thesis presentation on early marriage

56
DETERMINANTS AND PSYCHOSOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF EARLY MARRIAGE ON RURAL WOMEN OF BHILWARA DISTRICT by Mrs. Ranjana Vaishnav

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The present study made an attempt to gain insights on determinants and psychosocial consequences of early marriage on rural women. Samples of 300 women who married early and have completed 5 to 15 years of married life were taken from 20 villages of district Bhilwara, Rajasthan as it has highest instances of child marriages. In depth investigation employed the use of interview, FGDs, observation and case study method. Research was based in district. Baseline Proforma and SES scale (self developed) was used to get the necessary details regarding the socio-economic status and demographic characteristics of respondents and their families. DEM scale (self developed), PSC Scale (self developed) and life satisfaction scale (Alam & Shrivastava, 1973) were used for data collection. Statistical test i.e. ‘z’ test, ANOVA, Regression & Pearson’s ‘r’ were applied to find out the results.The findings of the study revealed that age at marriage is governed by various components of socio-economic status with traditions & customs, lack of education, childhood residence and castes. Effect of mass media was not found as hypothesized. Media is only meant for entertainment by rural people. The study also highlighted psycho-social consequences (PSC components) of early marriage. It was found that child marriage increases exploitation of girl child and loss of her adolescence along with denial of education & freedom, inadequate socialization & personal development and violence & abandonment. Access to contraception is highly correlated with age at marriage i.e. the lower the age at marriage lower the knowledge and less access of contraception. The multiple regression analysis in predicting age at marriage and its determinants reveal that the Beta coefficient reflect the socio- economic status of the family and in which a girl belongs has more considerable contribution in terms of early marriage while traditions and customs follow the socio-cultural perseverance in predicting age at marriage. It is also depicted from the regression analysis that the ill consequences of early marriage in earlier ages have more awful effects on girl child. On the whole, it was found that early marriage itself means exploitation of girl child and loss of adolescence. This factor is highly significant in all studied age groups. They are treated as homely bird which means confined to four walls of house. Overall dissatisfaction level is high with the respondents who get married at the early age.

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

DETERMINANTS AND PSYCHOSOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF EARLY MARRIAGE ON RURAL

WOMEN OF BHILWARA DISTRICT

byMrs. Ranjana Vaishnav

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Presentation Outline INTRODUCTION

RATIONALE, OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES

METHODOLOGY

 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Determinants of early marriage

Psychosocial consequences of early marriage

 SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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INTRODUCTION

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Child marriage intro

       is one of the burning problems of Indian society. 

In India, despite amended laws advocating 18 as the legal minimum age at 

marriage for females, a substantial proportion i.e. every third adolescent girl 

in  the  age  group  of  15-19  year  is  married  and  every  second  married 

adolescent girl has given birth to a child.  According to the Registrar General 

of India (RGI) Report (2001) Rajasthan has the highest (40.8) percentage of 

females ever married among 15-19 year old girls as compared to India (24.9 

%)  followed by Bihar  (39.6 %), Madhya Pradesh  (34.1%),  Jarkhand  (32.9%) 

and  Andhra  Pradesh  (32.3%).  Among  the  various  districts  of  Rajasthan, 

Bhilwara  is  at  the  top with  61.9  percent. 

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Child Marriage

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nfhs

         reflecting the country’s diversity, few women (12%) 

marry before age 18 in Goa and Himachal Pradesh, while nearly 57 to 

61  percent  do  so  in  Rajasthan,  Jharkhand  and  Bihar.  Differences  by 

area of  residence are also stark: 28%  in urban areas vs. 53%  in  rural 

areas.

Yet,  there has been  a  slow  trend  toward delaying marriage: 

Nationally,  the  proportion  of  women  marrying  before  their  18th 

birthday declined by five percent from 1993 to 2006  (50% to 45%).

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NFHS

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Vicious Circle of Girl Child's Neglect

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High Mortality

Mal Nutrition Non-Preference for Girl Child

Low Expenditure on Health Care of Girls

Low Literacy Level, Low Investment on Girl Education

Victims of Oppression

Low Awareness LevelDowry,Child Marriage

Girls  are  socialized  from  the  very  beginning  to  accept  the  culture  of male  supremacy, 

which  willingly  or  unwillingly,  subjects  them  to  discriminatory  practices.  They  actually 

adopt,  support,  promote  and  transmit  inter-generationally  the  dominant  social  and 

cultural values. Gender inequality begins even before birth and is consistently becoming 

adverse  throughout  the  life  of  the  Indian women.  The  plight  of  rural  women  in  India 

irrespective of their age is a matter of concern. 

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Child Marriage: Age view

Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, India defines Child marriage is a marriage of  

individuals before they attain the legal age i.e. 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys. 

UN's Convention on the Rights of Children define the union of children or adolescents 

under the age of 18 as child marriage. 

IAC (2003) Child marriage, also known as early marriage, is defined as “any marriage carried 

out below the age of 18 years, before the girl is physically, physiologically, and 

psychologically ready to shoulder the responsibilities of marriage and childbearing.

Early Marriage: In the present study the term early marriage used, is understood as child 

marriage i.e. below the age of 18 years for female as prescribed by law.

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INTRODUCTIONChild Marriage: Facts

(UNICEF -2009) 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before 18, with 56% in rural areas and 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.(NGHS-3) 57.1 percentage of women aged 20-24, married by the time they are 18 in Rajasthan.Median age at marriage among urban and rural women age 20-49- 18.8 years and 16.4 years.(RGI-2001) Rajasthan has the highest (40.8) percentage of females ever married among 15-19 year old girls as compared to India (24.9 %) followed by Bihar (39.6 %), Madhya Pradesh (34.1%), Jarkhand (32.9%) and Andhra Pradesh (32.3%). Among the various districts of Rajasthan, Bhilwara is at the top with 61.9 percent. According to Census 1981, 1991 and 2001, mean age at marriage for female in Bhilwara district is 14.5, 16.2 and 16.4 years respectively.

Mean age at marriage for females since 1961

S. No

Year India Rajasthan

1 1961 Census

16.1 14.2

2 1971 Census

17.2 15.1

3 1981 Census

17.3 16.3

4 1991 Census

17.7 17.5

5 1998-99 (NFHS-2)

16.7* 15.3*

6 2001 Census

18.3 16.6

7 2005-06 (NFHS-3)

- 17.2*

8 2007-08 DLHS-3

- 17.7

*Median age at marriage among women 20-49 years.

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Acts and Legal Perspective

Acts Major concerns

Child Marriages Restrain Act, 1929 or Sharda Act

•Prohibit  the  solemnization  of  child marriages,  but  did  not  declare  them illegal  or  invalid.    It  prescribes  14  years  for  girls  and  18  for  boys  for marriage.

Child Marriage Restraint (amendment)  Act, 1978 

•Limited  Power  to  social  organizations,    police  or  any  public-spirited person.•Punishment: imprisonment up to three months and a fine of Rs 1000.•No legal remedy,  compensation or maintenance available to the girl. Age for marriage are 18 years for girls and 21 for boys.

The Prevention of Child Marriage Bill, 2004

•Appointment of Child Marriage Prevention Officer (CMPO)•Granting maintenance and residence  to  the girl till  she  remarriages,  in a case a decree of nullity has been made.•Punishment:  2 years of imprisonment and/or a fine up to Rs.1, 00,000.   •Sale  of  children  for  the  purpose  of  marriage  has  been  recognized  and these marriages are made null and void.

Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006

•Declaring the marriage void within 2 years of the child attaining maturity. •Maintenance and residence for the girl till her remarriage and custody for any child born from the marriage.•Punishment:    for  anyone  who  performs,  conducts,  directs  or  abets  any child marriage.

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Conceptual Framework of the Study

• Traditions and Customs• Lack of Education• Childhood Residence• Caste • Exposure to Mass Media• Protection of Girls & Absence of Father• Socio- Economic Status

DETERMINANTS

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Age at MarriageAge at Gauna

Conceptual Framework of the Study

• Upper• Middle• Lower

0 to 9, 10 to 14 and 15 to 18 (in Years)

0 to 9, 10 to 14 and 15 to 19 (in Years)

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Determinants of Early Marriage

Traditions and customs:  Traditions  are  beliefs  with    particular  consensus 

through time. Custom is a practice followed by people of a particular group or 

a pattern of habitual activity. Rajyalaxmi (1990) mentioned that the custom of 

early marriage  is more prevalent  in Rajasthan,  in the spoken  language  it was 

said that the infant was being married in Pile Potare (yellow napkin). 

Lack of Education: High  rate of  early marriage  is  caused due  to  low  level  of 

female literacy and low status of women (Sharma, 2003; UNICEF, 2001). 

Childhood Residence:  According  to  Savitridina  (1997),  childhood  residence 

refers to that place where the respondent spent the longest period of time till 

reaching the age of 12.

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Determinants of Early Marriage

Caste: The caste has  immense control over  the social and economic  life of people;  the 

traditions and practices of castes are rigidly followed by them. The caste hierarchy also 

perhaps had its role to play in perpetuating early marriage (Birodkar, 2006). Findings of 

the study (Reddy, 1998)    revealed a marked caste differences  in the age at marriage of 

females among the different Hindu castes.

Protection of Girl and Absence of Father: Early marriage is one way to ensure that a wife 

is ‘protected’, or placed firmly under male control. She is submissive to her husband and 

works hard for her  in-laws’ household; that the children she bears are  ‘legitimate’; and 

that bonds of affection between couples do not undermine the family unit. Girls will be 

better off and safer with a regular male guardian (Caldwell, John & Pat, 1977).

According  to  study  by  Santhya,  Haberland,  Singh  (2006)  at  Rajasthan  State, 

girls’ emerging sexuality is viewed as a threat, puberty as a signal to promptly place a girl 

under  the  safety of  the  label  “married”. Deviating  from  this practice elicits  community 

pressure. The developing body of an adolescent girl is viewed as a liability or danger that 

can be dealt best by pre-emotively marrying her off.

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D eterm in an ts o f Early M arriage

Exposure to Mass Media: Exposure  to mass media has a  significant effect on age at 

marriage. Women with no access to any of the mass media were more likely to have 

married early as compared with those who had access to all three of the media (audio, 

video  &  print)  or  at  least  one  of  them.  The  age  at  marriage,  according  to  media 

exposure  in  big  cities  and  towns,  was  similar;  however,  some  differences  prevail  in 

rural  areas.  The proportion of women who married early  compared with  those who 

had no access to mass media is slightly lower than for those who had access to at least 

one medium. For rural residents, radio is the most popular media (Savitridina, 1997).

Socio- Economic Status: Caste,  occupation,  income  and  educational  backgrounds  of 

the people  are  considered as  the  important  socio-  economic  variables  to  assess  the 

socio economic status of the people in the society. These socio- economic differentials 

significantly affect the age of marriage (Reddy, 1998).

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Psychosocial Consequences

Exploitation of Girl Child as Loss of Adolescence: For  the majority of girl children  in India,  there  is  no period of  "Adolescence" as  they  shift  from childhood  to adulthood and soon become a pregnant adult. (NIPCCD, 1992-93).

The time when she needs support, confidence and advice, an adolescent bride has to adjust to the unfamiliar set up of her new home. She also cope with the post pubescent bodily  changes  along with  the  feelings  and  sensation  that  are  unfamiliar  and  people with whom she must maintain a respectful distance (Kakar, 1978). 

  Denial of Education: Once  married,  girls  are  rarely  permitted  to  continue  their education, except in a few families.  It  is only through education that the girl child can arm herself to be independent and self-reliant, and hence have a fighting chance in life (Patel, 2007). 

Denial of Freedom: (Population Council, 2006), women are not allowed to go out and in many cases, permission of  the family  is  required. Similarly, girls are restricted from moving freely. A girl becomes a mother, she is crushed under multiple responsibilities of  being  a wife, mother  and daughter-in-law at  very  tender  age. Despite  growing up together, the boys are not completely connected or committed to their wives and some even seek relationships outside their marriage. 

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Ps y c h oso c i a l C on se q ue n c e s

Personal Development and Inadequate Socialization: UNICEF (2001) focused that child marriage, along with little or no education, economic dependence, denial  of  decision-making  power,  inequality  within  the  home,  and  sexual exploitation adversely affect the mental health. A girl child tends to be more attached  emotionally  to  her  parental  family  than  a  boy  child.  She  is  more prone  to  psychological  stress  and  tension  because  of  detachment  from parents  after marriage. Many  women  get  depressed  following  the  incident. They suffer from an inability to enjoy things, find it difficult to sleep and eat, face  concentration problems, and experience  feelings of guilt  and decreased self-esteem. 

Early  marriage  typically  cuts  girls  off  from  established  support networks and friends (Santhya & Jejeebhoy,2003). Access to Contraception: Selvaratnam  (1988)  revealed  that  women  who married  early  were  less  likely  to  use  contraception,  this  is  because  women who  married  late  with  higher  education  have  a  better  knowledge  of contraception.  Education  exposes  women  to  family  planning  knowledge, attitudes and practices. 

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P sy cho s oc i a l C on s e que nc e s

Violence and Abandonment: A  study  among women  in  Calcutta  found  that  half  had 

been married at or below the age of 15, and that this group were highly vulnerable to 

sexual violence in marriage (Sen, 1997).

UNICEF (2005) Domestic violence is more common among women, who had 

been married during childhood. India has the highest levels of domestic violence (67%) 

among women married before 18 years. 

Life Satisfaction: Satisfaction  is a mental  state where an  individual expresses positive 

feeling about what he has done or has been able  to achieve. Whatever one does,  its 

merit is determined in terms of satisfaction it brings to the doer. . A happy and satisfied 

woman can make better adjustment and modify the internal and external environment, 

reduce  the  tension  and  increase  harmony  at  home.  A  satisfied  woman  gives  due 

regards to other people’s feelings, is kind and tolerant to others and in general is more 

cautious, less touchy, less irritable and less critical (Narang,1996) . 

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Gauna or Muklawa: A ceremony is performed for consummation of marriage after girl 

attains maturity/puberty or the virtual transfer of girl from her family to conjugal family,  

after few days or years of formal marriage. Akshya Tritiya or Akha Teej : A day of Mass Child Marriages, the third day of the bright 

fortnight of Baishakh (May-June). People do not consult almanac or Pandit.Mausar and Gangoj: is a practice of giving a feast to relatives, villagers and people of 

same  caste on 12th  and 13th  day of  death of  an elder person.  These occasions Mausar 

(12th  day)  and Gangoj  (13th  day)  are utilized by  those who are not well  off  to get  their 

child married.   Nata (Re marriage): After marriage when  a woman establishes marital  relation with 

another man with her will or by her parents wish or force.Mayas and Jhagra:  parents  do  not  perform  Gauna  of  their  married  daughter  and 

remarry her  to another person,  in  return  they get money  from new husband  (Mayas). 

Previous husband get  compensation or bride price  known as  “Jhagra”.  The amount of 

Jhagra is decided by caste and community leaders. Aata-Sata: parents used to marry their daughters in the same family where their son is 

married or vice versa. 17

Customs Surrounding Child Marriage

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RATIONALEWomen,  a  weaker  and  depressed  section  Indian  Society.  The  neglect  and 

discrimination of  the woman  is  subjected  to  severe and deep-rooted criticism. The “lost 

years” of adolescence, can be harnessed fruitfully, and girls can be equipped for a better 

and  more  productive  life  if  they  are  addressed  to  a  special  target  category  of 

developmental  programmes.  They  need  to  be  educated,  confident  and  have  decision-

making  skills.  This  would  have  far-reaching  implications  for  the  status  of  women  in  the 

coming generations. 

  Most  studies  have  focused  on  the  impact  of  early marriage  on  fertility  rather 

than  to  better  understand  psycho-social  consequences.  The  present  investigation  was 

planned to examine the marital age and  its determinants  in varying socio-cultural set up 

and psycho-social consequences of marriage age on development of a girl child or women. 

From the cited literature and personal observations, it was found that early marriages are 

more common  in rural area with  its hard consequences, especially  in Bhilwara district of 

Rajasthan state.  It was  felt necessary  to  study  the effects of various socio-economic and 

other  factors  on  the  pattern  of  age  at  marriage  and  its  psycho-social  consequences  in 

certain selected rural areas.  18

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OBJECTIVES To  assess  the  socio-  economic  status  (SES)  and  demographic  components  of  the 

respondents under study. To find out the significant differences and impact of SES components on age at marriage 

(M-age) and age at Gauna (G-age) of the respondents belonging to different SES.  To  find  out  the  significant  differences  and  impact  of  determinants  of  early  marriage 

(DEM) components on M-age and G-age of the respondents belonging to different SES. To find out  the  significant differences and  impact of M-age and G-age on psycho-social 

consequences (PSC ) components of the respondents belonging to different SES. To find out the significant differences and impact of M-age and G-age on life satisfaction 

(LS) components of the respondents belonging to different SES. To  predict  the  determinants  of  age  at  marriage  (within  different  age  groups)  of  the 

respondents under study. To predict the psycho-social consequences and overall life satisfaction in relation to age at 

marriage (within different age groups) of the respondents under study. To  find  out  relationship  (a)  among  determinants  of  early  marriage  and  psycho-social 

consequences  components  and  (b)  inter  correlation  of  SES  components  and  life satisfaction components. 19

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HYPOTHESES SES components will show significant differences and impact on M-age and G-age of 

the respondents belonging to different socio- economic status.

DEM components will show significant differences and impact on M-age and G-age of 

the respondents belonging to different socio- economic status.

M-age and G-age of the respondents belonging to different socio- economic status will 

show significant differences and impact on their PSC components.

M-age and G-age of the respondents belonging to different socio- economic status will 

show significant differences and impact on their LS components.

Age at marriage (within different age groups) of the respondents under study will be 

significantly predicted by the determinants.

Psycho-social consequences and overall life satisfaction of the respondents will be 

significantly predicted by their age at marriage (within different age groups).

(a) There will be a significant relationship between determinants and psycho-social 

consequences of early marriage. (b)There will be a significant inter-correlation among 

SES components and LS components.

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METHODOLOGY

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OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS• Early Marriage/Age at Marriage (M-age): In the present study the term age at marriage 

(early marriage) used is understood as child marriage i.e. below the age of 18 years for 

female as prescribed by law, categorized in three groups i.e. 0 to 9, 10 to 14 and 15 to 18 

years.

• Age at effective marriage (Gauna) (G-age): In rural context, especially for Rajasthan age at 

marriage itself does not depict the virtual transfer of girl from her family to conjugal family. 

After few days or years of formal marriage husband returns to take her wife back to his 

home to live with him permanently and this occasion is known as “Gauna” ceremony. In 

demographic literature it is known as effective marriage which marks the time when sexual 

union between husband and wife starts. For the present study G-age is categorized in three 

groups i.e. 0 to 9, 10 to 14 and 15 to 19 years.

• Socio- economic Status: For the present study socio-economic status can be operationally 

defined as scores obtained on 15 items of socio- economic status scale developed by 

investigator. 22

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O P ER A TIO N A L D EFIN ITIO N S

Determinants of early marriages (DEM): For the present study determinants 

of early marriage can be operationally defined as scores obtained on 60 items 

under 6 dimensions of DEM scale developed by investigator. 

Psycho-social consequences (PSC): For  the  present  study  psychosocial 

consequences  can  be  operationally  defined  as  scores  obtained  on  66  items 

under 6 dimensions of PSC scale developed by investigator. 

Life Satisfaction (LS):  For  the  present  study  life  satisfaction  can  be 

operationally defined as scores obtained on 60 items under 6 dimensions of 

tool developed by Alam and Shrivastava (1973).

23

Page 24: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

O PE R AT I ON A L D E F I N I T I O N S

Locale of the study: Rural  areas of Bhilwara district of Rajasthan  state 

were selected purposively as the locale of study.

Sample and its selection: The multistage  sampling  procedure  includes 

selection of Tehsils, villages and finally, selection of respondents. 

Criteria of sample selection

Socio-economic  status –  The  subjects belonging  to different  socio-

economic status  i.e. Upper, middle and  lower were  included in the 

sample.

  Age  at  marriage-  Respondents  married  before  the  legal  age  of 

marriage i.e. 18 years.  

Duration of marriage – minimum 5 years to maximum 15 years.  24

Page 25: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

State Rajasthan Purposive

District Bhilwara Purposive

Tehsils Random

Households (n=600) Purposive

Respondents (n=300) Purposive

Upper SES Middle SES Lower SES

n1 = 100 n2 = 100 n3 = 100(n1=5X20) (n2=5X20) (n3=5X20)

1. Bhilwara 2 . Banera 3. Hurda 4. Asind 5. Shahpura

(20 Villages- Random)

1 Mahua 1 Dabla 1 Hurda 1 Antali 1 Kothiya

2 Richara 2 Baira 2 Aanguncha 2 Shambhugarh 2 Dhanop

3 Aatun 3 Raisinghpura 3 Lamba 3 Jainagar 3 Etdia

4 Khayada 4 Raila 4 Gagera 4 Parasoli 4 Khamor

SAMPLING PROCEDURESam p lin g p ro ced u re

Page 26: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

n1=100Upper SES

n2=100Middle SES

n3=100Lower SES

Review of Literature

Designing & selection of

toolsPilot testing

of tools(4 Months)Planning

(6 months)Sample Selection

(12 months)Data 

Collection

(6 months)Data 

Analysis

(8 months)Thesis Writing 

Population Universe (600 HHs) Village Mapping and Wealth Ranking

SES (self developed scale)

RESE

ARC

H D

ESIG

N

Tools & MeasuresQuantitative Questionnaire cum

interview schedule (Self developed)

• Baseline proforma• DEM scale• PSC scale

Standardized Life Satisfaction Scale (Alam & Shrivastava, 1973)

Qualitative Case studies & FGD Extreme cases (20)

Presentation, interpretation, & discussion of results

n = 300

Time Plan

Frequency, Percentage, Mean, z test, ANOVA, Pearson’s ‘r’ and

Regression

Activities

Research Design

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27

The following tools were used:

Baseline Pro forma:  (self developed)  It  consists of 10 questions on background 

information of the subjects i.e. current age, marital status, marital duration, age 

of marriage,  age  at Gauna,  education,  family  composition,  exposure  to media, 

legal awareness etc.

MEASURING TOOLS

Page 28: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Socio- Economic Status Scale (SES scale): For determining the SES of subjects, a self  framed SES scale was used. This tool aims to gather  general  socio-economic  information  of  the  respondents  and  includes  total  15 items  such  as  Caste,  Occupation,  Education  Level,  Total  monthly  income,  Family  type, Family size, Asset-1, Asset-2, Social membership and Social participation. Asset-1& Asset-2: consists of check list and the total scores depends on number of asset possessed by the Ss.

Asset-1:  consists  of  items  on  house  type,  land  size  and  land  type.  Total  scores obtained in this group were kept in three categories from low to high i.e. Score 1 to 8 (low), Score 9 to 12 (middle) and Score 13 to 18 (high).Asset-2:  consists  of  items  on  household  equipments,  available  vehicle,  agriculture instruments and livestock and scores obtained in this group was also categorized in three sub groups i.e. Score 1 to 10 (low), Score 11 to 18 (middle) and Score 19 to 23 (high). 

The total scores were obtained by counting the tick mark (√) against each item.

28

S. No. Category Score on the scale

1. Upper socio- economic status Above 50

2. Middle socio- economic status 31 to 50

3. Lower socio- economic status 1 to 30

Page 29: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Determinants of Early Marriages (DEM scale):

A self made questionnaire cum interview schedule was developed to find out 

the determinants of early marriage. The tool consists of 60 questions on the following 

components (10 questions each):

D – 1  Traditions and customs

D – 2    Lack of education

D – 3  Childhood residence

D – 4  Caste 

D – 5  Protection of girls & absence of father

D – 6  Exposure to mass media

The question needs to be responded in yes or no. one score was given for yes 

response and zero score for no response. The maximum score one could obtained is 60 

and minimum is zero.

29

Page 30: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Psycho-Social Consequences (PSC Scale):

Psycho-Social Consequences (PSC Scale):

A self made questionnaire cum interview schedule was developed to find out the 

psychosocial  consequences of early marriage.  The  tool  consists of 66 questions on  the 

following components (11 questions each):

C – 1  Exploitation of girl child as loss of adolescence

C – 2 Denial of education

C – 3 Denial of freedom

C – 4 Personal development & inadequate socialization

C – 5 Access to contraception

C – 6  Violence & abandonment

The question needs  to be  responded  in  yes or no. one  score was  given  for  yes 

response and zero score for no response. The maximum score one could obtained is 60 

and minimum is zero.

30

Page 31: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

L ife Satisfaction Scale (LS scale):

Life Satisfaction Scale (LS scale):

The  standardized  tool  by  Alam  and  Shrivastava  (1973)  was  used  to 

measure life satisfaction. The scale consists of 60 items on six components viz., 

health,  personal,  economic, marital,  social  and  job.  The  responses  are  to  be 

given in yes/no. Yes responses were marked as one and no as zero. Higher the 

score, higher  the  life  satisfaction.   Test  retest  reliability  is 0.84 and validity of 

the scale was obtained by correlating with Saxena’s adjustment inventory and 

Srivastava adjustment inventory, which is 0.74 and 0.82 respectively. 

31

Page 32: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Case studies

Case studies: were conducted separately with 20 percent of the selected respondents. 

Focus group discussions: were done with selected respondents and their families.

32

Page 33: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Frequency distribution of age at marriage and age at Gauna in selected villages Mean age at marriage and GaunaSocio-economic Status and Early marriageDeterminants and Early MarriagePsychosocial Consequences and Early MarriageLife Satisfaction and Early MarriageAge at Marriage: Its Determinants and Psycho-Social ConsequencesRelationship between Determinants and Psycho-social Consequences Inter-correlation among SES components and LS components

RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

33

Page 34: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

34

S.No. VillageAge at marriage (in years) Age at Gauna (in years)

Total0-9 10-14 15-18 0-9 10-14 15-191 Khamor 9 6 0 1 8 6 152 Aoongucha 9 4 2 1 9 5 153 Gagera 7 4 4 1 4 10 154 Dhanop 7 3 5 0 4 11 155 Dabla 6 8 1 0 4 11 156 Lamba 6 5 4 1 5 9 157 Aatoon 6 3 6 1 4 10 158 Raisinghpura 5 8 2 0 3 12 159 Mahua 5 5 5 1 3 11 15

10 Khayada 4 11 0 0 9 6 1511 Parasoli 4 10 1 0 5 10 1512 Jayagarh 4 9 2 0 6 9 1513 Shambhugarh 4 9 2 0 7 8 1514 Raila 4 8 3 0 4 11 1515 Richara 4 8 3 0 5 10 1516 Ittadiya 3 10 2 0 5 10 1517 Baira 3 8 4 0 4 11 1518 Antali 2 11 2 0 6 9 1519 Kothiya 1 11 3 0 8 7 1520 Hurda 1 11 3 0 2 13 15 Total 94 152 54 6 105 189 300

Frequency distribution of age at marriage and age at Gauna in selected villages (Lower age to Higher age of marriage)

Frequency distribution of age at marriage and age at Gauna

Page 35: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

35

Mean age at marriage and Gauna of different SES respondents

Upper Middle Lower Total

13.72

10.69

6.69

10.45

15.3314.51

13.32

14.8

Age at Marriage Age at Gauna

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36

SES Components and M-age & G-age

Illiterate Upto 5th standard

Up to 10th

Up to 12th

Gr. & above

9.15

11.5112.44 12.36 12.50

14.0114.77 14.97 14.29

15.33

Education

ST SC OBC General

8.369.30

11.32

13.6813.70 13.8914.80 15.23

Caste

   

Soci o-e conomi c Stat us and Ear l y m ar r i age

    M-age    G-age

Socio-economic Status and Early marriage

Page 37: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

37

Labour Caste Agriculture Business Government

7.59

11.9012.90 13.27

14.3313.60

14.76 14.9816.00

15.11

Occupation

Up to 2500 Up to 5000 Up to 10000 Up to 20000 Above 20000

8.15

12.1614.17 13.69

16.00

13.7914.71 15.49 15.46

16.50

Monthly Income

Nuclear Joint

10.0311.94

14.28 14.75

Family Type

Small Medium Large

9.95 10.17

13.1714.17 14.2415.69

Family Size

Page 38: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

No any One group More than 1 Group leader

9.35

12.2713.52

12.00

14.1014.92 15.35

14.32

Social Membership

No any Moderate Highly active

9.12

12.4813.8313.94

15.02 15.72

Social Partnership

Mean distribution of M_age and G_age according to SES Components

38

Low Middle High

9.85 9.74

13.1614.2 14.21

13.13

Socio-economiAssettus and Early marriage

Page 39: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

One way ANOVA for SES Components among M-age and G-age

SES componentsM-age G-age

S.S. D.F. M.S. F S.S. D.F. M.S. F

Caste51.44 16 3.22

4.14**26.61 11 2.42

2.85**219.94 283 0.78 244.78 288 0.85271.38 299 271.39 299

Occupation172.91 16 10.8

11.22**71.31 11 6.48

4.99**272.48 283 0.96 374.09 288 1.3445.39 299 445.4 299

Education117.41 16 7.34

4.03**79.50 16 4.97

2.36**515.33 283 1.82 672.22 283 2.38632.74 299 751.72 299

Income104.71 16 6.55

13.34**41.39 11 3.76

5.36**138.86 283 0.49 202.19 288 0.7243.58 299 243.59 299

FamilyType

5.31 16 0.332.01*

1.76 11 0.160.9946.71 283 0.17 50.28 288 0.18

52.03 299 52.04 299

Family size12.2 16 0.76

2.56**6.94 11 0.63

1.71*100.78 283 0.36 106.05 288 0.37112.98 299 112.99 299

SocialMembership

185.33 16 11.64.03**

72.55 11 6.62.05**812.78 283 2.87 925.57 288 3.21

998.12 299 998.12 299

Social Participation

327.08 16 20.4

5.54**

173.08 11 15.74

3.78**1044.06 283 3.69 1198.06 288 4.16

1371.14 299 1371.15 299

Asset1163.57 16 10.2

6.23**68.22 11 6.2

3.19**464.37 283 1.64 559.73 288 1.94627.94 299 627.95 299

Asset2215.46 16 13.5

8.68**111.68 11 10.15

5.39**439.08 283 1.55 542.87 288 1.89654.54 299 654.55 299

O n e w a y A N O V A f o r S E S C o m p o n e n t s a m o n g M - a g e a n d G - a g e

**

Page 40: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Childhood Resid

ence

Caste

Prote

ction of G

irls &

Abse

nce of F

ather

Lack

of Educa

tion

Traditions a

nd Customs

Exposu

re to

Mass

Media

82.50%70.37% 69.83% 68.67% 68.07%

56.27%

D e t e r m i n a n t s a n d E a r l y M a r r i a g e

40

Percentage responses of DEM components with regard to early marriage

Page 41: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

41

D e t e r m i n a n t s a n d E a r l y M a r r i a g e

53.3

71.1

76.2

62.4 62.4

68.573.1

67.5

83.4

72.270.3

55.2

77.8

67.4

87.9

76.5 76.8

45.1

Upper Middle Lower

Percentage responses of DEM components with regard to early marriage in different SES

Page 42: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Mean, S.D. and ‘Z’ value of DEM components in different SES

42

DEM Components

Upper(n1 = 100)

Middle(n2 = 100)

Lower(n3 = 100)

Z value(Groups)

Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. U-M M-L U-L

Tradition and custom 5.25 1.60 7.18 1.48 7.65 1.30 8.86** 2.39* 11.66 **

Lack of education 7.24 1.29 6.96 1.07 6.87 1.27 1.67* 0.54 2.05 *

Childhood residence 7.71 1.58 8.34 1.49 8.79 1.15 2.90** 2.39** 5.53**

Caste 6.32 1.38 7.22 1.14 7.65 1.37 5.01** 2.41* 6.84**

Protection of girls and

absence of father

6.31 1.40 7.03 1.86 7.68 1.78 3.09** 2.53** 6.04**

Exposure to mass media 6.94 2.03 5.52 2.72 4.51 1.96 4.18** 3.02** 8.61**

Mean, S.D. and ‘Z’ value of DEM components in different SES

Page 43: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

DEM componentsM-age G-age

S.S. D.F. M.S. F S.S. D.F. M.S. F

Tradition and custom

120.63 16 7.544.20**

133.81 11 12.17 4.24**507.32 283 1.79 825.98 288 2.87627.95 299 959.79 299

Lack of education129.36 16 8.09

4.35**39.71 11 3.61 2.01*

525.19 283 1.86 516.33 288 1.79654.55 299 556.04 299

Childhood residence

102.51 16 6.413.01**

23.56 11 2.14 1.81*602.24 283 2.13 340.61 288 1.18704.75 299 364.17 299

Caste163.72 16 10.20

3.76**26.25 11 2.39 1.20*

769.07 283 2.72 569.55 288 1.98932.79 299 595.80 299

Protection of girls and absence of

father

174.47 16 10.903.51**

63.52 11 5.78 1.89**878.45 283 3.10 880.47 288 3.06

1052.92 299 943.99 299

Exposure to mass media

171.50 16 10.701.71*

28.80 11 2.62 1.73*1784.83 283 6.31 434.39 288 1.511956.33 299 463.19 299

One Way ANOVA for DEM components with M-age and G-age One Way ANOVA for DEM components with M-age and G-age

43

The traditions and customs were found highly significant cause of early marriage Chandrasekhar (1996); Santhya, Haberland & Singh (2006). Savitridina (1997) Childhood residence has an effect on age at marriage and those who were brought up in villages were more likely to get married early.  Parents may genuinely feel that their daughters will be better off and safer with a regular male guardian (Caldwell, John & Pat, 1977).

Page 44: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

44

90.07%84.07%

80.07% 77.70%

67.93%63.90%

Percentage responses of PSC components with regard to early marriage

Page 45: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

45

95.8

81.677.7 75.4

66.2 65.8

92.5

85.380.4

76.9

69.263

81.985.3

82.1 80.8

68.462.9

Upper Middle Lower

Percentage responses of PSC components with regard to early marriage in different SES

Page 46: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Upper (n1 = 100)

Middle (n2 = 100)

Lower (n3 = 100)

Z value(Groups)

PSC Components Mean S D Mean S D Mean S D U-M M-L U-L

Exploitation of girl child as loss of adolescence

5.82 1.19 5.76 1.36 5.70 1.34 0.33 0.31 0.67

Denial of Education 8.78 1.11 8.50 1.16 7.60 1.79 1.74* 4.22** 5.60**

Denial of freedom 6.91 2.13 6.53 1.39 6.06 1.72 1.49* 2.13** 3.10**

Personal development

and inadequate socialization

0.24 0.43 0.21 0.41 0.21 0.41 0.50 0.00 0.50

Access to contraception 5.72 1.95 5.30 2.35 5.15 2.35 1.38* 0.45 1.87*

Violence and abandonment 8.53 1.82 8.70 2.28 8.78 2.29 0.58 0.25 0.85

* significant at 0.05 level, ** significant at 0.01 level

Mean, S.D. and ‘Z’ value of PSC components in different SES

46

Mean, S.D. and ‘Z’ value of PSC components in different SES

Page 47: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

PSC componentsM-age G-age

S.S. D.F. M.S. F S.S. D.F. M.S. F

Exploitation of girl child as loss of

adolescence

133.81 16 12.16

4.24**

78.29 11 7.12 1.47*825.97 283 2.67 1392.62 288 4.84959.78 299 1470.92 299

Denial of education

77.62 16 4.85

2.2**

55.73 11 5.07 2.25**

624.04 283 2.2 645.93 288 2.24

701.66 299 701.67 299

Denial of freedom

68.74 16 4.29

1.35*

78.29 11 7.12 1.47*

902.26 283 3.19 1392.62 288 4.84

971 299 1470.92 299

Personal development and

inadequate socialization

143.06 16 8.94

1.9*

28.80 11 2.62 1.73*

1327.86 283 4.69 434.39 288 1.51

1470.92 299 463.19 299

Access to contraception

172.68 16 10.79

2.32**

39.71 11 3.61 2.01**

1316.68 283 4.65 516.33 288 1.79

1489.37 299 556.04 299

Violence and abandonment

44.41 16 2.77

1.26*

23.56 11 2.14 1.81*

340.61 288 1.18620.97 283 2.19

665.38 299 364.17 299

One Way ANOVA for PSC components on M-age and G-ageOne Way ANOVA for PSC components on M-age and G-age

47

Page 48: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

48

Percentage responses of LS components with regard to early marriage

Social Marital Personal Economic Job Health

58.73 57.36 55.34

47.66

37.40

29.60

Page 49: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

DeterminantsAge at marriage (in years)

0 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 18 0 to 18Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value

Traditions and Customs .16** 2.73 .14** 2.24 .10* 1.65 .25** 3.83Lack of Education .18** 3.00 .17** 2.75 .15** 2.30 .23** 2.92

Childhood residence .13** 2.47 .12 1.88 .09 1.78 -.19 3.21Caste .18** 3.00 .13 1.92 .19 3.21 .21** 3.32

Protection of girl and absence of father .17** 2.55 .12* 1.60 -.03 -.76 .26** 4.35

Exposure to mass media .08 1.44 .10 1.08 .11* 1.56 12* 1.98

Socio-Economic status .66** 15.22 .54** 7.50 .37** 6.93 .76** 12.33N 94 152 54 300

Multiple R .49 .24 .56 .68R2 .24 .05 .32 .46

Standardized Regression Coefficients for different age groups for Determinants of Early Marriage

49

 According to Sagade (2005); Singh (2008), in most cases, marriage is the mere transference of the father's domination over a woman in favour of a husband's. When done at an early age, it is felt, it is easy to get the bride to adapt well to her socially determined position. It also helps to control her sexuality and reproduction. Another author Santhya, Haberland & Singh (2006) showed that pressure to abide by societal norms was cited as a reason for the persistence of early marriage. Kulkarni (1994) also found that anxiety about grown-up daughters is another reason forcing less educated or illiterate parents to marry their daughters early.. 

Page 50: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

Psycho-social Consequences

Age at marriage (in years)0 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 18 0 to 18

Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value

Exploitation of girl child and loss of adolescence

.16** 3.33 .14** 3.10 .13** 2.64 .21** 3.32

Denial of Education .18** 3.91 .13* 2.60 .14** 2.82 .16** 2.82

Denial of freedom .10* 2.80 .12* 2.58 .12* 2.40 .15* 2.30Personal development

and inadequate socialization

.10* 2.80 .12* 1.60 .09 1.78 .11* 1.92

Access to contraception .17** 2.61 .18** 2.77 .10* 1.67 .25** 4.35

Violence and abandonment

.12* 2.48 .12* 2.48 .15** 3.01 .14* 2.82

Life Satisfaction .17** 2.55 .18** 3.88 .23** 4.9 .22** 3.89N 6 105 189 300

Multiple R 0.235 0.244 0.177 0.222R2 0.05 0.059 0.039 .049

Standardized Regression Coefficients for different age groups and Psycho-Social Consequences

Saxena  (1999) corroborated that the “Inadequate socialization, discontinuation of education, great physiological and emotional  damage  due  to  early  marriage  and  repeated  pregnancies  devastates  these  girls.”  Santhya  &  Jejeebhoy (2006) documented several studies in India indicating that young women's early sexual encounters within marriage are often described as frightening and non-consensual.  50

Page 51: thesis Presentation on Early Marriage

DeterminantsPsycho-social Consequences

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7

D1 .08 .19** .12** .06 .06 0.06 .34**

D2 .01 .13** .02 .12* .17** 0.17** .20**

D3 .11 .09 .09 .01 .01 0.01 .16**.

D4 .16** .12* .13* .07 .07 0.11 0.32

D5 .06 .10 .03 .06 .12* 0.03 .11**

D6 .10 .25** .24** .11* .27** 0.06 0.20**

D7 .07 .28** .18** .33** 0.12* .13* .24**

Pearson’s correlation with Determinants and Psycho-social Consequences

** Significant at .01 level, * Significant at .05 level

Pearson’s correlation with Determinants and Psycho-social Consequences

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Implications of the StudyPresent  study  had  shown  psychosocial  consequences  of  early  marriage  on  girls  where parents are found to show interest in marrying off their daughter as  soon as possible due to many determinants.Parents  should  be  encouraged  to  evaluate  and  empower  their  daughter  with  life  skills enhancing  their  self  esteem  rather  than escaping  from  their  responsibilities.  If  they do  so they should be given some incentive in the form of cash or employment or some financial support in name of their daughter’s marriage.Community  leaders,  social workers  should also be  sensitized and mobilized  to  change  the mind set of the people. The person or the society should be awarded and recognized as a role model and be provided some extra financial help to improve the status of women.Religious leaders can play the most important role in changing attitudes of the people. They can  force  the  public  to  delay  the  marriage  of  the  girls  following  the  legal  norms  and justifying the status of girl.GO’s  and NGO’s  should  jointly  raise  awareness  through  strict  implementation  of  the  acts about marriage preventing ill health of girl child.Media,  an  utmost  and  powerful  source  of  change.  Producers  should  take  the  themes  of social relevance to spread the message of adverse consequences of early marriage eg. Balika Vadhu, Lado.Families and societies responsible for early marriage should be given legal and non bail able punishment and social boycott.        

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Suggestions 

• Present study was conducted on determinants of early marriages and its’ psycho-

social consequences. Further study could be planned by taking different variables 

like physical health, mental health, and reproductive health, personal and marital 

adjustment.

• Present study was conducted in Bhilwara district of Rajasthan state. Samples from 

different districts of Rajasthan would cater in-depth understanding about 

determinants and consequences of early marriages.

• Only female were taken for present study. A comparative study of male and female 

could give clearer picture of their married life.

• A comparative study of urban and rural setting could be planned by taking wide 

samples. 

• Intervention programmes can be planned to raise awareness at micro, meso and 

exo level for unmarried boys and girls and their parents. 

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Major Findings• Early marriages are more prevelant in those villages, which are at distance from 

connecting road to tehsil or district headquarter or remote villages have little awareness of ill effects of early marriages, lack of media awareness and less approach of GOs and NGOs programmes. Also it was found that early marriage is customary in those villages, which are densely populated with Jat, Gurjar, Jogi and Rebari castes.

• The SES of a person does have major role in determining the age of marriage or effective marriage. It was found that age of marriage and Gauna is low among the people belonging to lower castes and illiterate or less educated. The lower occupational level or agriculture base of the respondent also seems to be related with early age of marriage. 

• Major differences were observed in mean age at marriage and age at effective marriage or Gauna  among upper, middle and lower socio- economic status i.e. 13.72, 10.69 and 6.69 years for age at marriage and 15.33, 14.51 and 13.32 years for age at effective marriage respectively.

• It is found that childhood residence is highly and significantly affect the age at marriage, followed by traditions & customs, castes, lack of education, Protection of Girls & Absence of Father and Exposure to Mass Media. Among all, lower SES families were more rigid in following traditions and customs, had less educated, more affected by rural culture, blindly follow the caste ethics, more protecting in nature and less expose to mass-media. 

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Major Findings• It was found that early marriage denies the right of education of girl child followed 

with denial of freedom,  violence & abandonment, personal development and inadequate socialization, exploitation of girl child as loss of adolescence and less access to contraception, and lower level to life satisfaction. Also it was found that Psycho-social consequences of early marriage are significantly different among different SES groups.

• Correlation between determinants and psychosocial consequences of early marriage shows that respondents’ castes significantly affect the exploitation of girl child and loss of adolescence, whereas traditions and customs not only deny education of a girl child but freedom also. This pathetic situation leads to very low life satisfaction. At tender age she has to bear lots of responsibilities of house hold chores. 

• Lack of education, as a determinant of child marriage, leads to less access of contraception for girl and violence against wife and abandonment. Overall scenario says lack of education means lack of life satisfaction. less the exposure to media, more the denial of education and denial of freedom.  Also, access to contraception is significantly very low. Higher exposure helps in personal development and proper socialization of a girl. Exposure to mass media and life satisfaction is highly interrelated. SES level of a respondent is highly significant with denial of education and freedom. Personal development and socialization is highly is affected with a very low life satisfaction. Socio- economic status level is significant with access to contraception and violence abandonment.

•  

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THANKS

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