – hızlanarak devam
edeceğidir.’’1
Tüketimden üretime hemen her şey
teknoloji ile dönüşümden geçerken, bu
değişime en hızlı ve en iyi adapte olan
şirketler, hatta ülkelerin, ekonomik açıdan
refahı da arttıracağı araştırmalar tarafından
ortaya konuluyor. Bunun için dijitalleşmeyi
etkin kullanmak önem taşıyor. Dijitalleşme,
tüm dünya için olduğu gibi için önem
taşıdığı gibi gelişmekte olan ülke
ekonomileri açısından daha da önem arz
etmektedir. Uzmanlara göre, dijitalleşmenin
sunduğu fırsatlar Türkiye gibi gelişmiş
ülkelerle arayı kapatmak isteyen yükselen
ekonomilere büyük katkı sağlayarak ülkenin
1 www.sosyalmedya.com
küresel pazarlardaki duruşunu
sağlamlaştırabilir.2
Sektör yöneticilerinin gözüyle dijital dünya
tüm dengelerin, yeni kullanıcı trendlerinin,
iş modellerinin çok hızlı bir şekilde değiştiği
ve geliştiği bir ortamdır. Böylesi bir ortama
adapte olabilmek için bilişim ekonomisine
uygun ve dijitaş teknolojilere entegre
olabilen iş modellerinin geliştirilmesi
önemli bir fonksiyon halini almıştır. Sanayi
ekonomisinden farklı olarak dijital
ekonomide global bir son kullanıcı erişimi
mümkündür. E-ticaretin hızla geliştiği ve
online satış rakamlarının öne çıktığı bir
dönemde bir çok marka sosyal medya
üzerinden pazarlama ve internet satışlarına
ağırlık vermektedir. Dijital ekonominin
parçası olan bir şirket için özellikle iki
fonksiyon öne çıkmaktadır: İş geliştirme ve
online pazarlama. (Ömer Topaç, E-Bay
Pazaryeri Direktörü) Online satış kanalları
ise potansiyel müşterilere dokunmak için en
etkili ve en sayılabilir kanal haline gelmiştir,
bu nedenle şirketlerin devamlılığı açısından
bu fonksiyonların da çok iyi yönetiliyor
olması gerekmektedir.
1.1. Bilgi Toplumuna ve İnternet Çağına
Giriş
Tarım ve sanayi devriminin devamında
bugün bilgi toplumu, inovasyon ve
dijitalleşme gibi kavramlar ön planda yer
alıyor. Bilgi teknolojileri sayesinde
yaygınlaşan iletişim ağlarının küresel
ölçekte gelişmesiyle birlikte özellikle dijital
ekonomi ve internet kullanımı, ülkeler ve
firmalar açısından bir öncelik haline geldi.
2 www.hurriyet.com.tr, 28.09.2016
92
Dijitalin en büyük avantajı, gerçek zamanlı
ve anlık bir mecra oluşu ve etkileşim
olanakları sağlamasıdır. Aynı zamanda
dijital ekonomi, farklı kitlelere yönelik farklı
iletişim olanaklarını eş zamanlı olarak
kullanıma sokabiliyor. İşte bu gibi
avantajlarından dolayı şirketlerin ve devlet
kurumlarının sundukları hizmetler hızla
internete taşınmaya başlandı.
Küreselleşme, dünyada ekonomik,
teknolojik, sosyolojik birçok değişimlere yol
açmaktadır. Bilgi ve iletişim teknolojileri
küreselleşme ile beraber dünya
ekonomisinde de değişim ve dönüşümleri
tetiklemiştir. Ekonomiler tarımdan sanayiye,
sanayiden bilgi ve teknolojiye doğru hızlı bir
dönüşüm geçirmiştir. Üretimde, katma değer
yaratmadaki dominant faktörün toprak
olduğu ekonomik yapı tarım ekonomisi;
sermayenin stratejik faktör olduğu
ekonomik yapı sanayi ekonomisi ve
üretimde katma değer yaratmada bilginin
öne çıktığı ekonomik paradigma ise “yeni
ekonomi” olarak tanımlanmaya başlamıştır
(Özsağır, 2013).
Bilgi teknolojilerindeki gelişmelerin
ışığında artan verimlilik ve refah düzeyi
artık sadece gelişmiş ülkelerin ulaştığı bir
seviye değil, gelişmekte olan ülkelerin de
kalkınmaları ve küreselleşme sürecine uyum
sağlamaları açısından hızla ulaşmak için
çaba sarfetmeleri gereken bir süreçtir. Bilgi
teknolojileri sayesinde yaygınlaşan iletişim
ağlarının küresel ölçekte gelişmesiyle
birlikte “dijital ekonomi” ve “bilgi
ekonomisi” olarak da adlandırılan yeni
3 2016-2017 Küresel Rekabet Gücü
Raporu; http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2016-
2017/05FullReport/TheGlobalCompetitiveness...
ekonomi kavramı ortaya çıkmıştır. Yeni
ekonomiyle birlikte geleneksel üretim
kaynakları yerini bilgiye bırakmış, üretimde
azalan verimler kanunu yerine artan verimler
kanunu geçerli olmaya başlamıştır. Bilişim
teknoojileri, günümüzde ekonomik
gelişmenin anahtarı haline gelmiş ve
ekonomik yapıdaki bu değişim hem
ekonomik aktörleri hem de politika
yapıcıları bu dönüşüme ayak uydurmaya
zorlamıştır. Bilgi ekonomisi teknolojik
gelişmeyi sağlayarak daha verimli bir üretim
sağlamakta, bu durum da ekonomik
büyümenin hızının artmasını sağlamaktadır.
Dünya Ekonomik Forumu 2014-15 Küresel
Rekabetçilik Raporu’nda Türkiye, 144 ülke
arasında 45. sırada yer alırken, 2015-2016
yılında 140 ülke arasında 51. sıraya
gerilemiştir. 2016-2017 dönemi Küresel
Rekabetçilik Endeksi hesaplamalarına göre
Türkiye 138 ülke arasında 55. sırada yer
bulabilmiştir. Son iki yılda olduğu gibi
Küresel Rekabetçilik Endeksi’nin içinde
bulunan bileşenler arasında Türkiye en iyi
performansı 17. sırada yerini koruyan Pazar
Büyüklüğü kaleminde göstermektedir. Son
iki yılda en ağır düşüşlerden biri de
İnovasyon endeksinde gerçekleşmiştir.3 Bu
da rekabetçi bir ekonomiye sahip olma ve
küresel rekabetçilik endeksi sıralamasında
ön sıralarda yer bulabilmek için ülkelerin
‘inovasyon’a ve araştırma geliştirme
faaliyetlerine devamlı olarak destek
olmasını ve dijitalleşme ve bilişim
ekonomisi konusunda da sürekli bir ivme
kazanmasını gerekli kılmaktadır.
93
1.2. E-Ticaretin Gelişim Süreci ve
Geleneksel Ekonomilere Etkileri
Dijital ekonomi dünyası geleneksel
sanayinin hakim olduğu dünyaya göre çok
daha hızlı bir değişim ve gelişimin olduğu
bir dünya olarak tabir edilmektedir. Bu
dünyanın oluşturduğu en önemli farklılık da
şüphesiz bu hız faktörüne bağlıdır. Yeni
ekonomiyle birlikte eskiden geleneksel
markaların 100 yıl gibi uzun sürelerde
eriştiği tüketici kapsamı ve marka değeri
dijital ekonomideki marka/şirketler
tarafından birkaç sene gibi kısa sürelerde
erişebiliyor. Dünya genelinde gelişmiş
ülkelerin çoğunda yakın gelecekte öncelikli
reklam macerası sosyal medya ve dijital
dünya olması bekleniyor. Bu gelişme de
online alışveriş hacminin artmasını ve
elektronik ticaretin büyümesini daha da
hızlandıracaktır.
Yeni ekonomide sanallaşma önemli rol
oynamaktadır. İnternet üzerinden
tüketicilerin alışveriş yaptığı herhangi bir
yer anlamına gelen sanallaşma ekonominin
yapısını ve ekonomik süreçleri
değiştirmektedir.4 Firmalar elektronik ticaret
sayesinde sınırlı bir bütçe ile geçmişte
görülmedik bir düzeyde küresel ölçekte iş
yapabilir hale gelmişlerdir. E-ticaretin
tanımı konusunda farklı ülkelerin kuruluşları
tarafından farklı tanımlar ortaya
konmaktadır. Ancak e-ticaret konusunda en
yaygın genel kabul görmüş tanım OECD
tarafından 1997 yılında yapılmış olan
tanımdır. Bu çerçevede elektronik ticaret
4 www.canaktan.org 5http://www.kobinet.org.tr/hizmetler/eticaretkutuphanesi/b
a1.html
aşağıda belirtilen eylemleri kapsayan bir
süreç olarak tanımlanmaktadır;
‘’Ticaret öncesi firmaların elektronik
ortamda bilgilenmesi ve araştırma
yürütmesi.
Firmaların elektronik ortamda
buluşması
Ödeme sürecinin yerine getirilmesi
Taahhüdün yerine getirilmesi mal
veya hizmetin müşteriye teslimi
Satış sonrası bakım, destek vb.
hizmetlerin temin edilmesi.‘’ 5
Bir diğer tanıma göre de elektronik ticaret
(e-commerce) bilişim ağı (network) destekli
teknolojilerin kullanımıyla mümkün olan ve
kurumlarla kurumlar, kurumlarla kişiler
arasında, mal, hizmet ve bilgi transfereini
sağlayan ve yeni ekonomik düzenin temelini
oluşturan bir kavramdır (Capital, 2001:8).
Firmalar elektronik ticaret sayesinde sınırlı
bir bütçe ile gelmişlerdir. Bir hizmetin
üretiminin, reklamının, satın alımının,
ödemesinin ve teslimatının yalnızca internet
aracılığıyla yapılması mümkündür. İnterneti
diğer araçlar arasında daha etkin duruma
getiren özellikler ise internetin ses, görüntü
ve yazılı bir metni iletebilme işlemlerini aynı
anda ve daha hızlı yapabilmesidir.6 Firmalar
yeni dijital teknolojiler sayesinde bütün iş
süreçlerini sanal ortama taşıyarak geleneksel
organizasyon yapısına yeni değerler katarak
daha fazla verimlilik ve etkinlik sağlaya
bilmektedir. Günümüzdeki elektronik
ticaretin önemli bir bölümü işletmeler
arasında yapılmaktadır. Hedef ise tüketici ile
6 www.mfa.gov.tr/turkce/grupe/ues/yoruk.htm
94
işletme arasındaki elektronik ilişkiyi
geliştirme yönündedir.
Dünya nüfusunun neredeyse yarısının online
olduğu günümüzde içlerinde Türkiye’nin de
olduğu 50 ülkeyi kapsayan b ir araştırma
ülke ekonomilerini rekabet gücü ve dijital
pazar potansiyeli açısından karşılaştırarak
inceliyor. Ülke ekonomilerini internet ve
internet altyapısı sağlama, tüketici talebi,
yasal yapı ve inovasyona verilen önem
başlıkları altındaki 170 gösterge üzerinden
değerlendiren raporda dijitalleşme
sıralamasında ilk onda İskandinav
ülkelerinin yanı sıra İsviçre, Singapur,
Güney Kore, İngiltere, Hong Kong ve
Amerika bulunuyor.
Küresel ödeme sektöründe faaliyet gösteren
bir teknoloji şirketi olan Master Card dünya
çapında Dijital Değişim Endeksi üzerine
yeni bir çalışma gerçekleştirerek yeni
ekonomi üzerine dikkate değer bir analiz
ortaya koymuş oldu. Bu firmanın sağlamış
olduğu yazılım üzerinden yapılan işlemlerin
miktarı ve kapsadığı ülkelerin sayısı da
dijital ekonominin geldiği noktanın
anlaşılabilmesi adına önemli bir göstergedir.
Yönettiği dünyanın en hızlı ödeme işlem ağı
üzerinden Master Card işlemleri ile yüz
yirmi’yi aşkın ülke ve dünya üzerinde farklı
bölgelerdeki tüketiciler, finans kuruluşları,
işyerleri, devletler ve işletmeler birbirine
bağlanmaktadır. Bu işlevin ötesinde,
değişim geçiren dijital dünyada günümüzün
ve geleceğin internet kullanıcılarının
davranışlarını tespit etmek üzere
MasterCard ve Tufts Üniversitesi
bünyesindeki The Fletcher School
tarafından hayata geçirilen Dijital Degişim
Endeksi, kamu ve özel sektöre bu hususta
7 www.mastercard.com
yön vermeyi amaçlamaktadır.7 Master
Card’ın Dijital Değişim Endeksi araştırması
50 ülkeyi dijital teknoloji kullanımı ve e-
ticaret kullanımının yaygınlığına göre
değerlendirdi. Singapur’un e-ticarette
birinci, Çin’in ise dijital ekonomide büyüme
şampiyonu olduğu araştırmaya göre Türkiye
incelenen 50 ülke ekonomisi arasında
30’uncu sırada yer almıştır. Gelişmekte olan
ekonomisiyle, izlenmesi gereken ülkeler
arasında anılan Türkiye’nin yatırımcılara
büyük fırsatlar sunduğu belirtiliyor.
Türkiye’nin dijital değişim endeksinde en
yüksek puan aldığı gösterge ise inovasyon
olmuştur.
2. Yeni Ekonominin Dönüşümü ve
Makroekonomik Etkileri
Yıkıcı ve yenilikçi özellikler barındıran
dijital ekonomi, dünya ekonomisinde
yaşanan hızlı değişim ve yeni oluşumlar
beraberinde yeni yapıları getirmiştir. Yeni
ekonomi, ‘’ekonominin; büyüme, verimlilik,
istihdam, dış ticaret, gelir ve refah gibi
makro degişkenler açısından dramatik bir
anlayış ve zihniyet değişikliği meydana
getirmiş ve getirmeye de devam
etmektedir’’.
Bilgi teknolojileri, gelişmiş ve gelişmekte
olan ülke ekonomilerine katkıları açısından
kilit bir role sahiptir. Çünkü ekonominin
genelinde sağladığı verimlilik artışı,
yenilikçi ve katma değeri yüksek yapısı ile
ekonomik büyümeyi hızlandırmakta,
istihdam yaratmakta ve ihracatın ithalatı
karşılama oranlarına yaptığı katkılar ile dış
ticaretin ülkelerarası rekabet gücünü
etkileme potansiyeline sahip olmaktadır.
95
Yeni ekonomi gelişmişliğin ölçütü olarak
kabul edilmekte ve gerek ülkelerin
ekonomik gerekse kalkınma hedeflerini
gerçekleştirmede önemli bir etkiye sahip
olmaktadır. Daha öncesinde sanayi
devriminin gereklerini yerine getiremeyip,
sanayi ekonomisine geçiş yapamayan
ülkeler, tarım ekonomisi ağırlıklı yapıları ile
varlıklarını sürdürmüşlerdir. Ancak
günümüzde yeni ekonomiye geçemeyen
ülkelerin diğer ülkeler ile rekabet gücü şansı
azalmakta ve ülkelerarası gelir farkı
artmaktadır.
Yeni ekonominin başlıca unsuru teknolojik
yenilikler ve değişimdir. Özellikle bilgi
teknolojilerinde meydana gelen değişimler,
firmalara hız, verimlilik, etkinlik, kalite,
esneklik ve maliyet düşürme gibi avantajlar
sağlamaktadır. Nitekim, bilgi ve teknoloji,
diğer üretim faktörlerinin aksine kullanılıp
yayıldıkça verimliliği ve paylaşıldıkça
miktarı ve değeri artan bir kaynaktır.
Değişime ayak uyduramayan firmalar için
ise bu durum bir tehdit unsuru
oluşturmaktadır. Yeni ekonomide yaşanan
bu değişim süreci ile birlikte, eski sektörler
artık önemini kaybederken, yeni sektörler
ortaya çıkmakta ve ekonominin öncüsü
haline gelmektedirler.
Yapılan araştırmalar öyle gösteriyor ki,
dijital teknoloji penetrasyonundaki
yükselme, ülke genelinde verimlilik ve
Gayri Safi Yurtiçi Hasıla (GSYH) artışını da
beraberinde getiriyor. Örneğin Accenture ve
Oxford Economics ortaklığında yapılan bir
araştırmaya göre; ‘’Ekonomik aktivite
içinde dijital teknoloji penetrasyonunun
8 www.oxfordeconomics.com/publication/open/262036
artması, 2020 yılına kadar dünyanın ilk 10
ekonomisinin GSYH’sine yaklaşık 1.36
trilyon dolar katkı sağlayacak.8
Accenture Dijital Yoğunluk Endeksi
empirik olarak göstermiştir ki: ‘’Ekonomik
aktivitedeki dijital teknolojilerin artan
penetrasyonu prodaktiviteyi ve GDP
büyümesini önemli oranda yükseltebilir,
potansiyel olarak 2020 senesinde dünyanın
ilk 10 ekonomisinde 1.36 trilyon USD
değerinde ek üretim meydana getirebilir.’’9
Ülkelerin dijitalleşme seviyesini ölçmeye
yönelik olarak yapılan bir başka araştırmaya
göre ise bir ülkenin Dijital Yoğunluk
Endeksi (Digital Density Index )’ndeki her
10 puanlık artış, GSYH’nin yıllık ortalama
büyüme hızını %0.25 ile %0.5 puan kadar
yükseltebiliyor.10
2.1. Yeni Ekonomide Üretim ve Değer
Bilgiyi diğer üretim faktörlerinden ayıran
farklı ve üstün özellikler; bölünebilmesi,
kullanıldıkça değerinin azalmayıp artması
ve kendi kendini beslemesidir. Bilgi yeni
dünyada artık bir ürün haline gelmiş,
toplumun farklı alanlarında pozitif
dışsallıklar sağlayarak verimliliğin
artmasına, toplumun zenginliğine ve
refahına neden olmaktadır. Bilginin
ekonomik değerini ekonomideki “kullanım
deger teorisi”, “emek-deger
teorisi” veya “marjinal fayda teorisi” gibi
diğer teorilerle ölçmek mümkün
olmamaktadır. Geleneksel ekonomide bir
ürün ne kadar kıtsa değeri o kadar fazladır.
9 www.accenture.com/strategy 10 Digital Density Index pdf, www.accenture.com/strategy
96
Ancak, bilgiye dayalı yeni ekonomide bu
kanun tersine işlemektedir.
Yeni ekonomide bir ürünün değeri,
kendisiyle bağlantılı diğer ürünlerin sayısına
bağlı olarak artmaktadır. Dolayısıyla bilgi,
paylaşılıp paylaşılmadığıyla değil, nasıl, ne
zaman ve kiminle paylaşıldığına göre değer
kazanır. Daha çok bilgi, daha çok katma
deger yaratmaktadır. Bir firmanın yarattığı
yeni bir buluş, yöntem ya da teknoloji, diğer
firmaların da bunları kullanabilmesini ve
geliştirebilmesini sağlamakta, dolayısıyla
katma değeri arttırmaktadır.
Yeni ekonomide değer kavramı, özellikle
büyüme yani üretim şekillerinde öne
çıkmaktadır. Neoklasik büyüme modelinde
üretim, emek ve sermaye faktörlerine göre
belirlenmekte, azalan verimler kanunu ve
ölçege göre sabit getiri geçerli olmaktadır.
Bu modelde büyümenin gerçekleşmesi
üretim sürecine daha çok emek ve sermaye
katılmasıyla sağlanmaktadır. Bu da büyüme
sürecinin her aşamasına maliyet unsuru
eklemektedir. Yeni ekonomide ise bilgi,
teknoloji ve beşeri sermayenin üretim
faaliyetleri üzerindeki etkisi, emek ve
sermayenin yanısıra üretim faktörü olarak
üretim fonksiyonuna katılmalarıyla
belirlenebilir. (Martin, 1990) Bilgi, teknoloji
ve beşeri sermayenin de dahil edildiği bir
model olan içsel büyüme modelinde,
sermayenin artan getirisinin olabileceği ve
bu artan getirinin de uzun dönemde
büyümeyi azaltmadığı kabul edilmektedir. 11
11 www.nber.org/papers/w3564 12 http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/planlama/42inciyil/ercanny.pdf
Uzgören ve Kara’ya göre (2002), bilgi ve
teknoloji üretim faaliyetlerine üç şekilde
katılabilir;
- ‘’Üretim süreçlerinin, mal ve
hizmetlerin sürekli iyileştirilmesi,
- Daha önce var olan bilginin sürekli
olarak işlenmesiyle kendisinden, yeni ve
farklı üretim süreçlerinin, mal veya
hizmetlerin elde edilmesi,
- Daha önce var olmayan yeni bilginin
geliştirilmesi yoluyla yeni üretim
süreçlerinin, mal ve hizmetlerin
meydana getirilmesi.’’
Bilgi ve teknoloji, diğer üretim faktörlerinin
aksine kullanılıp yayıldıkça verimliliği ve
paylaşıldıkça miktarı ve değeri artan bir
kaynaktır. Aynı zamanda potansiyel olarak
da sınırsızdır (Uzgören ve Kara, 2002). İçsel
büyüme modellerinde, ülkelerin gelir
seviyelerinin kendiliğinden birbirine
yaklaşacağı varsayımı geçersizdir.
Neoklasik modelin aksine, az gelişmiş
ülkeler eğer gerekli önlemleri almazlarsa
gelişmiş ülkelerle arasındaki fark daha da
artmaktadır (Yülek, 1997). Buna göre;
modelde aynı bilgi aynı anda birden çok
üretim alanında kullanılabildiği ve yoksul
ülkelerden zengin ülkelere doğru beyin göçü
olduğu için, zengin ülkelerde azalan
verimler ortaya çıkmamakta ve bu ülkeler
durağan duruma girmemektedir.
Yeni ekonominin meydana getirdiği bu içsel
büyüme modeli; ‘’bilgi üretimi, beşeri
sermaye ve araştırma geliştirme (Ar-Ge)
faaliyetlerine dayanmaktadır.’’12 Yeni
97
büyüme modelinde, teknolojik gelişme içsel
olarak açıklanmakta, yapılan yatırımların bir
yan ürün olarak teknolojik bilgiyi arttırdığı
ve diğer üretim süreçlerinde bedava girdi
olarak kullanıldığı bunun da taşmalar sonucu
sektör geneline yayıldığı belirtilmektedir
(Kar ve Ağır, 2003). Dolayısıyla Neoklasik
büyüme modelleri ile kıyaslandığında, yeni
ekonomilerde yatırımlar daha düşük
maliyetlerle yapılmakta ve getirileri de daha
yüksek olmaktadır. Kısaca, neo klasiklerin
belirttiği gibi üretim fonksiyonu sabit
getiriyi değil ölçege göre artan getiriyi
yansıtmakta ve bu üretim faktörü ikiye
katlandığında, üretim de iki kattan daha fazla
artmaktadır (Romer, 1986). Beşeri sermaye,
yukarıda da belirtildiği gibi, içsel büyüme
modelinde bir üretim faktörü olarak ele
alınmakta ve ekonomik büyümeye katkı
sağlayan önemli bir faktör olarak
nitelendirilmektedir.
2.2. Yeni Ekonominin Büyüme ve
Verimlilik Üzerindeki Etkileri
Yeni ekonomi artık dünyada gelişmişliğin
ölçütü olarak kabul edilmiş ve bir çok ülke
için başarılacak bir amaç haline gelmiştir.
Bu bölümde de, yeni ekonominin
makroekonomi üzerindeki etkileri verimlilik
ve büyüme üzerinden açıklanmaya
çalışılacaktır. Yapılan araştırmalar öyle
gösteriyor ki, dijital teknoloji
penetrasyonundaki yükselme, ülke
genelinde verimlilik ve Gayri Safi Yurtiçi
Hasıla (GSYH) artışını da beraberinde
getiriyor. Gartner tarafından yapılan SAP
araştırmasına göre; ‘’Dijital dönüşüm
13 www.bilisimzirvesi.com.tr/documents/Duyurular/
karlılık, verimlilik ve farklılaşma sağlıyor.’’
Yine beklenmektedir ki; ekonomik aktivite
içinde dijital teknoloji penetrasyonunun
artması, 2020 yılına kadar dünyanın önde
gelen ilk 10 ekonomisinin GSYH’ına 1.36
trilyon dolar katkı sağlayacak.13 Bu
bağlamda yapılan Accenture Digitalleşme
Endeksi’ne göre; ‘’bir ülkenin Dijital
Yoğunluk Endeksi’ndeki her 10 puanlık
artış, GSYH’nin yıllık ortalama büyüme
hızını 0.25 ile 0.5 yüzde puanı kadar
yükseltebiliyor’’ (Dünya Ekonomik Forumu
2016-2017 Küresel Rekabet Raporu). Yine
2016-2017 yılı küresel rekabet raporuna
göre, dijtal dönüşümü yakalayan ülkelerin
ekonomik açıdan refahı artmakta çünkü,
dijital teknoloji penetrasyonundaki
yükselme ülke genelinde verimlilik artışını,
bu da GSYH artışını beraberinde getiriyor.
Sadece gelişmiş ülkelerin değil, gelişmekte
olan ülkelerin de yeni ekonominin sunduğu
fırsatları değerlendirme ve içerdiği tehditleri
görmezden gelmeme yönünde gerekli
anlayışa sahip olduğu gözlenmektedir. Bir
çok gelişmiş ülke yeni ekonominin
gerekliliklerini yerine getirme çabası
içerisinde olup vizyon sahibi olmayan,
anlayış eksikliğine ve inovasyon yokluğuna
sahip bir yapıyı reddetmektedir. Türkiye’nin
de bu süreçte daha fazla bilgi üretmeye,
uygun bilginin etkin ve verimli kullanımını
gerçekleştirmeye, dolayısıyla eğitim,
enformasyon ve bilgi-iletişim
teknolojilerine daha fazla yatırımı gereki
kılan kapsamlı stratejiler geliştirmesi
gerekmektedir (Gürdal, 2004).
Bilişim çağında bilginin verimi de, ülkelerin
rekabet edebilirliği açısından önemli bir
98
faktör haline gelmiştir. Bilgi söz konusu
olduğunda, ülkelerin bilgiye ne kadar
ulaştığı ve söz konusu yeni bilgilerden ne
kadar faydalanarak bu bilgileri ne kadar
verimli kıldığı belirleyici olmaktadır
(Drucker, 1993).
Ekonomik büyüme, tüm modern
toplulukların hedefinde yer almaktadır.
Ekonomik büyüme üretilen mal ve hizmet
miktarının arttırılması yoluyla sosyal
gelişmeyi sağlayarak refah seviyesini
yükseltmektedir. Yeni büyüme teorileri ile
birlikte bilgi bir üretim faktörü olarak ele
alınmış ve bilgiye yapılan yatırımlar
sayesinde üretimde kullanılan diğer
faktörlerin aksine bilginin marjinal
verimliliğinin arttığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.
Bir başka ifade ile bilginin üretim sürecinde
kullanılması ile uzun dönemde azalan
verimler yerine artan verimler söz konusu
olmaktadır.
Yeni ekonominin ekonomik büyüme
üzerindeki etkileri, yapılan araştırmalar ve
bu araştırmalar sonucu yenilikçi ürünlerin
üretilmesi, üretimin daha verimli yapılması
sonucu toplam üretimin artması, yeni iş
imkanlarının oluşması, elektronik ticaretin
gelişmesi ve buna bağlı olarak farklı reklam
ve satış kanallarının etkisiyle ekonomik
verimliliğin artması olarak sayılabilir
(Duman, 2004). Yeni ekonomide teknoloji
kapasitesinin belirlenmesi açısından önem
taşıyan Ar-Ge harcamaları aynı zamanda
hem ekonomik büyüme ve hem de küresel
rekabet gücü üzerinde etkili bir faktördür.
Yapılan birçok çalışmada Ar-Ge’ye yapılan
yatırımlar gelişmiş ve gelişmekte olan
ülkelerin ekonomik büyümesini olumlu
etkilediği sonucuna varılmış ve Ar-Ge
harcamaları ile ekonomik büyüme arasında
pozitif yönlü bir ilişki olduğu gösterilmiştir
(Özsağır, 2013). Bu harcamalar büyümeye
doğrudan katkı sağlamamakta ancak
üretimde yeni teknolojilerin kullanılması
aracılığıyla Ar-Ge çalışmaları sonucu
geliştirilen yeni ürün ve ürün yöntemleri ile
ülkelerin rekabet gücü ve verimliliği
artmaktadır (Erdoğan, 2004). Ayrıca, yeni
ekonominin büyümeye etkisini ölçmek güç
olsa da, bilgi birikimi ve bu birikim
kullanılarak yapılan üretim bu konudaki
önemli bir kaynaktır. Bu nedenle ülkelerde
alınan patent sayıları genellikle bilgi
birikiminin boyutunu ve bilgi ekonomisinin
genel ekonomik büyümeye etkisini
göstermektedir (Powell, Snellman, 2004).
2.3. Yeni Ekonomi Açısından Dijital
Evrim Endeksi Ölçümü
Bilişim teknolojilerinde gelinen nokta
açısından, az ya da çok dijitalleşen ülkeler
arasında bazı farklar oluştu. Bu farkları göz
önüne sermek isteyen Dünya Ekonomik
Forumu, Tufts Üniversitesi ve Mastercard
ile iş birliği yaparak Digital Evrim Endeksi
hazırladı. Araştırmaya konu olan 60 ülkenin
dijital dönüşümünü inceleyen projede
ülkeler 170 farklı değişkene göre 4 farklı
gruba ayrıldı. Bazı ülkeler iki grubun
sınırında kaldı.
Araştırmada öncelikle aşağıdaki sorular göz
önünde bulunduruldu:
1. ‘’Dünyada dijital evrimin örüntüleri
nelerdir? Hangi faktörler bu
örüntüleri açıklıyor ve farklı
bölgelerde bu faktörler ne gibi
değişiklikler gösteriyor?
2. Hangi ülkeler dijital alanda daha
rekabetçi? Bu rekabeti yönlendiren
99
şeyler kamu sektörü mü yoksa özel
sektör mü?
3. Ülkeler dijital ivmelerini nasıl
artırıyor?’’ 14
Her ülkenin mevcut dijital evrim durumu ve
zaman içindeki dijital evrimi ölçülerek
dijital dünyanın bir haritası çıkarıldı. Bu
çizelgede ülkeler Stand Out (Öne Çıkan),
Stall Out (Hız Kaybeden), Break Out
(Birden Ortaya Çıkan) ve Watch Out
(Dikkat Etmesi Gereken) şeklinde dört farklı
kategoride yer aldı.
Dijital evrim konusunda oldukça ileride olan
batı ülkeleri (ayrıca Güney Kore ve
Avustralya) artık duraklama döneminde
olduğu için ‘hız kaybedenler’ kategorisinde
kendilerine yer buldu. Dijital evrimde
ilerlemenin yanı sıra geliştirdiği yeni
teknolojiler ve girişimcilik kültürüyle öne
çıkan ABD, Almanya, Japonya, Birleşik
Krallık ve İsrail gibi ülkeler, ‘yerinde sayan’
ve ‘öne çıkan’ ülkeler sınırında yer alıyor.
Singapur, Yeni Zelanda ve B.A.E. gibi yakın
dönemde teknoloji yatırımları ile gündeme
gelen ülkeler, ‘öne çıkanlar’ grubunu
oluşturuyor. Çizelgeye göre Türkiye ‘öne
çıkan’ ve ‘birden ortaya çıkan’ ülkelerin
sınırında yer alıyor. Burada Türkiye’ye,
(ekonomik olarak ‘gelişmekte olan ülkeler’
kategorisinde yer alan) Malezya, Polonya,
Portekiz ve Şili gibi ülkeler eşlik ediyor.
Ayrıca Çin ve Suudi Arabistan gibi dünya
politik gündemini çok meşgul eden ülkeler
de bu alanda yer alıyor. Çin’in ‘birden ortaya
çıkanlar’ bölgesine olan yakınlığı ve 2008-
2015 arasında yaşanan değişim konusunda
en ileride bulunması da göze çarpıyor.
14 https://sites.trufts.edu/digitalplanet/dei17
Birden ortaya çıkan ülkeler arasında Kenya,
Bolivya ve Rusya gibi ülkelerin son
dönemde yaşadığı değişimler dikkat
çekiyor. Hindistan, Filipinler, Endonezya,
Vietnam gibi yüksek nüfusa sahip
güneydoğu Asya ülkelerinin de bu
kategoride yer aldığı gözden kaçmıyor.
Meksika, Kolombiya ve Kamerun gibi
ülkeleri de göz önünde bulundurduğumuzda
bu kategorinin, ‘hız kaybedenler’
kategorisinin tam tersine, daha alacak çok
yolu olan ve bu amaç doğrultusunda
ilerleyen ülkeleri kapsadığını net bir şekilde
görebiliyoruz.
Nijerya ve Brezilya gibi bulunduğu bölgenin
lider güçlerinden biri konumunda olan
ülkeler dijital evrim hızı konusunda diğer
ülkelerden biraz geride kalmış gibi duruyor
ancak bu ülkelerin sabit bir şekilde
ilerlediğini söylemek mümkün. AB
ülkelerinden Bulgaristan, İtalya, İspanya ve
Çekya dünya ortalamasını tutturmanın
dışında herhangi bir alanda öne çıkmayan
ülkeler olarak çizelgenin merkezinde yer
alıyor. Cezayir ise ‘dikkatli olması
gerekenler’ alanından biraz olsun sıyrılmış
olsa da halen kat etmesi gereken çok fazla
yol var.
Çizelgenin hem dijital evrim konusunda
geride kalmış hem de yeterli ivmeyi
yakalayamamış ülkeleri barındıran ‘dikkat
etmesi gerekenler’ bölümünde siyasi
çalkantılardan çokça etkilenen Mısır ve
Pakistan gibi ülkelerin yanı sıra, evrimini
nispeten biraz daha tamamlamış gibi duran
ancak ivmesini artırması gereken Peru,
Tayland ve Güney Afrika da yer alıyor. Hız
kaybeden ülkeler arasında bu hız kaybı
tehlikeli noktalara yaklaşanlar ise
100
Yunanistan, Slovakya, Slovenya ve
Macaristan gibi Orta ve Doğu Avrupa
ülkeleridir.
3. Dijital Ekonomiler Açısından AB Üye
Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir İnceleme
Ülkelerin bilim ve teknoloji üretmelerinin
önemli birkaç göstergesi vardır. Bunlardan
en önemlileri; gayri safı milli hasıladan Ar-
Ge'ye ayrılan pay, patent başvuruları ve Ar-
Ge personeli sayısıdır. Ar-Ge
harcamalarının GSMH’daki payı
değerlendirildiğinde Finlandiya, Almanya,
Fransa ve Avrupa Birligi ortalamasının
yüksek bir paya sahip olduğu, buna karşılık
Türkiye’nin ise bir AB aday ülkesi olarak
Çin, Brezilya ve Rusya’da dahil olmak üzere
dünya ortalamasının da altında bir paya
sahip olduğu dikkat çekmektedir.
Raporda “dijital beceriye sahip olan ülkeler”
olarak gruplanan Batı Avrupa Ülkeleri,
Norveç, Danimarka, İsveç ve
Finlandiya’dan oluşan İskandinav Ülkeleri,
Avustralya ve Güney Kore ise güçlü büyüme
geçmişine sahip ancak büyümelerinde
yavaşlama gözlenen ve inovasyon
yatırımlarına devam etmezlerse geride
kalabilecek ülkeler olarak
gösteriliyor. Özellikle Nokia gibi güçlü
markalar çıkarabilmiş, dijitalleşmenin
öncüsü olan İskandinav ülkelerindeki şirket
yöneticilerinin, bu dönüşümde geri
düşmemeleri için bir an önce yeniden
dijitalleşme gözlüklerini takmaları gerektiği
vurgulanıyor.
Avrupa Komisyonu 2017 Dijital Ekonomi ve
Toplum Endeksi (DESI) - Digtal Economy
and Society Index- sonuçlarını açıklayarak,
kamuoyuna 28 üye ülkenin gerek
şirketlerinin gerekse kamu hizmetlerinin
sayısallaştırmaya yönelik dijital
kabiliyetlerinden bağ kurma, irtibatlarını
geliştirme gibi çok geniş alanlarda ortaya
koydukları performanslarını özetleyen bir
aracı kamuoyunun bilsisine sunmuştur. AB
Komisyonu’nun 2017 DESI raporu
göstermektedir ki, AB bütün olarak ilerleme
kaydetmekte ancak zirvedeki dijital
oyuncular ile düşük performans sergileyen
ülkeler arasındaki fark hala çok büyüktür.
‘’Dijital Tek Pazar’’ın (the Digital Single
Market) çoğunluğunu oluşturmak için daha
fazla çabaya ve yatırıma ihtiyaç vardır.
’Dijital Tek Pazar’ın Başkan yardımcısı
Andrus Ansip; ‘’Avrupa kadame kademe
daha fazla dijitalleşiyor fakat bir çok ülke
çabalarını yükseltme ihtiyacı duymaatadır.
Bütün üye ülkeler Dijital Tek Pazar’dan tam
olarak faydalanabilmek için daha fazla
yatırım yapmak zorundalar. Ansip yine;
‘’iki vitesli bir dijital Avrupa
istemediklerini’’ de belirtiyor ve ‘’AB’yi
dijital dünyanın lideri yapmak için hep
birlikte çalışmalıyız’’ diyor. Genel olarak
baktığımızda Avrupalılar daha fazla
dijitalleşiyorlar, ancak bu genel tablo üye
devletler arasında çeşitlenmektedir. Bütün
alanlarda Avrupa Birliği çapında iyileşmeler
görülebilirken, üye ülkelerdeki bağlılık
durumu da genişliyor,
AB genel anlamda önceki yıllara kıyasla çok
daha fazla dijital uzmana sahip. Diğer bir
ifadeyle, Avrupalılar daha fazla kamu
hizmetini online olarak kullanıyorlar, iş
dünyası da daha çok dijital hale gelmiş
durumda. Bununla birlikte, sağlanan
ilerleme gelecekteki ihtiyaçları karşılamak
için yetersiz ise bütün boyutlarıyla gelişim
101
için hala mesafe vardır. Sıralamaya göre;
Danimarka, Finlandiya, İsveç ve Hollanda
DESİ raporuna göre en önde giden ülkeler
olurken, bu ülkeler Lüksemburg, Belçika,
UK, İrlanda, Estonya ve Avusturya
tarafından izlenmektedir. Slovakya ve
Slovenya da en fazla ilerleme kaydeden AB
ülkeleridir. Bazı ilerlemelere rağmen,
Polonya, Hırvatistan, İtalya, Yunanistan,
Bulgaristan ve Romanya gibi birkaç üye
ülke hala AB ortalamasına kıyasla dijital
gelişmelerde geride kalmaktadırlar.
3.1. AB Ülkeleri Açısından Dijital Tek
Pazar Hedefi
Komisyon’un 2015 yılında AB
Parlamentosu ve Konsey dahil bazı AB
kurumlarına gönderdiği tebliğde küresel
ekonominin hızla dijitalleşme eğiliminde
olduğuna ve Avrupa’nın bu konudaki dünya
liderliğine dikkat çekiliyor. Ekonomide
inovasyon, büyüme ve yeni iş imkânları
açısından, enformasyon ve iletişim
teknolojileri sektörünün sağladığı
olanaklardan yararlanmada ve bunun
getirdiği zorluklarla mücadelede AB
ölçeğinde düzenlemelere ihtiyaç duyulduğu,
bu ihtiyacın da bir dijital ortak pazar yaratma
girişimine önayak olduğu belirtiliyor.
Avrupa Birliği internetin sağladığı imkanları
değerlendirip ‘Avrupa malı’ sanal hizmetler
sektörünü canlandırmaya hazırlanıyor.
Tam da bu amaç doğrultusunda, Avrupa
Komisyonu (AB Commission) 6 Mayıs 2015
15 AB`de Dijital Tek Pazar`ın Oluşturulmasına Doğru;
https://www.ikv.org.tr
tarihinde, üç temel başlıktan ve 16 farklı
eylemden oluşan Dijital Tek Pazar
Stratejisi’ni açıklamıştır. Söz konusu strateji
ile öncelikli olarak AB’de tüketiciler ve
işletmelerin dijital ürün ve hizmetlere
erişimlerinin kolaylaştırılması, dijital
ağların ve yenilikçi hizmetlerin
geliştirilmesi için gerekli ortamın
oluşturulması ve dijital ekonominin büyüme
potansiyelinin desteklenme hususları
saptanmıştır. 25-26 Haziran 2015 tarihleri
arasında düzenlenen Avrupa Konseyi’nde,
Avrupa Komisyonu’nun bu kapsamlı ve çok
yönlü stratejisi Avrupa liderleri tarafından
olumlu karşılanmıştır. Bu Stratejinin AB’nin
tüm bölgelerinde kapsayıcı bir ekonomik
büyüme sağlanması için kullanılmasının
önemi de vurgulanmıştır. 15
Dijital ekonomiden sorumlu komisyon üyesi
Oettinger; yeni kurulan şirketlerin
inovasyon gücünün arttırılması ve AB'nin
dijital rekabetten korunabilmesi için sayısal
iç piyasanın mutlaka oluşturulması
gerektiğini söyledi:
“Rekabet halinde olduğumuz ABD ve Asya
ülkeleriyle göz hizasında rekabet
edebilmemiz için gerekli olan standartlara,
yasalara ve altyapıya getirilen sınırlamalar
kaldırılmalıdır. Sayısal iç pazar tüketiciye, iş
dünyasına ve istihdama yarayacaktır. Farkı
kapatma yarışını başlatıp Avrupa'nın sayısal
ve elektronik ticaret sınırlarını kaldırmalı,
telif haklarına açıklık getirip ve hızlı internet
altyapısını tamamlamalıyız.“16
Avrupalı şirketlerin küresel ölçekte
büyümesi de garantilenen hedefler arasında.
16 http://www.dw.com/tr/gundem/avrupa
102
Bu proje kapsamında ülkeler arası e-
ticarete dair farklılıkların giderilmesiyle,
AB GSYH’sına 415 milyar euro katkıda
bulunulacağı, yüzbinlerce yeni iş imkânı
yaratılacağı ve daha dinamik bir bilgi
toplumuna geçileceği beklenmektedir.
Dijital Tek Pazar stratejisi üç sütun üzerine
inşa ediliyor:
Tüketicilerin ve ticari kuruluşların
Avrupa çapında çevrimiçi mal ve
hizmetlere erişiminin
kolaylaştırılması
Dijital şebekelerin ve çevrimiçi
hizmetlerin geliştirmesi amacıyla
gerekli koşulların yaratılması
Avrupa Dijital Ekonomisinin
büyüme potansiyelinin maksimize
edilmesi (Deutche Welle Türkçe)
3.2. Dijital Değişim Endeksi ve Ülkelere
Göre Kıyaslama
Dijital dünyadaki hızlı değişimi daha iyi
yansıtabilmek ve daha doğru ve kapsamlı bir
rapor hazırlayabilmek için 2017 yılı dijital
dönüşüm endeksinde birçok farklı faktör ele
alınmıştır. Dijital Dönüşüm Endeksi 2017,
ilki 2014’de hazırlanan araştırmanın üzerine
yeni bulgular eklemiştir. 2008-2015 yılları
arasındaki 8 yıllık veriler kullanılarak 4 ana
kriter bazında 170 gösterge ile 60 ülkedeki
dijital değişim hızına yönelik detaylı
analizler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma
Tufts Üniversitesi bünyesindeki The
Fletcher School’un ‘’Digital Planet
Platform’’u tarafından gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Dijital Degişim Endeksi araştırmasında ele
alınan ülkeler arasında gelişmiş ülkeler başı
çekerken, gelişmekte olan ve dijital dünyaya
hızla adapte olan ülkelerin yükselişi dikkat
çekiyor.
Araştırma, 2008-2013 yılları arasında bu
ülkelerde pazarların değişimini, ülkenin
ekonomik göstergeleriyle kıyaslayarak ve
gelişim unsurlarını ölçerek ortaya koyuyor.
Günümüzde dünyada 2,9 milyar internet
kullanıcısı bulunuyor. Dünya nüfusunun %
60’ı ise internetten uzak yaşıyor. Bu %
60’lık dilime erişmek isteyen kurumların,
dijital büyümede hangi ülkelerin önde
olduğunu öğrenmesi gerekiyor. Bu vizyonal
dijitalleşme yarışında ülkeleri sıralamayı
hedefleyen Dijital Değişim Endeksi’ne göre
Singapur e-ticaret kullanımında dünyada bir
numara, ABD ise altıncı sırada geliyor. Buna
karşın Çin, en hızlı büyüyen dijital
ekonomiye sahip.
Endekse göre Singapur’un ardından İsveç ve
Hong Kong dijital ekonomileriyle ilk üçü
oluşturuyor. Birleşik Krallık ve İsviçre’nin
ardından gelen ABD, ölçek alınan 50 ülkeyi
geride bırakan isimler. Çin, Malezya ve
Tayland ise en hızlı büyüme kaydeden dijital
ekonomiler olarak ilk üçü paylaşıyor. Bu
ülkelerde hızla artan internet kullanımı ve
akıllı cihaz penetrasyonu, büyümenin
katalizörü olan unsurlar olarak görülüyor.
Dijital Değişim Endeksi’ne göre Türkiye
inovasyonda yükselişte. Türkiye,
araştırmada takibi şart olan ülkeler
kategorisinde kendine yer buldu. Yatırım
için büyük fırsatlar barındıran ülkeler
kategorisine alınan Türkiye, Rusya, Mısır,
Kenya gibi gelişmekte olan ülkelerle birlikte
toplamda 2,5 milyar nüfusluk bir
popülasyonun içinde yer alıyor. 50 ülke
arasında dijital değişim endeksiyle 30’uncu
sırada kendine yer bulan Türkiye, 100
103
üzerinden 31,95 puanlık bir dijitalleşme
skoru elde etti. Birinci sırada yer alan
Singapur’un skoruysa 56,21 olarak
hesaplandı. Dijital Değişim Endeksi’nde yer
alan bulgulara göre Türkiye’de hanelerin
yarısından fazlasında internet
bağlanabilirliği olan bilgisayar bulunuyor.
Toplam internet kullanıcılarının nüfusa
oranının %46,3 olduğu Türkiye ayrıca
%29,6’lık akıllı telefon penetrasyonuyla da
dijitalleşme yolunda hız kazandı. %73’lük
şehir nüfusuna sahip Türkiye, araştırmada
Avrupa’da Birleşik Krallık’tan sonra en
yüksek kredi kartı penetrasyonuna sahip
ülke olarak nitelendirildi. Türkiye’de
nüfusun %60’ı kredi kartı kullanıyor. 2008-
2013 yılları arasında Türkiye’nin
dijitalleşme skoru %9,9 oranında yükseldi.
Türkiye’nin en güçlü olduğu kalem ise
inovasyon olarak belirlendi. 100 üzerinden
48,11 puanlık inovasyon potansiyeliyle
Türkiye, dijital değişim için skoru
hesaplanan 50 ülke arasında ortalamanın
üzerinde değer taşıyor.
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İnternet Kaynakları
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Multiplier 2017; www.accenture.com/strategy
106
Interpretation of Being of Dasein as the Language of Heidegger's
Hermeneutics”1
Prof. Dr. A. Kadir CUCEN2
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to argue that Heidegger’s understanding of hermeneutics is a way of
Interpretation of Being of Dasein because he accepts that hermeneutics is a philosophical movement or
a philosophical language in which thinker understands and interprets what the meaning of Being is. One
has to read very carefully Heidegger’s major work of Being and Time to see what hermeneutics means
and what kind of language he uses. Heidegger thinks that all philosophers who dealt with hermeneutics
misunderstand it. The word hermeneutics comes from the Greek verb hermeneuen and the noun
hermeneia. The verb hermeneuen and the noun hermeneia have three meanings: to express, to interpret
and to translate. The basic or real meaning of hermeneutics is to bring to understanding or to make clear
and understandable of the problematic words or sentences. Philosophers from Plato to Husserl could not
give the meaning to hermeneutics as what Heidegger’s understands.So Heidegger redefines and
reconstructs the meaning of hermeneutics as he does for philosophy. So Heidegger redefines and
reconstructs the meaning of hermeneutics as he made for philosophy. When Heidegger starts to develop
his idea of hermeneutics at the beginning of his career under the Husserl’s supervise, he gets the
influence of Nietzsche, Dilthey, Brentano and Husserl. So Heidegger gets some things from each of his
predecessors.For Heidegger, hermeneutics goes beyond the methodological aspects of hermeneutics to
the existential- hermeneutical analysis structure of the interpreter, that is of Dasein’s Being in-the-
World. He believes that a new beginning of philosophy must be phenomenological hermeneutics.
Philosophy, for Heidegger, is the dialogue between Sein and Seiendes because he says that "in
distinction from the mastering of beings, the thinking of thinkers is the thinking of Being. In this paper,
I will try to explain how the meaning of hermeneutics changes in the western philosophy, to explore
how Heidegger understands it and how he makes it as phenomenological movement of ontology.
Keywords: Heidegger, Hermeneutics, Dasein, Existence, Understanding, Interpretation, Care, Being-
in-the-world, Death, Authenticity and Inauthenticity
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definitions of Hermeneutics
The word hermeneutics comes from the
Greek verb hermeneuen and the noun
hermeneia. The verb hermeneuen and the
noun hermeneia have three meanings: to
express, to interpret and to translate. The
1 This paper has been funded by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK). 2 Prof. Dr., Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Uludag University – Turkey, [email protected]
basic or real meaning of hermeneutics is to
bring to understanding or to make clear and
understandable of the problematic words or
sentences.
“Hermeneutics, at the beginning, is a sub
discipline of theology where it covers the
study of methods. As a method,
107
hermeneutics makes clear and
understandable the problematic on hard
sentences of sacred texts. Because dogma
has to be interpreted”. (Silverman, p. 43) So,
"the messenger of gods is called ‘hermes’
means an interpreter of gods' words to
ordinary people”. (Kearne, 14) “The terms
‘hermeneutics’ has a variety of meanings. Its
original meaning comes from theology,
where hermeneutics was the method used to
infer the mind of the ancient writer, usually
of some part of the Sacred Scriptures, but
also the meaning of liturgical and religious
symbols, etc.” (Silverman, p. 43).
However, Heidegger discusses and rejects
all these definitıon or meaning of
hermeneutics because he thinks that
hermeneutics is more then all previous
meanings. For him, hermeneutics is not a
method as Husserlian phenomenology or
hermeneutics is not a linguistic analysis. On
the contrast to these meanings, hermeneutics
is a philosophical movement or tendency but
not a school as existentialism. So for
Heidegger, hermeneutics is a philosophical
activity or praxis. In broader meaning,
Hermeneutics is to make such understanding
meaningful for life and thought (Shapiro p.
3-4).
On the other hand, for young Ricoeur,
hermeneutics in traditional way is a study of
methods for interpreting difficult texts but
later he thinks that hermeneutics extents to a
general epistemological sphere”. (Howard, p
167) Also hermeneutics is a philosophical
method, one among the others he seeks to
articulate and interpret because for him
hermeneutics of symbols, signs, myths or
stories give a rise to think and interpret
(Pellauer, vii).
1.2. Historical background of
Hermeneutics
After giving some definitions of
hermeneutics, let’s trace its historical
development. Heidegger says that in Plato's
work of Theaetetius, Plato has his own
version of hermeneutics. "Plato's
hermeneutics is the announcement and
making known of the being of a being in its
being" (Kearne, 14) However in Aristotle's
philosophy, hermeneutics has a practice
dimension which is linked to 'discourse'.
Because discourse makes beings openly
manifest. Hermeneutics in practice sense
means a translation from one language to
another and make a commentary. In
Augustine, hermeneutics is the
interpretation of ambiguous passages in
Scripture. In seventeenth century,
hermeneutics is an interpretation itself.
Schleiermacher thinks that hermeneutics is
an art (technique) of understanding'
another's discourse. But for Heidegger,
hermeneutics is not a discipline connected
with grammar and rhetoric (Kearne, 15).
Late 19th century, Scheirmacher and Dilthey
used the term “Hermeneutics” in connection
with the theory of knowledge. They called
their activity “understanding” that different
from “explaining”.” (Howard, pp. 1-2) For
Dilthey, hermeneutics is an analysis of
understanding as such and human sciences.
Natural scientists give or know how nature
changes by finding the laws of nature.
Dilthey calls this knowledge ‘explanation’
but for him social scientists try to understand
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what happens in history or society or
tradition. The knowledge of social sciences
or humanities bases on ‘understanding’.
Gadamer, “hermeneutics comprise the
conditions and processes of the
hermeneutical circle used by the interpreters
to obtain meaning from literaly text and
historical/cultural phenomena.” (Silverman,
p. 43-44).
1.3. Influences on Heidegger’s
Hermeneutics
When Heidegger starts to develop his idea of
hermeneutics at the beginning of his career
under the Husserl’s supervise, he gets the
influence of Nietzsche, Dilthey, Brentano
and Husserl. So Heidegger gets some things
from each of his predecessors.
The problem of modern philosophy was to
ground and justify the knowledge of
philosophy as natural sciences did since
Descartes. Descartes’ dream was to make the
philosophy as universal science and Husserl
tried to make philosophy as a rigorous
science.
When Nietzsche said that God was dead, he
reject all kind of theory of ethics, especially
Christian theory of ethics and western
metaphysics. For Nietzsche, his time is the
end of the western metaphysics and
ontology, namely traditional philosophy.
Heidegger gets the idea of ending of western
metaphysics from Nietzsche. Heidegger
wants to start a new beginning of philosophy
and a new investigation of the meaning of
Being.
While Dilthey explained the difference of
knowledge and methods between the social
and natural sciences at the end of 19th
century, he showed on what grounds both
sciences should be. “The modern interest in
hermeneutics seems from the work of W.
Dilthey and the beginning of the scientific
study of history. For Dilthey, hermeneutics
was the method of determining the mind of
the historical author or agent.
Heidegger was influenced by Brentano’s
idea of the seeing multiplicity of being and
intentionality. He adapted them to his
philosophy.
Husserl wanted to demonstrate the essence
of things by developing the phenomenology
method. So he tried to suggest a new
beginning of philosophy without starting any
supposition. But Heidegger says that
Husserl’s phenomenology is descriptive but
he introduces a hermeneutic phenomenology
in his Being and Time. His double task is to
reground the ontology as fundamental base
for philosophy, then to destroy the western
history of ontology because it is
metaphysical and no concrete answer to the
meaning of Being since Plato.
In Husserl's phenomenology, the ego is a
starting point for intentionality but for
Heidegger, Being-in-the-world with others
is the ground of intentionality because
Dasein concerns and encounters itself and
others in-the-world.
When Husserl suggests the world of life as a
source of all condition of meaning in his
Cartesian Meditation and Crisis, he
recognized the ego not enough the source of
all projects. Heidegger takes the term
intentionality world of life and uses in his
analysis of everydayness of Dasein's Being
(Grondin, 49-50).
109
2. Heidegger and Hermeneutics
For Heidegger, hermeneutics goes beyond
the methodological aspects of hermeneutics
to the existential- hermeneutical analysis
structure of the interpreter, that is of
Dasein’s Being in-the-World. “According to
metaphysical approach we are mortal that
we seek to ground Being on something like
eternal permanence…It is against this
metaphysical outlook that Heidegger
proposed his own hermeneutics of Dasein.
I.e. his philosophy of human finitude.”
(Grondin. 10) Heidegger thinks that
hermeneutic philosophy is an analysis,
interpreting, understanding or evaluating of
the being of Dasein. When Heidegger
introduces his idea of hermeneutic
philosophy that seeks for the meaning of
Being, indeed he rejects the history of
ontology, namely western philosophy. The
aim of his Being and Time is the rejection of
tradiyional ontology and restating a new
question.
2.1. Heidegger’s aim
As it is said above, Heidegger's project is the
destruction and deconstruction of the
tradition. According to Heidegger, the
modern ontological dualism of spirit and
nature goes back to the Cartesian distinction
between the ego cogito and the res corporea.
The world is understood as such an
extension in the Cartesian tradition.
Heidegger maintains that the Cartesian
ontology of the world in which Being lies in
extension is not concerned with the
phenomena of the world, and it does not
succeed in determining the nature of the
entity with-in the world.
According to Heidegger, Descartes restricts
the question of the world to that of Things of
Nature as those entities with-in-the-world
which are approximately accessible. For
Heidegger, traditional ontology causes
Descartes not to see his way into a deeper
grasp of the problem of an ontology of
Dasein, and he departs from the phenomena
of the world. Consequently, Descartes takes
the Being of Dasein in the same manner in
which he takes the Being of the res
corporea. If the Cartesian definition of the
world is ontologically in error, then for
Heidegger, the traditional ontology must be
re-interpreted from the very beginning.
In the Heideggerian destruction of the
historical destiny of ontologies, the
destruction of the Cartesian understanding of
Being links the ancient and the medieval
metaphysics to the Kantian doctrine of being
in which Heidegger tries to see the roots of
the previous ontologies. Consequently, one
can be most faithful to the spirit of the
destruction if one simply tries to understand
the general character of the forgetfulness of
Being's moment from ancient to modern
times with Descartes.
2.1.1. Asking a new question: The
meaning of Being
Philosophy, for Heidegger, is the dialogue
between Sein and Seiendes because he says
that "in distinction from the mastering of
beings, the thinking of thinkers is the
thinking of Being. Their thinking is a
retreating in face of Being." (Heidegger,
110
Parmenides, 7) For this reason, the aim of
philosophy is to distinguish Being from
beings. Therefore, Heidegger's destruction
of the history of ontology meant only a
reasking of the question of Being in a
different manner. So he begins his major
work Being and Time with a quotation from
Plato's Sophist that addresses the question of
Being.
“For manifestly you have long been aware of
what you mean when you use the expression
"being". We, however, who used to think we
understood it, have now become perplexed.
Do we in our time have an answer to the
question of what we really mean by the word
"being" ? Not at all. So it is fitting that we
should raise anew the question of the
meaning of Being.” (Heidegger, B&T
untitled page).
According to Heidegger “with the question
of the meaning of Being, our investigation
comes up against the fundamental question
of philosophy” (Heidegger, B&T, 49).
Heidegger thinks that the Pre-Socratics see
Being as unconcealment, aletheia in its
primordial meaning. However, with Plato
and Aristotle philosophy turns from Being to
beings as the fundamental question of
metaphysics.
2.1.2. Destruction of traditional
ontology
Our purpose here is to explain and to
interpret what Heidegger means by
destruction and how he relates the
destruction of ontology to temporality.
According to Heidegger, his reinterpretation
of the question of Being is a positive
destruction because he is not going to
destroy or do away with the history of
ontology, but he says that his positive
destruction is an "overcoming" of the history
of ontology. Heidegger asserts that his task
of the reinterpretation of the question of the
meaning of Being is to break free of the
frozen traditional ontology with a radical
way of asking a new question about Being
instead of beings.
Therefore, the meaning of re-interpretation
is not to shake off the philosophical
tradition, but to carry out the positive
possibilities of a tradition and to keep it
within its proper limits. By re-interpretation
or retrieving of traditional ontology, we
mean the disclosure and the elaboration of
hidden and unthought possibilities of the
question of the meaning of Being in its
history of ontology.
For Heidegger, the philosophical
hermeneutics of Dasein is firstly to clarity
the history of being. The destruction of the
history of being prepares a new
understanding or interpretation of man who
dwells in the world as a Being of
possibilities. So his hermeneutics of activity
is a movement from inauthentic to
authenticity, from destruction of history of
being to re-understanding of Being in its
own self, from Dasein's everydayness life to
future possibilities of Being itself (Grondin,
59).
2.2. Heidegger’s understanding of
Phenomenology
Our purpose in this section is to re-interpret
the interpretation of Heidegger's destruction
111
of the history of ontology. We have to keep
in mind that destruction for Heidegger
means the re-asking and the re-interpreting
of the question of the meaning of Being. He
maintains that it is possible philosophically
to analyze what it means to be or the
meaning of Being only through
phenomenology, because "phenomenology
is our way of access to what it is to be the
theme of ontology, and it is our way of
giving it demonstrative precision. Only as
phenomenology, is ontology possible."
(Heidegger, B&T 60) Therefore, ontology
must deal with its subject matter by
employing the phenomenological method.
“Thus "phenomenology" means to let that
which shows itself be seen from itself in the
very way in which it shows itself from
itself…Thus the term "phenomenology" is
quite different in its meaning from
expressions such as "theology" and the like.
Those terms designate the objects of their
respective sciences according to the subject-
matter which they comprise at the time
(Heidegger, B&T 58-59).
From the interpretation of the concepts of
"phenomenon" and "logos", the expression
of "phenomenology" means: "to let that
which shows itself be seen from itself in the
very way in which it shows itself from
itself." (Heidegger, B&T 58) By this
definition, Heidegger reaches his Husserlian
maxim: "to the things themselves."
(Heidegger, B&T 58) But this definition is
very broad so he distinguishes the ordinary
definition of phenomenology which is "to
have a science 'of' phenomena means to
grasp its objects in a such a way that
everything about them which is up for
discussion must be treated by exhibiting it
directly and demonstrating it directly."8 In
this ordinary definition of phenomenology,
he sees phenomenology as descriptive which
is at bottom tautological and ordinary.
“What is it that phenomenology is to 'let us
see'? What is it that must be called a
'phenomenon' in a distinctive sense? What is
it that by its very essence is necessarily the
theme whenever we exhibit something
explicitly? Manifestly, it is something that
proximally and for the most part does not
show itself at all: it is something that lies
hidden, in contrast to that which proximally
and for the most part does show itself; but at
the same time it is something that belongs to
what thus shows itself, and it belongs to it so
essentially as to constitute its meaning and
its ground.” (Heidegger, B&T 59).
“The phenomenology of Dasein is a
hermeneutic in the primordial signification
of this word, where it designates this
business of interpreting…. hermeneutic also
becomes a 'hermeneutic' in the sense of
working out the conditions on which the
possibility of any ontological investigation
depends…. "hermeneutic", as an
interpretation of Dasein's Being, has the
third and specific sense of an analytic of the
existentiality of existence;.. hermeneutic
works out Dasein's historicality
ontologically as the ontical condition for the
possibility of historiology, it contains the
roots of what can be called 'hermeneutic'
only in a derivative sense: the methodology
of those humane which are historiological in
character…Philosophy is universal
phenomenological ontology, and takes its
departure from the hermeneutic of Dasein,
which, as an analytic of existence, has made
112
fast the guiding-line for all philosophical
inquiry at the point where it arises and to
which it returns.” (Heidegger, B&T 62).
2.3. Heidegger’s Understanding of
Hermeneutics: Analysis of Being of
Dasein
2.3.1. Everydayness, theyness
When we assert that Heidegger's
hermeneutic phenomenology is the analysis
of Dasein's Being, we mean that Dasein is
aware of itself in the daily life of
everydayness. So Dasein finds and realizes
itself in hits everydayness life with other
because Dasein as an understanding of
Beinğ involves to daily life in-the-world.
Dasein has been thrown into world as the
possibilities of Being. Each human being as
Dasein is the characterized from the outset
as a Being of possibility and of "having-to-
be" (Grondin, 57). But Dasein lost its
authenticity when Dasein lives with other
and follows the other because when Dasein
lives as “theyness" then it is no longer
authentic. Dasein always encounters,
articulates and interprets what we encounter
with our public language. The aim of Dasein
as the possibilities of Being-in-the-world is
go ahead of itself and leap ahead of others.
“Out of its throwness, Dasein comes to
reflect upon the projectors and plans of
indelibility that have constituted its
history” (Grondin, 59).
Dasein in its everydayness is inauthentic. It
does not see its authenticity of Being-in-the-
world immediately. The inauthentic
existence of Dasein as Being-in-the-world
lies in its average everydayness. In an
average everydayness, we live
inauthentically because of living under the
force of habit as the "one"or the "they." In
average everydayness, Dasein's existence is
demonstrated by the "others"; it is the public
in general, i.e., "one" or "they".
Authenticity means to be oneself, being one-
self. Authenticity depends on Dasein's own
being but not on Dasein's being-with-others.
Authentic Dasein is always in each case
mine. The factical existence of Dasein does
not make Dasein authentic or inauthentic.
2.3.2. Being-in-the-world
Dasein as Being-there is not something
standing outside or is not looked up within
itself. Dasein as Being-in-the-World is an
existence which is always already standing
out in-the-world. Dasein as Being-in means
involves or interests (concern-care) in-the-
world. Dasein as Being-in-the-world means
that it has always existential relation to the
World (Denker, 63).
Dasein as the possibilities and understanding
of Being lies and encounters with other in-
the-world. Dasein is thrown into the world
so it tries to disclose, discovers, interpret of
understands what are there its surroundings
and in the world. So to be in-the-world is a
Being that involves and encounters the
things and others discloses, and also
interprets, understands and discloses or
discovers.
World is not a total of things. World is not
only earth or soil or country World is an
113
existential and ontological meaningless of
something. Dasein is in-the-world. World is
not Descartes’ extensa or matter. World is
phenomenological and hermeneutical
meaning, «to be of use».
2.3.3. Being-with, Being-for-self and
others
Others are always there with me and I am
always there with others. We are
encountering with others either things,
animals or humans in the World. Dasein is
not isolated from environment and World.
Dasein is always a relation with something
because Dasein has initial intentionality
towards others. Being with is an existential
togetherness. Dasein touches to his
surroundings (Denker, 64).
"To be Dasein, to be "there “means that this
"there" that we are, can be elevated to
consciousness... as something that each one
of us has to take up something to the
possibly..." "Dasein is a self-dialogue, that is
in a state of permanent confrontation with its
own self and thus with others."
Dasein is signified out as a being of Sorge-
Care... For Heidegger understanding is not to
be thought of as a mode of cognition. Rather
it alludes to a "possible being" ...to be able,
to be up to it, to cope with it." (Grondin , 51).
2.3.4. Thrownness, Fallenness,
Facticity
Dasein's Being-in-the-world as care has
three fundamental characteristics: (1)
Existence (2) Facticity (3) Falling. The
essence of Dasein lies in its "to be" or in its
existence.
Thrownness is the facticity of Dasein.
Dasein has been thrown into the world and
inauthenticity of everyday life. Fallenness is
an inauthentic and existential mode of
Dasein in its everydayness.
Dasein always finds itself thrown into a
concrete situation and attuned to a cultural
and historical context. This thrownness
makes up Dasein's facticity. Dasein in its
facticity has the tendency to fall from
authenticity, but when Dasein falls, it has
also to ability to choose its possibilities and
understands or interprets its own being
(Denker, 214).
2.3.5. Care
The relationship of Dasein to Being-in-the-
world is based on its concern. Heidegger
does not use the expression "concern" in its
ontical significations, but he uses it in its
ontological meaning as an existentiale which
designates Being as a possible way of Being-
in-the-world. Heidegger chooses the term
"concern", because "the Being of Dasein
itself is to be made visible as care… only
because Dasein, when understood
ontologically, is care. Because Being-in-the-
world belongs essentially to Dasein, its
Being towards the world is essentially
concern." (Heidegger, B&T 84) The
phenomenon of concern shows that Dasein's
world is a world of meaningful relations of
Dasein. Therefore, Dasein's Being-in-the-
world is essentially "Care." "Care" is a
existentiale for Dasein's Being as Being-in-
the-world. Dasein's Being reveals itself
as care”. (Heidegger, B&T 227).
114
Dasein’s Being is care and Dasein concerns
to the world so the relation of Dasein to the
world is not theoretical or epistemological
but practical and ontological. So the essence
of Dasein lies in its to be or in its existence
and the being of Dasein is concerned about
in its being or in its case mine. So care is the
basic structure of Dasein just as it is
encountered at first and most often in its
everyday environment. Being of Dasein
shows itself in care.
2.3.6. Authenticity and
inauthenticity
İn this part we also bring out that
Heidegger's Dasein analytic is based on the
idea of Being-in-the-world, of care, of
finitude, of authenticity or inauthenticity, of
temporality, and historicity in which Dasein
is primordially an understanding of Being.
Dasein is the questioner that raises the
question of its being. Dasein is an entity
which met provide an access to the question
of being. Dasein has a possibility to be
authentic or not. To be authentic means to be
its own existence.
The analytic structure of care as Dasein's
Being-in-the world can be examined either
authentically or inauthentically: The
authentic analytic structure of Dasein's
comportments are state-of-mind,
understanding, and discourse. The
inauthentic comportments of Dasein's
Being-in-the-world as care are ambiguity,
curiosity and idle talk.
2.3.7. Interpretation
Heidegger accepts that assertion as a logical
statement or proposition is the derivative
mode of interpretation because
interpretation is more basic and belongs to
hermeneutics. When one makes a predicate
statement, there is a logical truth and
signifies the present-at-hand object. But
interpretation is not a predicative statement.
Interpretation states the ready-to-hand and
usability and serviceability of tools.
Interpretation is basically the making
explicit of our understanding of something.
Since every understanding is historical,
every interpretation is a destruction of the
tradition from which we understanding
something. Interpretation is the development
of the possibilities of Daeein’s projections
(Denker, 122).
Interpretation has three basic structures: As-
structure, fore-structure, and meaning.
Interpretation makes explicit something as
something but as-structure required fore-
structure which is interpreted already in
advance; Fore-having, fore-sight, and fore-
conception are the ground of interpretation
of as-structure. The third structure, meaning,
is an understanding of the as-structure. All
these structures of interpretation must be
understood in terms of their ontological
function which makes explicit the meaning
of Being. i.e., what it means to be.
115
2.3.8. Understanding
Understanding is our most basic ability to
live within the world and others. The
structure of understanding is projection
Understanding always has a mood,
Understanding gives the possibility of
interpretation. Understanding can be
authentic or inauthentic.
Authentic understanding of Dasin’s
existence itself in its own resoluteness,
conscience and guilt. İnauthentic
understanding of Dasein falls prey to
fallennes and it flees from death and its own
possibities. Dasein has always an implicit
understanding of being. We understand
something as something (Denker, 222).
For Heidegger, Dasein is an understanding
of Being because it has the projection of
possibilities of meaningfulness for things
and itself. So Dasein's existence is futural
that is, it’s being towards future. Heidegger
thinks that future has priority over both the
past and the present. Understanding is
existential and ontological basis of Dasein’s
Being because only Dasein as Being-in-the-
world has a form of structure of
understanding. Dasein is understanding of
Being that has possibilities.
2.3.9. Hermeneutical circle
The circle of understanding lies on three
fore-structure of Dasein itself. Dasein has a
priori and primordial knowing. Fore-
structure of Dasein’s knowing is fore-
having, fore-sight and fore-conception.
Dasein interprets and understands something
as something in terms of its fore-structure.
No interpretation of an object could be free
of preconception. So hermeneutical circle
based on fore-structure of understanding and
interpretation of Dasein’s knowing.
2.3.10. Temporality and Death
Dasein is always "ahead of itself", if Dasein
is "not yet" Dasein forwards itself to its
existence. But Dasein cannot grasp in its
totality of being so Dasein is a being towards
to its end that is Dasein as "being-towards-
death". “Dasein, as care, is the thrown (that
is, null) basis for its death”. (Heidegger,
B&T, 353) Death is no longer appear as the
interpretation of existence. If Dasein is
being-in-the-world, If I am, it has the
potential and possibility to be in itself or not.
When Dasein dies, it is no longer a being-in-
the-world.
Heidegger describes the phenomenological
meaning of death as "to let death, as that
which shows itself, be seen from itself in the
way in which it shows itself from itself."
(Heidegger, B&T, 58) so death is a factual
event but I cannot be experience my death or
describe it. As Epicurus said, death means
nothing to us. When we are alive or
existence, death is not present and whenever
it is present, we are nonexistence….In so far
as I am aware that death will necessarily be
present for me at some uncertain time as a
factical event (Stefanovic, 3-4).
2.3.11. Resoluteness and
conscience
Resoluteness is an outstanding mode of
Dasein’s disclosedness. It is the authenticity
of care and makes it possible for Dasein to
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exist authentically. It frees us from everyday
life.
If Dasein listens its own call of conscience,
Dasein follows its own possibilities and
becomes authentic existence in the World.
Conscience calls for Dssein to obey the
demands of its own unique situation and to
choose its own projection (Denker, 193).
Dasein is authentic when it follows the call
of conscience in its resoluteness which "calls
Dasein back to its thrownness so as to
understand this thrownness as the null basis
which it has to take up into existence."
(Heidegger, B&T, 333). Therefore,
resoluteness brings Dasein right into its
current concernful Being-alongside what is
ready-to-hand.
3. CONCLUSION
Heidegger's ontological and existential
analysis of Dasein and its temporality is for
the sake of the question of the meaning of
Being. Dasein is the "there", the place of the
truth of Being, and therefore by no means
something different from Being.
Fundamental ontology can be discovered
through Being as the place of manifestation.
A part of Dasein's structure is to have a pre-
understanding of its ontological Being.
Therefore, Heidegger answers what Being as
such is only what the meaning of the Being
of Dasein is in the light of the understanding
of temporality. Heidegger’s hermeneutical
analysis of Dasein's Being, which are the
analysis of Being-in-the-world, Being-with,
throwness, fallenness, authenticity,
inauthenticity, care, interpretation,
understanding, death, resoluteness and
conscience are aimed essentially at
destroying the history of ontology, then to
start a new beginning of philosophy.
REFERENCES
Denker, Alfred, Historical Dictionary of Heidegger’s Philosophy, The Searecrow Press,
London 2000.
Gelven, Michael, Heidegger’s Being and Time, Northern İlliinois University Press, 1989.
Grondin, Jean, Sources of Hermeneuitics, State University of New York Press, Albany,
1995.
Heidegger, Martin, Being and Time, trans. by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson,
New York: Harper and Row, Publ.. 1962.
Heidegger, Martin, Ontology – The Hermeneutics of Facticity, Trans. By. John van
Buren, Indiana University Press, İndianapolis, 1999.
Heidegger, Martin, Parmenides, translated by André Schuwer and Richard Rojcewicz.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992.
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Husserl, Edmund. The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Philosophy.
Trans by David Carr. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970. Part I. Pages 3-18.
Don & Silvermani Hugh J., (ed.) Hermeneutics Deconctruction, State University of New
York Press, Albany, 1985.
Howard, Ray J., Three Faces of Hermeneutics, University of California Press, Berkeley,
1982.
Lapent, Cristina, Hermeneutics, A Companion to Heidegger, Dreyfus, Hubert & Wrathall,
Mark (ed.), Blackwell Publ., Oxford, 2005.
Keane, Niall and Lawn, Chris, The Blackwell Companion to Hermeneuitics, Blackwell,
Albany, 2016.
Pellauer, David (translator), Hermeneutics: Writings and Lectures II, Author Paul
Ricoeur, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2013.
Shapiro, Gary & Sica, Alan (ed.), Hermeneutics Questions and Prospects, The University
of Massachusetts Press, 1988.
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On the language of European Integration
Elisabeth DONAT1 Fabian ELBAKY2
Abstract
The debate on European Integration has been dominated by a technical wording during the
economic and financial crisis in the last 10 years. Currently we are facing a shift in language on
European “cooperation” towards a more emotional, but negative framing. A discourse on security
has evoked during the so called refugee crisis, which is instrumentalized by political leaders as a
practical answer to growing populism. Ulrike Guérots concept of a European Republic intends to
switch the debate to a positive and progressive viewpoint on European Integration, by introducing
a political utopia on a European Republic which aims to combat the democratic deficit in the
European Union.
We are trying to capture this shift in framing by examining attitudes towards a prospective
European Republic by a semantic differential, which has been developed in an interdisciplinary
manner by social scientists (Danube University Krems) and linguists (University of Münster).
This instrument of measurement has been developed by Osgood et. al. in 1957 with the aim to
capture especially emotional connotations of an attitude object. In our contribution we tracing
back these intentions of the initial founders by asking for cross cultural equivalence of emotions
towards a prospective European Republic. We have developed an online questionnaire which has
been translated into 18 languages and spread all over Europe’s civil society. Our results point to
some comparative dimensions of evaluation of the concept of a European Republic, but also to
some country-specific, historical differences. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of using metaphors in a semantic differential and asking for appropriate areas of
application in social sciences today.
1 Dr. , Danube University Krems, Austria. 2 Danube University Krems, Austria.
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New Media as a Sphere of Shaping Religious Identity and Ecumenical
Dialogue
Bogdan ZELER1
Abstract
The history of the Church has always been connected with media activities. It has become
particularly evident since the time of the Reformation, whose success has been associated with
the invention of a movable type printing press by Guttenberg. The church has also skillfully used
traditional media such as the press, radio and television to spread its views, evangelize, build a
religious identity and strengthen community bonds. These activities have gained a new character
in connection with the emergence of new media and the spread of the Internet.
The Internet has become a great tool of evangelization. The multimedia nature of this medium
makes it possible to use a wide range of inaccessible on a daily basis communication means. The
possibility of hypertext connections makes that we can use many sources of information,
including video and music recordings, etc. The result is that the activities carried out, e.g. in the
context of catechesis, may take a more interesting, closer to a young man - who often the Internet
user is - form.
An even more significant role in undertaking activities related to shaping religious identity is
performed by the social media. Forms such as web portals, blogosphere, Facebook profiles, tweets
have permanently entered the sphere of media activities of churches of different religions, opening
the possibility of getting to know mutually and ecumenical dialogue. Media web 2.0. gain on
special importance in the life of dispersed communities of churches and religious communities
living in the diaspora.
The introduction of the sphere of religion into the world of new media is also associated with a
number of ethical consequences, associated with the necessity to make choices of specific content,
the language of hatred, fake news, etc. The document of the Pontifical Council for Mass Media
says: "We need to be prudent, to clearly see the implications - the potential of good and evil -
hidden in this medium and creatively respond to its challenges and possibilities. There is a need
for justice and work to reduce the digital gap - a gap between those who are wealthier in
information and those information-poor in the today’s world. [...] Bravery and courage are
necessary. This means supporting the truth against religious and moral relativism, altruism and
generosity against individualistic consumerism, decency against sensuality and sin. We also need
moderation of thought, and self-discipline in the approach to the Internet [...] so that to use it
wisely and only for good purposes. "[source: www. symposium.amen. pl / documents / 159.html].
The Church's presence on the Internet can serve these principles.
1 Prof. dr hab., University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
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The following text analyzes the new media activity of churches and Christian communities
operating in the sphere of the Polish Internet, with particular emphasis on the Evangelical
Lutheran Church in Poland. This choice is dictated by a special historical moment - the 500th
anniversary of the Reformation.
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