9

INTRODUCTIONThisresearchhasasitsmainfocusthepianoworkswrittenbetween1960and1980ofa groupofPortuguesecomposersthatarecommonlyregardedasavantgarde.Withthe exceptionofJorgePeixinho,deceasedin1995,andConstanaCapdeville,deceasedin 1992,theiractivityascomposers,musicprofessorsandperformersisstillmucheffective inPortuguesemusicallifeandabroad. Thecomposersare:FilipedeSousa(b.1927); Maria de Lurdes Martins (b. 1928), Clotilde Rosa (b. 1930); Armando Santiago (b. 1932);FilipePires(b.1934);ConstanaCapdeville(19371992);lvaroSalazar(b. 1938);CndidoLima(b.1938);AlvaroCassuto(b.1938);JorgePeixinho(19401995); EmanuelNunes(b.1941). Thefirstaimofthethesisistodefinethis(hypothetical)period/group/generation of composersandtheircharacteristicsinthecontextofPortugueseandEuropeancultural and musical activity: their contact with the worlds avantgarde (symbolised by the Darmstadtreference),theirevolutionasindividualcomposers,theircommonheritage andspirit,speciallybetween1960and198020yearsofreceptionanddevelopingofthe (nowhistorical)musicalavantgarde. The second aim is the knowledge and characterisation of a group of piano works conceivedbythesecomposers:thedifferentkindofapproachestoavantgardetechniques andthought,andparticularlytothepiano,theirimportanceinPortuguesecomposition, theindividualstylesand,therefore,theirlikelyunityasagroup. Theresearchplanhas3mainparts/chapters: Thefirstone(historiccontext)exposesthecontext(political,social,cultural

andmusical)inwhichthisgenerationgrewanddevelopedtheircareers.Forthe development of this part, the research will concentrate on the historic bibliographyalreadyexistent(Portuguesecontemporaryhistory)and,forfurther musicalmatters,onnewspapers,cataloguesandconcertprograms.Theresultwill

10 beasurveyofpoliticalandsocialcontemporaryhistorywithaspecialrelevance tomusicallife. Thesecondchapter(thepianoworks)willfocusonthepianoworksofthe

composers written till 1980 finding the manuscripts and the recordings available,analysingthemostimportantpieces(atleastonebyeachcomposer), comparingwithotherworksandinsertingtheminawidercontext. The third one (the composers) has as its main focus the composers as

individuals.Thispartwillbedevelopedbyinterviewswiththecomposersand other persons much involved in musical life, by bibliographic investigation (catalogues, concert programs and other periodical publications) and by comparingalldatawiththeanalysisreferredabove. The thesiswillconclude withanoverview having inmind thehistorical survey, the hermeneuticofthepiecesandtheircomposers,definingagenerationandthedifferent pathsamongthem.

11

CHAPTER I

THE PORTUGUESE DARMSTADT GENERATION PORTUGAL AND MODERNITY IN THE 20 th CENTURY

12

"Modernmusicsacrificesitselftothiseffort.Ithastakenuponitselfallthedarkness andguiltoftheworld.Itsfortuneliesintheperceptionofmisfortune;allofitsbeauty isindenyingitselftheillusionofbeauty.Noonewishestobecomeinvolvedwithart individualsaslittlecollectives.Itdiesawayunheard,withoutevenanecho.Iftime crystallizes around that music which has been heard, revealing its radiant quintessence,music,whichhasnotbeenheard,fallsintoemptytimelikeanimpotent bullet. Modern music spontaneously aims towards this last experience evidenced hourlyinmechanicalmusic.Modernmusicseesabsoluteoblivionasitsgoal.Itisthe survivingmessageofdespairfromtheshipwrecked." Adorno,TheodorW.(1973):page133

13

The Estado NovoPOLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION FROM 1926 On28thMay1926amilitarycoupdtatledbyGomesdaCostaendedthedemocratic republicanregimecreatedbytherevolutionof1910.Thisregime,establishedby the abolitionofthemonarchy,neverdevelopeditselfintoastabledemocraticgovernment. Bombs,smallcoupsdtat,strikes,armedattacksandassassinationsofpoliticalleaders were normal. As in other European countries, there was a multitude of parties and politicalgroups(fromrightwingmonarchiststoarmedanarchists).Thedifferingfactions andleadersinthebigpartiesandtheconstantturnoverofprimeministerspreventedthe resolution of all the internal and external economic and social problems affecting PortugalandEuropeinthefirst20yearsofthiscentury. Theaimofthissuccessfulmilitaryputschwas,atfirst,vague,centredontheabolitionof the leading Republican Party (seen as the main cause of all problems), and in the necessityforamorestableregime.In1928themoreconservativemilitaryandcivil forcesofthenewregimeelectedCarmonaasPresident,andayoungUniversityProfessor OliveiraSalazarwasnominatedFinanceMinister,withveryenlargedpowers.In 1930thenewdictatorshipwasclearlydefined:anewconstitutionbasedontheconceptof organicdemocracy(aonepartyregime),areformofallstateadministration,anew colonial imperialism (with the development of the economy overseas), a strong intervention of the state in a corporative economy and an imposed (by the regime) collaboration between the social classes. The Estado Novo (New State) was institutionalisedin1933withtheplebisciteofthenewConstitutionandthefollowing undemocraticparliamentaryelections.Wehavetoentrustlibertytoauthority,becauseonlyauthority canadministrateanddefendliberty()Thelibertythatthe individualists are asking and demanding is an expression of rhetoric,asimpleliteraryimage.ThelibertygrantedbytheState,

14conditionedbyauthority,isuniquelypossible,abletoleadnotto thehappinessofoneman,butallmen.1

OliveiraSalazarwasthementorandleaderoftheEstadoNovo.HestudiedinaCatholic Seminarinordertobecomeapriest;helaterenteredtheUniversityandstudiedlawin Coimbra and was then nominated professor in this same University. He had been involvedsince1917inaveryconservativeCatholicgroup(togetherwithCerejeira,later thePatriarchCardinalofPortugueseCatholicChurch)formedinlinewiththetheoriesof LeBlonandMaurras.HiscareerfromFinanceMinister(1928)toPrimeMinisterand real dictator (from 1932 to 1968) was, at the beginning, established bya very strict controloftheStatesFinance,laterappliedtoallpartsofthesociety.Hefoundedthe onlyallowedparty(UnioNacional), the youthparamilitaryorganisation(Mocidade Portuguesa with help from Germans of the Hitler Youth), the civil militia (Legio Portuguesa,thesetwoorganisationswerealsoareactionagainsttheleftwing Spanishrepublic),thepoliticalpolice(PVDE, later PIDE and DGS,effectiveagainst democraticmovements2 andatsilencingallkindsofopposition).Heinstitutionalised censorship,whichwasimposedonnewspapersandonallkindsofculturaleventssuchas theatres,books,conferences,music,cinema,etc.3 Comparingthe EstadoNovo withfascisminItaly,thePortugueseregimewas,atfirst, very much the same, with an enormous importance given to Catholic traditional education,moralandvalues4.Overtheyears,andespeciallyduringandafterW.W.II,the regimewasinfluencedbytheshypersonalityofSalazar:therewasalimitedinterestin expansion(territorial,military,industrialoreconomical),alackofinterestinpoliticalEntreguemos,pois,aliberdadeautoridadeporqueselaasabeadministraredefender()a Liberdadequeosindividualistaspedemereclamamumaexpressoderetrica,umasimplesimagem literria.AliberdadegarantidapeloEstado,condicionadapelaautoridade,anicapossivel,aquelaque pode conduzir, nodigo felicidade dohomem, mas felicidade dos homens.Antnio Ferro(1933) quotedinOliveira,Csar(1990):page25.1

Speciallybrutal(tortureandassassinations)againstallkindsofrepublican,socialist,anarchist,trade unionsandcommunistactivities2 3 4

SeeOliveira,Csar(1990):p.13andfollowing. MorethantothehierarchyoftheChurch.

15 massevents.Itwas anunobtrusivewayof controllingcivilsociety.Bycontrast, the political and social propaganda of Mussolini and Hitler had in mind a very strong emotional effect on the population, with big overwhelming events, full of symbolic references.AlthoughSalazarandhisPropagandaSecretaryAntnioFerropromotedsuch events at the beginning of the regime, the dictator, somehow fearful of big demonstrationsandmassevents,hatingthepresenceofbigcrowds,imposedhimselfasa distantfatherofthenation5.InfacttheimageofOliveiraSalazarsdictatorshipcanbe seenasasoftfascism:anationalisminspiredbyGod,FatherlandandFamily;an activestruggleagainstallkindsofmultipartyregime,liberalismandsocialism, even againstfreemasonry.TherewasanactiveneutralityinWorldWarII,acontrolofthe economythroughthestateandlargeprivatefamilybasedtrusts 6.Itwasaneffective controlofallkindsofsocialbehaviour.Asoftbutefficientfascismand,asweknow, muchextendedintime. DuringWorldWarIIOliveiraSalazarmanagedtomaintainPortugalasaneutralcountry, inspiteofcloserelationswithboththeAlliesandGermany.Infact,thePortuguese economy, although in depression because of the war, took great profit from exports (wolfram,textiles,etc.)frombothsides7.Beinganeutralcountry,Portugalwasseenasa passagetoandfromEurope,asatransferforrefugees(e.g.Bartok,Casals)travellingto USAandSouthAmerica,andasanentrancetoGermanyandtheoccupiedcountries. Bothsidesof theconflicthadmanyrepresentativesinPortugal(embassies,military, cultural and business attachs, secret services), and they made many efforts with Thefuturistinfluencespeciallythecultofthestrength,ofpower,ofthemachine,ofindustryand civilisationdidntreallyhappeninPortuguesedictatorship,althoughsomeinitialinterestsforsomekind ofmodernistdevelopmentsinartandculture.TheseinterestswerepersonifiedinAntnioFerro,amodern artistandfuturismadmirer,convertedtothe EstadoNovo andtothemuchmoreconservativeideasof Salazar,andchiefofthePropagandaSecretary. SeeGarnier,(s.d.):p.49,andVieiradeCarvalho,Mrio (1993):page222.5

ThedictatorregimeinSpainborninthecivilwar,muchinfluencedandsupportedbySalazar,developed itselfintoamuchmoreeffectivesocietywithalargegrowthofeconomy,thedevelopmentofindustry,with amarketcentredadministrationandthegrowthofprivateconsume.6

Despitetheincreasingpricesandrationingoffood,petrolandotherproducts,thePortugueseeconomy grew2,9%ayearinthesewaryears.(SeeRosas,Fernando(1949):p.301andfollowing).7

16 propaganda,sometimescreatingdivisionsinPortuguesesocietybetweentheGermanand thealliedsupporters.Duringtheseyearspoliticaloppositiontotheregimedeveloped withtheinfluenceofdemocraticpropaganda,thegrowthofthecommunistpartyandthe worseningpovertyofthepopulation8. The years after the war were marked by slow economic development and by the continuedpoliticalandsocialcontroloftheState.PortugaljointedNATOin1949,the USAandtheUKsupportedbothpoliticallyandeconomicallytheregime,nowseenasa allyinthecoldwar;therewasaslow(controlled)developmentinindustryandcommerce9

.EmigrationtoBrazilandAfricagrew(Portuguesecoloniesandneighbourcountries),

lateralsotoFrance,EnglandandGermany;theregimecontinuedtodenydemocracyand freedomofexpression.Thisdenialwasrelevantintwopresidentialelections(completely controlledandmanipulatedbytheregime)inwhichoppositioncandidates,withsupport from many sides of Portuguese society, tried to be elected: Norton de Matos (a republicangeneral)in1949andHumbertoDelgado(ageneralconnectedtotheregime) in1958.Bothcandidatesweremilitaryandhadsubstantialsupportfromthepeople,but bothweregoingagainstSalazarsandhispartyscandidate,andpromiseddemocratic changes;neitherweresuccessful.10

Veryrelevantwerethestrikesbetween1942and1944,causedbytherationingofgoodsandtheinflation ofprices.ThepoliceandtheNationalGuardwereruthlessintherepressionoftheseandothersocial movements.8

Infact,after1950thereweretwolobbiesintheregime,oneveryconservativeandagainstallkindsof development,theotherveryopentoEuropeandtoaneconomicgrowthbasedonindustryandcommerce. Theregime,withthefiveyeareconomicplans,promotedthisexpansionbutcontrolleditataninternaland externallevel(withaveryeffectiveconditioningcouncilofindustryandastrategicfinance policy against imports and concurrence from foreign markets). (See Rosas, Fernando (1994): p. 419 and following).9

GeneralNorton de Matos gaveupwhenhe understoodthatthe electionsweremanipulated bythe regime.GeneralHumbertoDelgado,afteracampaignunderstrongrepression(Police,NationalGuardand politicalpolice),losttheelections.Manypeopleallegedfraud.LaterDelgadowasmurderedinSpainby thepoliticalpolicePIDE.10

17 CULTURE IN THE ESTADO NOVO TILL 1960 OneofthemaingoalsoftheEstadoNovoasanautocraticregimewasthecontrolofall kinds of social behaviour. Very important was the control of education, both in ideologicalandorganisationalterms.Afteragreatgrowthineducationmadeby the Republican revolution of 1910, Salazar's regime made relevant changes whose effect lastedfordecades:thereductionofcompulsoryeducationfrom5to4andlaterto3 years, the closure of some faculties and the conditioning of higher education development(muchslowerthanintherestofEurope)andtheimpositionofalltextbooks andmanuals11. The God, Fatherland and Family myth was practised in a very strict chain of obedience:allchildrenshouldobeytheirteachersortheirmothers,themothershould obeythefather,thelatterhissuperiorortheauthorities(police,administration,priest), withSalazaratthetopofthepyramid,onlyrespondingtohisconscienceandtoGod. Thefamilywasseenastheunitthenuclearunitofsocietysorganisation:the controlbythehusbandofhiswife(withnopossibilityofdivorce,separationorevenofa passport without the husbands consent) and of the children with the mother as intermediary.Thismodelwastaughtinthecompulsoryschoolbooksandreproducedat all levels of society. And this chain of obedience was taught in schoolbooks, in the officialpropaganda,andcommonlyacceptedasthebasisofmorality:theaimwasthe controlofordinarylifebytheregimeandtheiradministration. The administration of culture was given in 1933 to a propaganda secretary (S.P.N. Secretary of National Propaganda), being the president Antnio Ferro, a modernist (futurist)andadmirerofMussolini,convertedtothenewconservativeideas.Themain interestsofculturalpolicywereclear: 1. Venerationofhistoric(andsymbolic)heroes12;

11

SeeLoff(1994):p.11.

18 2. The cult of the Portuguese Empire Portugal (continental and overseas) was greater than all European countries together, with many peoples united by the Portugueserace13; 3. ThecultofthePortugueseruralvaluestraditionalsimplerurallifeandnational folklore14. The"ExhibitionofthePortugueseWorld"in1940,organisedbyAntnioFerro,wasthe firstbigculturaleventof theregimeandperhaps thebiggestinthe48years of the dictatorship. Manyveryimportantculturaleventswerenotofficialorsponsoredbythestate, comingfromsmallintellectualandacademicgroupsandfromworkingclassculturaland recreational societies. They were, sometimes, reflections and instruments of the intellectual,artisticandpoliticaloppositiontotheregime.Literaryandculturaljournals andmagazinesappeared(someofthemforonlyafewissues)andbecameplacesof discussionofaestheticandartisticmatters,hidingsometimespoliticaldiscussionsthat couldnttakeplaceinpublic.SearaNova(192115),Presena(192740),Manifesto(1936 38), Revista de Portugal (193740), Gazeta Musical 16 (1950) are some of the most relevant periodicals in Portuguese cultural life 17. Always struggling against the censorship,sometimescontrolledbyundergroundpoliticalorganisations(thecommunist

E.g.D.AfonsoHenriques(the1stKingandfounderofthecountryinXIIcentury),VascodaGama(who discoveredtheseawaytoIndiainXVcentury),PedrolvaresCabral(whodiscoveredBrazilin1500)and Cames(thepoetofthePortugueseeposinXVIcentury).12

AsSalazarsaysPortugalwasnotacolonialcountrybutaunitedcountrywithprovincesin4continents. (SeeGarnier,(s.d.):p.90).13

Thisfolklorewasnotunderstoodasagenuineartisticexpressionofthepeople:verylittleeffortwas givenbythestatetostudythediversityoffolksongsinallPortugal.Themaininterestwastoproducea nationalfolklore,asymbolofnationalism,ofsimpleruralvalues,alsointerestingfortouristsandaspart timeactivitiesoftheworkingclass.14 15 16

Stillpublished.

MusicalGazette,laterwiththenameofMusicalandAllArtsGazette(GazetaMusicaledeTodasas Artes)17

SeeReis,Carlos(1990):p.109andfollowing..

19 party,republicansandotherdemocraticopponentsoftheregime)theseperiodicalshad muchinfluenceontheartisticandintellectualmilieu,but, infact,verylittle on the generalpopulation:atleast60%ofthePortuguesepeople(thereisnoaccountofthe overseasprovinces)couldnotread18.

ART AND MUSIC IN THE ESTADO NOVO TILL 1960 Thesocalledcounterreformsineducationthereactionofthe EstadoNovo against therepublicanreformshadmuchinfluenceinmusic.VianadaMotta(18681948,a former studentof Liszt,composer and pianist)togetherwith Luisde Freitas Branco (18901955, the first Portuguese modernist composer) reformed the National ConservatoryofLisbon,tryingtoimprovemusiceducationatahigherlevel.Thisreform, recommendedbytheRepublicangovernments,wascharacterisedbytheintroductionof musicology matters (history of music, musicology, aesthetics, acoustics, etc.), by a compulsory secondary education for musicians, and by the establishment of new curriculaandprogrammesforallcourses. In1936,byorderoftheministerofeducation,allthesereformswerereevaluatedand dilutedforeconomicandpracticalreasons.Theconservatorycoursesbecamesmaller, easier,addressedonlytothepracticaleducationofmusicians19.Thiscounterreformled LuisdeFreitasBrancotoleavetheConservatoryandmarkedallmusiceducationtill 1973nootherreformwasmade,nonewpieceswereintroducedintheprogrammes, nootherdisciplinesweretaughtotherthan solfeggio,harmony,historyofmusicand acoustics,chambermusicandinstrumentalstudy(orcompositionforcomposers)20.Asa generalobligatorydisciplineforallinstrumentalists,2yearsofFrenchandofPortuguese weretaught,(thesesubjectswereusualfrom10to12yearsinthesecondaryschools).In 1938VianadaMottaretiredandanewdirectorwasnominatedforthenext3decades:18 19

SeeReis,Antnio(1990):p.271andfollowing.

Infactonlyin1980wasfoundedthefirstmusicologycourseinPortugalandin1985wasintroducedthe obligationofacompletesecondaryschoolformusicalstudiesatahigherlevel.20

AlsoItalianandGermanforsingers..

20 IvoCruz,aminorveryconservativecomposer,veryclosetothedictatorship.Underhis direction many former students and foreign teachers became staff members of the Conservatory:thecomposersArmandoJosFernandesandCronerdeVasconcelos,the pianistFernandoLaires(laterknownasaprofessorintheU.S.A.),theguitaristEmilio Pujol,theharpsichordistandorganistSantiagoKastner(veryimportantforhisworkon Portuguesebaroqueharpsichordmusic),theviolistFranoisBroos,etc.21 TheEstadoNovocreatedalsoculturalinstitutionsinordertopromotethe recentand mainlyrepublicantraditionof symphonicandchamber music 22.In 1933Salazar foundedtheNationalBroadcastingCompany(E.N.)and,belongingtothiscompany,was alsofoundedanorchestrawithtwobranches:onefortheclassicalrepertoire,andanother forlightentertainingmusic23.In1940theS.CarlosOperaHousewasreopenedasthe visitingroomofPortugal withthenationalist(antiSpanish)opera D.JooIV ofRuy Coelho.In1941AntnioFerro,presidentofthePropagandaNationalSecretarywasalso nominated President of the National Broadcasting Company (E.N.) and founded a Bureaufor MusicalStudies(GabinetedeEstudos Musicais) inordertoencourage Portuguesecomposition.Adancecompany(VerdeGaio)wasalsocreated,specialisingin therestylingofPortuguesefolkdances24. Itis,perhaps,difficulttospeakofaspecialmusicalstylecreatedfortheEstadoNovo.In fact,withtheexceptionofsomepiecesastheOratorioFtima(RuyCoelho,1931)25,the regimedidntcareforanystyleoranykindofmusicinparticular,beingonlyconcerned withthepoliticalbehaviouroftheartistsandthepossibleconnectionsofthemusicwith21

SeeFreitasBranco,Joo(1982):page56. SeeVieiradeCarvalho,Mrio(1990a).

22 23

Lateralsoappearedanotherorchestraconcernedwiththenationalfolkloremusic(OrquestraTpicada E.N.).SeeNerye.a.,1991:p.167.24 25

SeedeFreitasBranco,Joo(1982):page64.

FatimaisanOratoriobasedonthestoryofthreeshepherdswho,in1917,apparentlysawandspokewith theMotherofGodinavillagecalledFtima.Thepremiereofthispiecehadapoliticalcharacterbecause ofthepresenceofhighauthoritiesofthechurchandthegovernment,andbecauseofthedemonstrations thatfollowedit,againstthereddangercomingfromthenewSpanishrepublic.

21 political ideas the semantisation of music in the words of Mrioo Vieira de Carvalho26. Infact,especiallyaftertheendoftheW.W.II,themaininterestsofthedictatorshipon thesubjectofartwere: 1. Tomaintainanddevelopahighartfortheupperclasses(inmusictheexamples aretheoperaandsymphonicconcerts); 2. Theseartformsshouldbeasymboloftheeconomic,politicalandintellectual supremacyoftheseclasses(inmusic,thegreatimportancegiventothetraditional 18th and19th centuryrepertoire,withthepurposeofappealingonlytotraditional subscribers,excludingotherpublics27); 3. ToenhancepopularartformsbasedonPortuguesefolklorethatcouldsymbolise Portuguese nationalism and the simplicity of the traditional Portuguese rural people(e.g.themanyfolkloremusicanddancegroupsformedandsponsoredbya state working class organization, the National Federation Joy in the Work FederaoNacionalAlegrianoTrabalhoFNAT); 4. Toseparateanyart,artobject,eventorartist(eventhosenationalistsneartothe conservativeideologyofthedictatorship)fromanypossiblepoliticalmeaning(the exclusionofthecomposerandpianistLopesGraafromanymusicalinstitution, thecensorshipofoperaprogrammes,privatesubversiveconcerts,etc.).

Semantizationofmusic,forMrioVieiradeCarvalho,istheprocessofgiving(incorporating)ameaning a cultural, social meaning to apparently meaningless music (in semantic sense). The contrary process,speciallyusedbyfascistregimes,iswhatthisauthorcallstheaesthetisisationofpolitics:apolicy of incorporating art elements in propaganda, mass events and other political features. See Vieira de Carvalho,Mrio(1997).26

Youngerpeople,newsubscribersandintellectuals.ItwascurioustheobligationofformalclothesinS. CarlosOperaHouse.27

22 M ODERN ITYAND TH E QUES TIO N O F A

P ORTU GU ESE M USIC

ThecomposersAlfredoKeil28,AlexandreReyColaoandVianadaMotta29canbeseen asthefirstdemonstrationsofmodernityinromantictermsinPortuguesemusical life.Theytriedtocreateattheendofthe19centuryaPortuguesenationalmusicbased ontheuseofsomePortuguesefolkloricrhythms,popularmelodiesandinstrumentation, adaptedtotheEuropeanoperaticandsymphonictradition. ButasLopesGraaexplained30,suchanintentwasartificial:therewasnoPortuguese music because there was no classical music tradition, no interest in popular music (almostunknownandneglectedbytheauthorities),nointerestinthedevelopmentofa nationalmusicallifeasitwasunderstoodinGermany,France,England,etc.ForLopes Graa,PortuguesemusicshouldnotbemerelyanykindofmusicmadeinPortugal,with orwithoutPortugueseelements:The last criteria todefine anworkof art are alwaysaesthetic criteria;andtheexpressionPortugueseMusicmustbetaken, therefore, in an essentially aesthetic sense. I said above, however, that the formula Portuguese Music expressed an ethnicaesthetical relationship. (...) Does the ethnic factor have anyimportanceforthedefinitionoftheconceptoftheexpression PortugueseMusic?(...)Yesitreallydoesbutitisnotinany wayadefinitiveone.Oritcanbedefinitive,afterbeingreduced orassimilatedtotheaestheticfactor31

28 29

ComposerofoperaswithsomePortuguesecolour,andofthenationalanthem.

ThesymphoniePtria("Tothefatherland")isthefirstPortuguesesymphonicpieceafterBeethovenian models. SeeLopesGraa,Fernando(1989):pag.37.AMsicaPortuguesaeosSeusProblemasI,1989:and following,AMsicaPortuguesaeosSeusProblemasIII,1973:pag.72andUmartistaIntervm,Cartas comalgumaMoral,1974:page277.30

31

Ocritrioltimodefinidordaobradeartesempreumcritrioesttico;eaexpressoMsica Portuguesahdesertomada,portanto,numsentidoessencialmenteesttico.Disseeu,porm,acima, queaformulaMsicaPortuguesaexprimiaumarelaotnicoesttica.(...)Ofactortnicotemouno importnciaparaadefiniodoconceitodeMsicaPortuguesa?(...)Temimportncia,sim,mas node maneiranenhuma definitivo.Oupoders lodepoisdereduzidoouassimilado aofactor esttico.SeeLopesGraa,Fernando(1989):p.41.AMsicaPortuguesaeosSeusProblemasI,1989:.

23 Portuguesemusic,influencedornotbypopularmusic,canonlybeseeninthe1940sand 1950's with the production of LopesGraa and the next generation of avantgarde composers.

Luis de Freitas Branco (1890-1955) LuisdeFreitasBranco(18901955)was,forhisinterestinWagner,inFrenchsymbolism andinthemusicofDebussy,thefirstPortuguesecomposertodevelophislanguage towards a change, far from the conservative (and very poor in the Portuguese case) musicaltradition.HewastheforemostmoderncomposerinPortugalatthebeginningof the20thcentury(e.g.thePreludesforpiano,thesongsforvoiceandpianoandtheworks for orchestra Vatek and ArtificialParadises 1913)32.Asalreadymentioned,Luis de FreitasBrancoalsohadagreatimportanceinmusicpedagogyandinmusiccriticism, havingmadewithVianadaMottaareformoftheNationalConservatoryandfoundedthe musicperiodicalArteMusicalin1940.HewrotetextbooksforuseintheConservatory, maderadioprogrammesandwasacompositionprofessorwithmuchinfluenceonLopes GraaandespeciallyonJolyBragaSantos.

The older generation and tradition As we have seen, Portuguese musical life was embryonic and very conservative in generalterms,inspiteofsomeeffortstoproducemoreconcertsandnewmusic.The followingcomposers,someofthemmusiciansofgreattalent,wereimportantfortheir influence on Portuguese musical life and especially for their work as composition teachers.Someofthemwereprofoundlyagainstallkindsofdevelopmentinmusic,some otherslessclosedtothenewideasthatcameslowlywiththeSudexpresstheexpress trainfromParis.

Afterthisperiod(thefirsttodecadesofthecentury),LuisdeFreitasBrancoassumedamuchmoreneo classicalmanner.Butalsointheselaterworksofanassumednationalism,heusedmodalsubstructures.32

24LUIS COSTA (1879-1960)

LuisCostawasacomposerwhoworkedinOportoandtaughtinthecitysConservatory. A student of Busoni, his works, especially those for piano, have an impressionistic atmosphere: he uses allegorical titles and corresponding sound structures; using pentatonicandhexatonicscales(likeClaudioCarneyro),heshowshisinterestinthe French tradition, Debussy and Ravel in particular. He is often seen as one of the Portuguese impressionists for his attitude of describing nature in music. His main accomplishmentslieintheeffortshemadetoimproveOportosmusicallife,asateacher and director of the Conservatory of Oporto andas the father of the brilliantpianist HelenaCosta.

RUY COELHO (1889-1986)

IntheearlydecadesoftheXXcentury,ayoungcomposerRuyCoelho(18891986) begantoproducesomenewcompositionsandwasseentobeveryclosetoartistslike AlmadasNegreiros,muchinterestedinnewartforms,especiallyinFuturism.Hewas thereforeconsideredamodernist.RuyCoelhostudiedinGermanywithascholarship, having Humperdink as teacher and making some contacts with Max Bruch and Schnberg33.Hisorchestralworks(the Ballet TheprincesswiththeIronShoesand SummerWalks)demonstrateawayofwritingclosetothelanguageofRichardStrauss. Hewasknownfortheoratorio"Ftima"andforotherworks,allfaithfultotheinterests ofthepublicandtheEstadoNovo.34

IVO CRUZ (1901-1989)

BestknownasthedirectoroftheNationalConservatory,hewasaveryconservative composerwithlittleinterestinthe20thcenturydevelopments.Hestudiedmusicandlaw inLisbonandthenwenttoMunichwherehestudiedorchestrationandaesthetics.His33 34

SeeBlancdePortugal,Jos(1997).bookletoftheCDRuyCoelho,StraussPortugalsom,Lisboa,1997. SeeFreitasBranco,Joo(1995):page315.

25 musicembracesa19thcenturylanguage,speciallyinfluencedbyFrenchromanticism.His conservativeideasledhimtodevelopaninterestinwhathethoughtwasaPortuguese music, representing some kind of Portuguese race, culture and history. His most important work was related to the Renascimento Musical 35, having helped in the rediscoveryofancientPortuguesemusic(astheFrenchatendofthe19thcentury),much neglectedbythepublic36.HissonManuelIvoCruzwouldbe,afterthesixties,atalented conductor.

FREDERICO DE FREITAS (1902-1980)

FredericodeFreitaswasaverytalentedcomposerwhowroteworksforpiano,chamber ensemble,theballetandfororchestra.Someofthemshowaninterestinnewharmony andpolytonality.Buthismainworkandsuccesswasinwritingmusicinfluencedby Portuguese folklore and for the Portuguese Vaudeville (Revista Portuguesa). He composedmanysongsandfados37,someoftheminternationalhits.

ARMANDO JOS FERNANDES (1906-1983) and CRONER DE VASCONCELOS (19101974)

Thesetwocomposers,despitetheirdifferences,oftenappeartogetherbecauseoftheir closecontact,careerandsimilarwork.BothstudentsofStravinskyandespeciallyNadia BoulangerinParis,theywereveryactiveasprofessorsintheNationalConservatoryof Lisbon.Theirworks(ofallgenresfromsolopianotoballet)areanextensionofFrench romanticism, sometimes brought up to date with some modal (counterpoint based)

35 36 37

MusicalRenaissance. SeedeFreitasBranco,Joo(1995):page315.SeealsoPinto,Alfredo(1930):page43.

Portuguese folk song ofurbanorigin, foronevoiceand Portugueseguitars. Theword fado means destiny.Therefore,mostofthe fados areverysadandnostalgic,speakingofthehardnessoflife,ofthe belovedthathisfaroverseas(atraditionsincemedievalmenestrelsongs).Buttherearealso fados with jocosecharacter.Despitethefactthatmanypeopleoftheworkingclassandoppositionistssung fados, somewithwordsclearlyagainsttheregime,thisformofurbanfolklore(Lisbon,Santarmandnearby)was seenasalienationsongoftheregimebecauseofitssomehowdefeatingcharacter(thethreealienatingff wereFado,FtimaandFootball).

26 dissonances,andatothertimeswithsomeinfluencefromPortuguesefolklore.Their importancewasgreatinthe1950sand1960s,speciallyas,perhaps,themostrequested compositionteachersintheConservatory:almostallofthecomposersoftheavantgarde studiedwithatleastoneofthem.

New music in Portugal from 1940 to 1960 Besidessomeconservativecritics,independentperiodicalsandafewnewexperimentsin a more modern musical language (as described above), no special importance was attachedtooldortonewmusic,noaestheticdebatewasencouragedbystateinstitutions, noimportancewhatsoeverwasgiventothenewartformsthatappearedintherestof EuropeandUSA,especiallyaftertheWar.Therewasnopersecutionofnewartbecause noonecaredaboutit,creatingtheillusionthatitdidntexistatall.Thisculturalisolation wasveryrealandpartofthelargerpolicyofeconomic,socialandpoliticalcontrolthat begantofragmentaround1960andendedcompletelyonlywiththerevolutionin1974. The music teaching in the conservatories and other music institutions was very conservative, directed to a quick training of performers of the various orchestras instruments(atotalof5years).Forafewinstrumentssuchaspiano,violinandcello,the trainingwasabitmoreintensive,aimingattheformationofvirtuosi(6plus3yearsof superiortutoring).Inthe3yearsuperiorcourseofcompositionsomeattentionwasgiven tothestudyofancientpolyphonyandto19thcenturyharmony,butnevergoingfurther thanCesarFranckor,sometimes,earlyDebussy.

27LOPES-GRAA (1906-1994) AND THE "SONATA"

OneoftheveryfewexceptionsintheverytraditionalPortuguesemusicallifewasthe composerFernandoLopesGraa(19061994).AcommunistandformerstudentofLuis deFreitasBranco,hefoundedin1942the Sonata,aprivatesocietywiththeaimof organisingconcertsshowingmodernmusictothePortuguesepublic.Upuntil1960the Sonata promoted85concertsincludingcomposers of the20th century.Amongmany others(Debussy,Ravel,Stravinsky,Bartok,Casella,FrankMartin,etc.)thefollowing

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0la es ur it h ek co x rg un M ie sl Pe an H rM V ic to in al D F. B to M in to W eb er n er g os et y n ae si co eu be sk ar tin lin ra n liv m nt pi aw lL tra i ll B ss i u de Jo Sa Je B la es A ut .P na

D

G

ly

de

Jo

ONTEMPORARYCOMPOSERSPLAYEDINTHE C SONATA

contemporary Portuguese and foreign (perhaps aesthetically more advanced) composerswereplayed: 1943LopesGraa;1944Martinu, Hindemith,Schnberg;1946JolyBraga Santos,Messiaen;1947JolyBragaSantos,Messiaen,Schnberg;1948Bartok, Petrassi; 1949 Krenek, Lutoslawsky,Luis de Freitas Branco, LopesGraa, Victor Macedo Pinto, Dutilleux; 1950 Jelinek; 1951 Daniel Lesur; 1953 Berg, Messiaen; 1954 Messiaen, Schnberg; 1956 Jolivet, Webern, Gunnaberg, Schnberg,Messiaen;1959Webern;1960Messiaen,LopesGraa,Dallapiccola, Schnberg.38 Materialcollectedintheprogramsandcriticsofthe Sonata concerts,propertyoftheLibraryofthe AcademiadeAmadoresdeMsicaLisbon.38

Lu

is

Lu

D

28 BartokandStravinskyinfluencedLopesGraa.Althoughanadmirerofsomeof the musicofSchnberg,BergandWebern 39,itiswellknownthathewasopposed on aestheticandsociologicaltermstotwelvetonecomposition:"[Twelvetone composition is related to] an art of the past expressionism an art with no relation to the current realities (not counting those characteristics that, as a system, reveal a kind of musical academicism)40

Nevertheless,asadirectoroftheSonata,hedidntaltogetherimposehisaestheticviews when devising the programmes. As the picture above shows, there was a great importancegiventocomposers of thesecondVienneseschoolandtoMessiaen, the spiritualleaderoftheDarmstadtgeneration. ItwasnormalintheseSonataconcertsthatanewordifficultworkwasrepeatedatthe endoftheconcert:to permit the more interested listeners a better and perhaps more lucid knowledge of the work () [speaking about the ConcertoOp.24ofWebern]41.

Theconcertsofthe Sonatawerenotonlymusicaleventsbut,sometimes,alsopolitical events:LopesGraaandothermemberswerepoliticallyengagedasopponentsofthe regime,andtogotosuchconcertswas,forsomepeople,totakepartinapoliticalact. Thereissomeevidence42thatthepoliticalpoliceoftenwenttheretowatchwhomwas amongthepublic.Nevertheless,manyintellectualsofalargepoliticalspectrum,e.g. VianadaMotta,GuilherminaSuggia,lateralsoSilvaPereira,MacedoPinto,neorealistic

39 40

SeeLopesGraa,Fernando(1992):p.116.

aumaartepassada oexpressionismoaumaartesemrelaocomasrealidadessubstanciais actuais(semcontarcomoquenele,comosistema,relevadeumaespciedeescolsticamusical,()In LopesGraa,Fernando(1974),page257. afimdepermitiraosouvintesinteressadosummelhoreacasomaiselucidativoconhecimentodaobra ().SeeLopesGraa,Fernando(1992a),page117.41 42

Accordingtopersonaltalks.

29 intellectuals and many other artists went there and applauded the programmes, the institutionanditsaims43. Togetherwithhisactivityasacomposerandorganiser,LopesGraawasapianistandhe leftanenormousvolumeofworkinthefieldsofmusiccriticism(theperiodicals Arte Musical,GazettaMusical,Presena, etc.),musichistoryandasatranslatorofforeign musicologytexts.HeoftentravelledabroadtorepresentPortugalintheInternational ContemporaryMusicSociety,tointerviewcomposersforPortugueseperiodicalsandto havediscussionswiththeleadingcomposersofhistime44. Becauseofhispoliticalviews,hewasbannedfromallkindsofteachinginschools(state and,in1954,privateschools),earninghislivingasachoirdirectorandasawriter. Althoughhisvastproductionasacomposerwasofverygoodqualityandverywell regardedinallmusiccentresinPortugalandabroad,hiscompositionsweresometimes bannedfrompublicconcerts 45.Nevertheless,hisworkswereconstantlyperformedin chamberandchoirconcertsbyprivatesocieties(e.g.AcademiadosAmadores)andlater bytheGulbenkianFoundation.Despitethefactthathewasamemberoftheunderground communist party, he never embraced the aesthetic theories of Stalin's USSR (the socialisticneorealism,stronglyenhancedbyallcommunistintellectualsinPortugal46), championinginsteadadvancednewartforms.Heevenpublished(inliteraryperiodicals) hisoppositiontosovietaestheticprinciplesandseverelycriticisedChostakovitchand Prokofievfortheirlackofnewmusicalideas47.

43

SeedeFreitasBranco,Joo(1943).

SignificanthisvisittoLondonin1955,wherehemadebroadcastsforthePortuguesesectionofBBC aboutEnglishcontemporarycomposition,andinterviewedAlanBushandHumphreySearle.Inthisperiod, hewasstillveryinterestedinthediscussionsabouttwelvetonecompositionandnationalmusic,having alwaystriedtoseethevariouspointsofview.44 45 46 47

SeeLopesGraa,Fernando(1974):page343. SeePachecoPereira(1999):pag.337andfollowing.

SeeLopesGraa,Fernando(1986):page171.

30 LopesGraacomposedabout260worksandcollectionsofworksinallgenresfromsolo piano to chamber music, music for choir, for voice and music for piano and opera. Becauseofhisprolificworkasacomposeraswellasaneducatorandtheorist,hecanbe considered the leading composer and personality in Portuguese musical in the 20th century48. Hisvastknowledgeofartandcultureandhisinterestincontemporarymusicledhimtoa personaldevelopmentofhismusicallanguage,usingahighlyexpressiveharmonyanda musicalconstructionmuchinfluencedbycomposerssuchasBartok,Stravinsky,Milhaud andSchnberg.Buttheevolutionofhisworkswentalwaysawayfromthetwelvetone techniques and other international manners of the avantgarde composers 49, as he described them. Nevertheless his music moved towards the harmonies and the expressivenessofavantgardemusic,especiallyafterthe1960's50. The avantgarde composer Jorge Peixinho, in a lecture of 1993, remembered the Portuguese 17th century's polyphonic composers Manuel Cardoso and Joo Loureno Rebelo,comparingthemtoLopesGraainahistoricperspectiveofandtohisreactions towardsthenewtendenciesfromDarmstadt:"Thesecomposers[ManuelCardosoandJooLourenoRebelo] persistinapostRenaissanceautochthonousIberiantradition,in atimedominatedbytheEuropeanmusicalbaroquestyle.But, duetotheircreativestrength,theyabsorbandexpressintheir ownwaythespiritofthetimewithanunquestionablebaroque feeling.InthesamewayLopesGraa,withinhisownaesthetical boundsandtheparticularitiesofhiscreativeuniverse,develops andexpandsprospectivelyhisinteriorworld;andtherehesafely exploresthepulseofthespiritofhis(andour)time."5148

SeeCascudo,Teresa(1997).

49

SeeLopesGraa,Fernando(1973):pag.66andpag.304. Thereferencetoaninternationalart opposedtoaPortugueseartiscommontovisualartsandcomposersinthebeginingofthe1960s.50 51

Heevenusedwritenclustersinthelastworks(e.g.6thsonata)

"Estescompositoresprolongam,numapocadominadapelobarrocomusicalEuropeu,umatradio autctoneibrica, de raz postrenascentista. No entanto, pela sua fora criadora, eles absorvem e exprimem,aseumodo,oespritodotempo,comumsensibilidadeinequivocamentebarroca..Deigual modo,LopesGraa,dentrodassuascoordenadasestticasedaespecificidadedoseuuniversocriador,

31 Althoughalwaysanopponentofexpressionismaswellasofstricttwelvetoneandof someoftheexperimentalismofthefifties(speciallyelectroacoustics),LopesGraawas verymuchawareoftheimportanceofthenewcomposers.Inanarticleof1966onwhat wouldbethemusicoftheyear2000,hewarnsfullofcynicismoftheappearance of"(...) some dangerous agitators as, i. e., Machaut, Gesualdo, Monteverdi,Rameau,Beethoven,Wagner,Debussy,Schnberg, StravinskyorXenakis...Then,goodbyetobalanceandstability52

TheinclusionofXenakisamongthese(necessary)"agitators"is,infact,atestimonyof LopesGraa'sopenmindtowardscontemporarymusicanditsevolution.

OTHER MODERN COMPOSERS IN THE FIFTIES

Someothercomposersmadeeffortstoassimilatemoderntechniques,whichhadtheir originsatthebeginningofthecentury.

Claudio Carneyro (1895-1963)

ClaudioCarneyrobegantolearnmusiconlyattheageof15,havinglearnedviolin,piano andcomposition.In1919hewenttoParisandstudiedcompositionwithWidorandPaul Dukas. He also lived 2 years in the USA where he married the American violinist KatherineHickel.HefoundedlaterastringorchestrainOportoandwasateacheranda director at the Conservatory of Oporto. His musical language sometimesapproaches modernmodalismandatonality(ArpaAeolicaforpiano,Khromaforviolaandorchestra andBrumaforviolinandpiano)andthereissomeevidenceofhisinfluenceonOportos

desenvolveeexpandeprospectivamenteoseumundointerior,seguramente,opulsardoespritodoseu(e nosso)tempo".SeePeixinho,Jorge(1995a). "(...) uns perigosos agitadores que se chamaram, por exemplo, Machaut, Gesualdo, Monteverdi, Rameau,Beethoven,Wagner,Debissy,Schnberg,StravinskyouXenakis...Ento,adeusequilbrioe estabilidade." SeeLopesGraa,Fernando(1992):pages157,148and152,andLopesGraa,Fernando (1992b).52

32 youngercomposers(VitorMacedoPintoandFilipePires).Hisworkscoverallgenres exceptopera,hischamberworksbeingofthemostinterest.

Manuel Faria (1916-1983)

BorninS.MigueldeCeideBraga,inaunderprivilegedruralenvironmentofthenorth ofPortugal,ManuelFariasoonbeganalifefullydedicatedtoGodandtomusic.He studiedatfirstinthepriestsSeminarandlaterintheVatican,duringtheWorldWarII. Between1960and1962hehadascholarshipoftheGulbenkianFoundationtostudywith VitoFrazzi(Siena)andPetrassi(Rome).Thenheexperimentedandcomposedpieces usingtwelvetonetechniques. Heworkedmostlyasamusicteacher,asacomposerofchurchmusic,andasadirectorof amateur church choirs in the north of Portugal. Later he had the Carlos Seixas compositionPrize(1972),hefoundedachurchmusicmagazine53,andwasanassociateof theNationalRadio(E.N.).Hissacredmusicisverytraditional,manytimesalsoeasyto perform,havinginviewtheverysmallpossibilitiesofcountryruralcommunities.A closefriendofFredericodeFreitasandanadmirerofDebussyandAlbanBerg 54,he composedalsoorchestrapieces,songsforvoiceandpianoandchambermusic,atfirst usingfolkmelodiesanddances,lateralsowithmanydissonancesinaveryexpressive neoclassicstyle.Histwelvetoneworksforinstrumentsareyetunknown. Hehadaremarkableknowledgeofdifferentcompositiontechniques,whichheusedin someofhisworks.AsaresultheinfluencedverypositivelyPortuguesenewcomposers andmusicianswhohadtheopportunityofstudyingwithhim,s.a.CndidoLima.

53 54

NovaRevistadeMsicaSacra.

Hehadalsomanydoubtsabouttwelvetonetechniques.

33Vtor Macedo Pinto (1917-1964)

VtorMacedoPintowasborninOportoandstudiedpianoandcompositionwithLuis Costa,VianadaMottaandLopesGraa.Hismusicallifeasaprofessionalwassomehow delayedandshortbecausetill1957hemadeacareerinthePortugueseForeignOffice.A brilliantpianist,hetookpartinconcertsoftheSonataplayinghisownworks.Amanof culture,headmiredtheworksoftheSecondVienneseSchoolandofBartok,Prokofiev, Honegger,Hindemith,StravinskyandMessiaen,andin1955hewasalreadyawareofthe developmentsof MusiqueConcrte55.Hiscompositions(manyofthemforpiano),are characterisedBy the diversity of the topics he uses, by the eclecticism of thought and of processes. We find, hand in hand with Impressionism and Expressionism, examples of twelvetone technique, of the use of folklore, of melodies and rhythmical structures of Bartok, of Medieval and Hellenic evocations, sometimesmixedtogether.56

His compositions, mostly unknown, denote his interest for the experience of new techniques(s.a.SevenOldSongs1950,forvoice,fluteandpiano,FourStudies1964, forpiano,etc.).HisinterestinnewmusicalsoinfluencedhispupilsintheConservatories ofOporto,ofCoimbraandofBraga,especiallyinthewayheattractedthemtotheuseof newcompositionaltechniques.Atthetimehisprematuredeathin1964,theGulbenkian FoundationhadgivenhimascholarshiptomakefurtherstudiesintheUK.

Fernando Correia de Oliveira (1921)

The career of Fernando Correia de Oliveira is strongly attached to the fact that he inventedwhathecalls"SymmetricHarmony",atechniqueandawayofwritingmusic

55 56

SeeCarneiro,lvaro(1968).

caracterizasepeladiversidadedostemasabordados,peloecletismodopensamentoedosprocessos. Assim,apardoImpressionismoedoExpressionismo,encontramosexemplosdetcnicadodecafnica,de aproveitamento do folclore, tipos meldicos e estruturas rtmicas bartokianas, evocaes medievais e helnicas,sobrepondoseporvezesnamesmaobra.SeeFilipePires,quotedinCarneiro,lvaro(1968): page65.

34 thatallowsamorefreeuseofharmoniesandcounterpoint,inobservationofsomesimple transpositionprinciples.Hisworksmuchinfluencedbyhisinterestinchildrensmusic wereplayedinthesixtiesandseventiesinhishometownOporto,wherehealsoowns a school. They reflect his system of counterpoint and score writing and represent a simpleviewofthemusicoftheneoclassicism,perhapsclosetothesimplicityofOrff's Schulwerk.

Joly Braga Santos (1924-1988)

JolyBragaSantoswas perhaps, thefavouritecompositionstudent of LuisdeFreitas Branco.HestudiedalsoinItalyanddedicatedhimselffullytocomposition,conducting andteaching,coveringallkindsofgenres,includingOpera.Asymphonistofenormous soundresources,atfirstveryclosetothemusicstyleofRichardStraussandtoromantic harmony,helaterbegantodevelophisstyleapproachingthesonoritiesofChostakovitch. After1960hebegantoincorporateamorefreeuseofharmonyandmodality. Althoughhenevercomposedusingtechniquesoftheavantgardemusiciansofthe1950's and1960's,hemadegoodfriendshipsamongthem,especiallywithJorgePeixinho 57.He isconsideredoneofthebestcomposersofthe20thcenturyinPortugal.

SOME EVENTS

Someothereventsintermsofthenewmusiccanbeseeninthisperiod.Firstofallthere istheactivityofEmaRomerodaCmaraReisinorganisingprivateconcerts.Inoneof theseconcertsin1932PierrotLunairewasperformed.Secondly,theactivityofPedrode FreitasBrancoasaconductoranddirectoroftheRadioSymphonyOrchestra.Inhis programmes many works of contemporary composers were played, inserted in the normalseriesofthatorchestra.

HeevenorganisedaconcertwithworksofPeixinhoinItalyandconductedPolipticoasuccessionof4 smallpiecesfororchestrainanexpressionistmanner,dedicatedtoPeixinho'sprofessorPetrassi.57

35 InadditiontheS.CarlosOperahouseproducedsomeoperasofPortuguesecomposers. RuyCoelhoclearlythecomposeroftheregimesawmanyofhisworksproduced (1927,1931,1940,1947,1950,1952,1953),withothersbyJolyBragaSantos(1959), Frederico de Freitas (1960) 58. As for foreign modern composers, there were performances of Stravinsky (1944 Histoire du Soldat) and Alban Berg (1959 Wozzeck).59

C OMPOSITIO N

IN

P ORTUGAL

TILL

1960

AN

E VALU ATION

ResearchingcompositioninPortugalintheperiodlocatedbetweenthebeginningofthe centuryand1960,itisclearthattherewaslittleinterestinmodernity,innewideas,even in possible transformations that could develop musical life in Portugal and musical composition. Infact,theyearsaroundtherepublicanrevolutionin1910broughtanincreasedinterestin chamber and symphonic concerts and in new music, specially represented paradoxicallybyWagner60.Buttheconservativeregimeimposedin1926,whosemain goalwastoputorderintoPortuguesesociety,alsoputorderintothemostcreative aspectsofthenewbornmusicallife.ThedictatorshipofSalazarwasconcernedonly with an art that might bolster its oligarchic behaviour: cherishing some nationalistic forms and, most of the time, repeating music which had been well known and appreciatedinthepast,alwaysexcludingignoringartthatcouldraiseanyquestion. Thenumberofmusicians(fortheoperaandthedifferentorchestras)grew,moreand more symphonic concerts were given and top international musicians were invited, speciallyaftertheseasonsof1957and1958oftheEmissoraNacionalandtheS.Carlos61

.ThisevolutionresultedalsoinanincreaseofthenumberandqualityofPortugal'stop

58 59 60 61

LopesGraawasonlyplayedin1970. Othermoderncompposerswereplayedinthe1960'sand,specially,in1970's. SeeNery,RuyandFerreiradeCastro,Paulo(1991)andVieiradeCarvalho,Mrio(1997).

SeedeFreitasBranco,Joo(1995):page311.

36 musicians62, being already noticeable in the number of piano virtuosi like Fernando Laires,HelenaCostaandSequeiraCosta.Musicshouldentertain,bepleasantandpraise thegeniusofthegreatcomposersofthepast.Musiciansoughttobeguardiansoftheir heritage,withitsmastershonouredaspriestsofahighlycultivatedandspiritualisedart. Butnewideasregardingcompositiontechniques,differentwaysofperformingandnew waysofgettingpeopleinvolved(sociallyandpolitically)withmusichadnoplace.Asa criticwrote(aboutoneofthefirstConcertsoftheSonata),newsounds,newharmonies, newmusichadnoimportanceand,therefore,nofuture 63.Thiswas,inmusic,theso calledpolicyofthespirit,asdescribedbyAntnioFerro64. Therefore,withtheexceptionofLopesGraa(anoutsiderbanishedbytheregime)and the ephemeral or timid experiments of Luis de Freitas Branco, Luis Costa, Cludio Carneyro,VitorMacedoPinto,JollyBragaSantos,FernandoCorreiadeOliveiraand ManuelFaria,therewasnomoderncompositioninthefortiesandfiftiesinPortugal. Butintheseyearsanewgenerationwasborn:firstMariadeLurdesMartins(b.1926) and Filipe de Sousa (b. 1927) and later Clotilde Rosa (b. 1930), Armando Santiago (1932),FilipePires(b.1934),ConstanaCapdeville(19371992),lvaroSalazar(b. 1938),CndidoLima(b.1938),lvaroCassuto(b.1938),JorgePeixinho(19401995) andEmanuelNunes(b.1941).TheireducationwasmadeintheConservatoriesofLisbon andOporto,mostofthemwithArmandoJosFernandesandCronerdeVasconcelosas referredtoabove;thiswasthecultural,socialandpoliticalcontextfromwhichtheygrew. Butthechangesinthesociety,theircontactwithothermusiccentresandtheirinterest andtalentasmusiciansandcomposersledthemtodevelopnewtechniques,newideas newmusic,torepresentinPortugalthemusicoftheavantgarde.

62 63 64

OrforeignmusiciansworkinginPortugal. SeeDirioPopular,28thofMarch,1943,criticsignedS.F.

PoliticadoEsprito.AntnioFerroborrowedthisexpressionfromPaulValeryanduseditasthenameof aconference.Itbecamethedesignationofthestatepolicyonthemattersofartandculture.SeeLambert, Ftima(1997):page59.

37

38

New Music, Darmstadt and the Avant-gardeAN AESTHETIC AND HISTORIC PERSPECTIVE The evolution of music in Europe after the Second World War has been seen from differentperspectives.Theimportanteventsandtransformationsthattookplacepointto theemergenceofnewideasofsoundandofmusicconstruction,andtheexplosionofits consequences in all aspects of the musical life: expression, creation, performance, composition,etc. Thereareseveralparadigmaticaspectsthattogetherdevelopedmusictowhatitcannow beseenasthehistoricavantgarde. 1Thefirstparadigmisthehypotheticaldeclineofthetonalsystem,thefailureofa substructurethathadbeenthecommonbasisforallmusicofthelasttwocenturies, and had been understood by the public. This decline was seen as an historical consequence of the highly elaborated harmonies of Wagner and post Wagnerian composers, culminating in Debussy, Strauss and Schnberg65. This decline forshadowedtheuseofdifferentnontonalsubstructures(modal,exotic,popular,new scales)andthetwelvetonetheoriesofSchnbergandoftheothercomposersofthe secondVienneseschool(AlbanBergandAntonvonWebern). 2Thesecondandbasicparadigmistheidealofthenew.Thenewasan oppositiontotheoldand,later,toromanticismandtheromanticwayofexpression; thenewasasociologicalattitudetowardstheestablishedmusicmilieu;thenew as anawareness of the present situationin history and the new as an aesthetic criteriaforart:theconceptsofmodern,new,truthandtheavantgardeas definedbyAdorno.

65

NottoforgetalsoMoussorsky,Janacek,Bruckner,Liszt,Chopinandothers.

39 3Thesignificanceofthetwelvetonesystemwasimportant,notonlyasasubstructure forcompositionasinSchnbergbutalsoasabasicideafortheuseofallkinds ofseries,andfortheconstructionasanestheticalvalueinitself.Thisis,perhaps,the thirdparadigmoftheavantgarde:thedifferentuseoftheseriesanditsconsequences inthe1950sandafter,asseeninMessiaen,Boulez,Stockhausen,etc. 4 To experiment with sound, to play with sound objects and sound structures, to questionthematerialitselfandthewayitiswritten,toenjoyasanartisticprocedure anyexperimentwithsounds,isperhaps,afourthparadigmthattransformedthemusic ofthe1950sand1960s. 5Thefifthparadigmarisesasthecontinuationoftheevolutioninmodernhistoryand itstechnologicaldevelopments:themachineandthemechanicalspiritandallitsuses in music, from Musique Concrte to aleatory elements, compositional software, chance,liveelectronics,etc.

T HE A

END O F TONALITY

Themusicofsomeofthecomposersofthe19th andthebeginningofthe20th century containsaveryfreeuseofharmony,farfromthestrictcodifiedrulesmadebyRameau andusedbytheVienneseclassicalstyle.Wagneri.e.inthePreludeofTristanand Isolde was seen as a point of no return in the use of dissonant chords, free harmony and no resolution of dissonance. This evolution due to a hypothetical profoundaestheticneedalsohaditsrootsinsomepoliticalandsocialparticularities.

B The19th centuryandthefirsthalfofthe20th centuryweretimesinwhichsociety(the upperclassesandtheworkingclass),forvariousreasons,startedtolookandtobeaware

40 of other people, in political, cultural, geographical and social terms. Many political forcesofdifferentkindsfoughtagainstthesupremacyofothers:thesocialmovements enhancedbysocialandnationalistmovements,socialistideasofSaintSimon,KarlMarx andothers,thefightfornationalselfrecognitionandforfreedom(Greece,thedifferent Slavicnationalities,Italy,Poland,etc.).Thesecountriesfoughtforaseparationfromthe empiresintowhichtheyhadbeenintegrated,andthisfightwasalsoforthesurvivalof theirculturetheirlanguage,uses,religion,art,musicwhichtheystudied,cultivated andincludedinallkindsofartexpression.Alsoothercountries,Spain,Russiaandeven Germany,developedtheirownartandmusic,integratingfolkformsandstructuresinto artmusic.

C Withtheevolutionoftransport,commerceandthedevelopmentofcolonialism(forced byindustrialisationinEuropeandAmerica),manycivilisationsaroundtheworldwere discovered,studiedandexhibitedtothemetropolitansocietiesinEurope.Theirvariety, characteristics, their differentways of livingandof dealingwith the materials,their artisticformsinterestedtheEuropeanpublicandartistsnotonlyfortheirexoticismbut also for their possibilities in European art. Artefacts, dance and music of Bali, of different African and Asian peoples, of Australia and Polynesia and of the Native Americansbegantobeseenandheardininternationalandcolonialexhibitionsandtobe studiedtogetherwiththeirlanguage,philosophyandsocialbehaviour. So,fordifferentreasons,newscales,rhythmsandtimbresappearedinEuropeanand American concert rooms, as an exotic symbol or integrated in a new music, as a characteristicofapersonalstyle.AfterMoussorgsky,Wagner,Liszt,Albeniz,Janacek, themodernDebussy,Stravinsky,Bartok,MilhaudandMessiaenwentjustastepfurther intheuseanddevelopmentofmusicalsubstructuresdifferentfromthetonaltradition.

41 In the second half of the 20th century, this interest of composers in music of other civilisationsbecameveryimportant.Thequestionwasnothowtoincorporateforeign elementsinaEuropeanlanguagebuthowtofindtodevelopanewmusicinwhich foreign(exotic)materialsandstructurescouldbeusedatthesamelevelasthenewones createdinEuropeandtheUSA.AfterWorldWarIIcomposerssearchedfornewideas andnewconceptsofmusic,newsoundstoworkwithandusedthemnotasornamentsor symbolic elements (as Puccini, Milhaud and Debussy), or even as substructures for Europeancomposition(asMessiaen).Cage,Boulez,Stockhausenandothercomposers begantodevelopdifferentconceptsofmusic,newwaysofdevelopingmusicalideas,new notionsofrhythmandtime(notsimplyforeignrhythms)andnewrelationshipsbetween text,speechandsinging.Theyquestionedanddevelopedfurtherthespiritualityofthe music, the idea of time and duration, different pitch substructures and relationships (microtonality,relationsoftimbresandpitch),etc.66

M ODERN ITY , T HE N EW

AND TH E

A VAN T - GARDE

Theyearsbeforeandafter1900were,inthehistoryofEurope,yearsofgreatchangesin thewaypeoplethoughtaboutsocietyandart:Baudelaire,Rimbaud,Mallarm,Debussy, Satie,Stravinsky,Joyce,Picasso,Braque,Kandinsky,Schnbergandmanyothersmade substantialchangesintheirownformsofexpressionandinartingeneral:theyconceived newformsofart;theyinventednewwaysofdealingwiththematerialsandthestructures thatwereavailable.Theyrepresentedmodernityandthenewintheyearsbeforeand aftertheturnofthecentury. Theconceptofmodernityis,infact,areferencewhichdifferentartistsused.Inthe19th century,Baudelairereferredtotheimportanceofmodernity:QuiditRomantiqueditart ItisinterestingtoviewthewordsofBoulezagainsttheAsianinfluenceinsomecomposers(Cage,for instance)and,ontheotherhand,hisinterestinGagaku,NotheatreandAsianmusicingeneral.Then,for Boulez,theanswerwasnotsimplyinusingforeignmateirals,structuresorevenconceptstheybelongto "perfect"and"dead"music,themusicofthosesocietiesbuttotranscendtheminalanguagethatwould answertothecomposer'spreocupations.SeeBoulez,Pierre(1986):page421andfollowingandpage449 andfollowing.66

42 moderne67. The concept of modernity is a response to the transitory, to the circumstancesofthetime,totheneedsofmodernlife.Amodernartistwasthatonewho wasawareofthenewsocial,politicalandculturaldevelopmentsofthe19thcentury, assuminghisZeitgeistagainsttheacademyandtheestablishment.Lamodernitcestletransitoire,lefugitif,lecontingent,lamoiti delart,dontlautremoitiestlterneletlimmutable.68

Soonitwasseenthatanyartformsconsideredmodernbecameoldforthefollowing generations,especiallywhensociety(themarket,thebourgeoisie)begantoacceptthose modernartists. Modernit begantobeasynonymof dcadence. Newformsemerged fromthenewgenerations,opposingtheirideastotheoldmodernity:Symbolism,the Nabis,ArtNouveau,theFauves(opposedtoimpressionismandtheAcademy),Debussy, RavelandSatie(opposedtoGermancomplexityandthe Conservatoire),atonalmusic (opposedtotonalmusic).Thenewwasanecessity,notonlyasanaffirmationofa generationbutalsoasacontinuoustransformation,proposingconstantlynewformsand newideas.Thenewreferedtothenow,inaconstantoppositiontothepast.Because:ArtmeansNewArt.69

Anotherconceptemergingtogetherwiththenewwasavantgarde.Itwasfirstused inthemilitarytheninpoliticsandfinallyinart:avantgardesometimesreplacedthe conceptofmodernityandofnew.AlreadywithSaintSimon,the19thcenturyavantgarde artists created the concept of a socially and politically engaged art of the future70, opposed tothe present newart onlyengagedinitself 71and tothe oldforms, academic,modern,bourgeois.Thenewdevelopeditselftoadialecticofthenew,

67

QuotedinCompagnon,Antoine(1990):page29. BaudelairequotedinBoulez,Pierre(1966):page37. Schnberg,Arnold(1984):page115.

68 69 70

Thatshouldsomehowcometogetherwiththe"manofthefuture"ina"societyofthefuture",inarough paralellwith19thcenturyphilosophy.71

artfortheart.

43 assumingasocialandpoliticaleminence,atleastanaestheticoneintermsofaconstant questioningofitsprinciples. Twokindsofavantgardecanbeseeninartsincetheendofthe19 thcentury:anavant gardewheretheartistswereengagedinapoliticalcause(fromZolatoBrecht,Weill,and laterChostakovitch), andanavantgardewheretheartistswereaestheticallyengaged (Rimbaud,Mallarm,Satie,Stravinskyofthe Sacre,Schnberg,Boulez).Someartists andmovementssuchasSurrealismandFuturismcanbeseeninoneortheotherkindof avantgarde.Thefirstkindofavantgardeespeciallyaftertherepressionofartists underStalindevelopeditselfintoapoliticallyengagedtradition,assumingartistic forms of the past with new ideological intentions (as Eisler). The second assumed differentrolesinWesternEuropeandtheUSA.EspeciallyafterW.W.IImanyartists questionedbothmaterialsandforms,eventhewayspeopleappreciatedartandthevery conceptofartitself.72

Adorno and the new music CharacteristicoftheuseofthissecondconceptofavantgardeisAdorno,amusicianand philosopheroftheSchoolofFrankfurt.Adorno,aMarxistwithmuchinterestinthe appreciationandproductionofartinsocialterms,theorisedabouttheevolutionofnew artformssinceBaudelaire. InAdorno,thenewthenewmusicimpliesacoherent(inideological,aesthetic andtechnicalterms)oppositiontothepast.Itisanoppositiontoasocietyofbourgeois structures, already established and confirmed through multiple symbols political, socialandculturalsymbolsthattendstobepreservedandvariedthroughtime.The newexistsintheoppositiontowellknowntechniques,toalreadyusedexpressions (and saturated by the repetition of its own expressive properties), to musical objects alreadytoomuchexplored.Asresultsofthiswayofunderstandingavantgardeareconceptualart,happenings,trashart,andsome otherextremeapproaches.Cf.Compagnon,Antoine(1990).72

44"Inthisway,artbecomesthemereexponentofsociety,rather thanacatalystforchangeinsociety.Itthusgivesofficialapproval tothattendencyofthebourgeoisconsciousnesstodegradeall intellectualformulationstoasimplefunction,anobjectwhichcan besubstitutedforsomeotherobject,orinthefinalanalysisan articleofconsumption"73

Thenew is the nostalgia for the new 74. As a basis for the so called "negative aesthetic", this concept of new art implies an attitude of permanent discovery and experimentationofnewexpressivemeansandaconstantmovement,aconstantchange, in opposition to the established. The new must also be in contradiction with the society,as,intheAdorno'saesthetics,capitalismtendstoassimilatethenewtothe marketofart."No artist is able to overcome, through his own individual resources,thecontradictionofenchainedartwithinanenchained society 75. The most which he can hope to accomplish is the contradiction of such a society through emancipated art, and eveninthisattempthemightwellbevictimofdespair."76

The new implies truth in art, in opposition to false. Again,for Adorno, these conceptshavetobeunderstoodnotonlyinaestheticterms,butalsoinhistoricaland socialandterms.Musicalobjectsarefalseortruenotbecauseoffashionbutduetotheir implicationsinadialecticperspectiveoftheartandsociety.Truthimpliesthenovelty orrecurrenceofthematerialstheirmoreorlessexpressivepossibilities."Even the more insensitive ear detects the shabbiness of exhaustion of the diminished seventh chord and certain chromaticmodulatorytonesinthesalonmusicofthenineteenth century.Forthetechnicallytrainedear,suchvaguediscomfortis transformedintoaprohibitivecanon.Ifallisnotdeception,this canontodayexcludeseventhemediumoftonalitythatistosay, the means of all traditional music. It is not simply that these73 74

Adorno,TheodorW.(1973):p.25.

Adorno,TheodorW.(1982a):p.45.

Perhapsawrongtranslationoftheoriginal"der entfesselten Kunstzur gefesselten Geselschaft" (see Adorno,TheodorW.(1997):page102.Ipropose"contradictionof unenchainedartwithinanenchained society".75 76

Adorno,TheodorW.(1973):pages105and106.

45soundsareantiquatedanduntimely,butthattheyarefalse.They no longer fulfil their function. The most progressive level of technical procedures designs tasks before which traditional soundsrevealthemselvesasimportantclichs"77

Thus,inAdorno,thenewartistthenewmusicianmusthaveadiscussionwiththe past,adialecticattitudeofconfrontationwiththesoundmaterials,withtheforms78.Even a confrontation with a possible urge for stability a resignation with its own discoveries."Musicisnottobedecorative;itistobetrueandArtdoesnot arise out of ability but rather out of necessity 79. With the negationofillusionandplaymusictendstowardsthedirectionof knowledge".80

Finally,this(negative)aestheticandthissocialimperativeespeciallyintwelvetone music, and as a consequence of its own formal and expressive content takes a somehowtragicfacet,asconsideredbyAdornoalreadyin1949:itsimportanceforthe future,asamessageinabottle,isincontrastwithitsinevitabledistancefromthepresent andfromthepublic."Modernmusicsacrificesitselftothiseffort.Ithastakenupon itselfallthedarknessandguiltoftheworld.Itsfortuneliesinthe perceptionofmisfortune;allofitsbeautyisindenyingitselfthe illusionofbeauty.Noonewishestobecomeinvolvedwithart individualsaslittlecollectives.Itdiesawayunheard,withouteven anecho.Iftimecrystallizesaroundthatmusicwhichhasbeen heard,revealingitsradiantquintessence,music,whichhasnot beenheard,fallsintoemptytimelikeanimpotentbullet.Modern music spontaneously aims towards this last experience evidenced hourly in mechanical music. Modern music sees

77 78

Adorno,TheodorW.(1973):page34.

ThiscriticwasalsoaddressedtoSchnbergandlaterthetotheserialists,intheirpossibledogmatic attitudeinwhatconcernstheusethefetishismeofcompositionaltechniques.Adornodefendeda kindofnewdialecticconfrontationofthecomposerwiththematerials(includingthetechniques,theform, the rhythm patterns, etc.). Boulez later made the same critic pointing to other paths of musical development(SeeAdorno,TheodorW.(1982b)).79 80

ArnoldSchenberg,ProblemedesKunstunterrichts,quotedinAdorno,TheodorW.(1973):page41. Adorno,TheodorW.(1973):page41.

46absolute oblivion as its goal. It is the surviving message of despairfromtheshipwrecked."81

TheimportanceofAdornosideasremainsnotonlyinthecriticalobservationsaboutthe newmusicemerginginEurope(thefirsteditionofPhilosophiederNeuenMusikwasin 1949)butasanideologicalbasisfortheevolutionoftheavantgardetillthe1960s.Cage, Brown,Feldman,Stockhausen,Boulez,BerioandNonoweresomeoftheartistswho wereinvolvedinthisviewofmodernart82. Despitethedifferencesoftheconceptshereexplained,artistsandartisticmovements usedthetermsModern,NewandAvantgardewithlittleaccuracy.Nevertheless, thedifferencescanbedistinguishedbythecontextandbyacriticalviewoftheartistic productions. Adorno'sinfluenceonmusicofthesecondhalfofthecenturycontinued,asacritic againstsomeofthenewideasofcompositiongrowinginDarmstadt,andlaterinthe sixties,inhisarticle"Versunemusiqueinformel" wherehereconsiderstheideasof Boulezandproposesasortofwayoutofthealreadydeadserialism.

T WELVE - TONE

MUSIC AND TH E SER IES

ThediscoveryofthetwelvetonesystembySchnbergisillustratedasanhistorical necessity,whichcouldalreadybeseenintheprogressiveemancipationofthedissonance intheromanticstyle.Thissystemimposedanewwayofdealingwithtonerelationships: thestricthierarchicrelationsoftraditionalharmonywerereplacedbyanewconcept theserieswhereeachpitchhadaspecificandequalplaceamongtheothers.Each series in each piece determined the harmonic and melodic possibilities, as a super motive,unifyingitspartsinamuchmoreefficientwaythanthetonalsystem,evenmore soinextendedworks(symphonies,operas).8381

Adorno,TheodorW.(1973):page133.

TheinfluenceoftheaestheticofAdornoisstillmuchseeninmanycomposers,especiallythosewhowere influencedbyserialismandDarmstadt(Peixinho,Salazar,EmmanuelNunes,etc.)82 83

SeeSchnberg,Arnold(1975):page244.

47 Thetwelvetonesystemwasseenasakindofnewcommonbasisthatwouldreplacethe old tonal systemin its universal character. Itwas seen even as a system that would ensurethesupremacyofGermanmusic84. But in 1952, Boulez Schnberg est Mort explained his ideas about a misunderstandingofSchnbergsseriesanditsimportanceinnewmusic.Boulez,inthis text 85 as in others of the same period, contradicts the relevance of Schnbergs understanding of the series, accusing him of not having exploited thoroughly its possibilities. According to Boulez, Schnberg simply replaced the old tonality and enlargedthethemebasedstructuresbythepitchseries.ForBoulez,Schnbergdidnt developnewformsnordidheexpandtheseriestocoverrhythm,timbre,etc.86 ForBoulez,theseriesshouldbethebasisnotonlyforthenotesand/orintervalsbutalso forallparametersinthepiece.UnlikeSchnbergandBerg,thecomposersshouldavoid anyuseofoldforms(sonata,waltz,etc.)andassumeeachpieceasanewformthat emergedfromtheseries.(...)demmequelesmodesoulestonalitsengendraientnon seulementlesmorphologiesmusicales,maisapartirdelles,la syntaxe et les formes, de mme le principe sriel recle de nouvelles morphologies (...). Il faut bien avouer que nous ne trouvonsgurechezSchnbergunetelleconscienceduprincipe srielgnrateur.87

Theserieswasnotonlyarowofdifferentwaysofusingeachmusicalparameter(rhythm, pitch,texture,dynamics,etc.).Itimpliedthespiritofatotalcontrolofallparametersin the music, the spirit of absolute objectivity and determination: in the creation and transformationofthematerials,inthelogicofthestructure,inthecreationoftheform.

84 85 86 87

SchnbergquotedinMacdonald,Malcolm(1976):p.35. AvantgardeinthetermsofAdorno. AdornoalsocriticisedSchnbergfornotcontinuingtodevelopthesurchforthenewhissystem.

Boulez,Pierre(1966):page17.

48Becausemathematicsisthesciencewiththemostdeveloped methodologyatthepresenttime,Ihavetakenitasexamplethat mayhelpustofillthegapsinourpresentsystem.88

Sometimes,theworksresultingfromtheseideaswerehighlycomplexanddifficultto performandtounderstand,consideredmoreasdocumentsthanasworksofart,butthe resultswereundoubtedlyminorinthefaceofthecomposingprocedures.89 Pierre Boulez and many composers in the 1950s and 1960s adopted compositional techniques close to this serialism, believing again in the historical importance and necessityofitsprocedures.Andtheseproceduresexcluded(aswecanseeinthewritings ofSchnberg 90 andinthepracticeofBoulez,Berio,Pousseurandothers)theuseof traditionalchords,scales,octaveintervals,etc.TheprincipleinlinewiththeAdornian theories was toprevent the use of any traditionalmusical object, substructure or structure, even to avoid a traditional romantic, classic or neoclassic way of appreciating music. The terms romantic and neoclassic were used as insults, referringtoalessmodern,lessnew,lesscontemporaryorlessavantgardecomposer.Whatwewerelookingforwasnotsimplyafashiontobeworn for a single season (...) but a real language and longterm solutionsofformalandlinguisticproblems.Someofoursolutions werenodoubtexaggeratedlystrictincharacter,adisciplinethat irkedbutrepresentedanecessarystage.91

Infact,asBoulezwiselysaidinthistextof1968,theattempttocreateanewcommon languagedidnthavemuchsuccess,aswithSchnberg30yearsearlierwiththetwelve tonesystem.Differentpersonalwaysofcompositionanddifferenttendenciesappeared, some of them based on the aesthetic principles described, some others backward looking,notsomuchtendenciesinfactasnostalgiainthewordsofBoulez.92

88 89 90 91

Boulez,Pierre(1986):page98. SeeBoulez,Pierre(1966):pages17,265andfollowingandBoulez(1986):page200. SeeSchnberg,Arnold(1975):page207. ItisinteressantthefollowingtextofCompagnoninfaceoftheideasofBoulezinthe1950's.

Boulez,Pierre(1986):page446.

92

49 E X PER IMENTIN G All20thcenturyartisalsomarkedbyideaswhichappearedbeforeW.W.IIindifferent groups of artists: Der Blaue Reiter, Dada,Futurism, Surrealism,etc.Some of these groupsweremerelynihilistic,otherstriedtoexperimentwithnewformsofartandnew formsofartreception,orproposedasocialengagement.Theeffectofthequestionsthat theseartistsandintellectualsraisedaboutform,expression,the(unexpected)useof materials,aboutperformanceandtherleofthepublicwasdevastating.Newsounds andnewinstrumentswereexperimented,newformsofartisticappearance(inthetheatre, involvingthepublic,etc)appeared,newconceptsweretriedintheirrelationtothepublic and to the social context. The music for "noisy intoners" of Russolo, the theatre of CabaretVoltaire,theworksandideasofSatie,allareexamplesofthisimpulsetowards experimentation.TheycreatedthebasisfortheexperimentalworkofPollock,Varse, Cage,Stockhausen(especiallyinthe1960s),Kagel,Schnebelandothers. Theidea,completelynewinthefaceofallancientart,wasoftotalfreedom,freedom fromconceptslikemasterpiece,highart,fromanyartisticlaws.Theseartistshad theneedoftrying,transforming,developinganddiscussingallmattersofart.Inmusic, someofthefirstworkshavingthischaracterwerethepianopiecesofHenryCowelland Antheil,thepercussionpiecesofVarse,theexperimentswithpreparedpianosmadeby Cage, the experiments with electronic sounds (Stockhausen, Boulez, etc.) and the MusiqueconcrteofPierreSchaefferandPierreHenry.Laterthisconceptwasrelatedto happenings(eventsinthewordsofJ.Cage93),tomusicaltheatre(Kagel,Schnebel94), to the use of all kinds of objects to make sounds (Cage, electronic and Musique

Cestcedestininsupportablequelesavantgardesontconjurense faisanthistoriques,donnantlemouvementindfinidunouveaupourun dpassementcritique.Pourconserverunsens,poursedistinguerdela dcadence, le renouvellement doit sidentifier une trajectoire vers lessence de lart, une rduction et une purification. Compagnon, Antoine(1990):p.48).93 94

InPortugualJorgePeixinho.

InPortugalConstanaCapdeville.

50 concrte),toimprovisation(interactingwiththepublic,groupimprovisation,solo,etc.), tomanykindsofartisticandsomehowmusicalexpressionthatwasmeantnotto presentsomethingcomplete,finished,afinalworkthatwouldalwaysberepeatedinthe sameway.95 Theinfluenceofthisexperimentalspiritwasverystronginthe1960s,injazzmusic (freejazz),inschoolmusic(MurraySchaferandJohn Paynter),cinema,theatre and dance(nouvellevague, LivingTheatre,MerceCuningham,MarthaGraham),ensemble experimentsandgroupimprovisation. Mostimportantwerethenewmethodsofmusicnotation.Inmanyworksofthisperiod thescorewasnotconsideredasaclosedencryptedlanguage,reflectingtheconcrete soundintentionsofthecomposer,butasaproposalforfurthermusicalinvention,giving more or less rough "graphic" instructions. The new "graphic notation" was less concerned, most of the times, with traditional parameters such as pitch and rhythm, tryinginsteadtoemphasisesuchotherparametersasthetimbreevolutionofthesounds, therelation(interaction)betweenthemusicians,orthegreaterorlesserdensityofsound events.Sometimesthescorewasjustanimageoragroupofwritteninstructionsthatthe musicianscouldinterpretastheywanted96.

F ROM D ETERMIN ISM

TO ELECTRON ICS

The aesthetics of twelvetone music and serialism must be understood in a historic context.Infact,sincethe17thcentury,Europeshistoryhasbeenmarkedbyanenormous evolutionofempiricalmethods(machinery,chemistry,andphysics),ofpositivismandof sciencesthatwereimportantforthedevelopmentoftheindustrialrevolution.Alsothe social and human sciences and disciplines were influenced by this positive spirit of SomeofthemoreinterestingexperimentsarethoseofCage,MurraySchafer,Stockhausen,Maurizio Kagel and Dieter Schnebel. In Portugal, the experimentation and "events" of Peixinho (with other musiciansandwithErnestodeSousa,laterinthegroup AlternativaZero)andthemusicaltheatreof ColectViva(ConstanaCapdeville),bothafterthe1960's,were,perhaps,themostimportant.95 96

AsinStockhausensAusderSiebenTagenandCage'spianoconcerto.

51 objectivity, organising themselves or adapting the new methods to their specific objectives.Thiswasthecaseinmusicology,sociology,epistemology,languagestudies, psychologyandpsychiatryandofeducationstudies. Thisattitudemarkedalsothemusicofthe20thcenturyintwoways,thefirstthroughthe developmentofnewwaysofproducingsounds,thesecondthroughtheuseofwaysof composingwhichwerehighlydeterminist,withconsequencesbothininterpretationand composition.

Electronic musicTherewasatimewhenIhadannouncedtheendofinstrumental musicbecauseIfeltthatthetraditionalmechanicalinstruments could no longer serve the further development of all the parameters: the refinement of dynamics, of degrees of frequencies; refinement in microscales, macroscales; the expansions, contractions of scales; the projection of sound in space.97

Inthebeginningofthecentury,withtheevolutionofelectricity,someexperimentswere madetryingtocreatenewelectricinstrumentswiththepropertiesoftheacousticones (Telharmonium 1906, Theremin 1920, OndesMartenot 1928, Trautonium 1930, Hammondorgan1934).TheFuturistsdefendedinamanifesto98anewmusicthatcould reflect modern life, using noises (rumori) made by specific new instruments (noise intonators).LaterVarse(Hyperprism1922,Ionisation1929)andCage(Construction inMetal1939)intensifiedthisappetitefornewsounds.Butitwasonlyin1948thatthis evolution became autonomous, with the use of tape recorders, in what was called musiqueconcrte.PierreSchaefferandPierreHenry(GroupedeRecherchedeMusique Concrte,later GroupedeRecherchesMusicalesdeRadioFrance)wereinterestedin experimentingandusingconcretesoundsandtransformingmanipulatingthem, creatingthemusicdirectlyonthetape.97 98

InStockhausen,K.e.a.(1997). Cf.Marinetti(1978):page204.

52 Inthe1950smanyotherelectronicstudiosappeared,creatingandtransformingsounds withelectronicdevicesthatcouldchangethedifferentparametersofsound. 1948 Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrte, in 1958 Groupe de Recherches Musicales de ORTF (Schaeffer, Bayle, Varse, Stockhausen, Xenakis,ArmandoSantiagoin1960,FilipePiresin1970)99 1951ColumbiaPrincetonElectronicMusicCenterN.Y.(Babbitt,Varse) 1951 Studio fr Elektronische Musik Cologne (Eimert, Stockhausen, EmmanuelNunesin1965) 1953StudiodiFonologiaRAIMilan(Berio,MadernaNono) 1956PhilipsResearchLaboratoriesEindhoven(Badings,Varse) 1957StudiofrElektronischeMusikSiemensMunich(Riedl) 1958StudiodeMusiqueElectroniqueBrussels(Pousseur) 1960InstituteofSonologyoftheRoyalConservatoryinTheHague(Peixinho in1960) 1962InstituutvoorPsychoakoestikenElektronischeMuziekGhent(Pousseur, Peixinhoin1972) 1976InstitutedeRechercheetdeCoordinationAcoustique/Musique(IRCAM) Paris(Berio,Boulez,Globokar,CndidoLimain1977) Determinism and Aleatoric Music Theparadigmofastrictlogicappliedtomusiccanbeseeninthedevelopmentsof twelvetonemusicand,inthe1950s,inserialism.Infact,someofthemusicofthis period(StructuresofBoulez,KlavierstckeItoIVofStockhausen,SequenzaofBerio, Herma of Xenakis, etc.) reflects the spirit of serialism in the determination of all parametersofcomposition.Theirscoresshowextremelyaccuratedeterminationsinwhat concernsthetempi,dynamicsandtherhythmicflow,sometimesinawaythatitbecomes questionableifthoseindicationshavetobeorevencanbeunderstoodintheirexact meaning,asispossibleinelectronicmusic.10099

ThenamesanddatesinboldrefertoPortuguese composers.

For instance the extremely accurate indications in the tempi of Stockhausen's Klavierstcke are, sometimes,resultsofstrictmathematicoperations,modifiedbyindicationsofritardandoandaccelerando.100

53 Withthearrivalofthecomputer,thisprocessofdeterminationinmusicbecamemore intense,permittingtheuseofcomplexmathematicsandgeometricmethodsand,atthe sametime,enablingrandominflectionsinperformance.Infact,oneoftheconsequences oftotalserialismwastheuseofaleatoryproceedingsincompositionandperformance(I Ching in Cage, Boulezs 3rd sonata, Stockhausens XI Klavierstck, Pousseurs Caractres1a,1b),sometimesincludedinstrictstructures,sometimesincludingchance procedures.In fact theuse of chancehad manymeaningsaccordingtothe different composers.ForCageitwasanannihilationofthesubjectiveformalaspectsof composition,raisingthetranscendentspiritofthework.ForStockhausenandBoulez,the useofchancewaspartofthepredeterminedstructureofthepiece,givingtheinterpreter thepossibilityofchoosingonefromseveralpermittedwaysofperforming:thepiece wouldn'tsufferanychangeinitsmostimportantfeatures.Otherusesofchancemethods incomposition,proposingpermutationsamongagroupofnotes,oranindefinitenumber ofrepetitionsofapassage,werecommonandareinconformitywiththeentropytheories ofUmbertoEco101.

DARMSTADT - AN INTRODUCTION TheDarmstadtcourseswerefoundedin1946.ThefirstyearsofDarmstadtweremarked bytheenormousdifficultiesofacountrythatwastryingtosurvivealostwar,divided intomilitarysectors,whereitwasverydifficulttoarrangealmosteverything,including materialssuchasscores,instruments,eventocrossfromonetotheothermilitarysector toanother102.Theteachersandthestudentswerefromtheneighbouringtownsandthe intentionwastorestoretheevolutionofnewmusicinterruptedbytheNaziregime. Fromthebeginningaprioritywasgiventotwelvetonemusic103(threelecturesofHeiss). In 1947, Heiss continued with About the Audibility of Twelvetone Music and101

Cf.Eco,Umberto(1979). Eventhenumberofcaloriesforstudentsandteacherswasmeasured.

102 103

SometimesmoreaboutHauer'stheoriesthaninthemusicoftheVienneseschool,consideredsomtimes asallexpressionismasoutofdate.

54 StuckenschmidtgavealectureLeadingComposersoftheNewMusic,wherethetheme wasthemusicofSchnberg. Someeventswererelevantintheseyearstotheevolutionofnewmusicandtheavant garde.Messiaenwasheardin1948(ThmeetVariations)and1949(VisionsdelAmen) andgavealectureintroducinghiswork104.In1950Varsegavealectureonelectronic music. In this year Messiaen (in records, in a lecture about new French music Messiaen and Milhaud) and Nono (Variazione Canoniche sulla serie dellop.41 di Schnberg)werealsoheardinDarmstadt.Theinterestontwelvetonemusicgrewtill 1951in1950thedirectorW.Steineckewasalreadyaccusedoffavouringitwhen SchnbergsoperaMosesundAaronwasheard.Thelastyearswerefullofcompositions madebyyoungcomposersthatusedanddevelopedindifferentwaysthetaughttwelve tonetechnique:in1949H.W.Henze(ApolloetHyazinthusandVariationforpiano)105,in 1950 Maderna's Composizionen II and Nono's Variazione canoniche sulla serie dell'op.41diSchnberg.Schnbergwasexpectedtogivethecompositionmasterclass butwasreplaced(forhealthreasons)byanAdornomasterclassonmusiccriticism 106. ThemainideaofthedirectorWolfgangSteineckehadbeentoinstallaleadingcomposer asaresidentprofessorinDarmstadt. In1952theDarmstadtcourseswere,inthewordsofSteinecke(andsurelyformany composers),makinghistory.Inthisyearbeganalsowhatcanbedescribedastheserial period of Darmstadt 107.Messiaen gavea composition courseand presented his new QuatretudesdeRythme108;Boulez,StockhausenandGoeyvaerts109appearedthereand begantoimposetheirideas.Althoughthecompositioncoursesmaintainedalmostthe104105

InthisyearLouisSaguerafriendofLopesGraataughtintheDarmstadtcourses.

AsitiswritteninBorio(1997):vol.1page187,theseworksresultedofthecoursesgivenbyLeibowitz andRufer.ThislastcomposerwouldlateralsoteachthePortuguesecomposerlvaroCassutoandwould havemuchinfluenceinhisfirst(twelvetone)works. In1950SchnbergtoldSteineckehisconcernsaboutthemovementagainsthismusic,especiallyagainst aDarmstadtpremireoftheSurvivorfromWarsaw.Steineckeassuredhimthatonlyaverysmallminority ofpeoplewereagainsthismusic.SeeBorio(1997):vol.I,page87.106 107

SeeBorio(1997):vol.I,page90.

55 sameformatandthesamestaff(Heiss,Fortner,alsoStuckenschmidtandScherchen), someworkshopsonanalysis,interpretationandcompositionalsotookplace. In 1953aconcertwithworksofWebernwas given,followedinthenextdays by a StudioabendewhereworksofBoulez(Polyphonie),Stockhausen(Kontrapunkte),Nono (Epitaffio)andotherswereheard.OlivierMessiaenspokeaboutBoulez,HermannHeiss onStockhausenandMaderna,AntoineGoladirectedadiscussionon"Positionsand possibilitiesinthenewmusictoday".110WiththeseeventstherebeganinDarmstadt a yearafterBoulezarticle Schnbergestmort whatcanbecalledthepostWebernian era.TheyoungcomposersstudiedanddiscussedthoroughlytheworksofWebern."InWebernweretested(Nono,Stockhausen,Boulez,Pousseur) concepts,thathadbeendevelopedfortheirownwork,orcreated new ones that, on the other hand, had been related to serial techniques."111

Alsointheseyearstherebegantobeusedthetermsstaticmusicandpointillism, referringtothemusicoftheyounggeneration. In 1954 Bruno Maderna gave the Internazionale Arbeitsgemeinschaft Jungen Komponiste, andagain in1955withBoulezandHenze.In1956Haba 112 (microtone harmony) and Rufer113 gave theory courses, together with an Internazionale Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Komposition und Interpretieren (with Boulez, Maderna and David Tudor). In 1957thiscoursewascalled InternazionaleArbeitsgemeinschaft fr

TheimportanceofthesenewtudesofMessiaenwasenormousonwhatbecametheserialtechniques. ThisgroupofpiecesinfluencedthenextworksofStockhausen,BoulezandGoeyvaertsfortheirsystematic workwithseriesofdynamics,rhythmandpitches.108 109 110 111

AndNonoaswell.

Cf.Borio(1997):vol1,page214.

"AnWebernerprobteman(Nono,Stockhausen,Boulez,Pousseur)Begriffe,diemandrdaseigene handwerk entwickelt hatte, oder schuf neue, die sich wiederum auf die serielles Verfahrensweisen bertragenliessen."Cf.Borio(1997):vol.1,page215. ThereissomenoticeoftheimportanceofHaba'sharmony(microharmony)onthemusicofPeixinho andSalazar.112 113

ProfessoroflvaroCassutoinBerlinsomeyearslater.

56 Komposition und Analysen, with Jennitz, Scherchen, Pousseur, Nono, Jacobs and Stockhausen.114 In 1958 the Internazionale Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Komposition, Analyse und InterpretierenwaswithKrenek,Maderna(whowaslivinginDarmstadt),Blacher,John Cage115andKolisch.Stockhausen:(...)Iwasstrangelycuriousatacertainpointin mylife,whenIhadtogiveseminarsattheInternationalMusic CoursesinDarmstadt.Isurprisedmycompositionstudents,who hadcomefromallovertheworld,bysaying,Tomorrowthereisa seminar at threethirty in the morning. They looked at me stunnedifyouwouldhaveseenhowtheyappeared[all laugh] andwhattheyunderstood.Ihadimaginedthisbeforehandand wenttosleepquiteearly.IntheearlymorningIwascompletely awake and fresh and had already made all the necessary preparationstobealert,buttheyweretherelikelike Auretta:drunkwithsleep! Stockhausen:Yes.ThenIannouncedthenextseminarnever saying what would happen the next day for sixthirty in the evening,andthateveningtaughtuntiltwooclockinthemorning, stayinginthesameroomwithoutabreak.InDarmstadtIgave seminarsforsix,sevenhourswithoutastopinalargetownhall. Therewereseveralhundredpeoplewhowentoutandin,drank, ate.Isawthatandjuststoodthereandenjoyedmyselfandwas talking, explaining, and playing music from tapes. I know that breaking through the routine of time makes things reveal the mystery.116

Thesecoursesoftheyounggenerationofcomposersbecameofgreatimportanceforthe newcomposerscomingtoDarmstadtorsimplytakingnoticeofwhatwashappeningThereisareportinthisyearinBorio(1997):vol.1,page357,ofBoulez'soppositiontothepresenceof LeibowitzasateacherinDarmstadt.Boulez,althoughinvited,didn'tgotothecourses.Thiswas,perhaps, one of the major moments of aesthetic and power confrontation between the old composers and musicologists(fromSaguer,Rufer,HeisstothedodecaphonistsStuckenschmidt,andLeibowitz)andthe newserialists,especiallyBoulez.114

ThefirstCagecoursesinDarmstadthadmuchinfluenceontheevolutionofsometendenciesofthe avantgarde.ButhisinfluenceinEuropeanavantgardemusicmustbeseenmuchearlier.Hisfriendship withBoulez,theperformanceofhispianoworksandhisvisittoParisandMessiaen'sclassesintheyears ofQuatretudesduRythmeandintheearly1950'swereveryimpressive.SeetheNattiez,J.J.(1993).115 116

InStockhausen,K.e.a.(1997).

57 there.LaterBoulez,inaninterviewpublishedin LeMondedelaMusique of1968 117, acceptedthatthesetechniquesandaestheticsofmusichadcometoanend:Thislanguagedevelopedinawaythatmighthaveresultedina newacademism118

T HE D ARMS TAD T S CHOO L The"Darmstadtschool"wasagenerationofyoungcomposers.Influencedbythemusic oftheStravinskyofLeSacre,ofWebern(morethanbytheexpressionismofSchnberg) andbyMessiaen(tudesdeRythme),thisgroupofcomposersdevelopedtheirviews with a profound analysis of works of those composers, with the development of techniquesusingdifferentkindsofseriestoconstructthestructureofmusicalworks, experiencedthenewelectronicstudiosanddespitetheirdifferencesformedakind ofcommonspirit,an(almost)schoolofcompositionthatspreadallovertheworld.In factBoulez,Stockhausen(andJohnCage,toacertainpoint),Nono,PousseurandBerio becamesymbolsofastylethatinthe1960sand1970swassupportedbytheirstudents and cultural (private and state) institutions. It even became a subject for study in Academies, Universities, Conservatories and other music courses. Their language developed and is now, in some cases, very far from the strict serialist methods: nevertheless,manycomposersremainedfaithfultosomeoftheprincipleshereexplained and that defined what now is known as the historic avantgarde. "Avantgarde" becauseitwasdrivenbythe(avantgarde)ideasofAdornoandothertheorists;"historic", becausetheirworksandtechniquesbecameacademic,almosttotalitarian,becomingthe establishmentincompositionalterms,andthereforeobsoleteasavantgarde.Alsomany ofthecomposersofthisgenerationbegantocreatedifferentexperiences,usedifferent techniques,sometimesfarfromthespiritofDarmstadt.Thegoodunitythatseemedapossibilitytwentyyearsagohas provedamyth,asnareandadelusion;whatwehaveinsteadis differentpersonalitieseachtakingtheirowncourses,sometimes117

IncludedinBoulez,Pierre(1986). Boulez,Pierre(1986):page445.

118

58inviolentoppositiontoeachother(...)Therearealotofdifferent tendencies but I must eliminate from the start all that are backwardlooking, all restorations, which are not so much tendenciesinfactasnostalgias119.

ThetendenciesheredescribedbyBoulezdefinetheDarmstadtSchoolthehistoric avantgarde in music. And this aesthetic school of thought, of composition and interpretationexcludes,ashealsosays,restorations,nostalgias,alltendenciesnow knownaspostmodern;asthepostmodernthoughtincludesasanaestheticprinciple allrestorations,nostalgias,eventhosecomingfromthehistoricavantgarde.120

119

Boulez,Pierre(1986):pag.447.

Infact,thetendencyofthishistoricavantgardetobeanewacademicismwasvorseeninAdorno's PhilosophyofNewMusic.AndtherethereissomenoticethatAdornorejected