Theories of Criminal Behaviour

Biological Roots of Criminal Behavior

Major Principles of Biological Theories  The brain is the organ of the mind and the locus

of personality The basic determinants of human behavior are

constitutionally or genetically based Observed gender and racial differences in rates

and types of criminality may be at least partially the result of biological differences between the sexes and/or between racially distinct groups

Major Principles of Biological Theories  The basic determinants of human behavior may

be passed on from generation to generation Much of human conduct is fundamentally rooted

in instinctive behavioral responses characteristic of biological organisms everywhere

The interplay between heredity, biology, and the social environment provides the nexus for any realistic consideration of crime causation

Early Biological Theories

Lombroso in 1876 argued that the criminal is a separate species, a species that is between modern and primitive humans.

He argued that the physical shape of the head and face determined the "born criminal".

Early Biological Theories

Lombroso studied and measured the bodies of executed and deceased offenders as well as examining living inmates to locate physical differences or abnormalities

Claimed to have found a variety of bodily features predictive of criminal behavior

Long arms, large teeth, ears lacking lobes, lots of body hair

Also identified characteristics of particular types of offenders

Early Biological Theories

Constitutional Theories William Sheldon

Used body measurement techniques to connect body type with personality and outlined four basic body types and associated temperaments and personalities

people could be classified into three body shapes, which correspond with three different personality types.

1. endomorphic (fat and soft) tend to be sociable and relaxed.

2. ectomorphic (thin and fragile) are introverted and restrained

3. mesomorphic (muscular and hard) tend to be aggressive and adventurous.

Sheldon, using a correlational study, found that many convicts were mesomorphic, and they were least likely to be ectomorphic

Body types

Endomorph, Mesomorph, Ectomorph,

Modern Biological Theories

Biochemical (diet, hypoglycemia, hormones, environmental exposure)

Neurophysiological (brain dysfunction) Evolutionary theories

Modern Biological Theories Hormones and criminality

Testosterone Male sex hormone linked to aggression Research has shown a relationship between high blood

testosterone levels and increase male aggression Low brain levels of serotonin

Genetics and Crime: XYY Supermale Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes

The last pair determines gender Males: XY pair Females: XX pair

A study of Scottish prisoners found that a small number had an XYY chromosome.These were identified as potentially violent and labeled “supermale”

Criminal Families criminal families appeared to show criminal tendencies

through several generations

Modern Biological Theories

Weather and Crime Temperature is the only weather variable consistently

and reliably related to crime Positive correlation between temperature and violent crime

Moderated by factors such as time of day, day of week and season. Cohn and Rotton have found temperature to be related to crimes such as assault, property offenses, domestic violence and disorderly conduct

Chemical and environmental precursors of crime (nutrition, eating habits, and environmental contaminants related to violent and/or disruptive behavior)

Psychological approach to the study of crime

Psychological Perspectives on Criminality

Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): One can understand human behavior best by examining early childhood experiences.

Criminality is linked to guilt feelings (unresolved oedipal and Electra complexes).

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Human behaviour is governed by primitive urges (eros and thanatos) of the ID.

ID requires repression which results in formation of Ego and Superego.

Freudian Explanations of Delinquency

Human nature is inherently antisocial Id: infants start life with antisocial drivesSuperego: forms from experienceEgo: helps to negotiate demands for

instant gratification with acceptable behavior

Freudian Elements of Personality

Psychoanalytic interpretations

3 Main principles of psychodynamic theory when applied to delinquent + criminal behaviour are that delinquent behavior can be traced to faulty relationships in the family during the first years of life

These faulty relationships result in inadequate ego and superego development

These inadequacies in turn make it impossible for the child to control later delinquent impulses

Freudian Approach

•John Bowlby (1946) studied 44 juvenile delinquents and compared them with non-criminal disturbed juveniles.

•39% of the delinquents had experienced complete separation from their mothers for six-months or more during the first five years of their lives compared with 5% of the control group.

• early maternal deprivation was causally related to delinquent behaviour

Erik Erikson (1902-84)

Stage theorist. During adolescence

identity vs. role confusion stage may result in identity crisis.

Out-of-control behaviours (e.g. drug experimentation) reflect identity crisis.

Behavioural Theories

Social Learning TheoryAggression Is learned, not innate. Requires personal observation of aggression or

rewards for aggression. Involves behaviour modelling of family

members, community members and mass media Three types of learning

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational (vicarious) learning

Principles of Learning

Positive reinforcement: increases the target behavior by rewarding the individual

Negative reinforcement: increases the target behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus

Punishment: reduces the odds of the target behavior being repeated

Behavioural explanations of crime All behaviour is learned - deviant behaviour is

said to be learnt in much the same way as other behaviour

Direct parental control: theorists tie delinquency to parents’ failure to effectively condition their children away from negative behaviors

Glueck and Glueck: inconsistent and harsh punishment correlates with delinquent children

Patterson: effective parenting (monitoring, punishing, and reinforcing behavior) correlates with nondeliquent children

Principles of Learning

Albert Bandura

Violence and aggression are produced by

An arousal event (provocation).

Learned aggressive skills. Expected success and

rewards. Pro-violence values.

Bandura Observational learning is thought to take place

primarily in three contexts: 1. In the family 2. In the prevalent sub culture 3. Through cultural symbols such as television

and books.- Observational learning:

This is where viewers learn behaviours from watching others and may imitate them; many behaviours are learned from the media

- - Models:A model is a person who is observed and/or imitated.

Bobo doll experiments show preschoolers a short film

of a person beating up a bobo doll.

They were shown the short film twice, but there were three different endings watched by three different groups of children.

First photo shown is the demonstrated short film with a person beating up a bobo doll.

The second photo shown is what the preschoolers did after they watched the short film.

Media and Crime

Does media (TV and movies) influence aggression, violence, and criminal behavior?

Conducive to role modeling:Perpetrators not punishedTargets of violence show little painFew long-term negative consequences

Media and Violence Media provides aggressive

scripts. Violence is copied. TV violence increases arousal

level. TV violence promotes attitude

change, suspicious feelings. TV violence promotes

justification for violence. Media violence may disinhibit

aggressive behaviour.

Policy Implications of Behaviorism

Criminals can learn pro-social behaviors to replace criminal actions

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive Psychology Humans’ ability to engage in complex

thoughts influences behavior Cognitions (like behaviors) can be

learned Focus on

Cognitive structure (how people think) Cognitive content (what people think)

Cognitive Structure Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning: humans

advance through predictable stages of moral reasoning

delinquency is not synonymous with immoral behaviour

the reasoning of higher moral stages is less likely to fit in with a criminal lifestyle

justification for violating the law can be found at all stages

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (1 of 2) Stage 1

Right is blindly obeying those with power and authority.

Emphasis is on avoiding punishment. Interests of others are not considered.

Stage 2 Right is furthering one’s own interests. Interests of others are important only as a way to

satisfy self-interests. Stage 3

Moral reasoning is motivated by loyalties to others and a desire to live up to other’s standards.

Stage 4 Right is following the rules of society and maintaining

important social institutions (e.g., family, community). Stage 5

Moral decisions are made by weighing individual rights against legal principles and the common good.

Stage 6 Moral decisions are based on universal principles (e.g.,

human dignity, desire for justice). Principles are considered across different contexts and are

independent of the law.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (2 of 2)

Moral Development

Research shows that Criminals tend to be in stages 1 and 2. Non-criminals are in higher stages. People in lower stages fear punishment. People in middle stages fear reaction of family

and friends. People in highest stages believe in duty to

others, universal rights.

Cognitive Content

Rationalizations or denials that support criminal behavior

For example, a criminal thinks, “I’m not really hurting anyone.”

Criminals are more likely to express such thoughts, but the relationship (causation or correlation) to crime is unclear.

Extremely common for sex offenders

Policy Implications of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive theory translates easily into practice. Cognitive skills programs teach offenders

cognitive skills like moral reasoning, anger management, or self-control.

Cognitive restructuring attempts to change the content of an individual’s thoughts.

Combination cognitive-behavioral programs have had significant success.

Personality traits theory

Eysenck’s Theory of Personality Argued against sociological theories. Criminal behavior resulted from an

interaction of environment and biology. Based on biology.

Personality = Temperament (inborn/genetic)

Stable

Neurotic

Extraverted IntovertedAmbiverts

Central NS

Peripheral NS

Sanguine Phlegmatic

Choleric Melancholic

Eysenck’s Personality Theory

Suggests that high levels of introvertism and extrovertism can be related to crime.

Also introduced a P scale (psychoticism) to predict criminal behaviour.

definitions

stable extraverts (sanguine qualities such as - outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, leadership)

unstable extraverts (choleric qualities such as - touchy, restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive, irresponsible)

stable introverts (phlegmatic qualities such as - calm, even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive)

unstable introverts (melancholic qualities such as - quiet, reserved, pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious, moody).

Extraversion - Introversion

Reflects “need for stimulation”. Extraverts like excitement, become bored more

easily, welcome the unconventional Criminals are more likely to be extraverts

Impulsive Thrill-seeking Willing to take chances May be less able to internalize society’s rules – i.e.,

less ‘conditionable’.

Neurotic -Stable and Crime Criminals are more likely to be neurotic:

Emotionality acts as a drive to habitual ways of responding.

When under stress – do what you know best.

Impacts criminality only if the individual has developed anti-social ‘habits’.

More important factor as one ages (habits become more engrained)

Psychoticism Is not the same as “psychosis” No established physiological mechanism

but testosterone, monoamine oxidase and serotonin may be involved.

Similar to Primary Psychopathy Cold cruelty, social insensitivity, dislike of

others, attraction to the ‘unusual.

The common emphasis of all psychological theories is on the individual.

Each theory must be evaluated on its ability to account for criminality.

Not all theories are well supported by evidence. Many psychological theories translate well into

treatment programs.

Conclusion