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World War II and the Beginning of the Cold War

The New Prosperity

Postwar prosperity in urban America helped make the early 1920s – with new advertising through the radio and magazines, and with profits from overseas trade. Rural America did not obtain much of this “easy money” but still wanted the comforts advertised in publications like the Sears Catalog.

The Jazz Age

The prosperity characterized the “Roaring Twenties,” where “flappers” smoked in public, youth enjoyed their own status as a “market.”

But the prosperity rested on shaky ground – people did not make enough money to buy all that was being manufactured. By 1927, many industries were reducing staff and cutting wages. All that was required was a shock to create a financial panic. The bubble burst in 1929.

Restoring World Trade

An Assurance of Peace?

In the late 1920s, U.S. Secretary of State Frank Kellogg joined the French foreign minister in persuading world leaders to sign a pact promising to “settle all differences without resorting to war.” Every major nation signed it – and then ignored it.

New Nations

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Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan were ‘independent’ after 1919, the other lands were British and French “mandates” for years.

Prosperity on shaky ground

•Despite the rising stock market, American (and world) prosperity rested on very little more than public confidence; this declined as dictatorships took hold in Europe and Asia•World trade declined as many nations imposed high tariffs (taxes on imported foreign goods)•The world’s gold supply was not stabilizing prices•Unemployment was slowly growing, as fewer people could afford modern luxury goods•As sales of cars, radios, and other “durable goods” (refrigerators, washing machines, etc.) slowed down, American factories laid off workers.

THE CRASH

Over speculation in the stock market led to wild swings in stock prices. In October 1929, the overall market fell to less than 50% of its previous value. Hundreds of thousands loss their jobs in the financial depression.

Bank Failures – 9000 banks holding $7 billion closed in 1 year (no deposit insurance existed)

One in four workers were unemployed by 1933

Europe and Asia

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1933 – Hitler promises Germany ‘justice’ for its defeat in 1918.

1937 – Japan invades China. The League of Nations is helpless.

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Isolationism•Financial depression in 1929-38 reduces trade and raises international tensions.

•Neutrality Laws in 1935-1936 Restrict American business with nations at war and prevent American citizens from being endangered.

• U.S. journalists begin covering wars in Asia and North Africa; their stories have an impact on how Americans regard the situation.

•Refugees from Europe also affect how Americans think about Europe.

Isolationism

Neutrality Laws in 1935-1936, written by Gerald Nye of North Dakota (below), restricted American business with nations at war and prevent American citizens from being endangered.

September 1939 – Germany Invades Poland

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Refugees

European refugees outside American consulate in Marseilles, France, 1940.

William L. ShirerVienna “looked like any German city in the Reich – red, white and black Swastika flags hung from the balconies of most of the homes. And in the streets people raised their hands in Nazi salute and greeted each other with ‘Heil Hitler!’”

CBS radio correspondent William L. Shirer on the German control of much of Europe..

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As France collapsed, President Roosevelt faced a problem similar to what Wilson faced in 1916. Roosevelt decided to run for re-election in 1940. The defeat of France had shocked Congress into vastly increasing spending on defense – and to accepting a 3-term president. But no one wanted war with Germany.

US Aid

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Defeat in France

In May-June, 1940, the German armies defeated France in 6 weeks and forced the British to evacuate their troops from Belgium. The U.S. feared Britain would quickly sign a treaty that gave Hitler control of Europe.

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France Occupied

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France, having promised to make no separate peace, not only signed a separate peace but also returned to Germany 400 captured German airmen, who could now be used to attack Great Britain.

Britain Alone

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Cash and Carry

FDR persuaded Congress to modify the Neutrality Laws so Britain could buy weapons for cash and carry them away on their own ships.

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German U-boats

But German “untersee” boats were sinking one of every three tons of goods that Britain bought – and again threatening American ships.

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Destroyer Deal

Despite British failures, Roosevelt in September 1940 ‘traded’ 50 older destroyers to Britain in return for 99-year leases of bases in the Caribbean and Canada.

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Lend-Lease

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The Draft

In 1940, Congress approved the first peace-time draft in American experience. The draftees (21 or older) were chosen by lottery and were to serve for one year.

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Guardsmen Called Up

In the fall of 1941, the draft was extended, keeping those from 1940 in the service. National Guard units were also called up for training with the U.S. Army. This included Minnesota and North Dakota guard units. People were now expecting war as inevitable.

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Russia InvadedWhen the Germans invaded Russia in June 1941, special “execution squads” murdered thousands of civilians – communists leaders, community leaders, intellectuals and Jews.

About 8 of every 10 German soldiers killed in the war died in the war with Russia.

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Genocide

The Nazi plan was to occupy the western part of Russia as far as the Ural mountains, allow much of the Russian population to starve and use the remainder as slave labor.

“We shoot villagers on the slightest excuse. Just stick them up against a wall. We order the whole village out to watch. It’s a vicious circle. We hate them and they hate us, and on and on it goes, everyone getting more inhuman.”

From a German soldier’s diary

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The Holocaust

In order to carry out its extermination plan, Germany pressured its allies – Italy, Romania, Hungary and the Vichy government of France-- to turn all Jews over to German hands. These women at the Gurs refugee camp were likely among the victims.

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Death CampsIn 1942, the Nazis employed their knowledge of poison gas to speed up the murder of Jews in special death camps, like Auschwitz (entrance to the Auschwitz still exists at the memorial site in Poland.

U.S. code breakers also knew about the activities in these camps.

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Defeated in 1941

Despite inflicting over 2 million casualties on Russia, the German army was halted in 1941 by better Russian tanks and the onset of winter. With American entry in December, Germany now faced Britain, Russia, and the U.S.

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And the War Came

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Global War

Where should the U.S. use its military power?

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Purpose of the War?In a mid-ocean meeting, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed that Germany should be the major focus of US and British military effort (which angered Americans who wanted quick revenge for Pearl Harbor).

Roosevelt also persuaded Churchill to agree to the Atlantic Charter – a commitment to a better postwar world. As yet there was no talk of a “united nations.”

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Different Agendas for Victory

To Roosevelt the Atlantic Charter meant a reduction of the British Empire.

To Churchill, victory in the war meant preservation of the British empire.

Neither Roosevelt nor Churchill completely trusted Stalin (Russia the 3rd of the Allied powers). But Roosevelt thought Stalin could be persuaded to co-operate. Churchill doubted this.

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The Second Front

Russia began demanding demanding a “second front” from Britain in 1942. But France was not invaded until 1944. Stalin accused Churchill and Roosevelt of waiting until Russia and Germany had “bled one another white.”

“What news from the second front” – In British newspaper, July 1942.

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“Unconditional Surrender”

After the U.S. Army fought German troops in North Africa, Roosevelt surprised everyone when he said that only the “unconditional surrender” of Germany, Italy and Japan would end the war. He may have said this to reassure Stalin. Britain, receiving enormous aid from America, had to go along with the idea of not accepting a negotiated peace.

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War in the AirThe American air force believed Germany could be forced to surrender by bombing German industry.Of the 78,000 American “M.I.A.s” of WWII, 85% are air force fliers.

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Bombing Germany

By 1945 every German city looked like this. More than 700,000 German civilians died in these bombings. At Dresden, March 1945, 35,000 died in one raid by British bombers.

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In the Pacific

Battles in the Pacific, at Guadalcanal and elsewhere, had taught American Marines and Soldiers that the Japanese never surrendered, and did not take prisoners. This would color views of Asia among Americans.

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Island Hopping

To win the Pacific War, the United States had to build the largest fleet in history and move from island to island, building air bases as they approached Japan.

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D-Day, 1944

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End in Europe

The war ended in Europe in May 1945, after the Russian armies captured Berlin and Hitler committed suicide.

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End of Japanese Navy

Total destruction of Japan’s navy by April 1945 opened the home islands to endless bombing.

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End in the Pacific

Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, forced Japan to surrender (but only on the condition that the Japanese emperor remain on the thrown).

Allies No Longer

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Postwar Europe and American Leadership

U.S. was the guiding force in creating a United Nations to replace the old League

US played major part in occupying Germany and japan from 1945-52. The aim was to “build democracy.”

US “Marshall Plan” provides billions of dollars to restore European economy (eastern Europe does not participate).

US creates NATO to counter Soviet military power.

US leads in the creation of West German Republic.

US “containment” policy is key to cold war strategy.

Russia and Its Security

Russia had suffered highest losses of the war – 20 million deaths and much of its industry destroyed. But it had the largest army in Europe.

Russia’s “Eastern Bloc”

Poland

RomaniaYugo.

Czech.

Bulgaria

Hungary

The Russian armies controlled much of eastern Europe as the war ended.

Unity with Tanks

The Soviet Union kept its hold over Eastern Europe with military force, using armed force to suppress independence movements in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968.

Russian tanks crush uprising in Hungary, 1956

Dividing and Occupying

The US, Britain, Russia, and France, occupied Germany, dividing the country (and the capitol) into 4 zones. Cooperation soon became difficult. Russia literally looted its zone of anything of value.

“Iron Curtain”

In response to the Russian domination of Poland, Truman cut off aid to Russia and invited Churchill to the U.S. in 1946, to warn Americans that an “iron curtain” was falling over eastern Europe. The Cold War was on.

Truman Doctrine

Angry over Stalin’s failure to keep his Potsdam promises, Truman stopped Lend Lease aid to Russia. In 1947, he also promised extensive aid to Greece to prevent its government from falling to communist insurgents. This “Truman Doctrine” was a key step in the U.S.-Soviet rivalry for influence in Europe.

Europe in Shambles

Secretary of State George Marshal warned Truman and Congress that, without substantial American help, the economy of Europe would not recover from the war. Another world-wide depression could result in war – and a communist victory.

Marshall PlanA much more extensive aid program was the Marshall Plan, inaugurated in 1947-48, it granted extensive aid toward restoring the economy of western Europe. Because the Soviet Union would not permit American agents to inspect economic conditions in the eastern nations his armies occupied, no aid went to those countries.

National Security

In 1947, the U.S. Congress passed the National Security Act, which merged the armed services under the Department of Defense, created the CIA and the National Security, and set a goal of coordinating national defense with the policy of “containment” of Soviet influence.

Berlin AirliftIn 1948-49, the Soviet Union tried to drive the U.S. and Britain out of Germany with the the blockade of Berlin. The U.S. used aircraft to fly supplies to west Berlin.

Russia tested its own A-bomb in August 1949. The arms race was on.

NATO

In 1949, the U.S. led in the organization of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), an alliance that pledged the U.S. to bring military aid to any NATO member attacked by “aggressors” – the first U.S. military peacetime alliance commitment in its history.

ContainmentBecause another major war would involve atomic bombs, the U.S. sought another strategy for dealing with Russia. George Kennan (right) a senior State Department analyst, suggested containment – use American financial (and military) power to keep Russian influence out of other countries; wait for Russia’s population to tire of Soviet rule.

The War for Hearts and Minds

Containment would dominate the Cold War’s struggle within the “Third World” -- the poorer nations in Africa, Asia and South America that could opt for communism or capitalism as their guide for economic growth.Critics charged that this meant creating either a slave world or a “consumer world.”