Three Ways to Do Three Ways to Do SociologySociology

Methodological OrientationsMethodological Orientations

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Scientific sociologyScientific sociology

Study of society based on systematic Study of society based on systematic observation of social behaviorobservation of social behavior

Called “positivism”Called “positivism”

Objective reality exists out thereObjective reality exists out there

Verified by our sensesVerified by our senses

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Concepts, Variables, and Concepts, Variables, and MeasurementMeasurement

Concept: a mental construct (sort of a Concept: a mental construct (sort of a body of knowledge) that represents some body of knowledge) that represents some part of the world in a simplified formatpart of the world in a simplified format– When you “add” matter, matter increasesWhen you “add” matter, matter increases– When you “subtract” matter, matter decreasesWhen you “subtract” matter, matter decreases– ““Society” is a concept that has parts such as Society” is a concept that has parts such as

“the family”, “the economy” “the family”, “the economy”

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VariableVariable

A value whose value changes from case A value whose value changes from case to caseto casePrices go up and downPrices go up and downSocial classesSocial classes– Upper classUpper class– Middle classMiddle class– Working classWorking class– Lower class Lower class

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MeasurementMeasurement

A procedure to determine the value of a A procedure to determine the value of a variable in a specific casevariable in a specific case– WeightWeight– DistanceDistance– Etc.Etc.– But, how do you measure “social class?”But, how do you measure “social class?”

Income, occupation, education? Income, occupation, education?

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Operationalize a VariableOperationalize a Variable

Specifying exactly what is to be measured Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variablebefore assigning a value to a variable

Before measuring the concept of “social Before measuring the concept of “social class,” you would measure what—class,” you would measure what—

-income level?-income level?

-years of schooling?-years of schooling?

-occupational prestige?-occupational prestige?

-whatever….-whatever….

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Taking the Opinions of Others in Taking the Opinions of Others in SurveySurvey

Because people are increasingly of mixed Because people are increasingly of mixed race, the last census permitted people to race, the last census permitted people to chose more than one race when chose more than one race when describing themselvesdescribing themselves

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ReliabilityReliability

Consistency in measurementConsistency in measurement

A measurement is reliable if repeated A measurement is reliable if repeated measurements give the same results time measurements give the same results time after time.after time.

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ValidityValidity

Measuring exactly what you intend to Measuring exactly what you intend to measuremeasure

If you are studying religious people, for If you are studying religious people, for example, do you study people who attend example, do you study people who attend church?church?

-they could attend because they are -they could attend because they are pressuredpressured

-habit-habit

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Mode, Mean, MedianMode, Mean, Median

Mode: the number that occurs most oftenMode: the number that occurs most often

Mean: the average of a series of numbersMean: the average of a series of numbers

Median: the value that occurs half way in a Median: the value that occurs half way in a series of numbers arranged from lowest to series of numbers arranged from lowest to highesthighest

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Relationships Among Variables Relationships Among Variables

Remember, a variable is a valueRemember, a variable is a value

The real payoff is seeing relationships The real payoff is seeing relationships among variablesamong variables

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Cause and EffectCause and Effect

A relationship in which change in one A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in anothervariable causes change in another

-Studying hard for an exam will result in a -Studying hard for an exam will result in a higher gradehigher grade

-Practicing shooting foul shots will -Practicing shooting foul shots will increase accuracy in making foul shotsincrease accuracy in making foul shots

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Independent VariableIndependent Variable

The independent variables would be the The independent variables would be the amount of study achieved or the amount of amount of study achieved or the amount of time practicing foul shots time practicing foul shots

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Dependent VariableDependent Variable

The variable that changesThe variable that changes

-the exam grade-the exam grade

-the accuracy of foul shooting-the accuracy of foul shooting

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Linking is Important Linking is Important

Lets us predict the outcome of future Lets us predict the outcome of future eventsevents

If you study, you will get a good grade. If If you study, you will get a good grade. If you don’t study, you will not.you don’t study, you will not.

Can you think of an independent variable Can you think of an independent variable and a dependent variable?and a dependent variable?

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CorrelationCorrelationA relationship in which A relationship in which two or more variables two or more variables change togetherchange togetherLooking at juvenile Looking at juvenile delinquency, for delinquency, for example, we see that example, we see that densely populated densely populated neighborhoods and neighborhoods and crowded housing crowded housing correlate with juvenile correlate with juvenile delinquency…however delinquency…however

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There May Be Another FactorThere May Be Another Factor

People living under these conditions are People living under these conditions are usually poor…in other words…usually poor…in other words…

Both previous conditions are caused by Both previous conditions are caused by povertypoverty

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Spurious CorrelationSpurious Correlation

An apparent but false relationship between An apparent but false relationship between two or more variables that is caused by two or more variables that is caused by some other variable some other variable

In this case, if we control the income level In this case, if we control the income level (keep it the same) and increase or (keep it the same) and increase or decrease the density of the living decrease the density of the living conditions, the delinquency rate does not conditions, the delinquency rate does not change change

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ObjectivityObjectivity

Personal neutralityPersonal neutrality

Hold to scientific proceduresHold to scientific procedures

Attitudes and beliefs should not influence Attitudes and beliefs should not influence the findingsthe findings

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Sociologists Selecting Topics for Sociologists Selecting Topics for StudyStudy

Most have a built in bias to some degree—Most have a built in bias to some degree—hopefully smallhopefully small

People naturally study what they have an People naturally study what they have an interest in and a bias forinterest in and a bias for

Most sociologists are white, highly Most sociologists are white, highly educated, and more politically liberal than educated, and more politically liberal than the population as a whole. Like everyone the population as a whole. Like everyone else, they are influenced by their social else, they are influenced by their social backgrounds backgrounds

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ReplicationReplication

Having others repeat the same research Having others repeat the same research and getting the same results helps give and getting the same results helps give credence to the original resultscredence to the original results

Objectivity and truth lie in consistency over Objectivity and truth lie in consistency over timetime

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Interpretive SociologyInterpretive SociologySociologists suggest that the scientific Sociologists suggest that the scientific may fail to find real meaning in the studymay fail to find real meaning in the study

Max Weber, pioneering this view point, Max Weber, pioneering this view point, emphasized process of interpretation—emphasized process of interpretation—learning what meaning people find in what learning what meaning people find in what they dothey do

Therefore, interpretative sociology is Therefore, interpretative sociology is focusing on the meanings people attach to focusing on the meanings people attach to their social world their social world

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VerstehenVerstehen

The German word The German word for ‘understanding”for ‘understanding”

Observing more Observing more than “what” people than “what” people do, but “why” they do, but “why” they do itdo it

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Critical SociologyCritical Sociology

The study of society that focuses on the The study of society that focuses on the need for social changeneed for social change

Founder: Karl Marx--communist Founder: Karl Marx--communist

Questions like, “should society exist in its Questions like, “should society exist in its current form?” are the standardcurrent form?” are the standard

Emphasis is on social activism—get out Emphasis is on social activism—get out there and protest!there and protest!

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Sociology as PoliticsSociology as Politics

Critical sociologists state that all research Critical sociologists state that all research is political or biasedis political or biased

-either it calls for change or it does not-either it calls for change or it does not

-sociologists need to chose what positions -sociologists need to chose what positions to supportto support

An activist orientation that calls for An activist orientation that calls for knowledge used to take actionknowledge used to take action

Politics range from liberal to radical leftPolitics range from liberal to radical left

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Gender and ResearchGender and Research

The personal traits and social positions The personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being that members of a society attach to being female or malefemale or male

Gender stereotyping Gender stereotyping

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AndrocentricityAndrocentricity

Seeing things only Seeing things only from the from the perspective of a perspective of a malemale

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OvergeneralizingOvergeneralizing

Using data drawn Using data drawn from people of only from people of only one sex—tainting one sex—tainting the findingsthe findings

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Double StandardsDouble Standards

Judging men and women differently—man Judging men and women differently—man as head of the household and the woman as head of the household and the woman as engaging in family “support work”…the as engaging in family “support work”…the author forgets how important “support author forgets how important “support work” is… work” is…

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Research EthicsResearch Ethics

Be fairBe fair

Make your results available to other Make your results available to other sociologistssociologists

Disclose all research materialDisclose all research material

Conduct safe researchConduct safe research

Protect people’s privacyProtect people’s privacy

Disclose sources of financial supportDisclose sources of financial support

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The Experiment—Testing the The Experiment—Testing the HypothesisHypothesis

A research method for investigating cause A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled and effect under highly controlled conditionsconditions

Hypothesis: a statement of a possible Hypothesis: a statement of a possible relationship between two or more relationship between two or more variables—usually a “if, then” statement—variables—usually a “if, then” statement—if it’s this way, then it will be that way.if it’s this way, then it will be that way.

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The Hawthorne EffectThe Hawthorne Effect

People change behavior merely because People change behavior merely because they are being observedthey are being observed

1930s study of Western electric Company1930s study of Western electric Company

Whether lights were turned up or down, Whether lights were turned up or down, productivity increased—merely because productivity increased—merely because workers realized they were being workers realized they were being observedobserved

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The Hawthorne Effect The Hawthorne Effect

The Hawthorne study stared with the The Hawthorne study stared with the question whether better lighting would help question whether better lighting would help productivityproductivity– Lights turned up, better productionLights turned up, better production– But when they turned the lights down, they But when they turned the lights down, they

got another increase in productivitygot another increase in productivity

The change was merely an awareness of The change was merely an awareness of being studiedbeing studied

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An Illustration: The Stanford An Illustration: The Stanford County PrisonCounty Prison

Experiment conducted by researcher Experiment conducted by researcher Philip Zimbardo on whether the Philip Zimbardo on whether the environment of prisons fosters violenceenvironment of prisons fosters violence

Realistic prison constructed on campus of Realistic prison constructed on campus of Stanford UniversityStanford University

Students selected for experiment, some Students selected for experiment, some prisoners, some guardsprisoners, some guards

Spend 2 weeks in mock prison--resultsSpend 2 weeks in mock prison--results

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An Illustration: The Stanford An Illustration: The Stanford County PrisonCounty Prison

Mock arrest conducted—handcuffs, Mock arrest conducted—handcuffs, fingerprinted etc.fingerprinted etc.– Guards and prisoners became bitter and Guards and prisoners became bitter and

hostilehostile– Guards humiliated prisons—clean toilets with Guards humiliated prisons—clean toilets with

hands, etchands, etc– Before end of first week, the situation was so Before end of first week, the situation was so

bad (depression, crying, rage, etc) they bad (depression, crying, rage, etc) they cancelled the experiment cancelled the experiment

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An Illustration: The Stanford An Illustration: The Stanford County PrisonCounty Prison

““The ugliest, most base, pathological side The ugliest, most base, pathological side of human nature surfaced”of human nature surfaced”

“…“…taking pleasure in cruelty”taking pleasure in cruelty”

Conclusion: Prison violence is rooted in Conclusion: Prison violence is rooted in the social character of the jails themselves the social character of the jails themselves and not in the personalities of the guards and not in the personalities of the guards or prisonersor prisoners

Agree? Disagree? Why? Agree? Disagree? Why?

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Population and SamplePopulation and Sample

Population: the people who are the focus Population: the people who are the focus of the researchof the research

Sample: a part of a population that Sample: a part of a population that represents the wholerepresents the whole

Random sampling: drawing a sample Random sampling: drawing a sample randomly from the general population that randomly from the general population that represents the wholerepresents the whole

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Population and SamplePopulation and Sample

To better assure and accurate sampling, a To better assure and accurate sampling, a random sampling is bestrandom sampling is best– But, do you interview all those sampled on the But, do you interview all those sampled on the

same street?same street?– In the same neighborhood?In the same neighborhood?– In the same town?In the same town?– In the same state?In the same state?

What are some issues to overcome? What are some issues to overcome?

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Using QuestionnairesUsing Questionnaires

A series of written questions a researcher A series of written questions a researcher presents to subjectspresents to subjects

-Often, the nature of the question -Often, the nature of the question determines the answersdetermines the answers

-One study showed that when students e -One study showed that when students e given higher number of hours to select for given higher number of hours to select for how many hours per week they studied, how many hours per week they studied, the average hours studied went up the average hours studied went up

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Using QuestionnairesUsing Questionnaires

Closed-ended format: Often Closed-ended format: Often questionnaires use a list of fixed questionnaires use a list of fixed responses—can limit findingsresponses—can limit findings– When looking at possible answers, people are When looking at possible answers, people are

often influencedoften influenced– Sample: how many hours do I study?Sample: how many hours do I study?

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Using QuestionnairesUsing Questionnaires

Open-ended formatOpen-ended format– Subjects can answer any way they wishSubjects can answer any way they wish– Problem: trying to analyze a confusing list of Problem: trying to analyze a confusing list of

answersanswers

Self-administering surveys are popular—Self-administering surveys are popular—mailing survey to subjectsmailing survey to subjects– Testing of the survey is neededTesting of the survey is needed

Lots of people, but many throw them awayLots of people, but many throw them away

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Conducting InterviewsConducting Interviews

A series of A series of questions a questions a researcher asks researcher asks respondents in respondents in personperson

Some interviews Some interviews are best done in a are best done in a open ended open ended mannermanner

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Conducting InterviewsConducting Interviews

Researcher must guard against Researcher must guard against influencing answersinfluencing answers– ToneTone– Body languageBody language

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Wording of a QuestionWording of a Question

Can change an answer completelyCan change an answer completely

““Should gays serve in the military?”—noShould gays serve in the military?”—no

““Should gays be exempt from the Should gays be exempt from the military?’--no military?’--no

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Wording the QuestionWording the Question

Using “welfare mothers” verses using Using “welfare mothers” verses using “women who receive public assistance”“women who receive public assistance”

Double questionDouble question– ““Do you think that the government should Do you think that the government should

reduce the deficit by cutting spending and reduce the deficit by cutting spending and raising taxes?”raising taxes?”

– One part of the question may be favorable One part of the question may be favorable while the other not, distorting the answer while the other not, distorting the answer

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Participant ObservationParticipant Observation

Participant Observation is a research Participant Observation is a research method in which investigators method in which investigators systematically observe people while systematically observe people while joining in their routine activitiesjoining in their routine activities– Normally, the don’t have any hypothesis in Normally, the don’t have any hypothesis in

mind—e.g., I will find more red meat lovers in mind—e.g., I will find more red meat lovers in small towns than large townssmall towns than large towns

– Exploratory, descriptinve Exploratory, descriptinve

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Using Available DataUsing Available Data

Researchers may use available data of Researchers may use available data of studies already donestudies already done– Government agenciesGovernment agencies– There are some problems—does the data fit There are some problems—does the data fit

the current question/hypothesis?the current question/hypothesis?– Are categories of people in other studies the Are categories of people in other studies the

same as in your study, e.g., do people check same as in your study, e.g., do people check one racial category or more than one? one racial category or more than one?

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Inductive Logical ThoughtInductive Logical Thought

Reasoning that transforms specific Reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theoryobservations into general theory

-”There is interesting data here. I wonder -”There is interesting data here. I wonder what it means?”what it means?”

-Upward reasoning-Upward reasoning

-From specific to general -From specific to general

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Deductive Logical ThoughtDeductive Logical Thought

Transforms general Transforms general theory into specific theory into specific hypotheses suitable hypotheses suitable for testingfor testing

““I have this hunch; I have this hunch; let’s collect some let’s collect some data and put it to the data and put it to the test.”test.”

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Fitting It Together: Ten StepsFitting It Together: Ten Steps

What is your topic?What is your topic?

What have others already learned?What have others already learned?

What, exactly, are your questions?What, exactly, are your questions?

What will you need to carry out research?What will you need to carry out research?

Are there ethical concerns?Are there ethical concerns?

What method will you use?What method will you use?

How will you record data?How will you record data?

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Fitting It Together: Ten StepsFitting It Together: Ten Steps

What do the data tell you?What do the data tell you?

What are your conclusions?What are your conclusions?

How can you share what you’ve learned?How can you share what you’ve learned?

How many of these can you list off the top How many of these can you list off the top of your head? of your head?

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Can People Lie With Statistics?Can People Lie With Statistics?

People select their dataPeople select their data

People interpret their dataPeople interpret their data

People use graphs to spin the truthPeople use graphs to spin the truth

Read Controversy and Debate, page 50Read Controversy and Debate, page 50

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