the international energy sector: opportunities for...

The International Energy Sector:

Opportunities for Virginia Defense

Companies

2015

Sponsored by the Virginia Economic Development Partnership’s (VEDP) Going Global Defense Initiative

Equinox Energy Solutions Latin America

This study was prepared under contract with the Commonwealth

of Virginia, with financial support from the Office of Economic Adjustment, Department of Defense. The content reflects the views of the Commonwealth of Virginia and does not necessarily reflect the views of the Office of Economic Adjustment.

CONTENTS

Virginia Economic Development Partnership – International Trade 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 3

COLOMBIA ................................................................................................................................................... 5

COUNTRY OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................................. 5 OIL IN COLOMBIA ..................................................................................................................................................... 5 POWER GENERATION IN COLOMBIA .................................................................................................................... 6 MARKET SEGMENTS ............................................................................................................................................... 9 SECTOR FORECAST .............................................................................................................................................. 21 OPPORTUNITIES FOR VIRGINIA COMPANIES .................................................................................................... 22 SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 25 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 27 FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ 31 POLITICAL OUTLOOK ............................................................................................................................................ 32 ECONOMIC OUTLOOK ........................................................................................................................................... 35

MEXICO ...................................................................................................................................................... 37

COUNTRY OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................... 37 OIL IN MEXICO ....................................................................................................................................................... 38 POWER GENERATION IN MEXICO ....................................................................................................................... 39 MARKET SEGMENTS ............................................................................................................................................. 42 SECTOR FORECAST .............................................................................................................................................. 52 OPPORTUNITIES FOR VIRGINIA COMPANIES .................................................................................................... 53 SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 56 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 59 FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ 64 POLITICAL OUTLOOK ............................................................................................................................................ 66 ECONOMIC OUTLOOK ........................................................................................................................................... 69

CHILE .......................................................................................................................................................... 71

COUNTRY OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................... 71 OIL IN CHILE ........................................................................................................................................................... 71 ENERGY GENERATION IN CHILE ......................................................................................................................... 73 MARKET SEGMENTS ............................................................................................................................................. 75 SECTOR FORECAST .............................................................................................................................................. 81 OPPORTUNITIES FOR VIRGINIA COMPANIES .................................................................................................... 82 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................................................. 84 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 85 FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ 90 POLITICAL OUTLOOK ............................................................................................................................................ 92 ECONOMIC OUTLOOK ........................................................................................................................................... 94

CONTENTS


BRAZIL ....................................................................................................................................................... 97

COUNTRY OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................... 97 OIL IN BRAZIL ......................................................................................................................................................... 99 ENERGY GENERATION IN BRAZIL ..................................................................................................................... 101 MARKET SEGMENTS ........................................................................................................................................... 103 SECTOR FORECAST ............................................................................................................................................ 114 OPPORTUNITIES FOR VIRGINIA COMPANIES .................................................................................................. 115 SECURITY ISSUES ............................................................................................................................................... 118 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................................................. 119 TRADE AGREEMENTS ......................................................................................................................................... 128 POLITICAL OUTLOOK .......................................................................................................................................... 129 ECONOMIC OUTLOOK ......................................................................................................................................... 131

CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................................... 134

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 135


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report presents an overview of the energy and refining sectors of Colombia, Mexico, Chile and

Brazil. The overview includes an initial assessment on world energy and refining markets, followed by

information on the market, the different key players in each market, economic, political and legislation

information pertaining to the sector, and a section on trends and opportunities. The ultimate goal of the

study is to present to Virginia companies who wish to penetrate the markets in these four countries with

sufficient information to decide whether or not they offer interesting investment opportunities.

World energy markets are continually expanding, and companies spend billions of dollars annually to

maintain and increase their oil and power production. Oil and energy touch our lives on a daily basis, and

without them we would be unable to do much of what we take for granted today. Both the oil and the

power industries are mayor players in world economics, influencing government economic and environ-

mental policies, impacting consumption, public and private revenues, and individual welfare, and they will

continue to do so for the foreseeable future.

As of 2014, 8.5% of total production of crude oil in the world is produced in Central and South America.

Venezuela and Brazil lead the group of producing countries with a production contribution of 38% and

28% respectively with Argentina, Mexico, Colombia and Ecuador following, with percentages of 12%,

10%, 9% and 8% respectively. It is worth noting that some of these countries are currently developing

processes of capacity expansion in both exploration and refining, which will reflect in a 10% growth by the

end of 2015. In addition, it’s proven reserves represent 20% of total global reserves, making it the second

region with the largest reserve in time (according to the reserves / production ratio) and the first region

with the greatest potential due to its low rate of industrial development and its limited exploitation.

World production of crude oil in 2013 was 86.8 million bpd, of which the region contributed with a produc-

tion of 10.3 million bpd, which is equivalent to a share of approximately 12%. Based on 2013 production

volumes, the proven crude oil reserves worldwide, average is 52 years. Specifically, the Central and

South American region has reserves for 91 years, a figure not unlike that of all the OPEC countries, which

have reserves for 92 years.

In terms of refining capacity, the region processed approximately 7 million bpd, representing 8% of the

world total. During 2013 a total volume of 2,376 million barrels of crude oil and about 2,347 Mbep of

petroleum products were processed. Moreover, 4.4 million barrels of crude oil and 767 thousand barrels

of petroleum products were exported, and 392,000 barrels of crude oil and 2 million barrels of petroleum

products were imported. Considering the above, international trade in oil and petroleum products in the

region, represents approximately 9.4% of world trade in exports and 4.3% in imports.

During 2014, 8.8 million barrels of oil and petroleum products were consumed, which represents about

10% of world consumption. The three countries with the highest consumption of oil during that year were

the United States, China and Japan.

Figures for the last ten years show that poorer countries have the lowest power consumption rates.

However, developing regions such as South America currently have the highest rates of growth in

utilization and consumption, with a consistent growth for the coming decades.

The development of Central and South America has been positive, showing an increase of 3.43%

between 2013 and 2014, compared with an annual average of 2.9% over the last twelve years, with Peru

being responsible for the high rates of energy consumption growth (8.24% last year against an annual


average of 5.4% in the previous twelve years); and Chile (6.7% compared to an average of 3.3%), which

is largely due to the growing demand presented by the mining sector in Atacama. Other countries like

Mexico, Ecuador, Brazil and Colombia showed lower growth rates with positive behaviors that go far

beyond those of Europe and North America.

Today, nuclear energy accounts for 7% of the world’s primary energy consumption and 15% of global

electricity. This index is more important in industrialized countries (19% of electricity production in the US,

28% in the European Union, 30% in Japan and 75% in France). In September 2011, the Atucha II nuclear

power plant was inaugurated in Argentina, and Brazil is building Angra 3, in addition to the other six

nuclear power plants existing in the region.

Currently, Central and South America have a 25% share of renewable energy in the energy mix, which

compared to other world regions (Europe, North America, Asia) is higher mainly due to the increased use

of hydropower and biofuels in several countries of South America. Similarly, the region has significant

potential renewable resources (water, solar, wind, biomass, etc.) that could significantly increase this

indicator. Despite this consideration, oil and its byproducts (41%), natural gas (28%) and minerals such

as coal (24%) still dominate the energy mix.


COLOMBIA

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

Key Facts:

» Capital: Bogotá

» Population: 46 million, including 85 ethnic groups

» President: Juan Manuel Santos

» Land Area: 439,735 square miles

» Language: Spanish

» Currency: Colombian Peso (COP)

Colombia has a total area of 439,735 square miles, of which 38,691 miles are marine area and 401,044

square miles are land. With many different ecosystems within its territory, Colombia is one of the world's

most biologically diverse countries. Approximately 58 percent of the country is covered by natural forest.

Colombia has the second largest population in South America, after Brazil, with more than 46 million

citizens.

Situated in the northwest corner of South America, Colombia is the only country in the region with both a

Pacific and Caribbean coast. It shares borders with Panama, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador, and

maritime boundaries with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic and Haiti.

Colombia is a free market economy with major commercial and investment ties to countries around the

world, including the United States.

In 2014, cement, gold, coal, and emeralds were among the countries leading industries, and petroleum

and coal were, respectively, the first- and third-leading export commodities. Colombia also produced

sizable amounts of common clay, kaolin, dolomite, gypsum, limestone, hydrated lime and quicklime,

magnesite, nitrogen (content of ammonia), rock and marine salt, sand, gravel, marble, feldspar, phos-

phate rock, and sodium compounds (sodium carbonate), as well as small quantities of sulfur (native, from

ore), asbestos, bauxite, bentonite, calcite, diatomite, fluorite, mercury, mica, talc, soapstone, prophyllite,

dolomite, and zinc.

OIL IN COLOMBIA

The fastest growing sector in the country has been the mining and energy sector, which is comprised of

the mining, oil, gas, and energy industries. In the last decade, this sector increased from US $ 8,300

million in 2000 to over US $ 50,000 million in 2011 and is estimated to continue its rapid growth during the

first half of this decade. Of the previously mentioned industries, oil has been largely responsible for these

growth figures, which boosted the growth of exploration and refining to 3.4% in the last decade. In recent

years, exploration activity has increased in the following manner: in 2008 growth reached 15.4%; in 2009

it reached 15.4%; in 2010, 16.9%; in 2011, 17.7%; in 2012, 18.4%; in 2013, 19% and in 2014 it reached

19.4%. For the first half of 2014, the contribution to the GDP of the mining, oil and electricity industry was

equivalent to 33.5% of total GDP.

In Colombia, non-renewable natural resources, including oil are owned by the State. Oil policy is defined

by the National Government through the Ministry of Mines and Energy and, until May 28, 2003, Ecopetrol,

as an entity of the State, was in charge of its management. That same year, and after carrying out several

studies intended to encourage the exploration of oil in Colombia and prolong the self-sufficiency of this

resource in the country, the Government issued Decree Law 1760, whereby the ANH (National Hydrocar-

bons Association) was created, and the administration of hydrocarbons, as well as underwriting and


administration of contracts for exploration and exploitation in the country were handed over from Ecopet-

rol.

Oil potential (oil and natural gas) in Colombia is estimated at more than 47,000 million barrels of oil

equivalent, distributed in 18 sedimentary basins covering an area of 1,036,400 km2. About 82% of said

sedimentary area is available for the exploration and exploitation of oil and natural gas. The basins of

greater exploration activity are those located in the Upper and Middle Magdalena Valleys, Catatumbo, La

Guajira, the Eastern Cordillera, Putumayo and Llanos Orientales.

The most important discoveries made in Colombia in terms of deposits are the La Cira-Infantas in

Barrancabermeja; Chuchupa in La Guajira; Caño Limon in Arauca; and Cusiana-Cupiagua in Casanare.

Moreover, oil production centers are located in the departments of Meta, Casanare, Arauca, Santander,

Antioquia, Bolivar, Boyacá, Huila, Tolima, La Guajira, Putumayo and Norte de Santander.

In June 2014, average oil production reached 1,008,000 barrels per day (bpd) with an average refining

capacity of 342,000 barrels per day distributed as follows, Barrancabermeja refinery with 250,000 bpd,

Cartagena refinery with 80,000 bpd, Orito and Apiay Refineries with 6,000 bpd each1. It is worth noting

that the Cartagena refinery, owned by Ecopetrol, is undergoing an expansion since 2010 and it is ex-

pected that the plant could in itself eventually produce a total of one million barrels of oil per day. These

plants process the crude and the fuel for supplying total internal demand and the requirement of export

products. The Barrancabermeja Industrial Complex also serves about 75% of the demand for petrochem-

ical and industrial products.

The two major refineries in the country (Barrancabermeja and Cartagena) produce motor gasoline

(regular and premium), benzene, white gasoline, diesel, kerosene, Jet-A, jet fuel, propane gas, fuel oil,

sulfur, paraffin waxes, lubricant bases, low density polyethylene, aromatics, asphalts, alkyl benzene,

cyclohexane, aliphatic solvents, medium distillates and propane. Currently, these two refineries are

subject to optimization programs to increase capacity and improve fuel quality in order for them to meet

the new environmental requirements.

During the first half of 2014, the average price of Brent (London), to which most oil exports are tied, was $

101.2 USD, however starting June 2014 the price of oil fell by 30 per cent, placing the price per barrel at $

72 USD starting December 2014 and ending the month at USD60.432. This was due to poor economic

performances in China, Brazil and Europe that generated a significant drop in the demand for crude.

Moreover, rising rates of global supply, in particular accelerated production, as is the case in the United

States, partly due to Shale Gas; continued productivity growth in Russia despite sanctions due to the

crisis in Ukraine; increased production in Libya and Iraq, that are not affected by the political crisis and

armed conflict; and OPEC countries which continue with their increased production policies, generated an

oversupply in the oil market which significantly affected oil prices.

POWER GENERATION IN COLOMBIA

As of 2014, the proportion of power generation on the National Grid in Colombia is divided into 64.2%

hydro generation, 30.45% thermal and 5.3% from small plants and co-generators.

There are three major river systems in Colombia. The east area of the Andes Mountains, which compris-

es almost two-thirds of the country, consists of two large drainage basins. The Orinoco basin in the

northeast includes the major tributaries of the Arauca, the Meta, and the Guaviare rivers, all of which flow

eastward to Venezuela (the Arauca and the Meta each form part of Colombia's border with Venezuela, as

does the Orinoco itself). The Amazon basin, in southeastern Colombia, includes the eastward-flowing

1 ECONOMÍA 7 JUL 2014-Producción de crudo en junio fue de 1’008.000 barriles diarios-EL ESPECTADOR

2 www.investing.com/commodities/brent-oil-historical -data


Vaupés, the Apaporis and Caquetá, which also flow eastward and merge near the Brazilian border, and

the Putumayo, which flows southeastward into Brazil and forms part of Colombia's border with both

Ecuador and Peru. A small section of the Amazon itself forms a part of Colombia's southern border with

Brazil. The major river system within and west of the Andes is the Magdalena (Colombia's longest river),

with its principal tributary, the Cauca, which both flow northward and merge about 150 kilometers south of

where the Magdalena joins the Caribbean Sea, in the city of Barranquilla. There is also a Pacific drainage

basin, but it is relatively small and has no major river systems.

Colombia has abundant water resources for hydroelectric power, and is second only to Brazil in hydroe-

lectric potential in Latin America. Much of Colombia's hydroelectric generation is located in the

mountainous northwest part of the country, which produces about 40% of the hydroelectric power, or

slightly more than one-quarter of the total electricity generation. Several of the power plants in Antioquia

(State) are actually located between two rivers. The plants take in water from one river and empty it into

another after it passes through the turbines.

There are presently three hydroelectric facilities in Colombia with capacity for more than 1,000 MW and

another dozen with capacity for more than 200 MW. Colombia's hydroelectric generating capacity is split

among many companies. Empresas Publicas de Medellin (EPM), headquartered in Antioquia, presently

operates eleven hydroelectric power plants of at least 10 MW, and consolidates more than 2,100 MW in

total hydroelectric generating capacity. Other companies with significant hydroelectric generation capaci-

ties include ISAGEN (headquartered in Bogotá), with more than 1,800 MW (most of which is generated in

the San Carlos Power Plant, presently Colombia's largest-capacity hydroelectric facility), Empresas

Energia del Pacifico (EPSA), Empresa de Generación (EMGESA), and AES. Aside from these, there are

several smaller companies who own relatively minor amounts of hydroelectric generating capacity.

In the last 20 years, the field of thermoelectric generation in Colombia has evolved significantly, and has

effectively become the support for the hydroelectric sector. The response to the recession faced by the

electricity generation sector in the nineties has evolved into an industry that is consolidated with new

projects derived from natural gas, coal and liquid fuels.

The creation of most thermoelectric companies came by following the drought caused by “El Niño” in the

nineties. The need to ration power (black-out) that took place between 1991 and 1992 was the driver for

the reform process in the energy sector. In addition to the drought, another aspect that gave way to the

blackout was the structural imbalance between hydraulic and thermal generation. From this situation

arose the urgency and need to develop thermal power generation projects that would rebalance supply in

the country. At that time, the government proposed two specific objectives; first, to shift the proportion

between hydropower and thermal power from 80/20 to 70/30, and, secondly, to recover 20% of the

thermoelectric generation capacity that already existed but was not in optimal conditions. The backup

strategy for hydroelectric power then became a priority, and clarified the need for the participation of the

private sector.

This new approach to the energy industry gave rise to several thermoelectric plants, which now generate

30% of the electricity consumed under normal conditions in the country. These thermoelectric plants are

capable of taking on up to 70% of the energy generation in the country in times of drought and thus

ensure 24-hour service. Currently, Colombia has approximately 30 thermoelectric plants of which 50%

are operating on a regular basis.

In Colombia thermoelectric power originates from three sources: liquid fuels, gas and coal, hence its

operation and regulation differs in each case. For thermoelectric generation diesel and fuel oil is used.

Most power plants are dual, i.e. they allow for the use of natural gas or liquid fuel. Liquid fuels have

become more interesting due to the increased production of the oil industry in recent years, the expansion

of reserves and regulatory stability. Today several dual generation projects are underway, which also

meet with the necessary modifications for compliance with the high environmental standards.


One of the most abundant energy resources in Colombia is coal; geological reserves amount to approxi-

mately 6.648 million tons, and mining operations are located in the 3 mountain ranges and the Atlantic

Coast. From La Guajira to Cauca, the quality of coal varies in terms of calorific value, amount of sulfur

and other technical specifications. The coal used to generate energy in Colombia comes mostly from

Norte de Santander, Boyacá, Santander, Cordoba and Cundinamarca.

Power generation from coal has several advantages that increase the competitiveness of the sector. It is

a fuel that is abundant in Colombia and therefore is economical, and unlike gas and liquid fuels, does not

depend on others for its transportation given that each coal plant has its own transport infrastructure.

From the moment gas began to be part of the energy mix, the country has been concerned about increas-

ing reserves and boosting all exploration projects and alternative curriculums to meet domestic demand in

different sectors: industrial, domestic, vehicular and thermal energy.

The north of Colombia has the best potential for wind power generation. In the Upper Guajira, Empresas

Públicas de Medellín (EPM) has set up the first wind farm in the country. It is called Jepirachi, and its 15

turbines generate 19.5 MW. Another source of energy in the country is biomass, there are biomass

production studies using sugarcane with an estimated annual production of 1.5 million tons, and rice

husks in volumes of more than 450,000 tons per year. The most suitable places for generating this form

of energy are the departments of Santander and Norte de Santander, the Llanos Orientales, and the

Caribbean coast.

The Geothermal Atlas of Colombia shows that the areas with the highest potential for this type of energy

are Chiles-Cerro Negro, the Azufral volcano in Nariño, Sierra Nevada National Park, and the geothermal

area of Paipa, Boyacá. Current utilization is limited to a few dozen geothermally heated bathing pools,

which cumulatively have a thermal capacity of about 13 MW and an annual energy use of about 270

terajoules. There is a 150 MW geothermal energy project in the planning stages, sponsored by Geotermia

Andina, which would be located near Villamaria, Caldas.

There are many players in Colombia's electricity generation market. The largest are EMGESA with

headquarters located in Bogotá, which owns about 2,500 MW of capacity, mostly hydroelectric, and EPM

with headquarters located in Medellín, which owns about 2,600 MW of capacity, mostly hydroelectric. The

largest thermoelectric generator in Colombia is Termobarranquilla S.A. (TEBSA), located in Barranquilla,

which owns the largest thermal-electric gas-fueled power plant in Colombia, with a total capacity of 890

MW, and consists of five combined cycle and two single cycle turbine units.

Installed Capacity

Technology Power (MW) Percentage (%)

Hydraulic 9319.8 64

Thermal 4521 31

Small plants 662.3 4.5

Co-generators 66.3 0.5

Total 14,569.4 MW 100%


MARKET SEGMENTS

OIL REFINERIES

Ecopetrol and its business group produced 788,000 BOE per day, with an annual growth of 4.5% in 2014.

Castilla, Chichimene, Rubiales, Quifa and La Cira Infantas were the fields that contributed the most to this

growth. The new optimization center in the Barrancabermeja refinery started its operation and the status

for the expansion and modernization of the Cartagena refinery increased by 87.5%.

According to Merco, Ecopetrol was recognized as the company with the best reputation, with the most

valuable brand in the country and the seventh in Latin America, and a preferred place to work by Colom-

bians.

Ecopetrol, has international operations in the Gulf Coast of the United States, Brazil and Peru, and was

ranked 43 in the Petroleum Intelligence Weekly (PIW) list of the 50 largest oil and gas companies in the

world, one of the world's most important annual rankings.

PLAYERS IN THE REFINING SECTOR

Ecopetrol

Ecopetrol is a national mixed economy company, of a commercial nature, organized as a corporation and

attached to the Ministry of Mines and Energy. Today, Ecopetrol is number 43 among the 50 largest oil

and gas companies in the world, according to PIW, one of the world's most important rankings, and its

market capitalization amounts to US $ 79.05 billion as of December 31, 2013.

The story of the oil industry in Colombia began in 1905, when the Government signed two Concessions

for exploration purposes: the Seas Concession and the Barco Concession. Royalties between 7% and

14% over the production were agreed to. Tropical Oil Company then bought the Seas Concession, and

the first oil fields started yielding revenues. On August 25, 1951 the reversal of the Seas Concession was

implemented; i.e. all concession property became the property of the nation. In order to manage this

equity, Law 165 of 1948 created the Colombian oil company, Ecopetrol, which from that day forward took

on the responsibility of its operation, as a state-owned company. After this, and until the seventies, it

operated as an integrated state-owned company with little technical capacity to grow aggressively. It then

focused its efforts on self-sufficiency and concentrated in the upstream segment of the business, which

generated positive results for a short period of time. In 2003, it was restructured as Ecopetrol S.A., a

strategy that has allowed for the redesign of its business portfolio and competition in the upstream

segment through new contracts.

On September 23, 2007, Ecopetrol presented the first IPO for the purchase of shares in the Colombia

Stock Exchange. On September 12, 2008, through JP Morgan Chase, Ecopetrol received approval from

the Securities and Exchange Commission to initiate the sale of its shares in the NYSE through ADRs

under the symbol EC, starting September 18, 2008, with an initial price equivalent to 20 ordinary shares.

In July 2011, Ecopetrol launched a second share issue in the amount of $ 2,500 billion pesos.

Ecopetrol participates in all stages of exploration, production, marketing and processing of hydrocarbons

into fuels and higher value-added products such as petrochemicals. It also participates in the biofuels

business through Ecodiesel and Bioenergy and through international investments undertaken in recent

years is present in Brazil, Peru and the Gulf of Mexico (United States).

It has drilling fields in central, southern, eastern and northern Colombia; two refineries (Barrancabermeja

and Cartagena); ports for export and import of fuels and crude on both coasts, and owns most of the

country's pipelines which connect production with major consumption centers and marine terminals.


During the third quarter of 2011, Ecopetrol, in partnership with Pacific Rubiales, successfully drilled the

Rubiales-Piriri field, which has more than 340 million barrels reservoir and is expected to have 1,857

million barrels that could be classified as "probable and possible reservoirs "if production is extended

beyond May 2016. Its average production in 2013 was 724,100 boe per day3.

The business plan approved by the Board for 2014 - 2020, includes investments for the Business Group

in the amount of US $ 68,580 million. Ecopetrol will allocate 81% of this investment to exploration and

production, mainly to field development and increased exploratory activity; 10% will be invested in the

downstream segment, where the main objective is to continue ensuring the modernization of the refiner-

ies in Barrancabermeja and Cartagena, and the remaining 9% will be invested in strengthening the

national transport and evacuation network. As of December 2014, this investment plan is under revision

due to the impact of dropping oil prices on industry finances; however, the Ministry of Mines and Energy

has already indicated that there will be a reduction in investments for 2015 in the order of 25%, and

Ecopetrol has indicated also that it will reduce its operating expenses.

Barrancabereja Refinery (Barrancabermeja Industrial Complex)

Location: Barrancabermeja (Santander).

Business: Refining of crude and petrochemicals.

Installed capacity: 250 kbpd

Production: Engine gasoline (regular and premium), benzene, white gasoline, diesel, kerosene, Jet-A, jet

fuel, propane gas, fuel oil, sulfur, paraffin waxes, lubricant bases, low density polyethylene, aromatic,

asphalts, alkylbenzene, cyclohexane, aliphatic solvents.

The Barrancabermeja Industrial Complex is located in the city of Barrancabermeja, in the central region of

Colombia, on the bank of the Magdalena River, the country’s main waterway.

Located in a historic region, it is one of the first areas where oil exploitation began in the early twentieth

century. Refining operations in 1922 operated with stills brought from Talara in Peru.

From an initial installed capacity of 1,500 barrels per day this immense building infrastructure is known

today as Ecopetrol’s Barrancabermeja Management Complex.

The complex extends over an area of 254 hectares, including more than fifty modern plants and pro-

cessing, treatment, services and environmental control units.

Among them are five topping units, four catalytic cracking units, and two polyethylene plants, alkylation,

sulfuric acid, paraffin, aromatics plants and processing plants for waste management.

It also has ancillary facilities that support with equipment and procedures that are not directly involved

with refining but that serve vital functions in the operation. Such is the case of the boilers, hydrogen plant,

cooling systems, the sulfur recovery systems and waste treatment or pollution control systems.

The Barrancabermeja Management Complex is responsible for generating 75 percent of the gasoline,

fuel oil, diesel and other fuels needed by the country, as well as 70 percent of petrochemical products

circulating in the domestic market.

In 2006, contracts were awarded for the implementation of the hydro-treatment project at the Barranca-

bermeja refinery, with an estimated investment of more than US $ 420 million, which will allow the refinery

3 http://www.serfinco.com.co- Ecopetrol

Oil and Gas Sector


to meet revised quality standards for fuels produced in the industrial complex, among which is found a

mass transit diesel with a maximum of 50 parts per million of sulfur.

In Ecopetrol’s Barrancabermeja Refinery 15 petroleum products are produced with which more than

100,000 products are manufactured by the petrochemical industry.

Cartagena Refinery (Reficar)

Location: Mamonal (Bolivar).

Business: Refining of crude and petrochemicals

Installed capacity: 80 kbpd

Production: Engine gasoline (regular and premium), diesel, Jet-A, jet fuel, fuel oil, virgin naphtha, high-

octane gasoline, arotar (aromatic Tar), Sulfur, Propylene, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

The Cartagena Refinery S.A. was born from an opportunity that the National Government granted to a

private strategic partner to participate in the improvement and expansion of the refining sector, which until

then had been under the responsibility of the public sector, with the perspective of strengthening energy

self-sufficiency.

Its organization dates from 1997, when the Government adopted a strategy for opening the association

schemes for the exploration, exploitation, processing and transformation of hydrocarbons.

In 2006, a process for the expansion project of the refinery began. This bid was awarded to a Swiss

trading company by the name of Glencore. Glencore and Ecopetrol entered into a partnership to create

Reficar - Cartagena Refinery S.A., a company responsible for developing the country's most important

project in the last decade.

On February 16, 2009, Glencore decided to sell 51% of its shares to Ecopetrol in order to withdraw from

the proposed expansion and modernization of the Cartagena refinery, given the inability to obtain the

international loans required for the project.

On May 27, 2009, Ecopetrol confirmed its commitment to grow the business and through Andean Chemi-

cal closed the negotiation for the purchase of the 51% of shares owned by Glencore AG in Reficar. The

acquisition of the shares was set at US $ 549 million.

This operation allowed Ecopetrol to move forward in its pursuit to increase its refining capacity to 650,000

barrels per day by 2015. The commitment now is to develop the project for the modernization of the

refinery, which is key in generating synergies with the Barrancabermeja Refinery; and maximize the

benefits for the business.

The expansion and modernization of the Cartagena refinery is undoubtedly the most ambitious work to

date undertaken in Colombia, not only because the refinery is becoming one of the most productive and

sophisticated plants in Latin America, but also because it is a project that requires an investment of over

US $ 4,800 million.

The proposed expansion and modernization of Reficar, is currently underway in 130 hectares located at

kilometer 10 on the road to Mamonal, inside the industrial area of Cartagena.

The project consists of 14 new units (plants) to improve product quality and produce other products with a

higher value. These include the new crude distillation, vacuum distillation, coking, hydrocracker, alkyla-

tion, hydro-treatment, saturated gas, water treatment, power generation and UDC units.


35 tanks for fuel storage and other products will also be built. The tanks will be built in various sizes and

capacities. The circular tanks, of which there will be 25 in total, will be manufactured in carbon steel to

allow for the storage of crude oil, gasoline, diesel and jet fuel, while the spherical tanks, of which there will

be 10 in total, were designed to inject butane, propane and LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) at high

pressure.

The new refinery will generate new products such as petcoke, of which an output of 75,000 tons is

expected monthly.

POWER GENERATION

By year-end 2013, the effective net installed capacity in the SIN (National Interconnected Grid) was

14,559 MW, which compared to that recorded in 2012, reflected an increase of 198 MW, equivalent to a

growth of 1.4%. This increase was mainly due to the entry into operation of the Amoyá-La Esperanza

hydroelectric plant, with 80 MW, the Darío Valencia Samper unit 2 with 50 MW, and modernization of the

thermoelectric plants that support the obligations of firm energy for reliability charges effective December

1, 2013 to November 30, 2014. Because of their significance, the fuel changes in Termosierra (gas to

diesel), Flores I and Flores IV (diesel to gas) plants are worth noting.

As of July 2014, the energy demand for the National Interconnected System (SIN) was 5,513 GWh, which

was located between the average scenario (5,458 GWh) and the high scenario (5,543 GWh) of the

Mining and Energy Planning Unit. Similarly, between the months of July 2013 and July 2014 the demand

for electricity in Colombia grew 3.5%, pulled by a construction industry growing at 17%.4

By July 2014, the generation mix for the SIN was: 66.7% hydro, 27.5% thermal and 5.8% among minor

players and co-generators. This corresponds to a total generation of 5,516.01 GWh, equivalent to an

increase of 3.7% in comparison to the same month of the previous year.

As of January 31, 2014, the installed capacity of the Colombian power generating system reflected a total

installed capacity of 14,569.4 MW, which means a slight increase of 13.7 MW compared to the installed

capacity as of December 2013.

The Colombian power market has been very dynamic and, from its reorganization in 1994, has been

sufficiently robust to meet the needs of the growing demand for energy in the country and adequately

support critical hydrological situations that arise with the “El Niño” phenomenon.

Currently, the Colombian Association of Electric Power Generators -ACOLGEN- (a non-profit trade

organization removed from political issues), promotes the free and fair competition and market develop-

ment of the Colombian electricity sector, and in particular, activities related to power generation. This

association is made up of 18 power-generating companies, which represent 86% of the effective net

generating capacity in Colombia. It is open to all power generation companies that share its objectives

and are willing to promote free and fair competition in the wholesale electricity market, regardless of the

energy source used for its production. This trade association seeks to generate a value added to its

members to guarantee sustainable growth, participate in sector policies and ensuing regulations. It acts

as the spokesperson for the sector before the government, and as a cohesive agent for its members.5

The following tables list the major power plants in the country including data such as generation capacity,

owner, and location thereof. Table # 1 corresponds to hydroelectric generation plants and Table # 2

corresponds to thermoelectric generation plants segmented by fuel.

4 International Mining report, Reporte minero internacional, September2014

5 www.acolgen.org.co


Table #1 – Hydroelectric Power Plants

Hydroelectric Plant Name

Owner Location Capacity (MW) River State

San Carlos ISAGEN San Carlos Antioquia 1240

Guavio EMGESA Guavio Cundinamarca 1213

Chivor AES Bolivar Bata Boyacá 1000

Guatapé EPM Magdalena, Guatape Antioquia 560

Betania Central Hidroeléctrica de

Betania Magdalena, Yaguara Huila 540

Guadalupe EPM Porce Antioquia 495

Miel I ISAGEN (Hidromiel) La Miel Caldas 396

Porce II EPM Porce Antioquia 392

Alto Anchicayá EPSA Anchicayá Valle de Cauca 365

Urrá (Alto Sinú) Corp. Electrica Costa Atlantica Sinú Córdoba 344

La Guaca EMGESA Bogotá Cundinamarca 311

La Tasajera EPM Grande Antioquia 311

Salvajina EPSA Cauca Cauca 285

Paraiso EMGESA Bogotá Cundinamarca 270

Colegio EMGESA Bogotá Cundinamarca 250

Las Playas EPM Guatapé Antioquia 200

Jaguas ISAGEN Nare, Guatapé Antioquia 170

San Francisco Caldas

Central Hidroeléctrica de Caldas

San Francisco Caldas 135

Calima EPSA Calima Valle de Cauca 132

Salto EMGESA Bogotá Cundinamarca 127

Río Grande EPM Grande Antioquia 75

Bajo Anchicayá Central Hidroeléctrica del Rio

Anchicayá Anchicayá Valle de Cauca 74

Laguneta EMGESA Bogotá Cundinamarca 72

Río Prado Eléctrificadora del Tolima Prado Tolima 50

Canoas EMGESA Bogotá Cundinamarca 45

Troneras EPM Nechí Antioquia 42

Mocorongo EPM n/a Antioquia 32

Esmeralda Caldas

Central Hidroeléctrica de Caldas

San Eugenio Caldas 30

Calderas ISAGEN Calderas; San Carlos Antioquia 26

Florida Centrales Eléctricas del Cauca Cauca Cauca 26

Muña EMGESA Bogotá Cundinamarca 24

Río Mayo Centrales Electricas de Nariño Mayo Nariño 21

Niquía EPM Grande Antioquia 20

Río Piedras Generar Piedras Antioquia 19

Ínsula Central Hidroeléctrica de

Caldas Chinchiná;

Campoalegre Caldas 18

Palmas Eléctrificadora de Santander Lebrija Santander 18

La Ayura EPM n/a Antioquia 16

Piedras Blancas EPM Piedras Blancas Antioquia 10


Table #2 – Thermoelectric Power Plants

Thermoelectric Plant

Owner Location Fuel Capacity (MW)

Stage

City State

Conventional Thermal Power Plants

Paipa GENSA Paipa Boyacá Coal 346 ON

Termoguajira GESELCA Riohacha La Guajira Natural Gas; Coal

320 ON

Zipa EMGESA Tocancipa Cundinamarca Coal 236 ON

Cartagena EMGESA Cartagena Bolívar Natural Gas; Oil

191 ON

Tasajero Termotasajero Cúcuta Norte de

Santander Coal 163 ON

Barranca 1 - 3 ESSA Barrancabermeja Santander Natural

Gas 91 ON

Diesel Engine Power Plants

Planta San Andrés

Electrificadora de San Andres

Punta Evans San Andrés Oil 55 OFF

Cano Limon Field Occidental Petroleum

n/a Arauca Oil 34 ON

Ibague Factory Cementos

Diamante de Ibague

Ibague Tolima Oil 25 ON

Leticia

Inst. Colom-biano de Energia Electrica

Leticia Amazonas Oil 12 ON

Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Power Plants

TEBSA TEBSA Barranquilla Atlántico Natural

Gas 750 ON

Termosierra EPM Puerto Parra Antioquia Natural

Gas 500 ON

Termocentro ISAGEN Cimitarra Santander Natural

Gas 290 ON

Termovalle Termovalle Yumbo Valle de Cauca

Natural Gas

240 ON

TermoEmcali Emcali Yumbo Valle de Cauca

Natural Gas

235 ON

Las Flores 1 CELSIA Barranquilla Atlántico Natural

Gas 156 ON

Conventional Gas Turbine Power Plants

TermoCandelaria ANDEG Cartagena Bolívar Natural

Gas 316 ON

Las Flores 2 & 3 CELSIA Barranquilla Atlántico Natural

Gas 252 ON

Mamonal AES Cartagena Bolívar Natural

Gas 166 OFF

Meriléctrica CELSIA Bucaramanga Santander Natural

Gas 160 ON

Barranquilla TEBSA Barranquilla Atlántico Natural

Gas 140 ON

Proeléctrica ANDEG Cartagena Bolívar Natural

Gas 92 ON


Barranca 4 & 5 ESSA Barrancabermeja Santander Natural

Gas 54 ON

Termodorada Central Hidroe-

léctrica de Caldas

La Dorada Caldas Natural

Gas 52 ON

La Union Electranta n/a Atlántico Natural

Gas 49 OFF

Chinu Electrocosta Chinu Córdoba Natural Gas; Oil

45 OFF

Gualanday Ecopetrol Cali Valle de Cauca

Natural Gas

41 ON

Termocoa Ecopetrol Apiay Refinery Meta Natural

Gas 41 ON

Palenque ESSA Giron Santander Natural

Gas 15 ON

Riomar Electranta n/a Atlántico Natural

Gas 10 OFF


GENERATORS – KEY PLAYERS

Emgesa is a Colombian company dedicated to power generation and marketing in the Non-Regulated

Market. It was created in 1997 as a result of the capitalization of the Energy Company of Bogota (EEB).

It is part of Enersis, a filial of the Enel Group. The Enel Group is the second largest electric utility in

Europe in terms of installed capacity. In has operations in 32 countries, on 4 continents, it serves 61

million households and business customers and has more than 95.752 GW of installed capacity. In Latin

America it has operations in Chile, Brazil, Colombia, Argentina and Peru.

In Colombia, Emgesa has ten hydroelectric and two thermal power plants, located in the departments of

Cundinamarca and Bolivar.

It has a market share of 16% of the non-regulated market, an installed capacity of 2,915 MW and its

quota of installed power capacity is 20%.

Plant Name Type Capacity (MW) Location Units OEM

Hidroeléctrica Guavio Hydro 1.213 Guavio 5 Escher Wyss

Hidroeléctrica Bentania Hydro 540 Huila 3 Ansaido-Franco Tosi

Hidroeléctrica Paraíso Hydro 276 Mesitas 3 Kvaerner Brug

Hidroeléctrica Guaca Hydro 324.6 Cundinamarca 3 Kvaerner Brug

Hidroeléctrica Charquito Hydro 19.5 Cundinamarca 1 Escher Wyss

Hidroeléctrica Tequendama Hydro 19.5 Mesitas 4 GEC Alsthom/Neyrpic

Hidroeléctrica Limonar Hydro 19.5 Mesitas 1 S. Morgan Smith

Hidroeléctrica La Tinta Hydro 19.5 Mesitas 1 Voith

Hidroeléctrica San Antonio Hydro 19.5 Mesitas 1 Voith

Hidroeléctrica La Junca Hydro 19.5 La Mesa 1 Voith

Térmica Martín del Corral Thermo 240 Tocancipa 4 GE; Hitachi

Térmica Cartagena Thermo 208 Mamonal 3 WH. Siemens

Emgesa is currently developing a new hydro project called "El Quimbo". This project has been plagued by

cost overruns, protests, blockades, invasions and various legal actions that have generated significant

delays. As of January 2015, the project has completed 4 years and two months of execution and is in its

final stages. It is estimated that by July 2015 it will begin to generate about 5% of the national electricity

demand, contributing 400 MW to the grid. The initial budget for the project was set at $ USD837 million

and it was expected to be operational by December 2014. Due to the various delays, an estimated total

investment is calculated at USD 1,093 million.

Once in operation, El Quimbo will use the waters of the Suaza and Magdalena rivers to provide approxi-

mately 2,216 GW/h per year and generate annual revenues for Emgesa ranging between 200 and 250

million dollars.


EPM was created on August 6, 1955, with the purpose of providing electrical, gas, water and sewage

services. It is divided into various divisions according to the activities performed.

EPM Aguas is the division that manages the integrated management of the water cycle (excellent quality

of the water supply and collection and treatment of wastewater), for the inhabitants of Medellín and its

metropolitan area (Bello, Envigado, Itagüí, La Estrella, Sabaneta, Copacabana, Girardota, Caldas

Barbosa), with a total of 974,781 customers.

EPM Aguas has:

» Drinking-water treatment plants: 11.

» Aqueduct mains: 3.580 kilometers.

» Collection and transport of wastewater: 4.367 kilometers.

» Coverage: 100% in the urban areas of the Aburrá Valley.

EPM Gas Natural has offered natural gas through a pipeline network since 1996, when it started its pilot

phase, and in 1998 it began its program for mass distribution of natural gas through a household network

serving the residential, commercial and industrial sectors of the Aburrá Valley. Today it is under full

expansion in the 10 municipalities of the Aburrá Valley, including Medellin and other cities in Antioquia.


Plant Name Type Capacity (MW) Location Units Turbine

Dolores Hydro 8.3 Angostura 1 Francis

Troneras Hydro 40 Carolina del Principe 2 Francis

Guadalupe III Hydro 270 Carolina del Principe 6 Pelton

Guadalupe IV Hydro 216 Amalfi 3 Francis

Porce II Hydro 405 Amalfi 3 Francis

Porce III Hydro 600 Amalfi 4 Francis

Caracoli Hydro 2.6 Caracoli 2 Pelton

Rio Grande I Hydro 75 Don Matias 3 Pelton

Guatape Hydro 560 El Penol 8 Pelton

Playas Hydro 201 El Penol 3 Francis

Rio abajo Hydro 1 San Vicente 2 Turgo

Sonson Hydro 8.5 Sonson 2 Pelton

La Herradura Hydro 19.8 Frontino 2 Pelton

Tamesis Hydro 1.2 Tamesis 2 Pelton

La Vuelta Hydro 11.8 Frontino 1 Francis

Tasajera Hydro 306 Barbosa 3 Pelton

Piedras Blancas Hydro 10 La Tablaza 1 Pelton

Ayura Hydro 19 Envigado 1 Francis

Niquia Hydro 19 Bello 1 Francis

La Sierra Thermo 460 Puerto Nare 3 Gas-Steam

Jepirachi Wind 19.5 Cabo de la Vela 15 Wind

In addition to covering the residential sector, the service has diversified to meet the needs of industry,

trade and vehicular transport. In order to meet the needs of this client base, EPM expanded its coverage

to the municipalities of Guarne and Rionegro, in eastern Antioquia.

The proposed natural gas distribution project includes the construction of over 85 kilometers of primary

networks that operate at pressures between 100 and 275 psig; 26 regulation stations, which reduce the

pressure to 60 psig, to serve the residential and commercial sectors; in addition to meeting the require-

ments of the industrial sector; and finally, the construction of 4,650 kilometers of polyethylene networks to

supply gas to retail customers at a maximum pressure of 60 psig.

EPM Energía occupies an important place in the electricity sector in Colombia, with a share of 21.11% of

the demand served. For over five decades it has developed an important part of the hydroelectric system

in Colombia. As of 2012 it has assets equivalent to COP 35,277 million6.

The net effective power capacity for EPM is 3257.61 MW. Its power distribution system is equivalent to

16.2% of the national total.

It has 19 hydroelectric power stations, 1 thermoelectric power station and 1 wind farm.

Currently EPM is developing the country's largest energy project, the Ituango hydroelectric project. It will

generate 2,400 MW of power generation using eight units (Francis type turbines). EPM will build, operate,

maintain and market the Ituango hydroelectric project for 50 years, which is estimated to be operational

by 2018.

May 2015 celebrates the 19th anniversary of the creation of ISAGEN S.A. E.S.P., a company that

develops projects for the generation, production and sale of electricity. Isagen is attached to the Ministry

6 www.epm.com


of Mines and Energy of Colombia. Its headquarters are located in Medellin and it has regional offices in

Bogotá, Cali and Barranquilla.

Isagen has a total installed capacity of 3,032 MW distributed as follows: 2,732 MW in hydroelectric plants

and 300 MW in thermoelectric plants, for a total of seven plants located in the departments of Antioquia,

Tolima, Santander and Caldas.

During the last quarter of 2014, ISAGEN showed an increase in the generation of all its power plants

which resulted in a cumulative generation of 2,999 GWh / year, and represented a growth of 14% in

comparison to the same period in 2013. This increased generation came about due to increased water

intake in all reservoirs, primarily in the Miel I hydroelectric plant, in the department of Caldas, and Manso

and Guarino transfers. The Termocentro power plant in the Magdalena Medio, also had a higher genera-

tion during the quarter.

In December 2014, the Sogamoso Hydroelectric Project entered into operation. It is located in Santander,

in the canyon where the Sogamoso River crosses the Serrania de La Paz, 75 km upstream from its

mouth at the Magdalena River and 62 km downstream of the confluence of the Suarez and Chicamocha

rivers.

The Sogamoso hydroelectric power plant has the three largest generation units in Colombia. With 820

MW of installed capacity and an average annual generation of 5,056 GWh-year, it is the fourth largest

hydroelectric power plant in terms of installed capacity in the country. This hydroelectric power plant will

increase the company’s energy production by 60% and will generate approximately 8.3% of the annual

energy consumed by Colombians.

GENERATORS – OTHER PLAYERS

Celsia is a utility company specializing in the business of power generation and distribution. It currently

has an installed capacity of 2,312 MW, represented in 23 plants located Colombia, Panama and Costa

Rica.

In Colombia the company has a 50.01% stake in Empresa de Energía del Pacífico S.A. E.S.P., EPSA,

which has operations in the four stages of the energy business: generation, transmission, distribution and

marketing, and its operations are concentrated in the departments of Valle del Cauca, Cauca and Tolima.

Likewise, EPSA also has a majority stake in Compañía de Electricidad de Tuluá S.A. E.S.P., which

serves the municipality of Tulua.

The company owns seven power plants in Panama and Costa Rica, which generate electricity using

hydro, thermal and wind technologies

GENERADORA Y COMERCIALIZADORA DE ENERGIA DEL CARIBE S.A ESP – GECELCA, has an

installed capacity of thermal generation equivalent to 1220 MW, supplied by its plants in Barranquilla

(Atlántico) and Mingueo (Guajira). It owns, operates and maintains units 1 and 2 of the Termoguajira

plant, with an effective capacity of 151 MW each. Termoguajira is located in Mingueo in the municipality

of Dibulla, in La Guajira. These units operate on natural gas and can operate with coal.

GECELCA, participated in the first auction for the allocation of firm energy obligations in Colombia,

developed by the CREG. At this auction the thermoelectric generation coal plant GECELCA 3 was

allocated Firm Energy Obligations (OEF), for the period between December 1, 2012 and November 30,

2032.

GECELCA leads the GECELCA 3 project, the new thermoelectric power station located in the municipali-

ty of Puerto Libertador, in the department of Córdoba.


Termobarranquilla SA E.S.P. - TEBSA - is the largest thermal generator in Colombia; the plant is

located on the North Coast of the department of Atlántico, municipality of Soledad. Its installed capacity is

equivalent to 870 MW and in the near future will be expanded to 910 MW. Under normal conditions it

generates over 10% of domestic demand, and can provide electrical power to most of the Colombian

Atlantic Coast. It has become the fallback option in the region due to the unavailability of interconnection

lines that connect the coast with the interior of the country, where power generation is mostly hydro.

TEBSA offers power generation, through GECELCA, its client, using combined cycle technology and its

simple cycle power plant. The former consists of five gas turbines and two steam turbine generators

operating in combined cycle to generate 750 MW.


SECTOR FORECAST

The energy industry, particularly the oil sector has been an important player in driving growth and eco-

nomic development in Colombia. However, the rise seen since 2003 in the promotion of foreign

investment and improved competitive scenarios for private companies has become stagnant. This is due

to social and environmental issues, to negative impacts on infrastructure and declining reserves that

endanger the good performance of this sector.

Currently, the Government has stated that it has reserves for approximately eight years, therefore the rate

of production of one million barrels a day is not sustainable in the mid and long term. For this reason, the

Government plans to focus efforts primarily on increasing oil reserves.

In this order, the Ministry of Mines and the National Hydrocarbons Agency are betting on opening up the

offer for non-conventional reservoirs and the development of offshore activities. As an example, it has

come to the conclusion that if the expectations for reserves of non-conventional oil are confirmed, the

country could multiply its total reserves by six.

Of the 95 oil blocks auctioned in 2014, less than 30% of the available blocks were awarded. However, we

emphasize that these were the subject of large companies such as Anadarko and ExxonMobil, Repsol,

Statoil and Ecopetrol. On the other hand, on the almost 20 blocks of non-conventional reservoirs, only

two bids were received.

Although significant investments are expected and new companies see significant potential in Colombia,

the forecast for the oil industry does not reflect very positive results.

Furthermore, as an added factor to the declining levels of reserves, there are processes that hinder a

dynamic and growing development, among these are worth noting the delays in issuing environmental

licenses. Supposedly, the new environmental licensing decree is expected to promote efficiency in the

assessment of applications without losing the technical rigor to ensure environmental sustainability.

However, the current situation must also be seen an opportunity to explore the possibility of investing in

resources for the production of non-conventional energy, exploitation of renewable natural resources, and

overall, in the development of alternative sources of energy such as wind power, considering the enor-

mous potential of the country. Colombia has the necessary resources to be self-sufficient.

The model that promotes competition within a framework of interaction between supply and demand has

served to consolidate a sector with a solid infrastructure for thermoelectric generation. This has allowed

an industry to flourish, which several decades ago was not even considered relevant for the country. The

thermal generation sector has properly started structuring an industry with great potential for expansion.

This undertaking is no longer seen as the answer to the need to generate power in time of drought, but as

a sector capable of transcending borders and conquering new markets.

In order for Colombia to maintain a high ranking in terms of in energy security, environmental sustainabil-

ity, and close the gap in service access to the entire population, it is necessary to maintain consistent and

stable long-term policies for the energy sector. This is of significant importance if Colombia is to attract

more investment from global energy leaders in the future.

According to several Latin American ex-Presidents, participating in the International Forum in Santo

Domingo, “the Golden age of economic growth in Latin America has passed and the region is now faced

with the challenge of deceleration, which poses significant issues for regional leaders, who must also

address internal matters on safety, democratic strengthening and better wealth distribution.7

7 “Latinoamérica enfrenta desaceleración y mayor distribución riqueza, dicen expertos”, El Espectador. Friday, January 30, 2014.


Due to the 60% drop in oil prices during the last six months, the oil industry has been forced to consider

taking emergency measures in order to avoid a loss in equity. This situation not only forces them to

reduce investment and operating expenses, but maybe payroll as well. Francisco José LLoreda, Presi-

dent of the Colombian Oil Association (ACP), states that although cutbacks are inevitable, the ACP is

working together with the Government to find a solution to the problem that will safeguard the 110,000

jobs in the industry. 8 On a rather pessimistic note, he states “this is a serious issue, I have the impression

that the Government and the general public have not understood the seriousness of the matter: the initial

impact is effectively on government revenues, and there are even some people who minimize its im-

portance. The Fiscal Framework for the mid-term was based on a USD$98 barrel, and the price today is

$48; this is USD $50 less per barrel. Not including the devaluation of the peso, the hole in public finances

is equivalent to $300,000 million for every dollar lost per barrel.”9 Fortunately, oil prices have stabilized

and a slight increase has been seen, (as of February 26, 2015 the Brent was at UDS$59.91).

OPPORTUNITIES FOR VIRGINIA COMPANIES

The energy and oil industries are of significant importance for economic growth and social development.

The Santos administration is open and willing to receive foreign investment and the participation of

foreign companies in these industries. The Santos’ administration Development Plan for 2014-2108

specifies the following as some of the areas where there are strategic opportunities for international

cooperation:

» Science, innovation and technology; the satellite industry has grown significantly in the past dec-

ade and is considered a driver for technological innovation and development in other industries

as well. It also promotes the development of environmental, public safety and cultural and social

programs.

» IT Services, in terms of connectivity, software to guarantee transparency of information and oper-

ations, and end-user education (access, use and appropriation)

» Environmental management

» Comprehensive maritime security off-shore, by strengthening personnel training, environmental

safety procedures, traffic control, signaling, and search and rescue procedures

» Technical training at all levels.

» Cyber security; best practices and software for surveillance and detection of cybercrimes

» Police force equipment and training

Based on expertise and knowledge of the oil and energy sector in Colombia, and in order to complement

the general opportunities derived for governmental policies, the following is a general analysis of business

opportunities for security and defense companies in the abovementioned sectors.

1. Perimeter Security Systems

» Surveillance by satellite

» Local video surveillance

» Aerial video surveillance

» Drones

» Micro-drones

» Aircraft

8 “La industria petrolera está bajo estrés,” El Espectador. Friday, January 30, 2014.

9 “Barril sin fondo,” Revista Dinero, February 6, 2015.


» Tactical training for security personnel

» Equipment

» Cameras

» Monitors

» Information centers

2. Secure communications

» Industrial wireless applications

» Data / Voice / Video

» Data Acquisition

» SCADA / Telemetry

» Mobile Data for Field Force Automation

» Control Process

» Telecom & Campus Connections

» Transaction / POS

» Mobile Data for Public Safety

3. Information security

» Implementation:

» Data encryption

» Confidentiality

» Protocols

» Risk analysis, impact, criticality and sensitivity

» Access controls

» Strategy

» Network architecture

» Contingency plans

» Information assurance

» Training for staff

» Firewall

» Administration of user accounts

» Detection and intrusion prevention

» Antivirus

» Public key infrastructure

» (SSL) Secure Socket Layers

» Single connection "Single Sign-on SSO"

» Biometrics

» Privacy compliance

» Remote access

» Digital signature

» Electronic data "EDI" and electronic transfer of funds "EFT"

» Virtual private network "VPNs"

» Secure electronic transfer "SET"

» Computer forensics


» Data recovery

» Technologies of monitoring

» Certifications in:

» CISM: Certified Information Security Manager

» CISSP: Certified Information Systems Security Professional Certification

» GIAC: Global Information Assurance Certification

» CPTE Certified Penetration Testing Engineer

» CPTC Certified Penetration Testing Consultant

» CPEH Certified Professional Ethical Hacker

» CISSO Certified Information Systems Security Officer

» CSLO Certified Security Leadership Officer

» ISO/IEC 27000-series

» ISO/IEC 27001

» ISO/IEC 27002

4. Global positioning systems

» Personnel tracking

» For staff located in high risk areas

» For services providers located in high risk areas

» Tracking of goods

» Trucks

» Containers

» For personal vehicles

» Specialized tools

» Equipment and materials

5. Transportation

» Armored vehicles

» Helicopters

» Trucks

6. Staff Services for

» Remote Management for Physical Security

» Bodyguards

» Assessment

» Kidnappings

» Extortion

» Terrorism

7. Prevention and care of natural disasters

» Implementation of prevention protocols

» Training

» Risk reduction

» Equipment

» Implementation of contingency plans


SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS

The main security issues in Colombia are primarily associated to the internal conflict the country has lived

under for the last sixty years. There is a portion of the territory that is affected by the conflict itself, areas

where armed confrontations between the guerrillas and the army are frequent occurrences, entire

populations that have been displaced over the years and innumerable refugees that flee to the cities in

search of safety. The guerrilla also attacks the country’s infrastructure, including, roads, oil pipelines and

energy transmission towers. Drug trafficking in Colombia remains an important concern for both the

government and international organizations, including other countries. Even though major drug cartels

have been disbanded and eliminated in the last two decades, there are still many small drug operations in

cities such as Bogotá and Medellin, which in turn lead to other criminal activities.

During the last fifteen years, the overall situation of national security and defense has developed favora-

bly as a result of the sustained work of the security forces and ongoing support of citizens. Armed criminal

groups and gangs are being disjointed decisively, and the factors that enhance their ability to cause

damage have been systematically beaten. Between 2010 and 2014, the Comprehensive Security Policy

for Prosperity and the Sword of Honor and Greenheart Programs, allowed for the neutralization of 54

leaders of the FARC, 17 of the ELN and 42 of the BACRIM( Criminal gangs).

Likewise, the offensive capability of these groups has been reduced. During the previous four years,

248.1 tons of explosives were seized; 887 terrorist attacks were neutralized and prevented; 69,411

explosive devices were destroyed and 18,583 were seized. The strength of these operating results

dramatically reduced the actions of these criminal structures, thus improving the security environment. By

August 2014, 90% of municipalities had seen no terrorist attacks by the FARC and ELN and 95% had

seen no subversive actions. Furthermore, 82% of the population did not report any terrorist activity or

criminal gang structures.

Border areas face many problems that arise from the presence of illegal armed groups and transnational

criminal organizations involved in drug, illegal arms and explosives trafficking, mainly along the borders

with Ecuador and coastline territories in the Caribbean and Pacific; and illegal mining and illegal exploita-

tion of natural resources in the border with Peru, Brazil and Panama, are issues that need to be

addresses.

In his four-year plan, President Juan Manuel Santos addresses five transversal strategies as the basis for

a more peaceful, equitable, and educated country.

1. Infrastructure and competitive strategies

2. Social mobility

3. Rural transformation and “Green growth”

4. Consolidation of a Constitutional State

5. Good governance

In order to succeed, these strategies need to address several of the more complex issues for the gov-

ernment: the armed conflict, insecurity, poverty, inequality, and a lagging educational system. For

example, Colombia is among the top fifteen countries with the greatest inequality indexes.

The government also needs to strengthen its presence in rural areas of the country. The National Plan-

ning Department (DNP, 2014) calculates that a total of 269 registered armed conflict and violence acts

occurred in 2013, which represents 25% of total municipalities. In the last three years, 60% of armed and

illegal activities took place in Norte de Santander, Arauca, Putumayo, Nariño, Cauca and Antioquia,

which also represent some of the areas where the judicial system is lacking: for example Norte de

Santander, Putumayo and Nariño, concentrate 60% of illicit drug crops in 2013 (DNP, 2014); and the

borders with Peru, Brazil and Panamá are the main areas for illegal mining and illicit exploitation of


natural resources (Ministry of Defense, 2011). 92% of attacks on oil and gas infrastructure occurred in

Norte de Santander, Putumayo and Arauca; while 70% of attacks on power transmission towers occurred

in Antioquia, Nariño and Cauca.

The judicial system also needs to strengthen its institutionalism, for example, only 5.1% of homicides

entered into the judicial system between 2000 and 2012 resulted in a prison sentence, which sadly is a

high percentage when compared to other types of crimes; personal injury (0,6%), sexual harassment

(0,2%), crimes against public administration (0,6%) or terrorism (1,9%).

The private sector has the responsibility of participating proactively and constantly in achieving the goals

set out by the government. Given their ability to generate social and economic opportunities, they must

develop business models that factor in the countries current context in search of eliminating violence,

inequality, human rights violations, and create virtuous cycles that promote social and economic inclu-

sion. International entities and agencies, diplomatic missions and international NGOs, among others, are

also invited to participate as allies in this process. They offer resources, technology and innovation, and

knowledge. Some of the areas where the government is particularly interested in foreign cooperation are:

innovation and technology, telecommunications, environmental management.

Advances in Equity and Poverty10

Index 2010 2014

Gini coefficient 0.56 0.539

Poverty index 39% 29.3%

Extreme poverty 12.3% 8.4%

Sample table Sample table 100

10

Bases for the National Development Plan 2014-2018 (Bases para el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo), DPN, November 2014.


LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

REGULATORY AUTHORITIES

In Colombia, the main regulatory authorities for the refining and energy sectors are the Ministry of Mining

and Energy, the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit, the National Planning Department, the National

Hydrocarbon Agency (ANH), the Mining and Energy Planning Unit (UPME) and the Energy and Gas

Regulation Commission (CREG). In addition, the Superintendence of Public Utilities, the Superintendence

of Finance, the Superintendence of Corporations, and the Superintendence of Ports and Transportation

monitor the operations by companies in the sector.

Specifically, the Ministry of Mining and Energy defines government policies for the energy sector, the

Superintendence of Public Utilities supervises and audits all public utilities, the CREG regulates technical

and marketing operations sector, and the Mining and Energy Planning Unit is responsible for planning

and expansion of the grid.

In an effort to reduce the concentration of natural gas supply in the market, in 2011, the Ministry of Mining

and Energy, issued Decree 2100, which modifies the administration of natural gas royalties, in such a

manner as to manage their marketing on behalf of the ANH. However, in 2013, the ANH issued Resolu-

tion No. 877 by which the collection of said royalties and the compensation caused from the exploitation

of gas may once more be marketed by the operators, in the proportions stipulated in the corresponding

contracts of exploration and production.

The energy sector was modified in 1994 by Act 142 of Household Public utilities, and Act 143 (Energy

Act). According to Act 143, public, private or mixed entities are free to participate in sector activities under

a free market economy. In order to operate or initiate projects, environmental, sanitary and water right

permits must be obtained from the corresponding local authorities.

REGULATIONS FOR THE OIL INDUSTRY

The Oil industry is regulated primarily through the Oil Code, which was issued and enacted under Decree

106 of 1953, and its subsequent modifications, of which some are mentioned as follows: Act 10 of 1961

which restricted the activities for oil licensees and stipulated controls on the same; Law 20 of 1969 and

Law 97 of 1993, which significantly restricted the interpretation and application of private property rights

on national soil and non-renewable resources; Decree 2301 of 1974, which regulated the transfer of

exploration and exploitation activities from the Nation to Ecopetrol, and Resolution No. 2543 of 1984,

issued by the Ministry of Mines by which the proceedings for the approval of contract for the exploration

and exploitation of hydrocarbons are regulated. Both the national government and the Ministry of Mines

and Energy are constantly updating regulations through Decrees and Resolutions, and which can be

found individually in the web site for the above-mentioned Ministry. The last major modification to the

Code came about in 2005, by way of Decree 4299, which established the requirements, obligations and

penalties applicable to the agents participating in the distribution chain of liquid fuels obtained from oil,

with the exception of LPG.

The Oil Code comprises regulations on pricing, distribution of the different products and byproducts,

royalties, specific environmental and tax legislation for the oil industry, foreign investment, import and

export procedures, agent obligations and operations. The Colombian Trade, Tax and Labor Codes also

include specific regulations for the oil industry as well as general regulations that apply.

Internal and export prices of oil and natural gas are determined by the Pricing Commission of Oil and

Natural Gas of the Ministry of Mines.


Other influential players in the oil and gas sector are industry unions; their political power is significant

and the collective bargaining agreements between the unions and Ecopetrol and other companies around

wages and reparation have impacted the industry in the past. Just recently, in order to allow for the

modernization of the Barrancabermeja Refinery, Ecopetrol had to sit down to reach an agreement with

the USO, which took six months to complete. Unions are regulated by the Colombian Constitution, the

Labor Code and are under the supervision of the Ministry of Labor.

Some of the more important union groups in Ecopetrol, the oil and gas and energy sectors, and other

sectors as well are:

1. USO -Workers Union for the Oil Industry

2. Adeco - Professional and Technical Management Personnel Association for the Oil Industry in

Colombia

3. Sindispetrol - National Workers Union for Operators, Contractors, Subcontractors of Services and

Activities in the Industry

4. CUT – Central Union of Workers

5. CGT – General Confederation of Workers

6. CTC – Colombian Confederation of workers

REGULATION FOR GENERATION COMPANIES

Both the State and the private sector may participate in the implementation and operation of generation

projects. The State is only authorized to enter into concession agreements related to generation when

there is no other entity prepared to assume these activities under comparable conditions. The CREG

receives daily offers on price and available capacity per hour for the following day by all generation

participants in the wholesale market. Based on this information, the CREG completes an economic

dispatch using an optimized procedure for the 24 hour period of the following day, taking into account the

limitations of the grid, as well as other conditions required to meet expected energy demand for the next

day safely, reliably and efficiently, from the standpoint of cost. In Colombia, unlike other countries where

dispatch is based on variable production costs, dispatching is based on bids tendered by agents.

The energy exchange is a balancing market, where it sells or buys the excess or deficit of energy result-

ing from the performance of contracts against the actual energy demand for power generators and

marketers. The energy exchange sets the spot price, which is determined after the day of operation by an

optimized process for the period of 24 hours, known as ideal dispatch, which assumes an infinite capacity

for network transmission and takes into account initial operating conditions, thus establishing what

generators should be dispatched to meet actual demand.

The price paid to all generators dispatched, by price merit, is the price of the most expensive generator

dispatched in each hour according to the ideal dispatch. The cost differences between 'economic dispatch

"and the" ideal dispatch "are called" restriction costs ". The cost of each restriction is initially assigned to

the agent responsible for the restriction, and when it is not possible to identify an agent it is distributed

proportionately between all marketers in the system, according to their energy demand, and these costs

are passed on to the end customers.

Generators connected to the grid system can also participate in the "Reliability Charge" which is a

mechanism intended to encourage investment in generation capacity to ensure coverage of the country's

demand in the long term. The charge consists of assigning Firm Energy Obligations (OEF) through a

descending price auction for existing or new generators, who must guarantee the system said amount of

energy for a given period. The allocation for existing generators is done annually and for new projects for

up to 20 years. The OEF is a commitment made by the generating company, backed by its physical

resources and that enables it to produce firm energy. The generator that acquires an OEF will receive a

fixed compensation during the period of the agreement, whether the fulfillment of its obligation is required


or not. The price per KWh of OEF corresponds to the closing value at the auction for firm energy or

reliability charge. When this firm energy is required, which occurs when the spot price exceeds the

scarcity price, in addition to the Reliability Charge, the generator also receives the scarcity price, for each

KWh generated with its OEF. If the energy generated is greater than the obligation specified in the OEF,

this additional energy is paid at the spot price.

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

Environmental regulation in Colombia is set within the legal framework of Act 99 of 1993, under which the

Ministry of the Environment was also created. The Ministry defines, issues and executes policies and

regulations for the recovery, preservation, protection, organization, management and use of renewable

resources.

According to Act 99, power generation stations that have a total installed capacity above 10 MW must

contribute to the conservation of the environment by paying a fee to the municipalities and environmental

corporations in their places of operation. Hydroelectric power stations must pay 6% of their generation,

and thermoelectric power stations must pay 6%, according to annual rates.

Lately, environmental regulations have focused on emissions, hydro policies (including water discharges

and basin organizations), environmental licensing and penalties.

Any entity that is considering developing projects or activities that imply generation, interconnection,

transmission or distribution of energy, and that may cause environmental damages must first request an

environmental license.

Colombia is one of the 187 countries that participated and signed the Kyoto Protocol, and as such, is

committed to the mitigation of environmental changes through the creation of projects that limit emissions

or increase the capacity to capture CO2 thorough energy efficient processes, the use of renewable energy

and improved technologies.

In recent years the oil sector has grown significantly, which has led to an increase in environmental

license requests for exploration and drilling projects. According to Decree 2820 of 2010, the Hydrocarbon

Group of the National Authority for Environmental Licenses (ANLA) is responsible for analyzing environ-

mental studies, including positive and negative financial impact, and issuing Environmental Licenses for

the following activities:

1. Seismic exploration activities that require the construction of roads for vehicular traffic.

2. Seismic exploration activities in marine areas, inside the national territory, performed in depths of

less than 200 meters.

3. Exploration drilling projects outside the existing hydrocarbon production fields, according to the

area of interest indicated by the petitioner.

4. Exploitation of hydrocarbons, including drilling of wells of any kind, construction of facilities proper

to the activity, additional works including internal transport of fluids by pipeline, internal storage, in-

ternal roads and other associated infrastructure works.

5. Transportation and handling of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons developed outside the drilling

fields involving the construction and installation of pipelines infrastructure with diameters greater

than or equal to 6 inches (15.24 cm), including pumping and / or pressure reduction stations and re-

lated storage and flow control infrastructure; with the exception of those activities related to the

distribution of household, commercial or industrial natural gas.


6. Delivery terminals and transfer stations for liquid hydrocarbons, understood as the storage infrastruc-

ture associated with the transport of oil, its products and byproducts.

7. The construction and operation of refineries and petrochemical facilities that are part of a refinery

complex.

In addition, within the evaluation and surveillance framework of the ANLA, there are several other parties

that participate in the process: Regional Autonomous Corporations, the Ministry of the Interior, and the

Ministry of the Environment regarding the use of natural resources, relationships with indigenous and

African-descent communities, environmental management and protection in the areas of influence of the

projects. They must all participate in the ANLA processes by providing their opinion about their areas of

competence to the extent required.

TAX LEGISLATION

Tax legislation in Colombia is based on the Colombian Tax Code, and taxes are collected and adminis-tered by the National Tax and Customs Department (DIAN). Taxes are administered at a national and municipal level. The following are the main taxes that affect companies doing business in Colombia:

1. Income tax: The income tax is levied on a national level and on all net income earned by a taxpayer in the year for profits derived for the company’s main operations; the rate applied is 25%.

2. Capital gains tax: Capital gains tax is levied on a national level on all income derived from activities

not considered part of the company’s main operations; the rate applied is 10%.

3. CREE (Equity tax): CREE is levied on a national level for all corporations, on all income earned by a taxpayer which are susceptible to increase equity of the company; the rate applied is 9% for 2015, and 8% subsequently.

4. VAT: VAT rates are established at 0%, 5% or 16% according to the good or service.

5. Tax on financial operations: a 0,4% rate is applied to all financial transactions.

6. Property tax: Local tax levied on property, rates range between 0.3 and 3.3%

7. ICA: Local tax levied on industrial and trade operations, or services rendered, the rates range

between 0.2 and 1.4%

8. Excise tax: Indirect tax levied on the automobile, telecommunication, and food and beverage sec-tors, at rates of 4%, 8% and 16%.

9. Wealth tax: According to the new Tax Reform of 2014, for 2015 through 2017, corporations with

equity above COP $1,000.000 million must pay a wealth tax which will be levied on their equity as of December 31 of each corresponding fiscal year, the rates will start at 1.3% for 2015, 1% for 2016 and 0.75% for 2017.

10. Gasoline and Diesel Tax: This taxi s levied on a national level and is applied to the sale, withdrawal

or import of gasoline or diesel fuel for individual use or import for sale. The rate applied is deter-mined by gallon of gasoline or diesel fuel and adjusted according to DIAN decree.

11. Vehicle Tax: This tax is levied on the ownership or possession of vehicles, and canceled based on

its market value.


FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS

Currently, Colombia has the following Free Trade Agreements or Economic Partnership agreements in effect, they are listed by the year they entered into force. 1994

1. Mexico As of September 2014, the trade balance with Mexico amounted to a deficit of USD 2,942.4 mil-lion FOB.

11

2. CARICOM (Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, Belice,

Dominica, Granada, Monserrat, San Cristobal and las Nieves, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. For 2013, total trade between Colombia and CARICOM amounted to USD 1.727 mil-lion.

12

2009

3. Mercosur (Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay) As of October 2014, the trade balance with Mercosur amounted to a deficit of USD 1,363 million FOB.

13

4. North Triangle The North Triangle Group is comprised of Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras. However, the FTA was signed initially with Guatemala in 2009, and the following year with El Salvador and Honduras. As of October 2014, the trade balance with the North Triangle Groups amounted to USD 297,360 million FOB.

14

5. Chile As of September 2014, the trade balance with Chile amounted to a surplus of USD 121.4 million FOB.

15

2010

6. EFTA As of 2013, the trade balance with Switzerland amounted to a surplus of USD 35.4 million FOB. As for trade with Liechtenstein, Colombia imported products in the amount of USD 2,017 million FOB, and generated no exports. The trade balance with Iceland and Norway amounted to a defi-cit of USD 673 million FOB, and USD 16,991 million FOB, respectively.

16

2011

7. Canada As of September 2014, the trade balance with Canada amounted to a deficit of USD 312.6 mil-lion.

17

2012

8. USA18

The US and Colombia signed a FTA in 2012 by which more than 80% of US exports of consumer and industrial products will become duty free immediately, while the remaining 20% will be phased out over a course of 10 to 15 years, depending on the sector. As of September 204, the trade balance with the US amounted to a deficit of USD 2,278.8 million.

19

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9. European Union and Peru

As of September 2014, the trade balance with the European Union amounted to USD 1,287.4 mil-lion, and a USD 1,180.9 million deficit with Peru

20.

POLITICAL OUTLOOK

Colombia is a Presidential democracy. It is comprised of 32 departments (“departamentos”): Amazonas,

Antioquia, Atlántico, Bolivar, Boyacá, Caldas, Caquetá, Casanare, Cauca, Chocó, Cordoba, Cundinamar-

ca, Guainia, Guaviare, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Nariño, Norte de Santader, Putumayo, Quindío,

Risaralda, Archipelago of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina, Santander, Sucre, Tolima, Valle

del Cauca, Vaupés and Vichada. The Capital is Bogotá.21

The Government is bicameral, with a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives. The main political

parties are: Liberal Party (LP), Conservative Party (CP), Social Party of National Unity (U), Democratic

Center Party (CD), Radical Change Party (CR), Democratic Pole Party (PDA), and the Green Party (V).

Elections are held every four years for both the President and the members of Congress. The last

election took place in June 2014, where Juan Manuel Santos was reelected for a second term in office.

Congressmen are elected in representation of their geographical regions on a proportional basis. Current-

ly, the government party retains a majority in Congress, however it has two very strong opposing factions

in the CD, which is ex-President Alvaro Uribe’s party, and is particularly against the manner in which the

peace process has been approached, and the leftist parties, which are in favor of the peace process but

against political control policies.

President Juan Manuel Santos based his presidential campaign on a negotiated end to the insurgency by

the terrorist group known as Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia or FARC, and was challenged by

hardliner and former cabinet member Oscar Ivan Zuluaga (also a protégé of Santo’s predecessor, and

former ally, President Alvaro Uribe).

Santos has generally enjoyed widespread approval since his election in June of 2010 for his management

of the economy, international relations and the fight against corruption and insurgency. While maintaining

Uribe’s firm stance on security and strong ties to the United States, he also emphasizes an agenda on

social and economic reform. Negotiations for an end to the 50-year conflict with the FARC were the key

domestic agenda in the second half of the government's term and continue to be a major focus of

Santos's new term. Santos's foreign policy priorities have included the diversification of the country's

trade and investment alliances, both within the region and towards Asia Pacific and Europe. President

Santos continues efforts to improve Colombia's international engagement and image abroad, through the

initiation of accession to the OECD, cooperation with NATO and pro tempore presidency of the Pacific

Alliance, which it handed to Mexico in June 2014.

Peace talks between the FARC and the Colombian Government commenced in Havana, Cuba in No-

vember of 2012. The negotiations focus on five items: agrarian reform (including access to land); political

participation for FARC members; drug trafficking, reparation for victims of the conflict; and the logistics for

ending the armed conflict. Agreements have been reached on agrarian reform, drug trafficking and

political participation. Negotiations continue on the two remaining issues, with varying degrees of opti-

mism on a successful outcome, as well as on the implementations of the ensuing policies.

President Juan Manuel Santos’ new administration aims to achieve a social pact to enable Colombians to

build a better country based on democratic prosperity. As its core is the creation of jobs to ensure a safe

20

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income, decent work and the benefit of social security for all Colombians. There are five driving forces

behind this goal that have boosted the economy under his government: agriculture, social housing,

mining, innovation and infrastructure.

The President appoints cabinet members, and the current Cabinet is comprised as follows:

Vice President Germán Vargas Lleras

Ministry of the Interior Juan Fernando Cristo

Ministry of Foreign Affairs Maria Angela Holguin

Ministry of Defense Juan Carlos Pinzón

Ministry of Justice Yesid Reyes

Ministry of Finance Mauricio Cárdenas

Ministry of Mines and Energy Tomás Gonzalez

Ministry of Trade Cecilia Alvarez

Ministry of Transport Natalia Abello

Ministry of the Environment Gabriel Vallejo

Ministry of Agriculture Aurelio Iragorri

Ministry of Health Alejandro Gaviria

Ministry of Housing Luis Felipe Henao

Ministry of Labor Luis Eduardo Garzón

Ministry of Education Gina Parody

Ministry of Information Technology and Communications Diego Molano

Ministry of Culture Mariana Garcés

There are also 4 High Advisors, 2 Secretaries to the Presidency and, 2 decentralized agencies whose

directors are appointed by the President.

High Advisor for the Presidency Nestor Humberto Martínez

High Advisor for Government and the Private Sector María Lorena Gutierrez

High Advisor for Communications Pilar Calderón

High Advisor for Post-Conflict, Human Rights and Security Oscar Naranjo

Private Secretary to the President Enrique Riveira

Legal Secretary to the President Cristina Pardo

Director for the Administrative Department of Public Administration Liliana Caballero

Director for the National Planning Department Simón Gaviria


In the last decade, Colombia has become a key player in the region, thanks to the strength of its institu-

tions, and the management and increased security throughout the entire territory. The Colombian State is

a firm, strong democracy with a long historic tradition within the region.

It is a country of mega-diversity, committed to the environment, renewable energies and bio-fuels. It is

also a safe and exotic tourist destination. It forms part of the group of emerging economies known as

CIVETS and is now considered an important player in the mining and energy field.

However, there are still several issues that require consideration when assessing Colombia as a possible

target for investment. Colombia is still a major supplier of cocaine, marijuana and heroin. The illicit

narcotics trade is estimated to be worth approximately five to ten per cent of the GDP. The cultivation and

trafficking of drugs continues to have a negative impact on security, the formal economy and the envi-

ronment. In particular, the use of fragile tropical and jungle ecosystems to grow cocaine, including the use

of agricultural chemicals, has caused significant environmental damage.

While human right abuses continue in Colombia, the situation has improved with an overall lessening of

civil conflict. A program for land restitution commenced by Santos’ administration in 2011 has begun to

address social injustices that have arisen from the country’s historical civil conflict. Historically, the major

source of human rights abuses in Colombia has stemmed from the internal armed conflict between the

army, paramilitary groups and the guerrillas. A July 2013 report indicated that across the length of the

conflict, more than 5 million people have been forcibly displaced. 22

Although IT services have significantly improved in the last few years, there are still gaps in terms of

access, use and appropriation. 51.7% of the population has internet access, 43.6% of households in

department capitals uses the internet, however only 6.8% of the rural population has access to the

service. There is still a need to promote the use and appropriation of IT services, through both connec-

tivity and education.

The National Competitiveness Agenda for 2014 – 2018, focuses on the need to generate a greater

economic and social growth and improve conditions for business activities for all players through eleven

points, which are yet to be articulated by the government but include:

» Science, technology and innovation

» Regional development

» Infrastructure

» Agrarian transformation

» Industrial Transformation

» Education, employment and health

» Institutionalism

» Macroeconomic stability

» Justice

» Reduction of crime and corruption

» Fair competition

Transportation infrastructure is one of the main pillars of competitiveness as well as an economic growth

and social driver. Historically, Colombia has lagged behind in this matter. According to the 2014-2015

Global Competitiveness Report by the OECD, Colombian infrastructure is ranked below emerging Asian

countries and some Latin American countries. Colombia highways are ranked 129, railroads are ranked

102, ports are ranked 90, and airports ranked No. 78. The Government is trying to increase investments

22

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in transport infrastructure to 3% of the GNP by the end of the decade. The National Infrastructure Agency

(ANI) has begun the most ambitious highway construction program, known as the G4 Concession, which

includes more than 40 projects, with an investment close to 47.000 million.

ECONOMIC OUTLOOK

COLOMBIA ECONOMIC DATA23

2012 2013

Population (million) 46.6 47.2

GDP per capita (USD) 7,946 8,023

GDP (USD bn) 370.3 378.3

Economic Growth (GDP, annual variation in %) 4.1 4.7

Domestic Demand (annual variation in %) 4.6 4.7

Consumption (annual variation in %) 4.7 4.6

Investment (annual variation in %) 4.6 6.1

Industrial Production (annual variation in %) -0.2 -1.7

Retail Sales (annual variation in %) 4.1 4.7

Unemployment Rate 10.4 9.7

Fiscal Balance (% of GDP) -1.9 -2.2

Public Debt (% of GDP) 31.7 34.9

Money (annual variation in %) 16.5 14.7

Inflation Rate (CPI, annual variation in %, eop) 2.4 1.9

Inflation Rate (CPI, annual variation in %) 3.2 2.0

Inflation (PPI, annual variation in %) -3.0 -0.5

Policy Interest Rate (%) 4.25 3.25

Stock Market (annual variation in %) 16.2 -11.2

Exchange Rate (vs USD) 1,767 1,930

Exchange Rate (vs USD, aop) 1,797 1,869

Current Account (% of GDP) -3.1 -3.3

Current Account Balance (USD bn) -11.6 -12.4

Trade Balance (USD billion) 1.0 -0.6

Exports (USD billion) 60.1 58.8

Imports (USD billion) 59.1 59.4

Exports (annual variation in %) 5.6 -2.2

Imports (annual variation in %) 9.0 0.5

International Reserves (USD) 37.5 43.6

External Debt (% of GDP) 21.3 24.3

Colombia is a country that offers both favorable and unfavorable conditions for investment. Institutionally

it has a stable government that promotes economic development through sensible and well-documented

policies, and it has a strong financial industry. It is strategically located in the region, allowing for ease of

trade by way of the Pacific and the Caribbean oceans. It has abundant natural resources, in particular

agricultural and mineral resources, such as oil, nickel, natural gas, iron ore, coal, platinum and emeralds.

It is still primarily an agrarian country, with agriculture representing 5.2% of the GDP for 201323

and 4.7

for 2014, with coffee, flowers and bananas representing the main export products. However, the construc-

tion industry was the fastest growing sector in the country during 2013, with an increase of 12%24

. On the

down side, the economy is sensitive to raw material prices, and trade is affected by the inadequacies for

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http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/inflation-eop

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/inflation

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/producer-prices

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/interest-rate

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/stock-market

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/exchange-rate

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/exchange-rate-aop

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/current-account

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/current-account-usd-bn

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/trade-balance

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/exports

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/imports

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/exports-percent

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/imports-percent

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/international-reserves

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/colombia/external-debt


its road and port infrastructures, which generate an increase in costs. Its large informal sector, in conjunc-

tion with serious shortcomings in education and health, and structural unemployment, poverty and

inequality generate difficulties obstacles for economic growth.

According to World Bank data, Colombian economy has reflected sustainable growth for the past five

years; for 2010, GDP growth closed at 4%, in 2011 at 6.6%, in 2012 at 4.0, and in 2013 at 4.7%. Esti-

mated GDP growth for 2014 is expected at 4.7%, 2015 at 4.4% and 2016 and 2017 at 4.3%.25

Colombia’s

economy slowed down in the second quarter of 2014, decelerating from Q1’s 6.5% expansion to a more

moderate but still robust 4.3%. The slowdown was largely driven by shrinking net exports, and also by

slower consumption and investment growth. Recent developments point to a further moderation in

economic growth. The drop in the oil price and the resulting decline in government revenues are putting

public finances under pressure, given that oil accounts for the lion’s share of the country’s exports as well

as a significant part of government revenues. In order to cover the funding gap expected for next year,

the government has passed a tax reform that introduces a tax on corporate profits and extends both an

expiring wealth tax and a tax on financial transactions. Meanwhile, the Colombian peso dropped to the

lowest level in more than five years, which, on a positive note, will help boost exports in the manufactur-

ing and agricultural sector.

The oil and gas industry is a prime target for terrorism attacks. These attacks generally affect oil infra-

structure and oil tankers, causing significant losses both in terms of product as well as for the

environment. As of September 2014, 1400 attacks were perpetrated against Ecopetrol infrastructure,

resulting in a loss of 17,000 barrels of crude oil and a cost of close to 60 thousand million pesos in

reparations. However, it is worth mentioning that although attacks have increased, repair times have

decreased, thus minimizing the environmental and operational impacts.

25

Worldbank, Global Economic Prospects, Latin America and the Caribbean, p.8.


MEXICO

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

Key Facts:

» Capital: Mexico City

» Population: 118.4 (2013)

» President: Enrique Peña Nieto

» Land Area: 1,220,606 square miles


» Currency: Mexican Peso (MXN)

The official name of Mexico is the United States of Mexico. It is located in the northern hemisphere of the

American continent; part of its territory is located in North America and the rest in Central America. Its

land area is 1,220,606 square miles. Currently a borderline of 1,958 miles marks the northern border with

the United States. To the south, Mexico borders with the Republics of Guatemala and Belize by a sinuous

border, 713 miles long.

Mexico extends between parallel 14° 32 ́ 27” at the mouth of the Suchiate River and parallel 32° 43 ́ 06”,

passing through the confluence of the Gila River in Colorado; and between Greenwich western longitudes

of 118° 22 ́00” and 86° 42 ́36” 'respectively.

It is one of five countries considered "mega-diverse". It is home to more than 12% of animal and plant

species known in the world, which implies great responsibility at a regional and global level in terms of the

environment.

Mexico is a representative, democratic and federal republic governed under the laws of its Constitution

drafted in 1917.

Mexico is divided into 31 states and a Federal District, which seats the federal government. The states

are: Aguascalientes, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Campeche, Coahuila, Colima, Chiapas,

Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, México, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit,

Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, Quintana Roo, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tabasco,

Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Yucatán and Zacatecas.

It currently has a network of ten free trade agreements with forty-five countries, thirty arrangements for

the promotion and reciprocal protection of investments and nine agreements of limited scope (Economic

Complementation Agreements and Partial Scope Agreements) under the Latin American Integration

Association (ALADI). Due to the above, it is positioned as a gateway to a potential market of over one

billion consumers and 60% of the global GDP.

It is considered a developing country with an economy strongly based on oil, remittances from Mexican

migrants working abroad, tourism and growing industrial, mining and farming sectors.

It is worth noting that Mexico is the largest producer of silver in the world, with this being an essential part

of mining activity in the country. Industrial activity is one of the most important economic activities,

occupying a quarter of the economically active population; automotive, cement, steel, textile and chemical

industries are among the most important of Mexican industries.


OIL IN MEXICO

The oil industry in Mexico is a fundamental part of its history, development and economy. Currently, the

oil industry is the number one source of contributions received by the federal government.

In Mexico there are records of natural oil upwellings (“Chapopoteras”/ tar pits) since pre-Hispanic times.

Toward the end of the XIX century, foreign companies began exploration activities in Mexico. Adolfo

Autrey did the first well drilled in Mexico at a depth of 40 meters near the tar pits of Cougas, later known

by the name of Furbero, near Papantla. This well was drilled in 1869, but was found dry.

In the 1880´s several shallow wells near the tar pits were drilled unsuccessfully, in the Cerro Viejo and

Chapopote Nuñez Haciendas in the northern part of the State of Veracruz.

Late in 1899, Edward L. Doheny and his partner C.A. Canfield, prosperous oil producers from California,

carried out an inspection in the region of Tampico. Starting from the north they reached San José de las

Rusias, to the west they reached Tempoal and to the south San Jerónimo and Chinampa. Impressed by

the number of tar pits near the railway stations of Ebano and Chijol, in the State of San Luis Potosi, in

May 1900 they acquired the Tulillo Hacienda and organized the Mexican Petroleum Company of Califor-

nia. They started drilling on May 1, 1901, and by the end of 1903 they had drilled about 19 wells

unsuccessfully. Doheny and Canfield had lost much of their fortunes in Ebano, when they decided to seek

the advice of Engineer Ezequiel Ordóñez, a prestigious Mexican geologist. After analyzing the results, he

recommended drilling a well near the volcanic neck, in a location known as Cerro de la Pez, where two

large “chapopoteras” were located. The Pez No. 1 well, was completed on April 3, 1904, with a production

of 1,500 barrels of oil per day, at a depth of 503 meters. This was the first truly commercial well drilled in

Mexico.

In the southern state of Veracruz, another company discovered the San Cristobal field in 1906. The Sir

Weetman Pearson Company, funded with English capital, arrived at the Tampico-Tuxpan region, and

after several attempts, in May 1908 completed Well No. 2, in the San Diego de la Mar Hacienda, with a

production of 2,500 barrels of oil per day. This was the first of a series of discoveries of rich oilfields,

which came to be known as the “Faja de Oro” or Band of Gold.

International companies continued exploring the oil industry. In 1910, Standard Oil Company and Royal

Dutch Shell arrived in Tampico, the latter belonging to a consortium of Dutch and English companies.

The active oil wells that gained fame internationally were many, such as Casiano No. 7, which began

production on September 8, 1910, and the Potrero del Llano, which was completed in 1911. But without a

doubt, one of the most spectacular oil wells in the annals of history, not only in Mexico but also in the

world, was Cerro Azul No. 4, drilled in 1916, and located by Ezequiel Ordóñez. Its production was

estimated at 260,000 barrels per day.

Oil exploitation continued to develop in an irrational manner. The workers started a resistance movement

against abuse and lack of guarantees for survival. They obtained the support of the authorities, and this

finally led to the nationalization of oil.

The expropriation of oil in Mexico was formalized through the Act of Nationalization of the oil industry

enacted in 1938, as a result of the implementation of the Expropriation Act of 1936 and Article 27 of the

Mexican Constitution directed toward companies that exploited these resources, and announced by

Decree on March 18, 1938, by President Lázaro Cárdenas del Río.

This involved the legal expropriation of machinery, equipment, buildings, refineries, distribution stations,

ships, pipelines and generally, all movable and immovable property of the El Águila Mexican Oil Compa-

ny (subsidiary of the Royal Dutch Shell), San Cristóbal, San Ricardo Shipping Company, Huasteca

Petroleum Company (subsidiary of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, which later changed its

name to a Amoco Corporation), Sinclair Pierce Oil Company, Mexican Sinclair Petroleum Corporation,


Standford and Company, Penn Mex Fuel Company, Richmond Petroleum Company, California Standard

Oil Company of Mexico (today known as Chevron Corporation), El Agwi Oil Company, Imperio Gas and

Fuel Company, Consolidated Oil Company of Mexico, San Antonio Mexican Steam Company, Sabalo

Transportation Company, Clarita Sociedad Anónima and Cacalilao Sociedad Anónima, and its affiliates or

subsidiaries, with the promise to pay the victims over a period of ten years according to the law, because

these companies, which were incorporated under Mexican law, had refused to abide by the ruling of the

Federal Conciliation and Arbitration Board in favor of paying higher wages to laborers and industry

workers, and which was ratified by the Mexican Supreme Court.

With the creation of Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) in 1938, the administration for national control divides

the activity by areas and the involvement of Mexican technicians begins. According to the strategy for

managing the operation by areas, the Northeast Zone, the North Zone and the South Zone are created.

These divisions continue today.

By 1994, PEMEX had 474 producing fields, with 90% of production concentrated in 74 of them. Currently,

the country is virtually self-sufficient in terms of fuel oil, other than those with low sulfur content, but is

likely that they will moderately increase their imports to the extent that the reconfiguration of refineries

progresses, which will increase gasoline production.

The products currently produced in the country's refineries are LPG, regular and premium gasoline,

diesel, jet fuel or Jet A, and fuel oil. Asphalt is obtained as a petroleum product. Much of the gas is

burned because of insufficient infrastructure and because not many industries have resources to finance

its conversion from fuel oil to gas.

The volume of total hydrocarbon reserves in Mexico as of January 1, 2014 was 42.15426

million barrels of

oil equivalent (MMboe) in comparison to January, 2013, which was 44.530 million barrels of oil equivalent

(MMboe). The proved reserves totaled 13.438 MMboe, probable reserves totaled 11,377 MMboe and

possible reserves 17,342 MMboe.

In 2008, as part of the package of initiatives to reform the energy sector, the Federal government pro-

posed the creation of a decentralized body attached to the SENER with technical and operational

autonomy, which would serve as a support to the oil industry. In November of that same year, the

National Hydrocarbons Commission Act (LCNH) was published, and in May 2009 the National Hydrocar-

bons Commission (CNH) was formally established. The basic purpose of the CNH is to regulate and

supervise the exploration and extraction activities of hydrogen carbides found in mantels or deposits,

whatever their physical state, including intermediate states, and include crude mineral oil, accompanied

by or resulting from it. It also regulates and supervises the processing, transportation and storage

activities that are directly related to hydrocarbon exploration and extraction projects.

POWER GENERATION IN MEXICO

Power generation began in Mexico in the late nineteenth century. The first power plant was installed in

the country in 1879 in Leon, Guanajuato. Its production was destined for "The American" textile factory.

Almost immediately this manner of generating electricity spread throughout the mining industry and

subsequently, residential and public lighting was installed.

In 1889 the first hydroelectric plant in Batopilas (Chihuahua) came into operation, and it quickly extended

its distribution networks to urban and commercial areas where the population had high purchasing power.

However, during the regime of Porfirio Diaz, the power industry was awarded the condition of public utility

service. The first 40 “arc" lamps in Constitution Square were installed, one hundred more were installed

in Alameda, as well as on Reforma Street and some other avenues in Mexico City.

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Las Reservas de Hidrocarburos de México, 1 de Enero de 2014, PEMEX Exploración y Producción


Some international companies with high financial and operational capacity set up subsidiaries in Mexico,

such as The Mexican Light and Power Company, a Canadian company that set up in the Midwest; The

American and Foreign Power Company consortium, with three interconnected systems in northern

Mexico and Chapala Electric Company, in the west.

In the early twentieth century Mexico had a capacity of 31 MW, and private companies wholly owned the

installed capacity. By 1910 it had increased to 50 MW, of which the Mexican Light and Power Company,

through Necaxa, the first major hydroelectric plant located in Puebla, generated 80%. The three utilities

companies owned the concessions and facilities of most of the small plants that worked exclusively in

their regions. During this period the first effort to organize the electrical industry was implemented,

through the creation of the National Commission for the Promotion and Control of the Power and Force

Industry, which was later known as the National Motor Force Commission.

On December 2, 1933 it was decreed that power generation and distributions were public utility activities.

In 1937 Mexico had 18.3 million inhabitants, of whom only seven million had electricity, provided under

difficult conditions by the three private companies. At that time light outages were constant, and rates

were very high, because these companies focused on urban markets, disregarding rural populations,

where more than 62% of the population lived. By then the installed power generation capacity in the

country was 629 MW.

In response to this situation, the federal government created the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE) on

August 14, 1937, a non-profit entity that would organize and lead a national system for the generation,

transmission and distribution of electricity, based on technical and economic principles, for the purpose of

obtaining the best possible performance for the benefit of general interest, at minimum cost. (Law

enacted in Merida, Yucatan on August 14 of 1937, and published in the Official Journal of the Federation

on August 24 of that same year).

The first CFE power generation projects were carried out in Teloloapan (Guerrero), Pátzcuaro (Michoa-

cán), Suchiate and Xía (Oaxaca), and Ures and Altar (Sonora).

The first major hydroelectric project began in 1938. The construction, which included canals, roads and

highways would eventually become the Ixtapantongo Hydroelectric System in the State of Mexico, and

would later be known as the Miguel Aleman Hydroelectric System.

By 1961 the total installed capacity in the country amounted to 3,250 MW. The CFE sold 25% of the

energy it produced and its ownership in power generating plants went from zero to 54%.

In that decade, more than 50% of public investment was assigned to infrastructure. Generation centers

were built, including Infiernillo and Temazcal and others, and by 1971, the installed capacity reached

7,874 MW.


It is worth noting that in its beginnings the Mexican power industry operated several isolated systems with

different technical characteristics, and at one time, almost 30 distribution voltages, seven high-voltage

transmission lines and two electrical frequencies of 50 and 60 Hertz coexisted. This hindered the supply

of electricity, which led the CFE to define and unify the National Electric System’s technical and economic

criteria, thus normalizing the operating voltages, standardizing equipment, reducing costs and manufac-

turing times, storage and inventories. Later, the frequencies were unified at 60 Hertz and CFE

transmission systems integrated into the national grid.

In the 80s the growth in electricity infrastructure was slower than in the previous decade. This was mainly

due to the decrease in the allocation of resources to the CFE. However, by 1991the installed capacity had

reached 26.797 MW.

In early 2000 the installed generation capacity had reached 35.385 MW, coverage of service was 94.70%

at the national level, the transmission and distribution network amounted to 614.653 km and there were

more than 18.6 million users, with nearly one million users added each year.

Starting October 2009, the CFE is responsible for providing power services throughout the country. The

CFE is recognized as one of the largest electric utilities in the world, and maintains a comprehensive

management approach to all processes related to the service.


MARKET SEGMENTS

OIL REFINERIES

Undoubtedly, the Energy Reform in late 2008 marked a precedent in the recent history of the country,

particularly in the oil industry, devising a modern regulatory framework that has strengthened the institu-

tions of the sector. Four years after the Reform, foresight becomes the first planning exercise that

integrates a new vision for the development of the potential of the oil industry in Mexico, in order to

guarantee the reliable and timely supply of hydrocarbons in the short-term and for future generations.

Mexico has refineries for the production of gasoline and other petroleum products in Salamanca, Salina

Cruz, Minatitlan, Cadereyta, Tula and Ciudad Madero. All are owned by PEMEX and they all have very

old and outdated technology. It is worth noting that the last refinery was built in 1979. A few years later it

was decided that two new "turnkey" packages would be purchased for the optimization of said refinery,

but due to budget limitations the packages were never installed, and by 1982 the government of Miguel

de la Madrid decided to auction them off; one was sold to China and the other to Korea. Today this has

great significance in the history of petroleum refining and the development of industry in Mexico as it is

considered the beginning of the country’s Neo-liberal policies.

Currently, Mexico has to import 41.2% of its domestic demand for gasoline. Daily consumption is equiva-

lent to 765,000 barrels and gasoline production in domestic refineries totals 450,000 barrels, or 58.8 %.

PEMEX produces 2.4 million barrels of crude per day and 5,700 million cubic feet of natural gas.

It is the country with the second highest crude refining capacity in Latin America and the Caribbean. Its

crude processing capacity is estimated around 30% of the total capacity in Latin America and the Carib-

bean. Its largest refineries are "Jaime Antonio Dovalí" which produces 330,000 bpd and "Miguel Hidalgo"

with 325,000 barrels per day.

The refining industry in the country faces different challenges, among which are the increasing demand

for petroleum products, associated to economic development; its environmental commitment through the

development of increasingly cleaner fuels; and maximizing the value of processed oil by improving

efficiencies and profitability. In addition, there are uncertainties regarding the availability of increasingly

heavy crudes, which require more complex processes for the production of the oil the country needs.

Another major challenge faced by the refining industry in the near future will be the expansion of the

distribution capacity and storage of petroleum products; in order to address this, it plans the expansion

and relocation of storage terminals, the expansion of loading and unloading systems, the rehabilitation of

tanks and security systems and the renewal of the local delivery fleet. The possible entry into operation of

a new refinery in late 2015, which will increase the domestic production of oil, needs to be factored into

this plan.


PEMEX

In 1937, after a series of events that significantly deteriorated the relationship between the workers and

the companies, the former organized a strike against the foreign companies that paralyzed the country.

The Conciliations and Arbitration Boards ruled in favor of the workers, and the foreign companies appeal

before the Supreme Court. However, once again the Court rules in favor of the workers. The foreign

companies refuse to obey the mandate and in response to this action, on March 18, President Lázaro

Cárdenas del Río decrees the expropriation of all assets of the 17 companies who opposed the mandate,

and on June 7 Petroleos Mexicanos (Pemex) is created.


Petroleos Mexicanos is the largest company in Mexico. It is also the largest taxpayer in the country and

one of the largest companies in Latin America. Its administrative headquarters is located in the Pemex

Executive Tower in Marina Nacional Avenue # 329, Colonia Petroleos Mexicanos, Miguel Hidalgo in

Mexico City, and the adjoining buildings house its IT systems.

It is one of the few oil companies in the world that operates throughout the productive chain, from explora-

tion, to distribution and marketing of end products, including petrochemicals. Its annual revenues amount

to one trillion 647 billion pesos, its operation generate 905 billion pesos and investment amounts to 311

billion pesos.

Petróleos Mexicanos operates through a corporation, subsidiary entities and affiliates:

1. Pemex Exploración y Producción (Exploration and Production)

2. Pemex Refinación (Refining)

3. Pemex Gas y Petroquimicos Basicos (Gas and Basic Petrochemicals)

4. Pemex Petroquímica (Petrochemicals)

5. PMI Comercio Internacional S.A. de CV (Subsidiary Company).

6. Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo (Mexican Oil Institute)

Pemex subsidiary entities are decentralized agencies created by the federal government, while its

subsidiary companies are companies that have been created under the applicable laws of each jurisdic-

tion in which they were incorporated and managed as private companies.

It produces various types of fuels:

1. Crude

2. “Magna" Gasoline (87 octane)

3. "Premium" Gasoline (92 octane)

4. Diesel

5. Jet fuel

6. Fuel oil

7. Paraffin

8. Asphalt

9. Liquid gas

10. Natural gas

11. EkbéLa

Crude production has remained stable in the last few years, at 2.548 million barrels, and natural gas

production at 6.385 million of cubic feet per day.

Also, in recent years the company has conducted discoveries confirming the oil potential in deep-water

and the southeast basins. With the completion of the Kunah-1DL well more information on the Kunah field

was obtained, and the gas potential in the deep-water Gulf of Mexico project B was confirmed. Also, the

Supremus-1 and Trion-1 wells, located within the Area Perdido project, close to the marine boundaries,

and completed in water depths nearly 3000 meters deep, allowed for the expansion of the area of oil

exploration of the project.

The main oil states in terms of production are: Campeche, Tabasco, and Veracruz. Tamaulipas, and

Chiapas.


The company has 400 production fields, 8,500 wells under exploitation and 243 offshore platforms. The

crude obtained in these operating centers is treated in 6 of the country's refineries owned by Pemex.

1. "Ing. Héctor R. Lara Sosa" Refinery in Cadereyta Jiménez, Nuevo León

2. "Francisco I. Madero" Refinery in Ciudad Madero, Tamaulipas

3. "Gral. Lázaro Cárdenas" Refinery in Minatitlán, Veracruz

4. "Ing. Antonio M. Amor" Refinery in Salamanca, Guanajuato

5. "Ing. Antonio Dovalí Jaime" Refinery in Salina Cruz, Oaxaca

6. "Miguel Hidalgo" Refinery in Tula de Allende, Hidalgo

The 2013-2017Business Plan for Pemex and its Subsidiary Entities defines the course required to fulfill

the mandate for the creation of value and to achieve operational and financial sustainability in the medium

and long term. The Plan is based on careful examination of the current situation and environment analy-

sis. The objectives of the company for the coming years are detailed within four action items: growth,

operational efficiency, corporate responsibility and the modernization of management; strategies and

actions have also been established, such as:

1. Increase inventory reserves for new discoveries and reclassification

2. Increase the production of hydrocarbons

3. Obtain efficiency levels above international standards for the use of gas and for production

costs.

4. Obtain higher than average operative performance in transformation activities.

5. Increase and adapt the industrial transformation capacity in order to guarantee the supply and

maximize financial value.

6. Promote the development of the national petrochemical industry through its own and supplemen-

tary investments.

7. Optimize logistics and conditioning capacity for hydrocarbons.

8. Strengthen client service

9. Guarantee a safe and reliable operation

10. Improve environmental performance, business sustainability and community relations

11. Develop and provide qualified personnel and improve labor productivity

12. Increase the generation of value and the efficiency of the supply process and strengthen national

supply.

13. Encourage the growth and improvement of business thorough technical developments

14. Strengthen process management and project execution

15. Maximize the value of international opportunities

In 2013, Pemex established alliances with Keppel Offshore & Marine, a Company dedicated to the

construction of oil platforms. This company will begin the construction of six self-elevating drilling rigs in

Altamira, Tamaulipas. It also established an alliance with PMI Holdings BV, which is a subsidiary of

Pemex, and signed an investment contract for the purchase of 51% of the shares of the Spanish shipyard

Hijos de J. Barreras SA, also known as Barreras Shipyard. Through this acquisition, Pemex will develop

capabilities for building specialized vessels in Mexico in the mid-term, thus capitalizing on the technologi-

cal development of the Galician naval sector in the oil industry.

Ing. Hector R. Lara Sosa Refinery (Cadereyta Refinery)

The "Ing. Hector R. Lara Sosa" Refinery transports crude oil for refining from Ciudad Madero, Tamauli-

pas, to its facilities. The refinery is located in the State of Nuevo León, in the municipality of Cadereyta

Jimenez, 36 km east of the city of Monterrey. Its facilities cover a total area of 612 hectares, which are

strategically located to meet the needs for petroleum products in the states of Nuevo Leon, Coahuila,

Chihuahua, and partially in the states of Durango, San Luis Potosi and Tamaulipas.


Construction on the first floor for primary distillation at the Cadereyta refinery began in 1975, and opera-

tions began on February 12, 1979. "The Cadereyta” refinery currently has a refining capacity of 270,000

barrels per day. All products are certified ISO-9002.

1. Pemex Magna

2. Pemex Diesel

3. Pemex Premium

4. Jet fuel

5. Fuel oil

6. Asphalt

7. Sulfur

8. Propylene

9. Nafta gas

10. LPG

Francisco I. Madero Refinery

It is located on the left bank of the Panuco River, almost at the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico; within the

municipality of Ciudad Madero, Tamaulipas; from where it takes its name.

Its production lines are certified by the Mexican Institute of Standardization and comply with the NMX-CC-

004 Standard, which is the equivalent to the ISO 9002/94 standard on standard operating principles for

safety and environmental protection.

Currently, the refinery has 20 processing plants in operation, which perform atmospheric distillation,

vacuum distillation, catalytic cracking, hydro-treatment and petrochemical processes. It also has auxiliary

facilities, such as power plant, storage tank farms, workshops, warehouses, docks, pumping stations

connected to the Madero-Cadereyta pipeline, pumping facilities for petrochemical products, offices, sports

fields and facilities and a residential community, among others.

The refinery’s nominal crude oil processing capacity is 186,000 bl/ day, distributed as follows:

» MA Distillation Plant 60,000 bl/day

» MB Distillation Plant 60,000 bl/day

» Combined Plant BA 52,000 bl/day

» Asphalt Plant MI 14,000 bl/day

» Total 186,000 bl/day

5 types of crude are processed at the refinery:

» Arenque.

» Tamaulipas.

» Panuco.

» Crudo mezcla.

The products obtained in the Madero Refinery meet the demand of its area of influence, and on occasion,

some are exported per commercial agreements entered into by Pemex with overseas clients. The


products are: Liquid Gas, Pemex Magna Gasoline, Pemex Premium and Pemex Diesel, Jet fuel 100, Jet

Fuel, Desulfurized Diesel, Marine Diesel, Fuel Oils, Coke, AC-20 and AC-30 Asphalt and Sulfur.

Ing. Antonio Dovalí Jaime Refinery

The Ing Antonio Dovali Jaime Refinery is located in Salina Cruz, one of the 10 largest ports in the

Mexican Pacific. Operations began in April 1979 and since then it has been constantly growing.

It occupies a total area of 600 hectares, located five kilometers northeast of the city and port of Salina

Cruz in Oaxaca. The town of Salina Cruz is located on the Pacific Ocean and is listed as a deep-sea

harbor.

Since its inception, operations at the Ing Jaime Antonio Dovalí refinery have seen steady growth; it ranks

as the largest oil refining system in the country, with a capacity to process 330,000 bpd of crude.

Crude oil extracted from the fields located in the states of Tabasco, Chiapas and Campeche, is transport-

ed for collection and pumping to the station located in Nuevo Teapa. Part of this crude is sent to the

Antonio Dovalí refinery through two 30 and 48 inches pipelines. Crude, either for processing or for export,

is stored in 100, 200 and 500 thousand barrel tanks. The refinery has a capacity for 14 million barrels in

125 tanks, of which 20 store raw material, such as Istmo crude, Maya crude, as well as their mixtures and

methanol; 39 store intermediate products such as primary fuel, slop, nova base, primary kerosine, primary

jet fuel, primary diesel, light cycle oil, diesel, catalytic residues, recovered oil, and 66 store final products:

butane-butylene, propylene, LPG, Pemex Magna gasoline, jet fuel, tractomex, desulfurized diesel, Pemex

diesel, fuel, TAME and MTBE.

The distribution of refined products is carried out through auctions at the Ground Sales Terminal located

in Salina Cruz in Oaxaca. This terminal supplies the area of influence that comprises the sales agencies

in the state of Oaxaca; those of Tuxtla Gutierrez, Arriaga and Tapachula in Chiapas; as well as the states

of Veracruz, Tabasco, Yucatan and Mexico. It is also of significant importance that the marine terminal of

Pemex Refining is located on the coast, about 10 Km from the refinery. This allows tankers to take on

crude oil and fuel for export, and transport it to the Mexican states located on the Pacific coast.

Ing. Miguel Hidalgo Refinery

It is located in the state of Hidalgo, in the municipality of Tula de Allende, 82 km. north of Mexico City. Its

facilities cover a total area of 749 hectares, which are strategically located among the leading producers

of crude oil and the largest consumer of fuel.

It was the first comprehensively planned refinery, with high capacity hydrocarbon processing plants. Its

construction was carried out in several stages with the first stage inaugurated on March 18, 1976.

It is considered one of the most important in the country due to its installed capacity and market share,

given that it processes 24% of the total crude oil refined in Mexico.

Currently, Tula has a refining capacity of 325,000 barrels per day. The production area is composed of 10

processing sectors, including processing plants, green plants, pumping systems, storage facilities and an

ancillary services area.

The refinery has certified quality products: Jet Fuel, Propylene, Industrial Diesel, Pemex Diesel and

Pemex Magna Gasoline. It is worth noting that the Quality Certificate Pemex Magna gasoline is valid

internationally.


General Lazaro Cardenas Refinery

It is one of the oldest in the country and a pioneer in the refining of crude oil in Latin America. It is located

in Minatitlan; hence the strategic importance of the complex for Veracruz and Pemex.

It has been in operation for 109 years. It began refining operations in 1906, becoming the first refinery in

the country and the largest of its kind in Latin America in the early twentieth century.

Prior to the oil expropriation of 1938, the refinery was part of the S. Pearson and Son Limited consortium,

and in 1909 it was sold to the English company "El Aguila" where it remained until the expropriation

decree.

It supplies markets in the Southeast as well as part of the demand of Mexico City, the States that it

supplies are: Puebla, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo. It currently processes

between 210 and 215 thousand barrels of oil per day.

It produces a total of 10 different products, including eight products used as fuel and basic petrochemicals

for the manufacture of plastics.

It has 27 industrial plants in an area covering 800 hectares, which produce crude oil and Butane mixture

liquids.

Salamanca Refinery (Ing. Antonio M. Amor Refinery)

The “Ing. Antonio M. Amor” Refinery is located in the municipality of Salamanca, 60 km from the city of

Guanajuato.

It is the only producer of lubricants, paraffin and isopropyl alcohol for distribution throughout the country, it

also supplies products to the states of Durango, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan, Guanajuato,

Querétaro, Hidalgo, San Luis Obispo, Zacatecas and Aguascalientes.

On July 30, 1998, the Salamanca Refinery (Riama), celebrated its 48th year in operations and in this time

it has obtained and maintains ISO-9002 quality certificates for its entire production system.

Currently, the Salamanca Refinery consists of 53 processing plants that produce 42 finished products. It

began operations in 1950 and has grown in stages, with constructions occurring in 1955, 1962, 1970-

1974, and 1979; with the latest occurring between 1992-1996 which focused on the ecological packaging

plants. Older facilities represent the largest area of opportunity for substitution of new technology,

including concepts for environmental protection, greater efficiency and profitability.

The refinery received from Calidad Mexicana Certificada, A.C., an auditing company, a document stating

that the facilities’ processes have all been certified internationally under the ISO 9002 standard, after fully

complying with the specifications set by the International Organization for Standardization, for its 53

processing plants, 42 finished products 400 storage tanks, and 2000 procedures, in which over 4600

workers are involved.

POWER GENERATION

Energy generation in the country is under the responsibility of the state-owned Federal Electricity Com-

mission (CFE), which is responsible not only for the generation but also for transmission, distribution and

sale of electricity. It currently serves 26.9 million people.

The national generation system has 177 power stations, which together produce 49.854 MW, including

independent operators.


Clients are divided by activity: 0.62% of the supply goes to the service sector, 10.17% to the commercial

sector, 0.78% for industrial activities, 0.44% for agricultural activities, with the most important users being

households, with 87.99% of users. Moreover, demand increases by 1.1 million users every year.

The installed capacity includes all forms of generation; thermoelectric fuel oil power stations make up

44.80% of generation, hydroelectric power stations represent 22.17%, followed by coal-fired power

stations which represent 5.22% of total electricity generated in the country, while nuclear plants contribute

with 2.74%, geothermal plants with 1.92% of total generation and wind farms only 0.171%. Independent

operators account for 22.98% of installed capacity, according to the CFE.

Power generation is obtained from several sources, the first ones and the oldest are hydroelectric plants,

of which Chicoasén, in Chiapas; Manuel Moreno Torres, which generates 2,400 MW; Malpaso in

Tecpatán, Chiapas; El Infiernillo, in La Union, Guerrero, which produces 1,000 MW; followed by Aguamil-

pa in Tepic; and Nayarit, which is capable of generating 960 MW, are among the most important in terms

of generation capacity. The system also includes the Belisario Domínguez hydroelectric plant, or An-

gostura, located in Chiapas, which generates 900 MW; the Leonardo Rodriguez Alcaine hydroelectric

Plant, known as "El Cajon" currently produces 750 MW from Santa María del Oro in Nayarit. Another

important plant is Luis Donaldo Colosio, also known as Huites, which generates 422 MW peak capacity

located in Choix, in Sonora.

For its part, the most important thermoelectric plants are Tuxpan, in Veracruz, which has 2,200 MW of

generating capacity, Tula Hidalgo, which generates 1,546 MW, and Manzanillo, with 1,200 MW.

There are few geothermal plants included in the national grid, although three units in Cerro Prieto in

Mexicali, Baja California, two units that produce 220 MW each and one producing 180 MW, are worth

noting.

There are only two coal-fired power plants, they are located in Nava, Coahuila, and each of them gener-

ates between 1,200 to 1,400 MW.

There is only one nuclear plant, the Laguna Verde in Alto Lucero, Veracruz, and that in itself generates

1,365 MW.

Recently, the Federal government has emphasized the need to converge to alternate energy sources,

such as wind farms. In 1982 the Guerrero Negro wind farm in Mulegé, Baja California was installed, and

in 1994 the Venta wind farm in Juchitán, Oaxaca.


Table #1 – Hydroelectric Power Plants in Operation

Hydroelectric Plant

Name

Owner Commissioning Capacity

(MW)

Location Units

Aguamilpa Solidaridad CFE 15/09/1994 960 Tepic, Nayarit 3

Ambrosio Figueroa CFE 31/05/1965 30 La Venta, Guerrero 5

(La Venta) CFE

Ángel Albino Corzo CFE 15/09/1987 420 Ostuacán, Chiapas 4

(Peñitas) CFE

Bacurato CFE 16/07/1987 92 Sinaloa de Leyva,

Sinaloa 2

Bartolinas CFE 20/11/1940 1 Tacámbaro, Michoacán 2

Belisario Domínguez (Angostura)

CFE 14/07/1976 900 Venustiano Carranza,

Chiapas 5

Bombaná CFE 20/03/1961 5 Soyaló, Chiapas 4

Boquilla CFE 01/01/1915 25 San Francisco Conchos,

Chihuahua 4

Botello CFE 01/01/1910 13 Panindícuaro, Michoacán 2

Camilo Arriaga CFE 26/07/1966 18 El Naranjo, San Luis

Potosí 2

(El Salto) CFE

Carlos Ramírez Ulloa CFE 16/12/1986 600 Apaxtla, Guerrero 3

(El Caracol) CFE

Chilapan CFE 01/09/1960 26 Catemaco, Veracruz 4

Cóbano CFE 25/04/1955 52 Gabriel Zamora, Michoa-

cán 2

Colimilla CFE 01/01/1950 51 Tonalá, Jalisco 4

Colina CFE 01/09/1996 3 San Francisco Conchos,

Chihuahua 1

Colotlipa CFE 01/01/1910 8 Quechultenango,

Guerrero 4

Cupatitzio CFE 14/08/1962 72 Uruapan, Michoacán 2

Electroquímica CFE 01/10/1952 1 Cd. Valles, San Luis

Potosí 1

Encanto CFE 19/10/1951 10 Tlapacoyan, Veracruz 2

Falcón CFE 15/11/1954 32 Nueva Cd. Guerrero,

Tamaulipas 3

Fernando Hiriart Balder-rama

CFE 27/09/1996 292 Zimapán, Hidalgo 2

(Zimapán) CFE

Humaya CFE 27/11/1976 90 Badiraguato, Sinaloa 2

Infiernillo CFE 28/01/1965 1,04 La Unión, Guerrero 6

Itzícuaro CFE 01/01/1929 1 Peribán los Reyes,

Michoacán 2

Ixtaczoquitlán CFE 10/09/2005 2 Ixtaczoquitlán, Veracruz 1

José Cecilio del Valle CFE 26/04/1967 21 Tapachula, Chiapas 3

Jumatán CFE 17/07/1941 2 Tepic, Nayarit 4

La Amistad CFE 01/05/1987 66 Acuña, Coahuila 2

Leonardo Rodríguez Alcaine (El Cajón)

CFE 01/03/2007 750 Santa María del Oro,

Nayarit 2

Luis Donaldo Colosio CFE 15/09/1996 422 Choix, Sinaloa 2

(Huites) CFE

Luis M. Rojas CFE 01/01/1963 5 Tonalá, Jalisco 1



Federal Electricity Commission (CFE)

The Federal Electricity Commission (CFE) is a productive state-owned entity responsible for controlling,

generating, transmitting and marketing electricity in all of Mexico. It was founded in August 14, 1937 by

the Federal Government and its first projects were conducted in Teloloapan, Guerrero; Patzcuaro,

Michoacan; Suchiate and Xia, Oaxaca; and Ures and Altar in Sonora. The CFE currently provides

electricity to 26.9 million customers and annually adds more than a million customers to its base. Since

October 2009, it took over operations of the Luz y Fuerza del Centro company. It is worth noting that it is

the largest company in the power sector in Latin America.

Before its creation, power was supplied by three private companies: The Mexican Light and Power

Company, serviced the central region; The American and Foreign Power Company consortium, with three

interconnected systems serviced the northern region; and the Electric Company of Chapala, which

serviced western Mexico.

On August 14, 1937, the Federal Electricity Commission was created, with the purpose of developing a

national system for the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, based on technical and

economic principles, operating as a nonprofit organization at minimum costs, while benefitting general

interests. On September 27, 1960, President Adolfo Lopez Mateos, completed the nationalization process

for the power industry. Paragraph six of Article 27 of the Constitution states that the nation has the

exclusive right to generate, transmit, transform, distribute and supply energy to the public.

The infrastructure to generate electric power is made up of 209 generating plants, having an installed

capacity of 52,515 megawatts (MW). 22.67% of its installed capacity stems from 22 plants that were built

using private capital by Productores Independientes de Energía (PIE).

The CFE creates electric power using various technologies and various primary energy sources. It has

thermoelectric, hydroelectric, coal-fired, geothermal, and wind powered plants and facilities, as well as

one nuclear power plant.

In order to take the power from its generating plants to the household of each one of its customers, the

CFE has more than 756,000 Km. of power lines that transmit and distribute electric power.

Electricity reaches almost 190,000 communities (of these, 190,732 are not cities, while 3,667 are). Also,

97.60 % of the population uses electricity.

During the last decade, 42,000 solar modules have been installed in small communities very distant from

large population centers. In the future, this technology will be the most widely used in the villages that do

not have access to conventional electric power.

As to total sales volume, 99 % and the remaining 1 % is for export purposes.


Power Plants Location Capacity (MW) Units

Petacalco (Plutarco Elias Calles) Guerrero 2,778 7

Chicoacen (Manuel Moreno Torres) Chiapas 2,400 8

Tuxpan (adolfo Lopez Mateos) Veracruz 2,263 7

Tula (Francisco Perez Rios) ** Hidalgo 2,095 11

Laguna Verde Veracruz 1,610 2

Carbon II Coahuila 1,400 4

Rio Escondido (Jose Lopez Portillo) Coahuila 1,200 4

Infiernillo Guerrero 1,160 6

Presidente Juarez (Rosarito) Baja California 1,093 10

Malpaso Chiapas 1,080 6

Manzanillo I (Manuel Alvarez Moreno) Colima 1,073 4

Valle de Mexico Mexico 999 7

Aguamilpa (Solidaridad) Nayarit 960 3

Angostura (Belisario Dominguez) Chiapas 900 5

Altamira Tamaulipas 800 4

El Cajon Nayarit 750 2

Manzanilo Dos Colima 700 2

Villa de Reyes San Luis Potosi 700 2

Puerto Libertad Sonora 632 4

El Encino (Chihuahua II) Chihuahua 619 5

Mazatlan II (Jose Aceves Pozos) Sinaloa 616 3

El Sauz Queretaro 610 7

Caracol (Carlos Ramirez Ulloa) Guerrero 600 3

Cerro Prieto Baja California 570 11

Salamanca Guanajuato 550 2

Huinala Nuevo Leon 528 6

Samalayuca II Chihuahua 522 6

Rio Bravo Emilio Portes Gil) Tamaulipas 511 4

Guaymas II (Carlos Rodriguez R.) Sonora 484 4

Dos Bocas Veracruz 452 6

Huinala II Nuevo Leon 450 2

Huites (Luis Donaldo Colosio) Sinaloa 422 2

Penitas Chiapas 420 4

San Lorenzo Potencia Puebla 382 3

Temascal Oaxaca 354 6

Topolobampo II (Juan de Dios Batiz) Sinaloa 320 3

Samalayuca Chihuahua 316 2

Francisco Villa Chihuahua 300 2

Zimapan Hidalgo 292 2

Otras Centrales 459 5,451


SECTOR FORECAST

In Mexico the expectations surrounding the impact of the Energy reform are palpable. The challenge is to

promote economic growth and sustainability through policies that also protect the environment and

generate well-being for the population. For example, according to Juan José Guerra Abud, Minister of

Environment and Natural Resources:

Nowadays the energy sector is essential to foster economic growth, and sustainable

economic growth is a very important priority for us. It is not a matter of choosing between

economic growth and sustainability; both have to go together to promote the well-being of

Mexicans. It is critical that the majority of poor Mexicans improve their quality of life,

which will happen once we manage to achieve sustainable use of our vast resources.27

The opening of the energy sector to private investment sets the spotlight on renewable resources. With

Mexico transitioning from primary energies, such as hydrocarbons and associated products, to renewable

energies, and with the vast available resources, these can only become a global competitive advantage.

The CFE’s challenges entering this new arena should be: the promotion of competitiveness and produc-

tivity, lowering costs and facilitating the development of renewable energy; while guaranteeing the

transparency of its activities. According to David Penchyna, President of the Senate’s Energy Commis-

sion, “…it is estimated that in five years, the country will double its current production of hydrocarbons

while fuel oil for power generation could have been totally replaced with natural gas and other primary

energies. At the same time, in five years, close to 30% of the national energy mix will come from renewa-

ble resources.”28

Entering this new scenario, Mexico will need to learn new business, such as gasoline imports, commer-

cialization of diesel, power generation schemes, and to move from an IPP to transmission and

distribution.

The Mexican energy mix is expected to undergo a significant change, with renewable energy participation

increasing to 35% by 2026. New installed renewable energy capacity will be driven by wind power, which

by 2025 is expected to account for 60.3% of the national energy mix, followed by hydro with 24% and

solar energy with 12%.29

Moving forward, the drop in international oil prices has not only impacted the Mexican export mix but

PEMEX finances as well. According to operating and financial reports issued by PEMEX, revenues from

crude exports decreased by 3,177 million dollars between June and November of 2014, in comparison to

the same time period in 2013.30

The drop in oil prices has affected both PEMEX and the CFE. According to Pedro Joaquin Coldwell,

Minister of Energy, a cut-back in investments and expenses must logically follow the decrease in reve-

nues. Regarding PEMEX Farm-Outs, he stated that his belief is that Round One should continue and

Farm-Outs increase rather than decrease. Unfortunately, he also noted that the government is analyzing

the possibility of transferring personnel from the CFE and PEMEX into other government agencies such

as the CNH, the CRE or even the Ministry itself.31

27

Mexico Energy and Sustainability Review, 2014. 28



“Caída de los precios del crudo impacta las finanzas de PEMEX”, El Universal, Wednesday, January 28, 2015. 31

CFE y PEMEX analizan recortes; continuará Ronda Uno: Coldwell,” El Universal, Thursday, January 28, 2015.



In his “Pacto con Mexico” Plan, President Peña Nieto identified certain areas which he considered

strategic for the economic growth of Mexico. Among them there are specific areas where opportunities for

foreign investment may be found, specifically in terms of safety, security and ICT:

» Crime prevention through intelligence technologies

» Investment in telecommunication technologies, including broadband access, radio, TV, phone

and data services.

» Environmental management

» Technical training

» Data information technologies for use in transparency and anti-corruption programs

» Cyber security and cyber defense technologies

Based on expertise and knowledge of the oil and energy sector in Mexico, and in order to complement

the general opportunities derived for governmental policies, the following is a general analysis of business






» Drones

» Micro-drones

» Aircraft


» Equipment

» Cameras

» Monitors





» Data Acquisition



» Control Process





» Implementation:

» Data encryption

» Confidentiality

» Protocols



» Access controls

» Strategy





» Firewall



» Antivirus




» Biometrics


» Remote access






» Data recovery

» Monitoring Technologies











» ISO/IEC 27001

» ISO/IEC 27002






» Trucks

» Containers





5. Transport

» Armored vehicles

» Helicopters

» Trucks

6. Staff:

» Services for


» Bodyguards

» Assessment



» Training

» Risk reduction

» Equipment



SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS

Mexico is facing significant challenges on its Security and Defense front. In his Presidential Plan known

as the Mexico Agreement or “Pacto por México”, President Peña Nieto outlined a series of programs to

address the country’s main security issues. There are five agreements to the Mexico Agreement: Rule of

Law and Freedom, Economic Growth, Employment and Competitiveness, Security and Justice, Trans-

parency, Accountability, Fight against Corruption, and Democratic Governance. The pillars on which the

Mexico Agreement is based are: Peace, Social Inclusion, Quality Education, Prosperity, and Global

Responsibility. These agreements include programs that address structural issues regarding poverty,

crime, corruption, human rights abuses, and migration, which are the main security problems facing

Mexico at this time.

There have been advances in the last few months. For example, according to the Second Government

Report 2013-2014, in the first seven months of 2014, homicide rates dropped by 27.3% in comparison to

the same time period in 2013, kidnappings dropped by 6.8% and extortions by 20%.32

According to the Secretary of Government of Mexico, there are several structural issues in terms of social exclusion and poverty that increase the vulnerability of the population regarding violence and crime.

The lack of job opportunities and unemployment and limited education to secondary and college educa-tion, as well as school drop-outs can lead individuals to consider crime as their only chance.

Another risk factor that may lead to violence and crime is the lack of trust among the population itself, which is not conducive to conflict resolution, in conjunction with a low level of trust in police and judicial systems. This situation is seen in the many cases of impunity and corruption, as well as the deficient performance of justice institutions.

The affected population is unfortunately also the most vulnerable; the main victims and generators of

violence are young people; and boys and girls, and rural communities are those that have been affected

the most, with a significant impact on native communities.

32

Segundo Informe de Gobierno, 2013-2014, September 1, 2014. Presidency of the Republic of Mexico


Security Issue Government Plan Action Plan

Poverty México Agreement National Crusade against Hunger (CNCH)

Migration and

Border Issues

México Agreement Special Migration Program 2014-2018

Human Rights

Abuses

México Agreement Victims Act;

National Code of Criminal Procedures

Protection Act “Ley de Amparo”.

National Human Rights Program 2014- 2018.

National Program for the Prevention, Penalization and

Eradication of Human Trafficking, and for Victim the Protec-

tion and Assistance 2014-2018.

Comprehensive Program for the Prevention, Assistance,

Penalization and Eradication of Violence against Women

2014-2018,

National Program for Equity ad Non-Discrimination 2014-

2018.

Corruption México Agreement National System against Corruption

Creation of a National Commission for the prevention,

investigation, administrative penalization and reporting of

acts of corruption. (Special emphasis will be placed on

organizations such as Pemex and CFE)

Crime and Drug

Related

Violence

National Security Plan

2014-2018

National Community

Participation and

Prevention Plan

Universal Social Security System

Poverty Eradication Programs

Full time schools

Youth Employment Programs

Public Area Recovery Programs

Reform of Police Corps

National Gendarmerie

New Criminal Justice System

National Criminal Code and Criminal Procedure Code

Reform of the Prison System

Strengthen Government Intelligence

Strengthen Military Operating Response Abilities

Update Military processes, systems and institutional infra-

structure


These government programs pose interesting investment opportunities for the private sector, and interna-

tional organizations. Some of them are detailed below.

Opportunities Government

Plan

Detail/Examples

Education México

Agreement

Information and School Management systems

The government has a 7.567 million peso budget for its

Education Reform project, which includes the develop-

ment of IT platforms, physical infrastructure for 20,000

primary and secondary schools.

PCs for public school students in the 5th and 6

th grades

Defense of Human Rights Public Policy on Safety and Justice seeks to prevent

crime through the use of intelligence and technology

Strengthening of strategic

sectors: telecommunications,

transport, financial services

and energy

Commitments 41-45 of the Mexico Agreement establish

the need to develop a robust telecommunications

network, including digital and broad band access,

improving competitiveness in radio, TV, phone and data

services

The expansion of the CFE grid for optimal use of the

700MHz y 2.5GHz band and broad band access under a

public grid scheme.

Strengthen Science Innova-

tion and technology

1% of the GDP will be assigned to Science, Innovation

and Technology.

For 2014, the federal budget for science, innovation and

technology amounted to 81,862 million pesos, which

represents an increase of 28.6% above 2012.

In investment alone, 2,288 million pesos were assigned

of which a portion was allotted to the construction of the

Technical Assistance Lab for Pemex Petrochemical, at

the Mexican Oil Institute.

Sustainable Development Increase investment in R&D for renewable energy

projects

Programs to boost collection and storage of rainwater

Improve infrastructure for waste management

Road infrastructure in the S-

SE

The South-South East region is lagging behind the rest

of the country: the strategy includes programs for the

expansion and upgrade of the road and railway infra-

structure, digital integration, education and health

infrastructure, and the development of industrial devel-

opment, tourism, port, agricultural, fishing, and

renewable energy hubs



LABOR LAWS

Until recently, Mexican labor law was based exclusively on Article 123 of the Constitution, as well as the

1931 labor law. In November of 2012, the government enacted a new Labor Reform that aims to increase

market flexibility and reduce hiring costs. Although its impact in terms of union transparency is not

significant, it has the potential to increase productivity, employment and competitiveness. The new Law

modifies labor regulations and allows employers to offer part-time work, hourly wages and engage in

outsourcing. It also contains provisions that prohibit gender-based discrimination, and by eliminating the

ban on part-time employment it makes finding employment easier for single parents and students.

However, long-term change is hard to achieve given Mexico’s labor surplus and its large informal sector.

ENERGY REFORM

2013 marked the beginning of a new era for the Mexican Energy Sector, with President Enrique Peña

Nieto’s government setting down the terms for the future of the energy sector through the 2013 Energy

Reform and its subsequent implementation laws. The Energy reform opens up the power generation

market to private parties and establishes the express constitutional prohibition on granting concessions to

private parties for wheeling and distribution of electricity, as well as for planning and operational control of

the National Electricity System (NES). Prior to this, the power generation market was under the monopoly

of the Federal Energy Commission (CFE). The Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) will regulate

wheeling and distribution rates. The CFE will remain the sole developer of transmission infrastructure, but

the National Energy Control Center (CENACE) will become the independent organism that operates and

controls the NES. The private sector will be allowed to participate in the construction, maintenance and

operation of the electrical grid. Within this operating framework, Mexico will pursue its ambitious goal of

generating 35% of its energy from clean sources by 2024, and reducing its greenhouse emissions by

30% by 2020.

The Decree that regulates the Energy Reform may be summarized as follows:

» Solid, liquid and gas hydrocarbons will remain the property of the Nation.

» The Nation will perform oil and other hydrocarbon exploration and drilling activities, through con-

tracts with state owned productive companies or private companies. Within the following 120

days after the Decree enters into force, Congress will prepare and approve the necessary modifi-

cations to the legal framework that regulates contractual relationships, services, shared

production or profits, concession by the Government for the exploration and drilling of solid, liquid

and gas hydrocarbons, among others, including those between state owned companies and pri-

vate companies.

» In a time period no greater than two years from the date the Decree enters into force, PEMEX

must transition from a decentralized organization to a state owned productive company, accord-

ing to the regulations that will ensue.

» The purpose of PEMEX will be the creation of financial value, based on equity, corporate social

and environmental responsibility. Its organization, structure and management will be based on in-

ternational best practices, thus ensuring its technical and managerial autonomy.

» Five members of the Federal Government, including the President of the Secretary of Energy

(SENER), and five independent members, will comprise PEMEX’s Management Board.



The following government agencies and organizations will be responsible for monitoring and regulating

the oil and gas sector:

1. The SENER (Ministry of Energy) will have the power to design licenses for the processing of

crude, refining, natural gas processes, petrochemical production, transportation, storage and dis-

tribution of hydrocarbons and oil byproducts. It will also define the areas for exploration and

drilling, as well as the type of contract awarded, (services, shared profit, shared production and li-

censes, or any combination thereof) and the technical aspects of each one.

2. The SHCP (Ministry of Finance and Public Credit) will define the financial and tax aspects of each

contract.

3. The CNH (National Hydrocarbons Commission) will award the license according to the conditions

stipulated by the SENER and the SHCP.

4. The CRE (Energy Regulatory Commission) will regulate and award storage, transportation and

pipeline distribution permits.

5. A National Security Agency for Industrial Safety and Environmental protection for the hydrocar-

bon sector will be created for the regulation and monitoring of operational safety and protection of

the environment.

A decentralized public organization, known as the National Control Center for Natural Gas will be created,

and will be responsible for operating the transport and storage of gas along the national pipeline system.

PEMEX and its subsidiary organizations will transfer the funds required for this.


In conjunction with the Energy Reform, the Government has enacted a National Climate Change Law that

establishes a legal framework for the regulation of public policies aimed at adapting to climate change,

and implement mitigation strategies. The Government issued a National Climate Change Strategy, which

stems from the aforementioned law, and which intends to give shape to the country’s change towards a

sustainable economy over a time period of 40 years, and which can be summarized in the following eight

points33

:

1. Reduce the vulnerability to climate change of Mexicans living in hazardous situations and

strengthen their ability to adapt.

2. Diminish the vulnerability of production systems and strategic infrastructure related eventualities.

3. Strengthen the capacity of ecosystems to adapt to the effects of global warming.

4. Accelerate the transition towards clean energy sources.

5. Reduce the intensity of energy consumption through rational energy efficient schemes.

6. Shift towards sustainable city models, with intelligent mobility systems, integrated waste man-

agement, and low carbon footprint buildings.

7. Drive better farming – agricultural and livestock – and forestry practices, using REDD Plus

schemes (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation).

8. Reduce the emissions of short life climate pollutants, as well as black carbon and methane to

improve the health and well being of the Mexican people.

33

Mexico energy and sustainability review. Pg. 10


General Environmental Law and Policies34

Mexico is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol and has shown every sign of taking environment policy

seriously. Moreover, it needs to do so, because it has some very real environmental problems. The

provision of clean water to Mexico City, air pollution in the capital, and deforestation in rural Mexico are

some of the largest challenges. Helping the Mexican authorities is a marked decrease in population

growth. While environmental policy has become more sophisticated, particularly in Mexico City and other

major cities, the enforcement of environmental standards and regulations is often lacking. Many compa-

nies do not comply with existing regulations. Despite an increasing awareness among the broader – and

particularly younger – population about environmental challenges, public pressure is very weak compared

to many other OECD countries.

The General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (Ley General del Equilibrio

Ecológico y Protección al Ambiente) (hereinafter Ecology Law) is divided into six Titles which regulate the

following areas: air pollution, hazardous waste, water quality, soil use and conservation, naturally protect-

ed areas, public participation, right to environmental information, land use, environmental impact

assessments and noise.

Title I sets forth the general provisions regarding environmental policies, instruments and criteria; the

grants of jurisdiction to and coordination of the federal and state governments; the environmental impact

assessment (EIA) process; the ecological ordinance of the territory, environmental planning, economic

instruments, the environmental regulation of human settlements, self-regulation and environmental audits,

ecological research and education, and the legal framework for the Official Mexican Standards (Normas

Oficiales Mexicanas (NOMs)) related to the environment.

Title II, on Biodiversity, establishes the procedures for developing and managing protected nature areas

and restoration zones, and provides the general policies governing the wild flora and fauna.

Title III governs the sustainable use of natural elements and sets forth the general environmental provi-

sions regulating the economic development of water, soil and non-renewable resources.

Title IV, entitled Environmental Protection (Protección al Ambiente), establishes general standards

governing seven media-specific areas which include: the prevention of air, water and aquatic ecosystem

pollution, soil, hazardous activities, hazardous waste and materials, nuclear energy, as well as noise,

vibration, thermal and luminous energy, odors and visual pollution.

Title V creates policies and laws aimed at promoting public participation and guaranteeing the right to

environmental information.

Finally, Title VI deals with administrative inspection and oversight procedures, safety measures, enforce-

ment actions, the application of sanctions, review recourses, and a system for the filing of citizen

complaints.

Article 15 of the Ecology Law sets forth nineteen broad principles that serve as the basis for national

environmental protection policies and goals. The most important goals established under the Ecology

Law are: the achievement of sustainable development and ecological balance, which is defined as the

"interdependent relationship among the elements that comprise the environment which makes the

existence, transformation and development of human and other living beings possible".

The Ecology Law also creates a series of administrative and environmental policy instruments which

encompass: the national and local administrative programs and plans; the proclamation of environmental

34

Commission for Environmental Cooperation. Law database, Mexico


regulations, criteria and environmental NOMs; the regulation of human settlements and zoning; the

environmental impact assessment; measures for the protection of natural areas; ecological education and

research; as well as fiscal incentives and the creation of environmental information systems.

The Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources, (SEMARNAT) is the administrative authority

responsible for most environmental issues under federal jurisdiction, and has delegations in each state for

handling federal matters. All thirty-one states have created their own environmental legal regimes, as well

as environmental state authorities in charge of enforcing such laws. The Federal District (Distrito Federal)

is governed by the Environmental Law of the Federal District (Ley Ambiental del Distrito Federal), and the

agency responsible for such matters is the Federal District Office for the Environment (Secretaría del

Medio Ambiente).

The Ecology Law is complemented by a number of media-specific laws, regulations and Mexican Official

Standards in the areas of; water, occupational health and safety; pesticides, fertilizers and toxic sub-

stances; fisheries; forestry; wildlife; mining; agriculture; energy; and transportation of hazardous materials.

These separate laws and regulations are discussed in the relevant chapters.

The Federal Attorney General for Environmental Protection (Procuraduría Federal para la Protección al

Ambiente (PROFEPA)) and the National Institute of Ecology (Instituto Nacional de Ecología (INE)) began

to operate as agencies under SEMARNAT. The first is responsible for inspections and oversight of

compliance with environmental laws, while the second currently carries on research.

Wildlife Conservation Management Units (Unidades de Manejo para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre

(UMAs)) were created, and Priority Species Recovery Projects (Proyectos de Recuperación de Especies

Prioritarias (PREP)) were designed for threatened, endangered, endemic or special species. Sea and

land Protected Nature Areas (Áreas Naturales Protegidas (ANP)) were designated, and in 2000 the

National Commission for Protected Nature Areas (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas

(CONANP)), responsible for all matters relating to such areas, was formed. The Mesoamerican Biological

Corridor was also established.

Regional Sustainable Development Programs (Programas de Desarrollo Regional Sustentable

(PRODERS)) were implemented in order to correct the shortcomings in Mexico's poorest regions, with a

focus on sustainability.

TAX LEGISLATION

The SAT (Servicio de Administración Tributaria) is the government authority responsible for assessing

and collecting federal taxes and customs duties, the Departments of Finance in each State are responsi-

ble for collecting state and local taxes. The following taxes affect corporations doing business in Mexico.

Federal Corporate Income Tax rate: The income tax rate for companies is 30% of the net income. Net

income is determined by subtracting from the gross income those items that are deductible per the tax

code, minus the fiscal loses from prior fiscal years. Additional deductions are allowed if the company is

exclusively in the agriculture, livestock or fishing business (30% reduction). Branch tax rate are also 30%

of the net income.

Withholding Taxes: As of January 1, 2014, there is a 10% withholding tax on dividends distributed by a

Mexican entity to a non-resident company or individual.

Interests: a 4.9 % tax applies to interest paid to foreign banks, registered as banks in Mexico and

resident in tax treaty countries, as well as for interest paid on publicly traded securities in Mexico or

traded abroad thorough banks and stockbroking firms in tax treaty countries, if the conditions are not met,

the rate applied is 10%. A 15% tax applies to interest paid to reinsurance companies and interest on

finance leasing. A 21% tax applies to interest that is not subject to the 4.9 or 10% rates, and interest paid

http://www.semarnat.gob.mx/

http://www.sma.df.gob.mx/

http://www.sma.df.gob.mx/

http://www.profepa.gob.mx/

http://www.ine.gob.mx/

http://www.semarnat.gob.mx/

http://www.conanp.gob.mx/


to non-resident suppliers financing the acquisition of materials and equipment included in the fixed assets

of the acquirer. A 40% tax rate is applied to interest paid to a related party in a tax haven.

Royalties: Payments made abroad for technical assistance, know-how, use of models, plans, formulas,

and similar, including the use of commercial, industrial or scientific information or equipment are subject

to a 25% withholding tax. Royalties paid to a foreign licenser of patents, trademarks and trade names,

without rendering technical assistance, are subject to a 35% withholding tax, unless otherwise specified

under a tax treaty.

Businesses that pay fees or rentals to a non-resident must withhold a 25% tax on said payments.

Royalty payments, originating in Mexico, made to related parties in a tax haven, are subject to a 40%

withholding tax.

Permanent establishments (“branches”) that distribute dividends or gains are subject to a 10% remittance

tax over said monies.

A 16% VAT is applied to the supply of goods and services, the import of goods and services, and leasing

transactions. Interest on non-business loans and credit card debt are also subject to VAT.

Municipal authorities levy taxes on the ownership of real property. A rate of 2-5% applies to the transfer of

real estate.

Social security contributions: Employers must make monthly payments to IMSS (Mexican Social

Security Institute) for the medical services to registered workers. Payment is estimated as 30% of the

employee’s wages.

Retirement Savings Tax: part of the social security payment, which is deposited bi-monthly (every two

months) in a special bank account (payment equal to 2% of the employee’s salary including benefits).

Employee Housing Tax: employers are required by law to furnish housing to their employees. This

contribution is paid bi-monthly (every two months) to the INFONAVIT (Mexican Federal Government

agency). This agency then in turn finances the purchase of housing by the workers. The payment is equal

to 5% of the employee’s salary including benefits.

Local Payroll Taxes: Most cities in Mexico have a payroll tax. The rate varies between 1 and 3% (in

Mexico City the rate is 2.5%)

Under mandatory profit sharing regulations, employers are required to distribute and pay 10% of their

adjusted taxable income to employees. Actual distribution of profits must be paid within the following sixty

(60) days of filing the income tax return, and no later than May 31 of the following year.

Special Tax Incentives:

Maquila and Manufacture Programs: Those companies in Mexico that wish to import items into Mexico

for processing, assembly or transformation and re-export (or even import into the interior of Mexico) may

receive import taxation advantages.

Free Zone: The Free Zone, also known as the Liberated Zone, the Perimeter Zone or Free Trade Zone is

the area located along the Mexican international land borders, and which provides advantages for import

and export to Mexico and other countries.



Since the 1990’s, Mexico has had a growing commitment towards trade integration and liberalization

through the formation of free trade agreements (FTAs) and its trade policy is among the most open in the

world. On June 18, 2012, President Barack Obama announced that an invitation was extended to Mexico

to join the ongoing negotiations for the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), a proposed free trade agreement

involving the United States and eight other countries. Canada was also invited to join the negotiations.

Mexico’s pursuit of FTAs with other countries not only provides economic benefits, but could also poten-

tially reduce its economic dependence on the United States. The United States is, by far, Mexico’s most

significant trading partner. Almost 80% of Mexico’s exports go to the United States and about 50% of

Mexico’s imports are supplied by the United States. In an effort to increase trade with other countries,

Mexico has a total of 12 free trade agreements involving 44 countries. These include agreements with

most countries in the Western Hemisphere including the United States and Canada under the North

American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Peru, Guatemala,

Salvador, and Honduras. In addition, Mexico has negotiated FTAs outside of the Western Hemisphere

and entered into agreements with Israel, Japan, and the European Union.

1994

1. NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement35

The North American Free Trade Agreement between the United States, Canada and Mexico en-

tered into force on January 1, 1994. All duties and quantitative restrictions were eliminated on

January 1, 2008. NAFTA creates the world’s largest free trade area, linking 450 million people

and generating $17 trillion worth of goods and services. Total trade with North America as of 2014

amounted to USD 349,299 million.36

1995

2. G3 FTA between Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela

This Treaty aims to strengthen the commercial relationship between Mexico and South America,

by allowing Mexico to consolidate its presence in this market. Under this FTA all duties are elimi-

nated with the exception of textiles, petrochemical and agricultural products. In 2006, by decision

of former president, Hugo Chavez, Venezuela decided to withdraw from this agreement. As of

2014, total trade between Mexico and Colombia amounted to USD 3,630.37

3. FTA between Mexico and Costa Rica

This was the first FTA between Mexico and a Central American country. All duties were eliminat-

ed for non-agricultural products to Costa Rica. In addition, rules to ensure national treatment to

goods and services of both countries and mechanisms for the effective elimination of non-duty

barriers were established. For 2014, total trade between Mexico and Costa Rica amounted to

USD 2,710.38

4. FTA between Mexico and Bolivia

35

Office of the United States Trade Representative; http://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-

agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta 36http://www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014 37http://www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014 38http://www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014


Through this FTA, duties were eliminated for 95 percent of Mexican exports to Bolivia, and 99

percent of Bolivian exports to Mexico. For 2014, total trade between Mexico and Bolivia amount-

ed to USD 168 million39

1998

5. FTA between Mexico and Nicaragua

In 2013, total trade between Mexico and Nicaragua amounted to USD 1,407,551 million, with this

year recording the highest total trade in history, and in 2014 it amounted to USD 966 million.40

1999

6. FTA between Mexico and Chile

As a result of this FTA, in 2013, total trade between Mexico and Chile amounted to USD

3,523,091,000.41

2000

7. FTA between Mexico and the European Union (TLCUEM)

This Treaty created the first Free Trade Zone between Europe and the American Continent. Total

trade for 2014 amounted to USD 43,686, million.42

8. FTA between Mexico and Israel

As a result of this FTA, in 2013, total trade between Mexico and Israel amounted to USD 517,821

million. 43

2001

9. FTA between Mexico and the European Free Trade Association (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland

and Liechtenstein)

As a result of this FTA, in 2014, total trade between Mexico and the EFTA amounted to USD

2,451 million.44

10. FTA between Mexico and the North Triangle (El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras)

Since this FTA entered into effect, Mexico has significantly increased its exports to Central Amer-

ica. More than half of exports to the North Triangle are duty free, and total trade for 2014

amounted to USD 2,658 million.45

2004

11. FTA with Uruguay

This FTA has allowed Mexico to increase its presence and participation in Mercosur. Total trade

for 2014 amounted to USD 467 million.

2005

12. Economic Partnership Agreement between Mexico and Japan

Due to this Agreement bilateral trade has increased 85% since entering into force, and total trade

for 2014 amounted to USD 13,340.46

39

http://www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014 40http://www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014 41http://www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014 42 http://www.economia.gob.mx/comunidad-negocios/comercio-exterior/informacion-estadistica-y-arancelaria 43 http://www.economia.gob.mx/comunidad-negocios/comercio-exterior/informacion-estadistica-y-arancelaria 44www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014 45www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014 46www.economia.gob.mx/files/comunidad_negocios/comercio_exterior/informacion_estadistica/total_2014


POLITICAL OUTLOOK

The United Mexican States is a federal republic which is comprised of 31 states or “estados” and one

Federal District: Aguascalientes, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Campeche, Chiapas, Chihuahua,

Cohauila de Zaragoza, Colima, Federal District, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco,

Mexico, Michoacan de Ocampo, Morelos, Nayrit, Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Puebla, Queretaro de Arteaga,

Quitana Roo, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Veracruz de Ignacio de

la Llave (Veracruz) and Yucatán47

.

The government is based on a congressional and multi-party system. The three main political parties are

the National Action Party (PAN), the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and the Party of the Demo-

cratic Revolution (PDR). Presidential, Senate and Governor Elections are held every six years, however

elections for the Chamber of Deputies and Legislatures are held every three years. Presidents and

Senators are not eligible for reelection, and Deputies are not eligible for immediate reelection.

The 2000 elections marked the first time since the 1910 Mexican Revolution that a candidate from the

opposition defeated the party in government, Vicente Fox, of the National Action Party (PAN) occupied

the Presidency between 2000 and 2006, and was succeeded by another PAN candidate, Felipe Calde-

rón; however in 2012, the PRI regained the presidency, under Enrique Peña Nieto.

Mexico mostly conforms to the standards of a Western-style electoral democracy. The electoral machin-

ery is independent and respected, and the federal courts enjoy jurisdiction over district and lower-level

courts, and also over state and municipal elections. Mexico’s elections are highly regulated by the state in

order to prevent drug cartels from influencing the electoral process. The high degree of regulation applies

to elections at the municipal, state and national level. The regulatory agency, the IFE, is constituted along

party lines but with entrenched rules of minimum majorities, preventing domination by one party. Political

parties are to a significant degree financed by the state and there are restrictions on the amount of

fundraising permitted. According to the rules, political parties are not allowed to advertise directly at

election time.

The Mexican president is required by law to produce a strategic plan his first year in office. In a significant

break with tradition, President Peña Nieto has asked for input into his plan from all of Mexico’s political

parties. His strategy is to use the national plan as a substitute for a congressional majority, with the hope

that it will tie all parties around a set of long-term national agreements.

The presidential office offers positions of high prestige in Mexico. It is very involved with the legislative

process. Due to the absence of a high-level career civil service, both the Cabinet and the presidential

office are staffed with presidential appointments. The independence of figures within the executive is thus

questionable since everyone of influence in the presidential office is a political appointee.

The current Cabinet is comprised as follows:

Ministry of Government (SEGOB) Miguel Angel Osorio

Ministry of Foreign Affairs (SRE) Jose Antonio Meade

Ministry of National Defense (SEDENA) Salvador Cienfuegos

Maritime Ministry (SEMAR) Vidal Franciso Soberón

Ministry of Minance and Public Credit (SHCP) Luis Videgaray

47

www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook


Ministry of Social Development (SEDESOL) Rosario Robles

Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) Juan José Guerra

Ministry of Energy (SENER) Pedro Joaquin Coldwell

Ministry of Economics (SE) Ildefonso Guajardo

Villareal

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fishery and Food

(SAGARPA)

Enrique Martínez y

Martínez

Ministry of Communications and Transportation (SCT) Gerardo Ruiz

Ministry of Public Administration (SFP) Julián Alfonso Olivas

Ministry of Public Education (SEP) Emilio Chuayffet

Ministry of Health (SALUD) Mercedes Juan

Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare (STPS) Alfonso Navarrete

Secretary of Tourism (SECTUR) Claudia Ruiz

Federal Attorney General (PGR) Jesús Murillo

Legal Counsel for the President’s Office Humberto Castillejos

In addition, there are five decentralized organizations which are fiscally dependent and whose general

directors are appointed by the President:

PEMEX Emilio Lozuya

Federal Energy Commission (CFE) Enrique Ochoa

National Water Commission (CONAGUA) David Korenfeld

Institute of Social Security and Services for Government Employees

(ISSSTE)

Sebastián Lerdo de

Tejada

Mexican Institute of Social Security (IMSS) José Antonio González

For Mexico, one of the most important issues moving forward is governance. Mexico has the particularity

of having OECD characteristics as well as problems that are not typically associated with OECD coun-

tries. Mexico’s elite generally has a forward-looking vision, they are comfortable both professionally and

socially in western institutions, and many of them have advanced degrees, allowing them to be competi-

tive internationally. Challenges include a wasteful and hierarchical education system, extreme poverty in

many rural and some urban areas, corruption, organized crime, tax evasion and a clientelistic government

at the state and municipal levels.

Ongoing economic and social issues include low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of

the population, inequitable income distribution and few advancement opportunities for the indigenous

population in the impoverished southern states.

In the last weeks of 2014, an outbreak of social unrest emerged that could end up having adverse effects

on the economic activity. Massive protests in reaction to the Ayotzinapa tragedy in which 43 students

were kidnapped and presumably murdered by the police and municipal authorities under the orders of

organized crime have gripped Mexico City and other major cities. The government has been criticized for


its inability to respond to the crisis, which represents the most severe wave of social unrest since the

Peña Nieto administration took office two years ago. This situation was compounded with recent scandals

surrounding the President and his wife regarding a mansion valued at USD$ 7 million which allegedly was

built for them, and is considered their home, but is owned by a government contractor.

Immigration issues have also been a concern in recent years. Apprehensions for illegal immigration along

the US-Mexican border account for more than 96 percent of total apprehensions. The focus on the

increased need for border control led to an increase in Border Patrol Staffing, and technological im-

provements such as long-range radar, drone surveillance and motion sensors, among others.48

48

http://www.fairus.org/issue/us-mexico-border-fence-and-patrol-operations


ECONOMIC OUTLOOK

MEXICO ECONOMIC DATA50

2012 2013



GDP (USD bn) 1,187 1,262




Investment (annual variation in %) 4.5 -1.8

Industrial Production (annual variation in %) 2.7 -0.7

Retail Sales (annual variation in %) 3.7 -0.3







Inflation (PPI, annual variation in %) 1.2 1.3



Exchange Rate (vs USD) 12.87 13.04

Exchange Rate (vs USD, aop) 13.16 12.76



Trade Balance (USD billion) 0.0 -1.2



Exports (annual variation in %) 6.1 2.5

Imports (annual variation in %) 5.7 2.8



Economic growth in Mexico is strengthening, benefiting from the pick-up in activity in the United States,

with an expected growth of 3.2 per cent in 2014, accelerating from growth of 1.1 per cent in 2013.49

Mexico’s economy gained momentum in the third quarter of 2014. Agriculture recorded a strong increase

and construction registered notable growth, which suggests that the sector began to recover from the

slump observed in the six previous quarters. More recent data suggest that economic growth is firming up

in the final quarter of the year.

Mexico faces several significant issues both in the region and internationally. Since 2007, Mexico’s drug

trafficking organizations have engaged in violent feuding, resulting in tens of thousands of drug related

homicides. It is a major drug producing and transit nation, and is the second largest opium poppy grower

in the world; U.S. authorities seized 2,162 kilos of heroin along the Mexican border in 2013.50

The

government conducts the largest illicit-crop eradication program in the world; however, it continues to be

a primary transshipment country for US-bound cocaine from South America. Major drug syndicates

49

World Economic Situation and Prospects 2014, update as of mid-2014, United Nations Publication, pg. 15 50

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/tracing-the-us-heroin-surge-back-south-of-the-border-as-mexican-cannabis-

output-falls

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/population

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/gdp-per-capita-USD

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/gdp-usd-bn

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/gdp

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/domestic-demand

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/consumption

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/investment

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/industry

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/retail-sales

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/unemployment

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/fiscal-balance

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/public-debt

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/money

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/inflation-eop

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/inflation

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/producer-prices

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/interest-rate

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/stock-market

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/exchange-rate

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/exchange-rate-aop

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/current-account

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/current-account-usd-bn

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/trade-balance

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/exports

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/imports

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/exports-percent

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/imports-percent

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/international-reserves

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/mexico/external-debt


control the majority of drug trafficking throughout the country. It also produces and distributes ecstasy,

and is the largest foreign supplier of marijuana and methamphetamine to the US market.51

Lastly, it is an

important money-laundering center in the region.

On the positive side, macroeconomic management in Mexico is generally considered good. The Finance

Ministry and the Central Bank are currently considered responsible and effective. The economy is stable

and growing despite recent global downturns and financial difficulties.

Mexico is an export economy linked to the North American markets. Some of the economic problems

faced by the country are based on a lack of internal competition in key sectors such as telecommunica-

tions; however, the current government has made the increase of domestic competition a priority.

One of the most important issues in Mexican economy is the differentiation between the informal and the

formal markets. The informal sector is made up of companies that are not legally registered for fiscal or

insurance benefits, and therefore escape both the advantages and disadvantages of formal regulation. By

OECD standards the size of the informal market is quite large.

51

http://www.cfr.org/mexico/mexicos-drug-war


CHILE

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

Key Facts:

» Capital: Santiago de Chile

» Population: 17,643,916

» President: Verónica Michelle Bachelet Jeria

» Land Area: 289,112 square miles


» Currency: Chilean Peso (CPL)

Chile is the longest and narrowest country in the continent, with 4,329 km in length and only 177 km of

average width. The Chilean territory is located in the south west of South America, between meridians

17° 30' and 90° latitude south. It borders to the north with Peru, to the east with Bolivia and Argentina, to

the west with the Pacific Ocean and to the south with the South Pole. Due to its topography and its

prolonged extension from north to south, Chile has a variety of climates. It is desert from Arica to La

Serena, from the central region to Concepción it has climates similar to the Mediterranean, from Concep-

ción to Punta Arenas it has a mild rainy climate, and polar ice in Antarctica.

The estimated population for 2014 population is 17,643,916 inhabitants, with a density of 22.6 hbs. / Km2.

Of these, 40% are concentrated in the metropolitan area of Santiago. The average age is 31.7 years.

In addition to Santiago (the capital, with 5,250,000 inhabitants) the most important cities are: Antofagasta,

Concepción, Temuco, Valparaiso / Viña del Mar (main port) and Puerto Montt.

Chile has one of the most solid and open economies in South America and the world, with low tariffs and

a strong export orientation. For over 12 years the Chilean GDP has been growing by 7% per year, with

inflation falling steadily, to just over 4% annually. Chile is a member of APEC and MERCOSUR, and has

signed trade agreements with the European Union, Mexico and Canada, among others.

Mining has been an important player in the Chilean economy in recent decades. Copper production

stagnated at around 1.4 million tons per year during the 80's, however during the next decade sustained

growth was observed, with production reaching more than 4 million tons. Growth continued, although at a

slower rate, and in recent years the production approaches 6 million tons per year. Chile used to produce

16% of the world’s copper before the 1990s, and today it produces 32%.

Moreover, the share of mining exports relative to total shipments of Chile remains the most important of

the economy, amounting to 60% in recent years. Similarly, the mining industry is the largest tax contribu-

tor, with a share of around 15% in recent years.

OIL IN CHILE

In 1893, French explorers, Rousson and Willems, sent by their government, concluded that there were

good chances of finding oil both in Tierra del Fuego (Chorrillo sector) and Dawson Island.

In mid-1899 the presumptions of French researchers were ratified when a worker from the Agua Fresca

estate, Arturo Niño, accidentally discovered the first oil field in Chile, near the Canelos River, approxi-

mately thirty kilometers south of Punta Arenas, in Quemas Malas. Soon after, various business


companies were established in order to gather and integrate groups of people and capitalists, for oil

exploration activities in Magallanes.

In 1906, the Agua Fresca Oil Union was created, composed by an important group of people belonging to

the upper social, political and commercial class in Santiago (Julio Subercaseaux Claro, Juan Enrique

Concha S. Paul Canessa and James Zanelli). Alexis Marcou was appointed manager, in his condition as

founder, and he became the soul of the company.

A drilling machine was bought and an experienced technician hired who would take on the responsibility

of conducting the drilling. French engineers were then brought in order to perform field studies. The hired

technician, engineer D. H. MacMillen was in charge of the machinery acquired by the trade union; the

Keyston probe arrived at the port of Punta Arenas later that same year.

On January 22, 1907, Marcou and MacMillen went to survey the area and determine the exact spot to drill

the well and begin the installation of the probe, which was finally located on the north bank of the Canelos

River. Initially, the mission had several problems that generated failures in the drillings. Some of the sites

produced gas, others water or solid samples of bituminous appearance.

Faced with this situation and after countless attempts, Marcou realized that the oil wealth Magallanes

possessed required greater technical and financial efforts, which were not easy to obtain in Chile. Years

later (1917), this situation would cause the discrediting for oil exploration as an economic activity, due to

the fraudulent discovery of oil in the well of Leñadura.

Finally, during the government of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo (1926) Act 4109 was enacted, which stipulat-

ed that all hydrocarbon deposits existing in the subsurface, regardless of their domain, are the property of

the State. Thus, the state initiated drilling studies to assess the possibilities of finding commercially

exploitable hydrocarbon deposits. However, these activities failed due to lack of funding, or simply due to

not having the appropriate work elements.

In 1934, the government of President Arturo Alessandri Palma presents to the Chamber of Deputies a

project to modify the rigid provisions of the Act of 1928, in order to allow the participation of private

enterprise. Two years later, after these projects do not succeed, the government decides to assume

responsibility under the direct supervision of the Department of Mines and Petroleum, which at that time

was the Ministry of Development. In this manner drilling projects that had been in paralyzed in Punta Prat

and Isla Riesco resumed, under the control of what came to be known as the Petroleum Exploration

Service.

Despite the efforts of the then president, Pedro Aguirre Cerda, to activate Chilean oil prospecting,

budgets were cut and no oil was found. In 1939 CORFO was created, which in 1943, under the presiden-

cy of Juan Antonio Ríos, recruited the United Geophysical Company, to begin projects in Magallanes and

seismic exploration activities in Tierra del Fuego and the continent, under geologist Glemn Ruby. Engi-

neers Eduardo Simián, Bernardo Grossling and Carlos Mordogovich, arrived from CORFO, to oversee

the work of the American company.

Finally, on December 29, 1945, from the Springhill well on the Big Island of Tierra del Fuego, the first jet

of Chilean oil began to flow, which would become the country's first commercial oil reservoir.

In 1950 oil production begins in Chilean fields, and after its implementation, it starts to export oil to

Uruguay.

The same year, Gabriel González Videla enacted Law 9,618 by which the Empresa Nacional del Petroleo

(ENAP) was created. This law confers rights of exploration, production, refining and sale of oil and its


byproducts to a Commercial Company attached to CORFO; an autonomous independent legal entity that

would maintain its rights and responsibilities in the oil sector.

In its early days, Enap obtained goods level of production. However, this was not enough to completely

replace the import of fuel. Nonetheless, the amount of oil exploited supplied various economic activities in

Chile, such as transportation or industrial activity.

In terms of exploration and extraction of crude oil, deposits discovered in Chile are concentrated in the

Magallanes Basin, in three areas known as Continent, Tierra del Fuego Island and Offshore "Districts".

Currently, the increased production of crude oil and natural gas comes from offshore fields, which were

developed during the eighties. However, crude oil production has fallen significantly, from 2,401 Mm3 in

1981 to 148 Mm3 in 2007.

As of March 2011, Chile produces only one percent of the total oil required to meet its energy needs and

therefore depends almost entirely on foreign markets.

Currently, Chile imports over 60% of its oil from Ecuador and Brazil, and the remainder from Colombia,

Ecuador and Argentina.

ENERGY GENERATION IN CHILE

During the first decades of the twentieth century, Chilean and foreign entrepreneurs created hundreds of

small utilities in the towns and cities of Chile, of which the most important were the Chilean Electric

Tramway and Light Company and the Transatlantic German Electricity Company operating in Santiago,

and the General Electric Industrial Company, owned by Chilean capitalists which provided services from

San Bernardo to Temuco. In addition to this, many large mining industries set up their own power plants

in an effort to modernize their operations.

At the beginning of 1920s, the generation and supply of energy underwent significant growth, reflected in

the emergence of a new utility in Santiago, known as the Chilean Electricity Company, “Compañía

Chilena de Electricidad Ltda”. Given this expansion, the State had to regulate this activity and in 1925 the

General Electricity Services Law was enacted.

The Chilean Electricity Company Ltd. was created as a private electricity distribution company on August

1, 1921, as a result of the merger between the Chilean Electric Tramway and Light Co. (founded in 1889)

and the National Electric Power Company, which operated in Santiago since 1919.

Between 1929 and 1931, the South American Power Co., bought or entered into partnerships with

several electrical entities operating in the central region including the Chilean Electricity Company Ltd. In

the following years, other companies added to the facilities of company, also operating within the conces-

sion area, covering what is now the V Region and Metropolitan Area, and which together accounted for

nearly half of the country's inhabitants.

The company was nationalized on August 14, 1970, under Law No. 17,323 which authorized the CORFO

to acquire all the shares and assets. Since 1971 is has been known as Compañia Chilena de Electricidad

S.A.

During 1983, the company began a process of re-privatization that culminated in August 1987, with total

share capital in the hands of the private sector. As a result of this process, in November 1987, the first

subsidiary company was created; Distribuidora Chilectra Metropolitana S.A., which in May 1994 was

established as Chilectra S.A.


Chilectra became the leader in the national electricity market energy. In this context, on September 30,

1996 it acquired the Hill Electric Company S.A. (now Empresa Eléctrica de Colina Ltda.), located in the

northern part of the company’s concession area.

This consolidation was reflected in Decree No. 621 published by the Ministry of Economy in the Official

Journal on January 8, 1997, which granted it the concession that allowed it to distribute electricity in the

Chacabuco province.

Chilectra, through its subsidiary, Luz Andes S.A. (now Luz Andes Limited), on August 11, 1998, began

supplying power to the Valle Nevado ski resort. In that same year, it acquired 100% of the assets of the

Municipal Electricity Company of Lo Barnechea, which allowed it to distribute energy to Farallones, El

Colorado and La Parva.

The electricity market in Chile is made up of energy generation, transmission and distribution activities.

These activities are developed by companies that are controlled entirely by private capital; therefore the

State is limited to regulating, supervising and planning investments in generation and transmission,

although the latter function is only seen as a non-compulsory recommendation. The state agency that

regulates the electricity sector in Chile is the National Energy Commission (CNE), which is responsible for

developing and coordinating plans necessary for its proper functioning.

There are approximately 40 generators, 10 transmission companies and 31 distribution companies in

Chile.

There are four independent power

systems in Chile: the Northern Intercon-

nected System (SING), which provides

services to the mining regions of the

northern desert (23.2% of total installed

capacity); the Central Interconnected

System (SIC), which provides services to

the central part of the country (75.8% of

total installed capacity and 93% of the

population); the Aysen Electrical System

(0.3% of total capacity) and the Magal-

lanes Electric System (0.6% of total

capacity), which provides services to

small areas of the southern tip of the

country. The long distances between the

four systems make it difficult to integrate.


MARKET SEGMENTS

OIL REFINERIES

The refining of crude oil in the country is run by the state company ENAP through its 3 plants.

After the discovery of the first oil well in the country, Chile set out to create the National Petroleum

Company (ENAP). The discovery of oil in Springhill was conducted by a team of explorers led by engi-

neer Eduardo Simian Gallet, and gave way to the drilling of new wells, which yielded positive results. In

this manner, the team led by Simian recommended to the CORFO the creation of ENAP, as a way to

commercially exploit the deposits discovered in Magallanes.

One of the first goals set by the fledgling company was the construction of an oil refinery in the country, a

task that culminated in 1954 with the commissioning of the Concon Oil Refinery (today the Aconcagua

Refinery). Then in 1959, the first logistics facilities for the storage and distribution of refined fuels in Maipú

were built and, the following year, the Gregorio maritime terminal in Magallanes was completed.

In 1962, the Cullen Petrol Plant (Magallanes) came into operation, and in 1966 the second refinery in the

country began operations, located in the Eighth Region (now the Bio Bio Refinery) and the construction of

the pipeline from the refinery to San Fernando, in the Sixth Region were initiated. From this point, the

pipeline connects with another pipeline managed by Sonacol that transports fuel to the Storage Plant

located in Maipú, in the Metropolitan Region.

In 1981, ENAP integrated its logistics business, with storage facilities for liquid and gaseous fuels in

Maipú, San Fernando and Linares. This activity is currently performed by the Department of Storage and

Pipelines, owned by Enap Refineries S.A.

On January 1, 2004, all refineries were merged under one company: Enap Refinerías S.A.

The oil refinery located in Concon began operations in 1954 together with the Quintero Terminal, which

receives crude oil from the Magellan Strait. In 1959, the Maipú Terminal was built, which connects via

pipeline with the Concon refinery. Finally, in 1966 the Refinery Petrox began operations in Talcahuano.

All of ENAP’s refining activities are performed by these two refineries, with the refinery located in Magal-

lanes (Gregorio Refinery) acting in the capacity of supporting plant, should an increase in productivity be

required.

REFINERIES BY KEY PLAYER

The National Petroleum Company is owned by the State of Chile. It was incorporated under Act No. 9618,

enacted on June 19, 1950. Its statutes were approved by Decree 1.208, issued on October 10, 1950, by

the then Ministry of Economy and Trade. It operates as a commercial company under a legal regime of

public law and is administered autonomously. It has its own assets and legal personality, and is tied to the

Ministry of Energy and the Ministry of Finance, with the latter for budgetary purposes.

The National Petroleum Company, ENAP, is a leading company in Chile, which operates in an integrated

manner in the production, refining and marketing of hydrocarbons and their byproducts. Wholly owned by

the state, the company plays a strategic role in the supply of fuels. Thanks to the sale of Liquefied Natural

Gas that comes in from different markets to the Quintero terminal, its role has become key in supporting

the country's energy matrix.


Its overseas operations include production of oil and gas in Ecuador, Egypt and Argentina, all through

partnerships with leading companies in the oil sector.

In Chile, ENAP operates through two business lines: Exploration and Production (E&P), which manages

the exploration and production of hydrocarbons, and is also responsible for bidding and underwriting

Special Petroleum Operation Contracts (CEOP), which allow companies associated with ENAP to explore

blocks in the Magallanes Region. The operations of its international subsidiary, Sipetrol, which develops

all ENAP operations abroad, also fall under its responsibility.

The second line of business, known as the Refining Line, operates the Aconcagua, Bio Bio and Gregorio

Refineries, where crude oil is processed to transform it into fuel.

ENAP Bio-Bio Refinery (formerly Petrox) it supplies about 40% of the national market, its storage

capacity for crude oil is approximately 489 Mm³ and its refining capacity at present is 18,000 m³ per day

The crude processing and complementary loads plants it has are:

» Topping and Vacuum I

» Topping and Vacuum II

» Visbreaking

» Catalytic Cracking

» Continuous Catalytic Reformation

» Hydro-treatment Diesel 1

» Hydro-treatment Diesel 2

» Desulfurization of Cracking Gasoline (HDG)

» Hydrocracking, Benzene saturation

» Isomerization

» Separation and purification or polypropylene plant

» CHT Hydrogen Plant

» Coker

» Hydro-treatment of Diesel (HDT)

It also has a cogeneration plant owned by Petropower Energy Limited, the Bio Bio Hydrogen Plant, co-

owned with SigdoKoppers S.A., Smooth Hydrocracking gas oil (MHC) plant and a regasification plant for

Liquefied Natural Gas, in the commune of Pemuco, located in the Eighth Region

There are also Merox kerosene, gasoline and liquefied gas treatment plants, sodium hydrosulfide plants,

Sulfur No. 1 and No. 2 recovery plants, Gas Treatment, Acid Water Treatment, and Oily Water Treatment

plants, water cooling, steam and electricity supply, and storage tanks for crude oil, intermediate and final

products.

Other industrial facilities include pipelines for transporting finished products from the refinery to the city of

San Fernando, which is connected to the Sonacol pipeline (on the stretch between San Fernando and

Maipú), pumping stations in the Bio Bio Refinery, Chillán and Molina; pipelines from the refinery to the

San Vicente maritime terminal to transport crude oil and finished products; the San Vicente Marine

Terminal, where a new type of dock walkway and 2 marine terminals with underwater pipelines were

installed; inner pipes from the vessels to the processing plants and from these plants to the intermediate

and final product vessels; pipeline for the receipt and delivery of liquefied gas; pumps to ship products

from the refinery to San Fernando and San Vicente; pumps in San Vicente for shipping product by sea

and receiving crude imported via the same waterway; chemical laboratory; facilities and headquarters for


the Emergency Response Brigade, which operates with volunteers from the plant; specialized workshops

to meet the maintenance and repair needs of all plants; Emergency electrical equipment that operate with

diesel and natural gas, and a natural gas interconnected system for use as fuel in boilers and furnaces

(steam generation).

ENAP Aconcagua Refinery (formerly R.P.C.)

The refinery production meets about 40% of the domestic fuel market demand. The main processing and

supplementary charge plants are:

» Topping and Vacuum I

» Topping and Vacuum II

» Visbreaking

» Catalytic Cracking

» Continuous Reformaction

» Smooth Hydrocracking (two plants)

» Diesel and gasolina hydrodesulfurization

» Alkylation

» Solvent Plant

» Sulfuric acid Plant

» Isomerization Plant

» Delayed Coker Plant

» Sulfur Planta

» Hydrogen Plant (property of AGA)

» Coker Complex

Additionally, there are Merox treatment plants for turpentine and kerosene, gas treatment and oily water

plants, supply plants, closed cooling water systems, flare systems, pipelines between the refinery and the

Maritime Terminal of Quintero; internal pipelines between the vessel areas and the processing plants and

between the plants and the intermediate and final product vessels; pumps to ship products from the

refinery; the Maritime Terminal in Quintero has crude and byproduct tanks, pumps zones and four

anchorages, including one monobuoy type for VLCC and Suezmax tankers; a chemical Laboratory;

Truck freight yard; staff facilities for the Emergency Response Brigade; Headquarters for the Fire De-

partment for 24-hour shifts; fire trucks, firefighting equipment; specialized workshops for maintenance

and repair of all plants; Emergency diesel fuel and gas electrical equipment; and an interconnected

natural gas system for use as fuel in boilers and furnaces (steam generation).

On Easter Island, ENAP Refineries S.A. has a concession for a terminal facility located in the area of

Rada Vinapu. With a storage capacity of 4,800 cubic meters, the Vinapu Terminal guarantees the fuel

supply for the island territory. These facilities are:

Maritime Terminal: it features an 8-inch underwater line about 500 meters long and an anchorage with

moorings for vessels up to 110 meters long and 10 meters deep and up to 10,000 DWT, for unloading or

loading.

Ground Terminal: 6 storage tanks for refined products, with a capacity of up to 800 cubic meters, used

for storing Aviation Kerosene, 93 NOR Gasoline and B Diesel. It also has a truck loading system (pumps

and loading island) and a fire control system. For product distribution it has a fleet of Tanks Trucks,

composed of three trucks for Aviation Kerosene and two semitrailers for Gasoline and B Diesel.


Gregorio-Magallanes Refinery

This complex refines stores and transports fuels. The refining process of crude oil is done in the Gregorio

Refinery and fractionation process for Raw Product in the Cabo Negro Plant.

In terms of logistics, the R&C Magallanes facilities are the Cabo Negro Terminal, Gregorio and Clarencia

for receiving and shipping of products. These installations have storage facilities for crude oil, intermedi-

ate products for additional charges for the refineries, and finished products.

It has a storage capacity of approximately 221 thousand cubic meters. The fractionation plant or distilla-

tion unit, which processes crude at a rate of 1,650 cubic meters per day; is basically a topping unit.

During 2014, 268.000 m3 of oil were refined. The market basket is composed of 95% oil of national origin

and 5% from Argentina. Light crude refining (° API> 26) is predominant, which allows for the supply of the

regional demand for aviation kerosene and marine gas oil.

Of the total volume produced in the Gregorio refinery, 19% corresponds to naphtha, 14% to aviation

kerosene; 22% to marine gas oil, and to 45% to reduced crude.

ENERGY GENERATION

This sector consists of utilities which own power generation plants; energy which is transmitted and

distributed to final consumers. Generating operates within a competitive market, i.e., participating compa-

nies are powerless to fix the market price.

As of December 31, 2013, the Central Interconnected System (SIC) had an installed generation capacity

of 14,080.2 MW, predominantly hydrothermal, of which 95% stems from conventional sources and 5%

comes from Non-Conventional Renewable Energy (NCRE). Meanwhile, the Northern Interconnected

System (SING) has 4603.0 MW and is almost 100% thermal, based on fossil fuels such as coal, gas and

oil. Together, the two systems have 18,683.2 MW, which correspond to more than 99% of the national

installed capacity (Aysen, Magallanes and other isolated systems are less than 1%).

For the generation park already installed, the instantaneous unit production cost increases with the

increase in electricity demand. This is because the dispatch of the various plants is organized by increas-

ing order of costs, which minimizes the total cost of instant production.

There are about 30 generators, but only three companies lead the power generation sector.

POWER PLANTS BY KEY PLAYER

Endesa

Currently, Endesa Chile and its subsidiaries operate 179 units in four countries in Latin America, with a

total installed capacity of 13,455 MW. If you include the 50% of the power of the Power Plant Atacama,

reaching a total of 182 units with an installed capacity of 13,846 MW.

The company also participates in the Brazilian market through its associated Endesa Brasil, in partner-

ship with Enersis and Endesa (Spain). Endesa Brazil has 987 MW of installed capacity, through Endesa

Cachoeira and Endesa Fortaleza. It was created during the government of Juan Antonio Ríos and

Industrialization and Technological transformation plan as a subsidiary of the Chilean Development

Corporation (CORFO) on December 1, 1943 and privatized in 1989.


Hydroelectric Plants

Plants Location Capacity (MW)

Central Abanico 90 km. Bío Bío 136

Central Antuco 91 km Ángeles 320

Central Cipreses 105 km Talca, Región del Maule 106

Central Curilinque 60 km Talca 89

Central El Toro 90 km Ángeles 450

Central Isla 105 km Talca 68

Central Loma Alta 105 km Talca, Región del Maule 40

Central Los Molles 81 km IV Región 18

Central Ojos de Agua Río Cipreses 9

Central Palmucho 120 km Ángeles 32

Central Pangue 100 km Bío Bío 467

Central Pehuenche 60 km Talca 570

Central Sauzalito 13 km Rancagua, VI Región 12

Central Ralco 120 km Bío Bío 690

Central Rapel 120 km. Santiago, VI Región 377

Central Sauzal Rancagua, VI Región 76.8

Thermoelectric Plants


Central Atacama 50 km Antofagasta 780.58

Central Bocamina Ciudad de Corone 128

Central Bocamina II Coronel, Bío Bío 350

Central Diego de Almagro Almagro 46.8

Central Huasco TG Puerto Guacolda 64.23

Central Huasco Vapor Puerto Guacolda 16

Central Quintero Quintero 257

Central San Isidro Quillota 379

Central San Isidro II Quillota, V Región 353

Central Taltal Taltal 244.9

Central Tarapacá Iquique, I Región 182

AES Gener

AES Gener is a producer and distributor of electricity in Chile. Formerly known as Chilectra Generacion

(Chilgener 1981-1998) and Gener (1998-2001). AES Gener is the result of the division in 1987, Chilectra

into three independent companies, two distributors (Chilectra and Chilquinta) and a generator and

distributor (Chilgener).

AES Gener in Chile generates 18,754 MW of coal, gas and hydro. 31.9% of this generation is hydro, the

66.5% corresponds to thermo and 1.6% to wind and solar generation. Is the largest thermal generator

and second largest electricity generator in Chile.

The firm owns and operates a diverse portfolio of power plants in the country, including facilities operating

on coal, gas, diesel, biomass and water. AES Gener serves the Chilean Central Interconnected System


(SIC) through four run-of-the-river hydroelectric power plants, one coalfired thermoelectric power plant,

four diesel-fueled turbogas power plants, one cogeneration power plant and one gas turbine. At the same

time, it serves the Chilean Great North Interconnected System (SING), through its subsidiaries Norgener

S.A., Empresa Eléctrica Angamos S.A. and Termoandes S.A. The firm currently operates in Argentina

and Colombia through its subsidiaries Termoandes S.A. and AES Chivor. AES Gener is controlled by US

power company AES Corp, through its subsidiary Inversiones Cachagua SpA

Colbún

Colbún is a Chilean generator which owns and operates 15 hydro power plants, 7 thermo plants, 17

substations, and 892km of transmission lines in four regions. The company contributes 2,962MW of

capacity (48% hydro and 52% thermal) to Chile's central SIC grid -- in which it is the second largest

power generator, according to central grid operator CDEC. Colbún is controlled by Grupo Matte through

subsidiary Minera Valparaíso.

Hydroelectric Plants


Colbun – 1985 Colbun, Maule Region 474

Angostura – 2014 Santa Barbara, Region del Biobio 316

Canutillar - 1990 Cochamo, Los Lagos Region 172

Machicura – 1985 Colbun, Maule Region 95

Hornitos – 2008 Los Andes, Valparaiso Region 55

Los Quilos – 1943 San Esteban, Valparaiso Region 39

San Ignacio – 1996 Colbun, Maule Region 37

Rucue – 1998 Quilleco, Bio Bio Region 178

Quilleco – 2007 Quilleco, Bio Bio Region 71

Blanco – 1993 Los Andes, Valparaiso Region 60

Chacabuquito – 2002 Los Andes, Valparaiso Region 29

Juncal – 1994 Los Andes, Valparaiso Region 71

Chiburgo – 2007 Colbun, Maule Region 19

Carena – 1937 Cuacavi, Metropolitan Region 9

San Clemente – 2010 Colbun, Maule Region 5.6

Juncalito – 1994 Los Andes, Valparaiso Region 1


Thermoelectric Plants


Nehuenco II – 2003 Quillota, Valparaiso Region 398

Nehuenco I – 1999 Quillota, Valparaiso Region 368

Santa Maria – 2012 Coronel, Region del Bio Bio 342

Candelaria – 2005 Mostazal, Region Libertador Bernardo 270

Nehuenco III – 2002 Quillota, Valparaiso Region 108

Antihue – 2005 Valdivia, Region de Los Rios 103

SECTOR FORECAST

Chile faces the challenge of obtaining sufficient and competitive energy resources in order to achieve

development forecasted for the coming decades. Growth should be supported with clean, secure and

affordable energy.

Under this premise, the National Energy Strategy or ENE is born. The purpose of the ENE is to adopt a

clear position on the future development of the energy matrix, together with the main guidelines and

measures for their implementation.

The country currently has an installed capacity of approximately 17,000 MW: 74% in the Central Inter-

connected System, SIC; 25% in the Norte Grande Interconnected System, SING, and less than 1% in the

mainframes of the Aysen and Magallanes regions. Considering the trend of economic growth by 2020, an

increase in electricity consumption of around 100,000 GWh of total demand for electric energy is project-

ed. This represents the challenge of incorporating 8,000 MW of installed capacity to the system.

This objective is rather critical, considering that Chile imports energy resources, with high prices that have

increased the marginal costs of power generation and electricity prices. Currently, Chile has one of the

highest electricity rates in Latin America, above the average of other OECD countries. The country needs

energies that are clean and renewable, which are found in abundance in the country, such as water

generation. However, it is not possible to dispense with the thermal energy that allows for stable and

secure energy supply. In this context, it is essential to incorporate the highest environmental standards

and encourage the entry of renewable energy to the matrix.

Additionally Chile has a portfolio of mining projects under execution in the amount of 20 billion dollars and

other projects under evaluation equivalent to another 45 billion, placing the mining sector at the doors of a

major upswing. In this regard, recent years have seen constraints in the competitiveness of Chilean

mining in areas such as the fall of the Mineral Law, availability and cost of energy, water availability,

productivity of human capital and legal certainty regarding authorizations. The challenge in this area is to

overcome these limitations in order for mining to increase its contribution to the country and continue as

the engine for national development.



Within the energy and refining sector, and the general industry sector, there are issues pertaining to

security and defense that need to be addressed. Foreign companies wishing to enter the Chilean market

with goods and services may consider the following opportunities:

» IT Technical training for medium and small companies

» Environmental management and best practices

» Cyber security training for end-users

» Cyber security software for corporations

» Data recovery and data protection software for both industry and banking sectors

» Video surveillance for banking sectors

» Industrial safety training

» Personal protection elements

Based on our expertise and knowledge of the oil and energy sector in Chile, and in order to complement

the general opportunities derived for general policies, we present a general analysis of business opportu-

nities for security and defense companies in the abovementioned sectors. Given that Chile is a country

with significantly less security issues than the other three countries analyzed in this study, the opportuni-

ties are slightly different.





» Drones

» Micro-drones

» Aircraft


» Equipment

» Cameras

» Monitors





» Data Acquisition



» Control Process





» Implementation:


» Data encryption

» Confidentiality

» Protocols


» Access controls

» Strategy





» Firewall



» Antivirus




» Biometrics


» Remote access






» Data recovery












» ISO/IEC 27001

» ISO/IEC 27002







» Trucks

» Containers






» Training

» Risk reduction

» Equipment


SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Chile is one of the safest countries in Latin America. Violent crime in Chile is very low in comparison to

other counties in the region; the main safety concerns arise from pick-pocketing, telephone scams, and

vehicular and residential burglaries. There has been a significant increase in the reported incidents

involving credit card cloning and credit card fraud. Outside Santiago, the incidence of crime is reduced,

with the exception of the Valparaiso, Antofagasta and Iquique.

Peaceful and authorized marches and demonstrations traditionally take place on September 11, which is

the anniversary of the 1973 military overthrow of the Allende government, and again on March 29, known

as the “Day of the Young Combatant.” Student marches also occur, with participation ranging between

10,000 to 100,000 people. Marches are generally peaceful, although some have escalated to participants

throwing rocks and Molotov cocktails. The Police have countered with tear gas and water cannons.

Labor union strikes are also common, and although the Government usually authorizes them, they tend to

turn confrontational. Indigenous groups actively protest, asking for the restitution of lands they claim as

their own; they have been known to set fire to agricultural and residential properties in southern Chile that

they consider their cultural heritage.

Located between two tectonic plates, Chile is considered one of the most seismically active countries in

the world. In February 2010, an 8.8 earthquake was recorded, with its epicenter in Concepcion. The

earthquake caused damages to buildings and infrastructure, and a subsequent tsunami caused even

more destruction.

The Carabineros are the uniformed national police force and they are responsible for crime prevention,

order, and traffic control. They are considered to be one of the most professional, well-trained, police

force in Latin America, and they experience low levels of corruption. The Policia de Investigaciones (PDI)

is a plain-clothed investigatory police branch, which is responsible for immigration matters and handles

criminal investigations. The PDI responds to residential burglary investigations, cybercrime, narcotics

investigations, and counterterrorism and immigration issues.



LABOR LAWS

The Labor Code and its subsequent regulations govern work relationships between employees and

corporations. Due to significant changes in legislation, starting in the 1990s, workers currently play an

active role in society, in particular regarding collective bargaining agreements and the right to strike.

Conflict resolution is primarily achieved through negotiations between the parties.

Employment contracts must be presented in writing, and include at least, the parties identification num-

bers, the nature of the services rendered, the length of the contract, the place of works, salary and

time/shift. Contracts may be terminated according to the provisions stipulated by law: mutual agreement,

by decision of the employee, with 30 days’ notice, death of the employee, completion of the time period

agreed, or service rendered, or lastly, due to force majeure. The employer may unilaterally terminate the

contract due to a serious breach of his/her responsibilities by the employee, failure to uphold legal

regulations, or the inability to perform the job due to technical, labor or financial reasons. These regula-

tions do not apply to senior management as they may be removed without cause.

Foreigners wishing to work in Chile must obtain the corresponding workers visa from the immigration

authorities. In companies with more than 25 employees, the number of foreign employees may not

surpass 15% of total employees. The following foreigners are excluded from this calculation: foreigners

married to Chilean nationals, widows of Chilean nationals, or those with Chilean children; foreigners who

have lived in Chile for more than 5 years, and foreign experts who cannot be replaced by Chilean per-

sonnel. Foreign employees may be paid in other currencies with the prior authorization of the Central

Bank.

Unions are subject to voluntary affiliation and individuals may choose from a multitude of unions. In 2013,

the total number of individuals in the work force that were affiliated to unions was 940,222.52

Unions may

be organized as federations and confederations, of which the Workers Confederation (CUT) is the most

important with approximately 80% of the labor force affiliated to it. Almost every matter can be brought to

the collective bargaining table, with the exception of property of company management. Collective

agreements are valid for two years, although they may be modified or cancelled per the agreement of the

parties. By law, public utility employees are not allowed to strike, if their jobs jeopardize the health or

supply of the population, the economy of the country or national security. Strikes are also invalid in cases

where the conflict has escalated to an arbitration proceeding.

OPERATING REGULATIONS

The electricity sector in Chile is regulated by the General Electricity Services Law contained in Decree

No. 1 of 1982, issued by the Ministry of Mining, and the text revised and coordinated in Decree No. 4 of

2006 the Ministry of Economy ("Electricity Act") and its corresponding regulations Three government

entities have the responsibility for the implementation and enforcement of the Electricity Act: the National

Energy Commission (CNE), which has the authority to propose the regulated tariffs and to prepare plans

for the construction of new generating units; the Superintendence of Electricity and Fuels (SEC), which

regulates and monitors legal compliance, regulations and technical standards for generation, transmis-

sion and distribution, liquid fuels and gas; and finally, the Ministry of Energy is responsible for proposing

and conducting public policy on energy matters and groups under its authority the SEC, the CNE and the

Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission (CChEN), thus strengthening coordination and providing a compre-

hensive view of the sector. In addition, the Agency for Energy Efficiency and the Center for Renewable

Energy are also attached to the Ministry.

52

www.dt.gob.cl/documentacion; Organizaciones Sindicales, Compendio de Series Estadísticas 1990-2013.

http://www.dt.gob.cl/documentacion


The law also establishes the appointment of a Panel of Experts whose primary function is to resolve

discrepancies that occur between parties in the electricity market: utilities, system operators, regulators,

etc.

From a physical standpoint, the Chilean electricity sector is divided into four electrical systems: the

Central Interconnected System (SIC), the Northern Interconnected System (SING), and two isolated

systems: Aysen and Magallanes. The SIC, is the principal system, given that about 93% of the Chilean

population live along this central area which extends longitudinally for approximately 2,400 km., it joins

Taltal in the north with Quellón, on Chiloé Island, to the south. The SING covers the north of the country,

from Arica to Coloso, covering a length of about 700 km, where much of the mining industry is found.

According to the Electricity Act, companies involved in the generation and transmission operating through

an interconnected power system must coordinate their operations in an efficient and centralized manner

through an operating entity, which is known as the Economic Load Dispatch Center (CDEC). This is set

up in order to operate the system at minimum cost while preserving the safety of the service. In order to

achieve this, the CDEC plans and performs the operation of the system, including the calculation of

marginal cost schedule, the price at which energy transfers between generators made in the CDEC are

valued. The CDECs (CDEC-SIC and CDEC-SING) are autonomous entities that are made up of generat-

ing companies, transmitting stations, transmitting substations and major clients.

REGULATION FOR GENERATION COMPANIES

The generation segment is made up of companies that own power plants, and transmit and distribute

energy to end users.

This segment is characterized as being a competitive market where electricity is sold: i) to distribution

companies which supply regulated customers within its concession area; ii) to free or non-regulated

customers, mainly industrial and mining companies; and iii) to other generators through the spot market

through energy and power transactions carried out in the CDECs.

The operation of the generating companies in each electrical system is coordinated by the corresponding

CDEC. As a result of this efficient and coordinated operation of electrical systems, any level of demand is

adequately met, at the lowest possible production cost according to the alternatives available in the

system. The marginal cost is used as the price at which generators trade energy on an hourly basis,

including injections into the system such as withdrawals or purchases to supply customers.

Generators participate in energy procurement bids with terms of up to 15 years. The tenders are con-

ducted according to demand requirements demands through distribution and are supervised by the

National Energy Commission. This allows generators to receive a stable and predictable income, avoiding

marginal cost volatility and encouraging investment in the sector.

Payment by capacity exists in Chile, and depends on an annual calculation made centrally by each

CDEC, based on an amount that pays for the development of a gas turbine, as the marginal unit that

provides the system’s demand. The charge capacity of each plant is independent of its delivery and pays

the availability and contribution to the country's reserve margin.

The Electricity Concessions Act (Act 20701), which was enacted on October 14, 2013, seeks to expedite

the processing and deadlines associated with electric concessions, throughout the various stages of

processing the power projects.

This regulation established measures that expedite procedures for granting concessions, thus reducing

the construction time for transmission projects, delays which currently impede an economic and smooth

operation of power supply between the country’s different areas. Act 20698 of October 22, 2013 amends


Act No. 20.257 regarding the Non-conventional Renewable Energy Sources (ERNCs for its acronym in

Spanish). The main modification regards the new obligation for supply of ERNCs, which involves a 10%

increase of the supply obligation of ERNC of the marketed energy, which was to be achieved, gradually

by 2024, at a new value of 20 % to be achieved, also gradually, by 2025. Furthermore, a mechanism for

annual and public tenders exclusive to ERNCs is determined, in order to comply with the annual supply

obligation to ERNCs. The Ministry of Energy is responsible for these annual tenders and ERNC partici-

pants compete by price (energy price) for the energy blocks offered, allowing them to sell at a stabilized

price, and with ceiling defined in the same Act. This new legislation encourages the incorporation of

generation technologies in a more competitive manner.

The “Carretera Electrica” or “Electric Highway” Bill is still under evaluation. It establishes measures for

facilitating the development of the main and ancillary transmission system, including the design of greater

output gaps and whose costs will be paid jointly among the different users. The main purpose of this

project is to encourage the future development of centers for generation and demand in different areas of

the country, mainly in terms of renewable energy, including hydroelectricity.

REGULATION FOR REFINING COMPANIES

The refining sector is comprised of 6 refineries, all owned and operated by the National Oil Company

(ENAP). Operations are regulated by Act 9.618 of January 1950, and its subsequent amendments, which

stipulate the manner in which hydrocarbons and the ENAP are to be managed. Article 1 stipulates that

the State is the absolute, exclusive, inalienable and indefeasible owner of all hydrocarbon deposits found

within the national territory. Article 2 stipulates the creation of the National Oil Company, an organization

that is regulated by the abovementioned Act and the company bylaws, the latter, which are approved by

Decree by the President of the Republic. The National Oil Company may perform exploration, exploitation

or monetization activities pertaining to oil fields, inside or outside the country, either directly or through

companies in which it participates or in association with others. In the pursuit of said activities within the

national territory, through corporations in which it is a party or in association with others, it must do so

through administrative concessions or special operating contracts subject to the requirements and

conditions stipulated by Presidential Decree.

Act 9618 has been modified by various subsequent laws. The updated text was approved by Decree-Law

No. 1, 1986, issued by the Ministry of Mining.

Senior management at ENAP is comprised by an eight member Board, presided by the Minister of

Energy. The Vice Presidency is occupied by the Executive Vice President of CORFO, an organization

that also which appoints three directors. The other three board members represent the following private

entities: the Society for Industrial Development, the National Mining Association and the Chilean Institute

of Mining Engineers.


Act 2,224 issued by the Ministry of Mining creates the National Energy Commission. The National Energy

Commission is responsible for the development and coordination of plans, policies and standards for the

proper functioning and development of the sector; guaranteeing compliance and advising the Govern-

ment on all matters related to energy. For the purposes of competition, the energy sector includes all

evaluation, exploration, exploitation, generation, transmission, transportation, storage, distribution, import

and export, and any other activity that concerns electricity, coal, gas, oil and byproducts, nuclear energy,

geothermal and solar energy, and other energy sources.

Act 18.410 creates the Superintendence of Electricity and Fuels, an entity responsible for monitoring and

supervising compliance of legal provisions and regulations, as well as technical standards on generation,

production, storage, transportation and distribution of liquid fuels, gas and electricity, and verify that the


quality of the services offered complies with the above, and finally that the operations and use of energy

resources do not constitute a danger to people or things.

The Chilean Commission of Nuclear Energy (CCHEN) was created in 1965 by Act 16.319 and its mission

and purpose are to address any issues regarding the production, acquisition, transfer, transportation, and

pacific use of atomic energy, and all fertile, fissionable and radioactive material, and regulate, monitor and

control nuclear and radioactive facilities, from a nuclear and radiological safety stand point.

Other organizations that impact the energy sector are the Chilean Agency for Energy Efficiency (ACHEE),

which is a private foundation that promotes, strengthens and consolidates the efficient use of energy.

The National Center for Innovation and Promotion of Sustainable Energies (CIFES), seeks to support

CORFO in the design, implementation, follow-up, evaluation and promotion of programs and strategic

projects for sustainable energies, through public funding.


Chilean environmental legislation has a wide scope of action, both at the national and municipal levels.

Legislation covers areas such as waste management, public safety regulations for the industrial sector

and the protection of water for human consumption.

In terms of renewable energies, in April of 2008, Act 20.257 was enacted, by which the use of non-

conventional renewable energy sources (ERNCs) is promoted. Originally, regulations stipulated that

between 2010 and 2014 at least 5% of the energy marketed by generating companies should come from

renewable sources, gradually increasing by 0.5% annually between 2015 and 2024. This Act was

amended in 2013 (Act 20/25) by which a compulsory quota of 20% of ERNCs of the electrical matrix for

energy generation companies is established, effective July 2013.

TAX LEGISLATION

The Internal Revenue Service (also known by its acronym SII) is responsible for implementing and

overseeing all internal taxes in Chile, and other matters of interest for the Treasury and whose control is

not especially entrusted to a separate body.

The SII is an entity under the Ministry of Finance. It has an office in each region and four in the Metropoli-

tan Region of Santiago, of which the respective provincial offices depend. Tax legislation is encompassed

in the Tax Code, issued in 1974 and its subsequent amendments.

A Company is considered as resident/ domiciled in Chile if it is incorporated in Chile. If this is the case,

companies pay Chilean Income tax based on their worldwide income. Nonresident Companies pay

income taxes based on their Chilean-source income only.

The following are the main taxes that affect companies doing business in Chile:

Profits distributed to individuals/ residents of Chile are subject to a complementary income tax at a rate

that ranges between 0 and 40%. Profits distributed abroad to nonresident taxpayers are subject to an

additional withholding income tax of 35%.

Capital gains are taxed as ordinary income; however, if certain requirements are met in the case of the

disposal of certain assets, capital gains may be exempt or subject to corporate income tax at a rate of

22.5% as a single tax.

Tax losses may be carried back until all retained taxable profits are absorbed, and may be carried forward

indefinitely.


First category income tax is imposed at a rate of 22.5%, and will increase to 25% by 2016 and 27% by

2018.

Income taxes paid abroad on foreign profits derived from a branch, royalty payment, technical service fee

or other incomes of a similar nature are creditable against Chilean income taxes, capped at the corporate

rate of 22.5%. The cap increases to 35% on foreign income for countries that have a standing tax

agreement, and 32% for those that have not concluded a tax agreement with Chile.

A special regime exists for Chilean publicly traded stock corporations and closely held stock corporations

that voluntarily submit to the supervision of the Chilean Stock Exchange Commission, and that meet

certain requirements.

Profits repatriated to a parent company abroad are subject to a 35% additional withholding income tax,

against which the first category income tax paid is creditable.

Interest is subject to a 35% additional withholding tax on the gross amount, a 4.4% reduced rate applies

inter alia, to interests on loans granted by a foreign financial institution and insurance companies or

pension funds that comply with certain requirements.

Royalty payments are subject to an addition a withholding tax, which ranges between 0 and 30%,

depending on the good.

Payments to nonresidents for technical and engineering works and professional or technical services are

subject to an additional 15% withholding tax. The rate increases to 20% if the parties are related and/or

the beneficiary is resident in a tax haven included in the Chilean Treasury list.

Branch remittances are subject to a 35% additional withholding income tax, against which the initial

22.5% tax paid at the branch level is creditable.

Services rendered abroad, other than technical services are subject to a 35% withholding tax.

Corporations must pay an annual municipal license fee, which ranges between 0.25% and 0.5% on tax

equity, up to a maximum of approximately USD 565,000 (the cap varies according to the exchange rate

and the inflation).

Self-employed individuals and employees are subject to a second category income tax that ranges

between 0% and 40%. Payroll taxes are withheld for the employee by the employer.

Real property tax is imposed annually at a rate of 1% on rural property and 1.2% on developed non-rural

property.

There are several contributions that corporations need to make to Social security: 1) monthly 0.95%

premium on remuneration; 2) employment risk at a maximum rate of 3.4%; and 3) 2.4% compulsory

unemployment insurance on remuneration.

Foreign loans are subject to Stamp duty. The monthly rate of fraction thereof is 0.033% between en-

dorsement and maturity, capped at 0.4%. Loans payable on demand or without maturity are subject to a

0.166% tax.

Corporations in Chile must make monthly advance payments on taxes, and file the annual tax return in

April of the following fiscal year, which in Chile corresponds to the calendar year. Penalties apply for late

filing, failure to file, underpayment or tax evasion.


The current government has proposed a tax reform, which would increase corporation tax from 20 to

25%. This change, however, will not affect foreign companies, who already pay 35% tax, including a

withholding tax on repatriation of funds. It will be just the composition of tax for foreign companies that will

change (from 20% corporation tax, 15% withholding to 25% corporation, 10% withholding).


Chile has created a network of economic agreements and alliances that guarantee that Chilean products

and services are available worldwide, and that foreign investment keeps flowing into the country. These

two elements have significantly contributed to the country’s economic growth.

Current Free trade agreements and Economic Partnership Agreements are listed below by year: 53

1996

FTA with Canada

As of December 2013, Chile had a negative balance of trade amounting to 44 million dollars FOB.

1998

FTA with Mexico

As of December 2013, Chile had a negative balance of trade amounting to 1,111 million dollars

FOB.

1999

FTA with Central America (Costa Rica in 1999; El Salvador in 2000, Honduras in 2005; Guatema-

la in 2007; and Nicaragua in 2011)

As of December 2013, Chile had a negative balance of trade amounting to 489 million dollars

FOB including the Caribbean.

2002

EPA with European Union


FOB

2003

FTA with the United States


FOB.

FTA with South Korea

As of December 2013, Chile had a positive balance of trade amounting to 1,660 million dollars

FOB

FTA with EFTA

As of December 2013, Chile had a positive balance of trade amounting to 691 million dollars

FOB. (Traded only with Norway and Switzerland).

2005

FTA with China


FOB.

Trans-Pacific Partnership

As of December 2013, Chile had a negative balance of trade amounting to 21 million dollars FOB

53

http://www.bcentral.cl/estadisticas-economicas/series-indicadores/index_se.htm


2006

FTA with Panama

(No data for 2013)

FTA with Colombia


FOB.

FTA with Peru


FOB.

2007

EPA with Japan


FOB

2008

FTA with Australia


FOB.

2009

FTA with Turkey


FOB.

2010

FTA with Malaysia

As of December 2013, Chile had a negative balance of trade amounting to 17 million dollars FOB.

2011

FTA with Vietnam

As of December 2013, Chile had a positive balance of trade amounting to 58 million dollars FOB.

2012

FTA with Hong Kong

Total trade between Chile and Hong Kong for 2013 amounted to 988,986 dollars FOB (HK$7,669

million).54

On February 4, 2010, the United States and Chile signed an income tax treaty known as the “Convention

between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of Chile

for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion with Respect to Taxes on

Income and Capital”. This Treaty was submitted before the Senate in May of 2012 and is still pending

ratification. Among other provisions, the treaty would reduce source-country withholding taxes on certain

cross-border payments of dividends, interest, and royalties; establish rules to determine when an enter-

prise or individual of one country is subject to tax on business activities in the other; enhance the mobility

of labor by coordinating the tax aspects of the U.S. and Chilean pension systems; foster collaboration to

resolve tax disputes and relieve double taxation; and ensure the full exchange between the U.S. and

Chilean tax authorities of information for tax purposes.55

54

http://www.tid.gov.hk/english/aboutus/publications/factsheet/chile.html 55

http://www.state.gov/s/l/treaty/pending/


POLITICAL OUTLOOK

Located in the Southern Cone of South America, Chile is a politically stable, upper-middle income,

developing nation of 17.8 million people. Chile is a republic, which is comprised of 15 regions, Aysen,

Antofagasta, Araucania, Arica and Parinacota, Atacama, Biobio, Coquimbo, Libertador General Bernardo

O’Higgins, Los Lagos, Los Rios, Magallanes, and Chilean Antartica, Metropolitan Region (Santiago),

Tarapaca and Valparaiso.

Chile has a bicameral Congress, which consists of a 38 seat Senate, elected by popular vote for an eight-

year term, and a 120 seat Chamber of Deputies elected for a four-year term. The last election for Con-

gress was held in November of 2013, as well as the last presidential election.

The main political parties in Chile are: Alliance (Alianza), which is composed of National Renew-

al (Renovación Nacional) and the Independent Democratic Union (Unión Demócrata Independiente); If

You Want It, Chile Changes (Si tú quieres, Chile cambia) which is composed of Liberal Party (Partido

Liberal), the Progressive Party (Partido Progresista) and other minor movements; the New Constitution

for Chile (Nueva Constitución para Chile) which is composed of the Equality Party (Partido Igualdad) and

the Green Ecologist Party (Partido Ecologista Verde); the New Majority (Nueva Mayoría), which is

composed of the Broad Social Movement (Movimiento Amplio Social), the Christian Democratic Par-

ty (Partido Demócrata Cristiano), the Citizen Left Party (Izquierda Ciudadana), the Communist

Party (Partido Comunista de Chile), the Northern Force Party (Partido Fuerza del Norte), the Party for

Democracy (Partido por la Democracia), the Social Democrat Radical Party (Partido Radical So-

cialdemócrata), and the Socialist Party (Partido Socialista de Chile); and Everyone to La Moneda (Todos

a La Moneda) which is composed of the Humanist Party (Partido Humanista) and other left minority

parties.

Michelle Bachelet, representing a left-wing coalition, began her second term as President in March 2014,

taking over from the right-wing government of Sebastian Pinera, easily defeating the ruling Alianza

coalition’s candidate, Evelyn Matthei, 62%-38% in a second round runoff election. Bachlelet’s campaign

proposals focused on reducing inequality, improve social mobility and public services, which will be

attained through an education reform, a fiscal reform and a constitutional reform.

Bachelet has proposed an increase in government revenues by 3% of the GDP over a four year period,

as a strategy to provide the necessary funding for the education reform. This would be achieved through

the increase of corporate tax rates from 20% to 25%, it also includes measures to reduce tax evasion,

promote incentives for small and medium companies, and lastly a reduction of the top individual tax rate

from 40% to 35%.

The current cabinet is comprised as follows:

Ministry of the Interior and Public Security Rodrigo Peñalillo

Ministry of Foreign Affairs Heraldo Muñoz

Ministry of National Defense Jorge Burgos

Ministry of Finance Alberto Arenas

General Secretary to the President Ximena Rincón

Secretary General to the Government Alvaro Elizalde

Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism Luis Felpe Cespedes

Ministry of Social Development Fernanda Villegas


Ministry of Education Nicolás Eyzaquirre

Ministry of Justice Jose Antonio Gomez

Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare Javiera Blanc

Ministry of Public Works Alberto Undurraga

Ministry of Health Helia Molina /Carmen Castillo

Ministry of Housing Paulina Saball

Ministry of Agriculture Carlos Furche

Ministry of Mining Aurora Williams

Ministry of Transport and Telecommunications Andres Gomez-Lobo

Ministry of National Assets Victor Hugo Osorio

Ministry of Energy Maximo Pacheco

Ministry of the Environment Pablo Badenier

Ministry of Sports Natalia Riffo

National Service for Women Claudia Pascual

National Council for Culture and the Arts Claudia Barattini

Given that the country’s binomial electoral system guarantees a relatively equal distribution of power

between the main political coalitions, regardless of voter preference, elections are limited in their ability to

channel general citizen concerns. Political leaders exercise considerable power and said power is

concentrated in the central government. The Chilean government has adopted legislation that addresses

some of the issues presented by demonstrators who seek more funding for education and, and a more

equitable electoral system.

Chile’s human rights record has improved since the return to democracy in 1990, although there are still

hundreds of open cases left over from the military dictatorship. Chile has ratified all the main international

human rights treaties, and the eight core International Labour Organisation (ILO) conventions. After the

rescue of 33 miners from the collapsed San Jose mine in 2010, Chile ratified the ILO conventions on

health and safety. It has also ratified Convention 169, which includes a commitment to consult indigenous

groups over projects affecting them. However, discrimination against women in the workplace, discrimina-

tion against minorities and poor conditions in prisons remain areas of concern. The government has

indicated its intention to address these issues in the short to mid-term.


ECONOMIC OUTLOOK

CHILE ECONOMIC DATA56

2012 2013



GDP (USD bn) 266 277



Investment (annual variation in %) 12.2 0.4

Industrial Production (annual variation in %) 2.2 -0.3



Fiscal Balance (% of GDP) 0.6 -0.6





Inflation (PPI, annual variation in %) 2.1 -0.8


Stock Market (annual variation in %) -8.1 8.4





Trade Balance (USD billion) 2.5 2.1



Exports (annual variation in %) -4.3 -1.7

Imports (annual variation in %) 7.2 -1.2



56

http://www.focus-economics.com/countries/chile

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/consumption

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/investment

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/industry

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/retail-sales

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/unemployment

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/fiscal-balance

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/public-debt

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/money

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/inflation-eop

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/inflation

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/producer-prices

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/interest-rate

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/stock-market

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/exchange-rate

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/exchange-rate-aop

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/current-account

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/current-account-usd-bn

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/trade-balance

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/exports

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/imports

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/exports-percent

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/imports-percent

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/international-reserves

http://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/chile/external-debt


According to many analysts, Chile has the most competitive and fundamentally sound economy in Latin

America. In 2014, Chile had a GDP of $277.2 billion and a per capita GDP of $9,72857. Chile’s economic

success is the result of market-oriented policies, which have generated constant foreign investment and

exports. Chile has benefited from high copper prices in the past, a situation that allowed it to establish

savings funds that were later used to help overcome the slowdown as a result of the global financial crisis

in 2008. These funds were also used to finance the reconstruction required after the country was hit by

an earthquake of magnitude 8.8 in February of 2010.

Economic growth rebounded after the crisis, reconstruction, combined with an increase in investment and

private consumption, resulted in economic growths of 5.7% in 2010, 5.8% in 2011 and 5.6% in 2012,

however, since 2013 the economy slowed down again with GDP growths of 4.2% in 2013, and 1.9% in

2014.58

Declining copper prices and lower demand from China have reduced the terms of trade, business

confidence and investment. A moderate recovery is expected in 2015 and 2016, driven by supportive

monetary policy, expansionary fiscal policy and stronger external demand.

Some of the favorable conditions for investing in Chile are its strong institutions; a high quality of govern-

ance and low levels of corruption. It also has low levels of both public deficit and public debt. However it is

heavily dependent on commodity exports, in particular copper, which accounted for 53% of total exports

in 2012 and other commodities for another 26%. It also has a relatively high level of inequality. In recent

years, there have been rising social demands, particularly in the field of education.

Energy is a key concern for Chile, with no oil and little gas of its own the question is how will it meet the

increased growth in energy demand. According to economic growth projections Chile will need 40% more

energy capacity by 2024 and 100% more by 2030. Due to a lack of investment in energy generation,

spare capacity is very low. Large-scale investment in the mining sector will even increase demand for

energy.

Many of the projects in the energy business are just starting, due to operation costs and regulation

concerns. The permit process is inefficient and bureaucratic, which adds to the concerns. There are

frequent local protests throughout Chile about planned energy projects, and the government has

launched a new energy strategy to help to address this, but it remains a significant challenge.

Land access is a major challenge to Chile’s proposals to develop controversial new hydroelectric projects

in Patagonia and the requirement for transmission lines running 2200km to Santiago. The importance of

mining to the Chilean economy can pose a threat to indigenous groups, though with most of the largest

projects located in the under-populated desert regions of the north, this is not the issue it is in some other

countries in the region. However with Chile likely to face acute shortages of water and energy in the

future, tensions could further increase.

Strong economic growth and targeted social programs have produced considerable improvements in

development indicators in Chile over the past two decades. The percentage of Chileans living in poverty

fell from 38.8% in 1989 to 14.4% in 2011. Primary education is now almost universal and secondary and

tertiary attainment rates have increased rapidly. Between 2007 and 2011, the percentage of Chileans

aged 25-34 that had completed a tertiary degree increased from 32.5% to 41.3%. Health indicators have

also improved. The child malnutrition rate (as measured by the percentage of children under five who are

underweight) is now 1%, and life expectancy is 79 years. Despite these advances, several challenges

remain. High levels of inequality have persisted over the past 20 years. The Gini coefficient, which is used

to measure income concentration, has barely moved since the mid-1990s, declining from 0.54 to 0.53.

57

http://www.tradingeconomics.com/chile/gdp-per-capita 58

http://www.oecd.org/economy/chile-economic-forecast-summary.htm


Although the Gini coefficient falls to 0.50 when taxes and government transfers are taken into account, it

is well above the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) average of 0.31.

Moreover, inter-generational social mobility is low by OECD standards, as the education system tends to

replicate existing class disparities. Unemployment increased from 5,7% in November 2013 to 6,5% in

June 2014. However the increase in self-employment has partially dampened the effect over the unem-

ployment rate.

In this context, it is expected that the economic growth will recover in 2015. The Central Bank reduced its

growth projection to place it between 1,75% and 2,25% in September 2014 from and between 3,75% and

4,75% in December 2013. As a result of the ongoing expansive monetary and fiscal policies the private

investment recovery and the normalization of the current economic cycle, it is foreseen that the economic

growth will rebound between 3,75% and 4,75% for next year.


BRAZIL

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

Key Facts:

» Capital: Brasilia

» Population: 202,656,788 (July 2014)

» President: Dilma Rousseff

» Land Area: 5,290,899 square miles

» Language: Portuguese

» Currency: Brazilian Real (BRL)

Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world geographically. It is the only Portuguese speaking country in

the Americas and the largest Portuguese-speaking country in the world, in addition to being one of the

most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations on the planet.

Furthermore, it is the sixth largest country in the world in terms of nominal GDP. Brazil also has a diversity

of wildlife and natural environments and vast natural resources in a large variety of protected habitats.

The country is a member of international organizations, such as the UN, the WTO, MERCOSUR, OAS,

CPLP, LAIA, ACTO, UNASUR, CI-A, UL and OIE.

Brazil is currently divided politically and administratively into 27 federative units, with 26 states and one

federal district. The federative units are autonomous sub-national entities (independently governing,

legislating and taxing) with their own governments and constitutions that together make up the Federative

Republic of Brazil. Governors hold the executive power in each state and are elected every four years.

Trial and appellate courts that deal with general legal matters hold the judiciary power.

It is a relatively flat country, its highest mountain, “Pico da Neblina”, is located in the northern Amazon

and has an altitude of 3,014m. Another important mountain range is the “Serra da Mantiqueira”, between

Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, and the “Planalto Catarninense” in the south.

The country shares borders with almost all countries in South America (except Chile and Ecuador). The

Amazon Rainforest is located in the northwest region of Brazil and comprises almost 42% of the country’s

total area.

Other important ecosystems are the flooded areas of the Pantanal, in the West, the green plains of

Pampa, located in the South of the country, and the savannas of "Cerrado" in the mid- western plateau.

Despite its size, the population inhabits only a small part of the country. Much of the population is urban

(over 80%) and is mostly settled on the southwest coast, where the largest cities in the country are

located - São Paulo (17 million), Rio de Janeiro (10 million) and Belo Horizonte (3 million). Other major

cities include Brasilia (the capital), Porto Alegre, Curitiba, Salvador, Fortaleza, Manaus and Belém.

Brazil is predominantly a tropical country; it is sunny with warm temperatures year round. Only the

southern region experiences seasonal changes during the winter. The summer runs from December to

February and coincides with the holiday season for the Brazilians. The weather during these months can

be extremely hot, especially in the interior Northeast and near Rio de Janeiro. In general, temperatures

vary between 25 ° C (77 ° F) and 35 ° C (95 ° F) in the summer. Rain occurs throughout the year and

throughout the country, with tropical showers occurring predominantly between January and March.


June, July and August are the winter months; the cooler areas are located in the southern states, where

average temperatures range between 13 ° C (55 ° F) and 18 ° C (64 ° F). Snow is extremely rare, but

possible in the mountains of Santa Catarina.

The interior of the Northeastern region is dry, and the population poor due to the lack of rain. On the other

hand, rain is definitely not the problem in the Amazon, where rain falls throughout the year; however, it is

stronger and more frequent in January and February.

As of 2013, it had the seventh highest GDP in the world59

. Currently, Brazil’s economy is healthy, but the

country went through difficulties in the 80s and the 90s with annual inflation equivalent to 8,000% and

several changes in currency in less 10 years. In 1994, the “Plano Real”, stability plan managed by

Finance Minister Cardoso, controlled inflation and set the bases for modern development. More recently,

after the Asian and Russia crises, in 1997-98, the Central Bank had to devaluate the currency, which

jumped from BRL $ 1 to US $ to a current level of BRL $ 2.4 / US $ (Aug / 05). This devaluation improved

the competence of local products exported, and international tourism.

Services are the largest sector in terms of jobs. Agriculture is also very important. Brazil is the second

country in the world in export of agricultural products, especially coffee, sugar, soybeans, orange juice

and veal.

The industrial sector is strong and diversified, with products ranging from beverages to airplanes. The

most important sectors are food, electrical goods, building materials, rubber, chemicals and vehicles. Its

largest trading partners are the US, members of the Latin American trade bloc (MERCOSUR) and the

European Union.

Brazil has extensive mineral resources; however a shortage of capital and inadequate transport infra-

structure slowed its development until the 1970s. Coal is predominantly mined in Rio Grande do Sul and

Santa Catarina. The gold rush, which began in 1979, and still continues in the Amazon jungle, has made

of Brazil one of the world's largest producers of gold. The iron ore deposits in the country, located in

Itabira and other areas, are considered among the richest in the world. According to the US Geological

Survey, iron ore production for 2013 was estimated at 398 million metric tons. Due to its rich tin deposits

Brazil has become the fifth producer in the world (12,000 tons in 2011, US Geological Survey). It is also a

major exporter of quartz crystals, monazite and beryllium, manganese, diamonds (300,000 carats),

chromium, zirconium, crude oil, natural gas, silver, bauxite and mica are mined in large quantities.

Valuable reserves of magnetite, graphite, titanium, copper, zinc, mercury and platinum are not exploited

on a large scale.

Industries manufacture a wide range of articles. Large quantities of goods such as processed foods, iron

and steel, cement, textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, chemicals, paper, boats and electrical equipment are

produced. São Paulo is the main industrial state, with factories that produce about a third of total manu-

facturing in Brazil; the cities of Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre and Fortaleza are also

important manufacturing centers.

59

http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/GDP-ranking-table


OIL IN BRAZIL

There are records that indicate that the oil industry in Brazil began in 1858, a year before the famous and

what is considered the first drilling project in the country, of "Drake pit" in Pensilvania; these records state

that under the authorization of the Marquis of Olinda, Jose Barros Pimentel carried out research activities

regarding shale oil and coal near the Maraú riverbed in the state of Bahia. However, the first concessions

that specifically include the term "oil" date from 1864, and were located in Ilhéus and Camamu, also in

Bahia, with Thomas Denny Sargent, an Englishmen, appearing as the recipient.

Interestingly, the first "deep" drilling project designed to search for oil in Brazil did not occur in the above-

mentioned region but in the town of Bofete, in the state of São Paulo, in 1897 under the responsibility of

Eugenio Ferreira Camargo. The well reached a total depth of 488 m and produced sulfur water, together

with about 300 liters of oil, according to the explorer.

Starting 1907, in parallel with private initiatives, government participation in oil exploration in the country

began with the creation of Geological and Mineralogical Service of Brazil (SGMB), an agency attached to

the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce. In 1917, the SGMB created the Commission for the

Investigation of Coal and Oil of the Amazon Valley and in 1919 drilled its first well in the town of Marechal

Mallet, in the state of Paraná, reaching a depth of 84 m, although it quickly abandoned it.

In 1933 the National Department of Mineral Production (DNPM) was created, also attached to the Ministry

of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, which became the framework for oil activities in the country.

Throughout the 1930s fruitless research campaigns were conducted, not only by national and foreign

private initiatives, but also by government entities in the states of Bahia, Sergipe, Alagoas and Amazo-

nas.

In 1938, through the enactment of Decree- Law 395, all activities pertaining to the oil industry could only

be performed by Brazilians. Decree-Law 395 of 29 April 1938 created the CNP, in replacement of the

DNPM, an autonomous entity directly subordinate to the President, with powers to carry out, through a

technical agency, the official investigation proceedings regarding oil and natural gas and, where appropri-

ate, process the extraction and industrialization of the respective products.

Definitely one of the events that marked the history of oil in Brazil was the drilling of well DNPM-163 in

Lobato, using a rotary probe, where on January 21, 1939 oil was found at a depth of 210 m. The cumula-

tive production was only 1,000 liters, yet even at this sub-commercial level, the Lobato well is considered

the first true commercial oil well in Brazil.

In 1941, the first commercial oil field was discovered, the Candeias field, in the region of Reconcavo

Baiano. In the following years, the Aratú and Itaparica fields, also in Bahia, were also discovered. The

country's first oil pipeline began operating in 1949 in this region and the first refinery, Mataripe, began

operations in 1950.

On October 3, 1953, with the enactment of Law 2004, President Getúlio Vargas established a state

monopoly on the investigation, extraction, refining and transportation of crude oil or its derivative. At that

time the state owned oil company, known as Petroleo Brasileiro S.A.- Petrobras, was created. This

measure was implemented in response to significant pressure by the community, which since the 40s,

had been defending the nationalization of oil under the slogan "O petróleo é nosso."

Petrobras began operations on May 10, 1954 with assets amounting to approximately US $ 165 million in

facilities and equipment, with a production of approximately 2,700 barrels of oil equivalent (boe) per day

and estimated reserves of 17 million boe. Domestic consumption was 170,000 barrels per day, almost all

imported in the form of derivatives.


The 1950s were characterized by efforts in technical training for supporting the development of industry in

the country. Objectives included increasing production, expanding the refining park, increasing research

and improving the transport capacity. Thus, in 1955, the RPBC refinery in Cubatão, in the state of São

Paulo begins its operations, and in 1956 so does the maritime terminal of Madre de Deus, in Bahia. By

the late 50s, production had reached 65,000 bpd and reserves 507 million boe.

In the 60s, with the expansion of the refining park, Petrobras became self-sufficient in the production of

major petroleum byproducts. The REDUCT, ASFOR, REGAP and REFAP refineries, date from this

period. At this time exploration activities on the continental shelf also began, culminating in 1968 with the

drilling of a subsea well in the Campos Basin and the first discovery of oil at sea, in the field of Guarice-

ma, off the coast of Sergipe. By the end of the decade production has reached 172,000 bpd, and 3.3

million m3 of natural gas.

During the 1970s discoveries in offshore fields continued, and in 1977 production starts at the Campos

Basin, which, years later, would become the most prolific in the country. In 1978, oil was first discovered

in the Amazon. During this decade four other refineries were built, mostly in the southeast of the country,

where the highest consumption is found. The petrochemical complexes of São Paulo and Camaçari, in

Bahia also date from this period.

The oil shocks of 1973 and 1979 were the main reason why the government decided to create the

PROALCOOL program, which promoted the use of fuel alcohol as fuel. It also opened the possibility for

Petrobras to enter into risk exploration contracts in collaboration with private companies, without infringing

in the monopoly. A total of 243 contracts were signed, of which 156 were with international companies

and 87 with national companies. By the end of the decade production had reached 165,000 bpd, of which

35% were produced offshore, and 65% onshore, and 5 million m3 / day of gas, of which 61% was

produced onshore.

During the 80s great advances were made in maritime exploration. In 1984 and 1985 the giant Albacora

and Marlim fields were discovered in the deep waters of the Campos Basin. And in 1986, Petrobras

started an innovation program that would subsequently allow deep-water drilling in depths of up to 3,000

m. Back in 1988, a well in the Marimba set the depth record at 492 meters below sea level.

In December 1989, production reached 675,000 bpd and 16.3 million m3 / day of gas, of which 65% is at

sea and 35% on land, inverting the traditional land-sea distribution which had hitherto prevailed in the

country.

The 90s were characterized by technological developments that allowed the drilling of a well in the

Roncador field at a depth of 1,853 m below sea level and exceeded the figure of 1 million bpd of produc-

tion. Between 1954 and 1997,

Petrobras invested US $ 94,000

million in its activities, of which US $

57,000 million were allotted to

exploration and production.

In November of 1995, Constitutional

Amendment No. 9 is enacted, which

promotes the relaxation of monopoly

activities related to the oil segment in

Brazil in order to allow that certain

activities that were exclusively owned

by the State and exclusive performed

by Petrobras, be granted to other

companies. Act No. 9478 of 1997,


known as the "Oil Act" establishes more flexible regulations and, among other things, created the National

Petroleum Agency (ANP), a government agency attached to the Ministry of Mines and Energy, and the

National Council Energy Policy (CNPE).

In 1998, in what is known as Round Zero, Petrobras received from the ANP 397 concessions, which

consisted of 95 exploration blocks and 282 fields in production or under development for production. In

June 1999, the ANP opened round one of the new legal framework, offering 27 blocks and receiving 21

bids from 14 companies from 6 different countries. Since then, there have been 13 rounds of bidding, with

the last one scheduled for the first quarter of 2015. There have also been two rounds for fields with

marginal accumulations, with the aim of encouraging small and medium enterprises to invest in mature

basins using existing infrastructure.

Brazil is currently focused on the development of the pre-salt offshore fields projects, which are actual oil

fields located beneath layers of rock and thick layers of salt. This development transformed the nature

and approach of the oil sector in Brazil, in addition to generating an enormous impact on world markets.

ENERGY GENERATION IN BRAZIL

The electrification of the Brazilian nation, which began in the late nineteenth century, was based, as in

most countries, on the momentum carried by the private sector, to obtain the rights to exploit power

generation and distribution in the different municipalities. The rise of private enterprise lasted for several

decades and it was not until the mid-fifties when the government began to take an active role in the

Brazilian electricity sector. In 1952, the Brazilian government proceeds with the incorporation of the

BNDES (National Bank for Economic and Social Development), which creates a shift in the role of the

public sector in the energy field. The BNDES was created with the primary objective of financing projects

for energy and transport infrastructure, which subsequently led to the emergence of the first state enter-

prises in the electricity sector. These companies were responsible for supplying electricity throughout the

country, under the coordination of state-owned Eletrobras, which was created in 1963 with the mandate

to implement government policy in the electricity sector.

The seventies were characterized by a significant rise in major public works in the sector. Substantial

investments were made possible due to the long period of economic growth experienced by the Brazilian

economy during that decade, and which resulted in an average annual GDP growth of 8.6 % (in terms of

per capita, GDP growth was 6%), which in turn helped the State attain greater credit facilities in the

international financial market. As an example of the rate of investment at the time, the construction of the

world's largest hydroelectric plant began in 1973; the Itaipu power plant, that currently has an installed

capacity of 12,600 MW, and of which only 50%

belongs to Brazil, having shared ownership with

Paraguay. In the late seventies, the govern-

ment, controlled most of the generation assets

of the sector and in 1979, through the nationaliz-

ing of the Light Serviços de Electricidade, S.A.,

it also obtained a dominant position in the power

distribution market.

The crisis faced by the Brazilian economy in the

eighties, and the consequent deterioration of

public finances, generated the unavailability of

sufficient resources to carry out the necessary

investments in energy infrastructure that would

ensure, the supply for an ever-increasing

demand.


Despite the economic downturn, demand for electricity seemed not to be affected, and during the above-

mentioned decade, an average 6% annual growth in electricity consumption was recorded, largely due to

the steady decline in electricity prices and the maturation of industrial projects implemented in the late

seventies. However, as noted above, the lack of investments made by the public sector in electricity

infrastructure during the eighties, made its mark in later years. That is, the increases in demand were not

accompanied by increases in capacity, and thus the surplus of installed power with which the Brazilian

economy started in the early eighties, was drastically reduced.

The poor economic situation in which Brazil found itself at the end of the eighties, after a decade of low

growth rates, uncontrolled inflation and a precarious situation in its public accounts, and serious difficul-

ties with coping with debt repayment, resulted in the transformation of the Brazilian economic. This was

achieved through the privatization of state assets, framed within what was known as the “Plan Real”. The

energy sector was one of those that initiated the privatization process and in the early nineties several

companies, then controlled by Eletrobras, were included in the National Privatization Program.

In 1995, ESCELSA was privatized; this company was the main distributor of electricity in the country,

several more distribution companies and generators followed. However, the privatization process under-

taken in the field of generation, suffered a setback, when the government met with an overwhelmingly

negative public opinion regarding the sale of these assets. As a result of this, the current reality is that a

large part of the generation park is in public hands, while the state controls more than 90% of the genera-

tion and only 30% of distribution.

Brazil currently has a total of 1526 plants in operation, which generate a total of 93,856,340 kW of power.

The most remarkable feature of the Brazilian electricity sector is the high participation of hydraulic

generation, both in installed power generating capacity, as well as produced energy. In terms of installed

capacity, hydraulic power represents 82% of the total, ranking Brazil in third place in terms of installed

power generation capacity by hydroelectric plants.


MARKET SEGMENTS

OIL REFINERIES

Until a few years ago, the history of oil in Brazil had hardly any significant events. After the nationalization

of industry in 1938, the National Petroleum Council regulated the market without major advances in oil

extraction in Brazilian soil. In 1953 the state-owned oil company, Petroleo Brasileiro SA (Petrobras), was

founded by President Getulio Vargas. Its primary role was to refine and distribute the products obtained

from imported oil, as Brazil had few reserves of its own and was far from self-sufficient.

Given the limited success of the first hydrocarbon searches made, Petrobras decided to explore offshore,

and quickly finds oil. From that moment an aggressive policy of offshore exploration begins (especially on

the coast of Rio de Janeiro), developing proprietary technology and achieving great progress. This is how

in 1985, Brazil's proven oil reserves equal that of Argentina. However, given the high economic growth

(known as the "Brazilian miracle"), it still had to import about 60% of the oil consumed.

Given the need to import a significant amount of oil, Petrobras adopted the strategy of investing in foreign

reserves, in other countries that had oil available for export to Brazil, in order to guarantee reserves. This

idea became particularly important in the 70s, with the increase in international prices and the geopolitical

importance that implied access to reserves after nationalization and the emergence of OPEC countries as

"global landowners". Thus, Petrobras was awarded concessions and made investments in countries such

as Algeria, Colombia, Egypt, Iran and Iraq. In the 80s, foreign investments were made in regions such as

the US Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea. Meanwhile, Petrobras continued to invest in exploration and

exploitation in Brazil with the revenues obtained abroad.

Brazil has 15 refineries, which process 2074 bpd of oil and LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) and produce

2,124 bpd of petroleum products. Of the total volume of processed oil, 82% came from Brazilian fields

and according to the ANP / SPE, as of December 31, 2013 production of proved oil and natural gas

reserves in Brazil amounted to 15.973 billion barrels of oil.

The country also has 126 offshore production units, of which 72 are fixed platforms and 54 are floating

platforms. In 2013, five other units were incorporated into the production system.

In 2014 oil, production in Brazil reached a record 2.358 million barrels per day, representing nearly a 13%

increase compared to 2013. The production of natural gas increased nearly 14% over the same period,

reaching 88.9 million cubic meters per day.


PETROBRAS

Petroleo Brasileiro, Petrobras, is a state-owned Brazilian company engaged in the exploration, produc-

tion, refining, transportation and marketing of oil and gas, petrochemicals, biofuels and their byproducts. It

also participates in the market for power generation and renewable energy sources. Some of its products

are gasoline, ethanol, lubricants, oils, asphalt, fertilizer, LPG, LNG, and CNG, among others. In operates

in 4 continents and in more than 25 countries. It has about 9,000 service stations, 15 refineries, plus 133

production platforms (86 fixed and 47 floating), 100 drilling rigs (48 off-shore), about 15,000 producing

wells, around 26,000 km of pipelines, 5 biofuel plants, 2 fertilizer plants and a shipping fleet of 172

vessels of which they own 52. Through its 18 thermoelectric (owned and leased) it has a total installed


capacity of 6.136MW. Petrobras, which is considered the 4th largest energy company in the world,

operates in 12 countries in Latin America, including Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Colombia and Bolivia.

The 15 refineries currently operating in the country are:

1. Abreu e Lima Refinery

Location:

Rodovia PE 60, Km 10 - Ipojuca

Technical Features:

Capacity: 230,000 bpd (36,600 m3/d) of 16º API oil

Production profile:

- LPG: 1,600 m3/d

- Petrochemical Naphtha: 3,600 m3/d

- Diesel fuel (10 ppm S): 26,000 m3/d

- Gas oil (bunker): 1,800 t/d

- Coke: 6,200 t/d

Basic refinery technical data:

- Two atmospheric distillation units (ADU)

- 2 Delayed coking units (DCU)

- Two diesel hydro-treatment units (DHT-D)

- Two naphtha hydro-treatment units (NHT-D)

- Two hydrogen generation units (HGU)

- Two emissions abatement units (SNOX)

2. Potiguar Clara Camarão Refinery

Location:

Potiguar Clara Camarão Refinery (RPCC)

Rodovia RN 221, KM 25 - Guamaré – RN

Technical Features:

6,000 m³/day

Basic refinery technical data:

- A caustic regeneration treatment unit, the U-280

- A gasoline production unit - UGG - U-280-A

Main products:

Diesel, Gasoline and Jet Fuel

3. Rio de Janeiro Petrochemical Complex

Location:

Rodovia Estadual RJ-116 - Km 5,2 - Acesso A-1, s/n, Complemento

Sambaetiba - Zona Urbana do 4º Distrito de Itaboraí – RJ


Technical Features:

Refining capacity of 165,000 barrels of oil per day.

It is located in the city of Itaboraí, in the eastern state of Rio de Janeiro, covering an area of 45 km2, and

its strategic objective is to expand Petrobras’ refining capacity to meet the growth in demand for oil

products in Brazil, such as diesel fuel, petrochemical naphtha, jet fuel, coke and LPG (cooking gas). The

first refinery is expected to go on stream in August 2016.

4. Landulpho Alves (RLAM)

Location:

Rodovia BA 523, KM 4 – Mataripe – São Francisco do Conde – BA

Technical Features:

- Total area: 6.5 km2

- 26 Process Units

- 31 Products

- 201 storage tanks

- 18 storage spheres

Installed capacity:

Capacity for 323,000 bbl/d (51,352 m3/d).

Main products:

-Diesel

-Gasoline

-Jet fuel

-Asphalt

-Petrochemical naphtha

-Petrochemical gases (propane, propylene and butane)

-Paraffin

-Lubricants

-LPG

-Fuel oils (industrial, thermal and bunker)

5. Lubrificantes e Derivados do Nordeste (Lubnor)

Location:

Refinaria Lubrificantes e Derivados do Nordeste - Lubnor

Av. Leite Barbosa, s/nº - Mucuripe

Fortaleza - Ceará

Technical Features:

- Total area: 0.4 Km²

- Lubricant Unit - ULUB

- Natural Gas Processing Unit - UPGN

- Vacuum Unit - UVAC


Installed capacity:

8,000 bbl/d.

Main products:

- Asphalts

- Lubricating Oils

6. Capuava (Recap)

Location:

São Paulo metro area

Technical Features:

- Total Area: 3.7 million square meters

- Atmospheric distillation

- URFCC

- Solvent dearomatization

- Specialty solvent

- Water treatment

- Steam generation

- Power

- Compressed air units

Installed capacity:

- 8,500 cubic meters of oil daily

- 53,000 barrels of oil per day.

7. Duque de Caxias (Reduc)

Location:

Rodovia Washington Luiz, km 113,7

Campos Elíseos – Duque de Caxias - RJ

Technical Features:

- Total area: 13 km²

- Built-up area: 9 km²

- 43 Process Units

- 55 Products

Installed capacity:

- Capacity for 239,000 bbl/d (38,000 m3/d)

8. Alberto Pascualini (Refap)

Location:

Avenida Getúlio Vargas, 11001 - Bairro Brigadeira

Canoas – RS

Technical Features:


- Total area: 5.8 km²

- Atmospheric Distillation Units

- Vacuum Distillation Unit

- Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit

- Solvent Units

- Solvent Dearomatization Unit

- Waste Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit

- Delayed Coking Unit

- Sulfur Recovery Units

- Tail Gas Unit

- Propane Unit

- Hydrogen Generating Unit

- Diesel Hydro-treatment Unit

- Naphtha Hydro-desulfurization Unit

- Steam Generation Boilers

- Steam Co-generation

- Power Co-generation

- Generators - Steam Topping Let-Down and Steam Extraction

- Turbo Expander

- Coke Yard

Installed capacity:

- 201,280 bbl/day or 32,000 m³/day

9. Gabriel Passos (Regap)

Location:

Av. Refinaria Gabriel Passos, 690

Distrito Industrial Paulo Camilo Sul - Betim –MG

Technical Features:

- Total area of 12,800,000 m²

- Industrial area 2,305,515 m²

- 50,000-m² ecological reserve

- Two atmospheric distillation and vacuum units

- Two catalytic cracking Units

- Kerosene Hydro-desulfurization Unit

- Two Diesel Hydro-desulfurization Units

- Delayed Coking Unit


- Cracked naphtha hydro-desulfurization unit

- Light coke naphtha hydro-treatment unit

- Three hydrogen generation units (HGU)

- Co-generation unit

Installed capacity:

- Throughput of 24,000 m³/day or 150,000 bbl/day


10. Paulinia (Replan)

Location:

Rodovia SP 332 - Km. 130

Bonfim - Paulínia - SP

CEP: 13147-900

Technical Features:

- Total area: 9.1 km²

- 2 Distillation units

- 2 Catalytic Cracking units

- 2 Delayed Coking units

- 2 Diesel Hydro-treatment units

- 2 Cracked Naphtha

- 1 Hydrogen Recovery unit

- 1 Propene Separation unit

Installed capacity:

- 66,000 m³/day, equivalent to 415,000 barrels.

11. Isaac Sabbá (Reman)

Location:

Rua Rio Quixito, 1, Vila Buriti - Distrito Industrial

Manaus – AM

Technical Features:

- Naphtha hydro-desulfurization (HDS)

- Fractionation Unit

- Catalytic Reform Unit

- Thermal Cracking Unit Brando


- Sulfuric Acid production unit

- Unit for Treatment with Diethanolamine

- Acidic Water Treatment Unit

- Direct Distillation Unit

- Catalytic Cracking Unit

Installed capacity:

- 7,300,000 liters of oil per day, or 46,000 barrels per day.

12. Presidente Vargas (Repar)

Location:

Rodovia do Xisto, BR 476, km 16 - Araucária - PR

Technical Features:

- Distillation


- Catalytic cracking

- Propane deasphalting

- Diesel and unstable product hydro-treatment

- Coking

- Catalytic reform

- Solvent fractionation

- Propene

- Hydrogenation solvent

- Sulfur recovery

- MTBE units

Installed capacity:

- Throughput is 33,000 m³/d or 207,563 bbl/d.

13. Presidente Bernardes (RPBC)

Location:

Av. 9 de abril, 777 - Jardim das Indústrias - Cubatão – SP

Technical Features:

- Jet Fuel

- Petroleum Coke

- Atmospheric Distillation

- Diesel Treatment

- Aromatic Recovery

- Catalytic Reform

- Hexane Separation and LPG Treatment

- Ethylation

- Natural Gas

- Gasoline Treatment

Installed capacity:

- Throughput is 178,000 barrels per day (28,300 m³/d).

14. Shale Industrialization Unit (SIX)

Location:

Rodovia do Xisto, BR 476, km 153

São Mateus do Sul – PR

Technical Features:

SIX also functions as an advanced research center in refining, an area in which several projects are

developed together with our research center (Cenpes) and universities. SIX'S technology park is the

largest in Latin America and one of the worlds biggest in pilot plants, consisting of 15 units designed to

meet the needs of various refining processes. We use this input to expand our technological efficiency

and yields.

Installed capacity:

- 5,880 t/d


15. Henrique Lage (Revap)

Location:

Rodovia Presidente Dutra, KM 143, S/N

Bairro Jardim Diamante - São José dos Campos – SP

Technical Features:

- Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation

- Catalytic Cracking

- Propene

- Diesel Hydro-treatment

- Kerosene

- Naphtha

- Unstable Currents for Diesel

- Coke Naphtha (HDTs)

- Hydrogen Generation (HGU)

- Deasphalting

- Sulfur Recovery

- Delayed Coking

- Coke Storage and Handling Yard

- Sulfur Lining

- Light Refinery Hydrocarbon Treatment Unit

- Transfer and Storage

- Oil Product Distribution Terminal

- Oil Product Unloading Stations (C5 + and LPG)

- Acid Water Treatment

- Industrial Waste Treatment Station (ETDI)

- Utilities System (steam and power generation and water treatment)

- Cracked Naphtha Catalytic Reform and Hydro-desulfurization.

Installed capacity:

- 40,000 m³/d (252,000 bbl/day), equivalent to 14% of the domestic oil production. It is currently is the

third largest refinery in Brazil.

POWER GENERATION

In 2013, Brazil had an installed generating capacity of 127,000 megawatts (MW). Hydroelectricity ac-

counted for 86 MW of generating capacity, fossil-fuel sources contributed 37 MW, and small amounts

from wind, solar, and nuclear made up the rest.

Brazil generated 570 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity in 2013. Public service power plants

accounted for 484 billion kWh, self-producers accounted for 86 billion kWh, and the remainder was either

traded or accounted for as losses. Final end-use consumption of electricity in 2013 was 516 billion kWh,

with the industrial sector accounting for 210 billion kWh and the residential sector generating 125 billion

kWh. The energy sector generated 30 billion kWh in 2013. At least 71% of electricity generated in 2013

came from hydroelectric plants. Natural gas and oil represented 11% and 4%, respectively, and biomass

accounted for 8%.


Energy sector reforms were implemented in the mid-1990s, and a new regulatory framework in 2004. In

2004, Brazil had 86.5 GW of installed generating capacity and produced 387 TWh of electricity. Currently,

66% of distribution and 28% of power generation is owned by private companies. In 2004, 59 companies

operated in the power generation space and 64 in distribution. The largest energy generation and

transmission company is Centrais Elétricas Brasileiras (Eletrobras), which together with its subsidiaries

generates and transmits about 60% of electric power in Brazil. The largest privately owned power

company is Tractebel Energy. An independent system operator (National Operator do Elétrico System -

ONS), is responsible for the technical coordination for the delivery of electricity and management of

transmission services. During the electricity crisis in 2001, the government launched a program to build

55 gas power plants with a total capacity of 22 GW, but only 19 were built, with a total capacity of 4,012

MW.

Hydroelectric Generation

Brazil is planning new hydroelectric power projects, such as the Belo Monte plant, which upon completion

will be the third-largest hydroelectric power plant in the world.

Brazil is the world's third largest hydropower producer after China and Canada. In 2012, hydropower

accounted for 83% of electricity production in Brazil.

The world's largest hydroelectric plant by generation is the 14,000 MW Itaipu hydroelectric dam on the

Parana River, which Brazil operates in conjunction with Paraguay. According to Itaipu Binacional, the

facility generated 98.6 billion kWh of electricity in 2013.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear power accounts for approximately 4% of the electricity in Brazil. The nuclear power generation is

owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Thermonuclear S / A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobras.

Nuclear power is produced by two reactors at Angra. Angra is located in the Central Nuclear Almirante

Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) in Praia de Itaorna in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of two pressur-

ized water reactors, Angra I, with a capacity of 657 MW connected to the grid in 1982, and Angra II, with

a capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected 1,350 MW,

production was expected to be completed in 2014, however the work has stalled due to environmental

concerns. In 2025 Brazil plans to build seven reactors more. In February 2008, President Lula da Silva

signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with Argentina.

Solar Energy

Total installed PV capacity in Brazil is estimated between 12 and 15 MW, of which 50% is assigned to for

telecommunications systems and 50% for rural energy systems.

Wind Energy

The gross wind resource potential in Brazil is estimated around 140 GW, of which 30 GW could be

effectively transformed into wind energy projects. Currently, it generates around 54 GWh per year.

According to an award obtained in November 2007, granted to the Brazilian Proinfa program, the current

capacity is 237 MW, of which 208 were added in 2006.

Company Hydraulic MW Thermo MW Eolic MW Total

AES TIETÊ 2.651 - - 2.651

ENDESA CACHOEIRA 658 - - 658

CEMIG 6.272 131 - 6.403

http://www.abrage.com.br/aes.htm

http://www.abrage.com.br/cdsa.htm

http://www.abrage.com.br/cemig.htm


CESP 7.455 - - 7.455

CEEE 921 - - 921

DUKE-GP 2.228 - - 2.228

CHESF 10.440 502 - 10.942

COPEL 4.518 20 - 4.538

ELETRONORTE 8695 393 - 9.088

ELETROSUL 159 - - 159

EMAE 922 472 - 1.394

FURNAS 9.000 796 - 9.796

LIGHT 858 - - 858

QUEIROZ GALVÃO ENERGÉTICA 121 - - 121

SANTO ANTÔNIO ENERGIA 3.150 - - 3.150

TRACTEBEL ENERGIA 5.806 1.302 159 77.267


AES Brazil

AES Brazil operates in the Brazilian electricity sector through the generation, commercialization and

distribution of energy. In order to serve 7.97 million customers, in 142 municipalities in the South and

Southeast regions, it has a workforce of approximately 8 thousand employees.

In addition, through AES Serviços, it operates throughout the domestic territory providing technical and

operational services to the electricity sector, with high added value solutions for its customers.

Headquartered in Barueri (SP), the group has been in Brazil since 1997 and is part of AES Corp., a global

company that operates in the energy sector through generation and distribution companies, and a

diversified portfolio.

AES Tietê

The third largest private energy generation company in the Country, with an installed capacity of 2,658

MW, and 12,196.3 TWh of energy produced in 2012, which corresponds to 18% of the total generated by

the state of São Paulo.

AES Uruguaiana

Natural gas thermal electric power plant with an installed capacity of 639.9 MW headquartered in Uru-

guaiana (RS). It began operations in 2000. In February 2014, it resumed its activities, for two months,

after a period of hibernation.

Endesa Brasil

Endesa Brasil is a holding company active in distribution, generation, transmission and energy trading.

Present in four Brazilian states -Río de Janeiro, Ceará, Goiás and Rio Grande do Sul, Endesa Brasil

serves about 5.1 million customers in 240 Brazilian municipalities.

Controlled by the Enel Group, the Endesa Brasil holding company is a publicly listed limited liability

company created in 2005 which now has three thousand direct employees, 14,000 service providers, 330

interns and 80 young apprentices. Generation assets for the company amount to an installed capacity of

1004.6 MW.

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Located in Niterói, in the state of Río de Janeiro, Endesa Brasil has a very diverse asset portfolio:

» Ampla: Electricity distributor operating in 66 municipalities of Rio de Janeiro, serving 2.4 million

customers. It serves an area of 32,188 square kilometers, accounting for 73% of the territory of

the state.

» Coelce: Distributes electricity to the entire state of Ceará, which corresponds to a region of

148,825 square kilometers with a population of about 7.5 million people in 184 municipalities. The

distributor serves 2.7 million customers.

» Endesa Cachoeira: Hydroelectric power station located in the town of Cachoeira Dourada, in the

State of Goiás, it has ten generating units with total installed capacity of 658 MW

» Endesa Fortaleza: Thermoelectric capable of generating a third of the electricity needs of the

State of Ceará. Located in the municipality of Caucaia, it has an installed capacity of 326.6 MW.

» Endesa Cien: It is located in the town of Garruchos, in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, near the

border with Argentina, and imports and exports energy between Brazil and Argentina. It also

trades in energy.

Eletrobras

It is the largest company in the electric power industry in Latin America, leading a system composed of six

subsidiary companies, six distribution companies, the Research Center for Electric Power (Eletrobras

Cepel) and Eletrobras Participações S.A. (Eletrobras Eletropar). It also owns half the capital of Itaipu

Binacional.

Eletrobras has an installed capacity of 42,333 MW, including half the power of the Itaipu plant that

belongs to Brasil, and 55,118 km of transmission lines.

It controls much of the power generation and transmission of electricity in Brazil through its six subsidiar-

ies: Eletrobras Chesf, Eletrobras Furnas, Eletrobras Eletrosul, Eletrobras Eletronorte, Eletrobras CGTEE

and Eletrobras Eletronuclear. Besides major shareholder of these companies, Eletrobras, on behalf of the

Brazilian government, owns half of the capital of Itaipu Binacional.

It is responsible for 42,987 MW of the installed power generation capacity in the country, which repre-

sents 34% of total national capacity. It has 45 hydroelectric and 125 thermoelectric plants, eight wind

farms and two thermonuclear plants. Among the largest and most important are: Tucuruí (8,370 MW), the

Brazilian part of Itaipu (7,000 MW), Paulo Afonso Complex (3,984 MW), Xingó (3,162 MW), Angra 1 and

Angra 2 (2,007 MW), Serra da Mesa (1,275 MW), Furnas (1,226 MW) and Sobradinho (1,050 MW).

The participation of Eletrobras and its companies in new power generation projects is also significant. In

partnership with the private sector it obtained the concession, for the hydroelectric Foz do Chapecó (RS /

SC), with 855 MW, which became operational in 2010. Of the new hydroelectric sold at auction in De-

cember 2005, Eletrobras is building Simplicio (RJ / MG), with 333.7 MW; Paulistas (GO / MG), with 52.5

MW; Passo São João (RS), with 77 MW; and the Baguari plant (MG), with 140 MW, in conjunction with

Neoenergia and Cemig, and the Retiro Baixo plant (MG), with 82 MW, with Orteng.

Duke Energy – Brasil

The Paranapanema and Sapucai-Mirim Rivers are two sources of life and biodiversity that feed Duke

Energy's hydroelectric plants in Brazil that, for more than a decade, have contributed to the growth of the

communities where they operate as well as the economic development of the country.


Duke Energy began operating in Brazil in 1999, following the acquisition of Paranapanema Electricity

Generation Company (CESP), and is now responsible for generating 2.3% of the energy in the country.

Duke Energy Brazil has two hydro power generating companies: Geração Paranapanema, consisting of

eight plants distributed along the Paranapanema River; and DEB (Small Hydro Powers), which manages

two power plants located on the Sapucai-Mirim River, between the cities of Sao Joaquim da Barra and

Guara (Sao Paulo State). Together, the two operations generate 2,274 MW.

Currently, 100% of the electricity generated by Duke Energy Brazil comes from hydroelectric sources. In

recent years, the company produced an average of 880,000 MWh/month, enough energy to sustain a city

of more than 3 million people for a complete month.

SECTOR FORECAST

Brazil is the largest economy in Latin America and one of the largest in the world. Investment opportuni-

ties offered by this country are broad and profitable. Beyond the challenges that every investment project

implies, Brazil attracts an increasing amount of foreign capital thanks to the strength and diversification of

its economy.

The Brazilian economy has achieved remarkable stability and has left behind the cycles that marked its

production history. Brazil is no longer dependent on a single product for economic growth, but rather its

development is based on several strong development sectors, from agriculture to tourism. Stability is also

reflected in financial aspects: since 2003 Brazil has reduced its debt and has included foreign exchange

reserves. Similarly, the instability of international markets in recent years has places the focus of investors

on emerging economies with great prospects. One of the countries with significant expected growth is

Brazil, which offers assurance of successful investments in the medium and long term.

The economic predominance of Brazil in the region and its business alliances with other southern

countries (Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay) provides privileged access to other growth markets through

investments in the Brazilian market.

While raw materials remain the main export from Brazil, various sectors that diversify the economy are

expanding. Green technologies, innovation projects and services are being offered with good reception in

Brazil. Another item already established but still under expansion is the automotive industry: Brazil has

overtaken France as the sixth automobile manufacturer in the world.

The Brazilian electricity sector offers great potential for future growth. However, the high degree of

dependence on hydropower generation, insufficient investments for increasing supply and diversifying the

production mix, and the lack of a stable regulatory framework, create challenges that affect the future of a

key sector for the development of economy. Therefore, the adaptation of the electrical model to the new

social and economic reality of Brazil is considered a priority. Oil and gas is projected as one of the more

attractive business opportunities, especially for companies that wish to become Petrobras suppliers. The

state company gives preference to local factories, however, new technologies that help generate greater

efficiency in optimizing processes and resources are quite prized.

As a result of the Pre-Salt discoveries, efforts for the development of the industry intensified. The need for

technological advancements, the development of the supply chain, and training of personnel has become

essential.



The Rousseff Administration, in an ongoing effort to consistently develop the Growth Acceleration Plan

begun in 2007 under the Lula Da Silva administration has identifies the following areas as business

opportunities for foreign companies wishing to enter the Brazilian market.

» Cyber security technologies for government services and public sites

» Border control technologies

» Technical training

» Surveillance technologies for environmental management

Based on our expertise and knowledge of the oil and energy sector in Brazil, and in order to complement

the general opportunities derived for governmental policies, we present a general analysis of business






» Drones

» Micro-drones

» Aircraft


» Equipment

» Cameras

» Monitors





» Data Acquisition



» Control Process





» Implementation:

» Data encryption

» Confidentiality

» Protocols


» Access controls

» Strategy






» Firewall



» Antivirus




» Biometrics


» Remote access






» Data recovery












» ISO/IEC 27001

» ISO/IEC 27002






» Trucks

» Containers





5. Transport

» Armored vehicles

» Helicopters

» Trucks

6. Staff:

» Services for


» Bodyguards

» Assessment



» Training

» Risk reduction

» Equipment



SECURITY ISSUES

Brazil is not one of the most important producers of narcotics in the world, however it is the second

largest consumer of cocaine hydrochloride and the largest consumer of cocaine based products. It also

acts as a transit country for narcotics destined for Europe. Organized crime in Brazil has increased

significantly over the last decade due to the expansion of the business. Some of the country’s largest

criminal groups, such as Comando Vermelho and Primeiro Comando da Capital have allegedly begun

operating at a transnational level. In order to address these issues, Brazil has implemented several

antinarcotic programs: in 2004 it implemented and air bridge denial program, which authorizes lethal force

for air interdiction, and in 2006 the government passed an anti-drug law that prohibits and penalizes the

cultivation and trafficking of illegal drugs. It has also made efforts to improve border security, with special

emphasis in the borders with Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. In 2011, it introduced the Strategic Border Plan,

which includes the deployment of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in high risk and remote locations to

monitor illicit activities.

The Tri-Border Area (TBA), which comprises Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay has a history of smuggling,

money laundering and other illicit activities. Counterterrorism Programs have been developed in conjunc-

tion with other countries, including the US, in order to help strengthen the capabilities of the armed forces

in addressing these issues.

In April 2010, the U.S. and Brazilian governments signed a Defense Cooperation Agreement designed to

promote cooperation in areas such as research and development, technology security, and acquisition of

defense products and services. This was followed by a General Security of Military Information Agree-

ment, signed in November 2010, which is designed to facilitate the sharing of classified defense and

military information. Both agreements still need to be approved by the Brazilian Congress.

Cyber-security has become an issue in recent years, after the NSA scandal in 2013, after which

Petrobras alone, assigned $9.5 billion of its five year budget to strengthen its data protection. The

government is preparing a cyber-security federal policy, including measures such as the creation of a

National School of Cyber-defense. However, this has evolved without much cohesion between the

different government agencies, and the police.

Brazil is undergoing a digital revolution which is without parallel in the developing world, in the last

decade internet access and mobile phone subscriptions increased by ten, with more than 100 million of

its inhabitants obtaining internet access. Three types of cyber threats have been identified in Brazil:

economic-related and content-related, commercial espionage and hacktivism, and interpersonal and

organized violence related to gangs and drug trafficking organizations.



LABOR LAWS

Labor regulations in Brazil are governed by the 1988 Federal Constitution, the Labor Code, Administrative

Ruling No. 3.214 of 1978, issued by the Ministry of Labor, which regulates health and safety matters, and

specific laws and rulings that apply to specific cases. The Labor Code establishes two types of employ-

ment contracts: for a definite and for an indefinite term, and in Brazil generally indefinite term contracts

prevail. According to Article 3 of the Labor Code, an employee is an individual who provides continuous

services to an employer, under the orders of the latter, for compensation. If these conditions are present,

an employment relationship is likely to be recognized. In Brazil, the employment relationship still results

from the factual circumstances and not from a written agreement between the parties.

Both the Constitution and the Labor Code stipulate certain minimum benefits that the employer must

grant its employees. These minimum benefits are the following: Minimum Wage, Maximum Hours/

Compensation for Overtime (working hours are limited to eight hours per day and 44 hours per week),

Vacation Days and Vacation Premium, Paid Holidays and a Christmas Bonus.

In Brazil, employers usually provide healthcare plans and life insurance policies to their employees.

In Brazil all employees must be covered by the Instituto Nacional do Seguro Social (“INSS”) or the

national social security system. Both employers and employees must pay social security contributions.

The employee’s contributions range from 8 to 11% depending on his/her salary range, while the employ-

er’s social security contributions paid over payroll are divided as follows:

1. Social Security Contribution – INSS 20%

2. Labor Accident Contribution –SAT from 1% to 3% (*)

3. Third parties contribution:

Education 2.50%

INCRA 0.2%

SENAI 1.20%

SESI 1.50%

SEBRAE 0.60%

(*) Note that according to Decrees No.6, 042 of 2007 and 6,957 of2009, the SAT rate shall be multiplied

by the so-called Accident Prevention Factor (“FAP”), which varies from 0.5 to 2.00 depending on the risk

involved in the company’s activities.

Employers must withhold the employees’ contribution and pay it to the social security authorities along

with their contribution as employers. In Brazil, all employees are entitled to a Severance Fund. The

employer deposits 8 percent of the employee’s monthly compensation in a special bank account for the

employee at the Federal Savings Bank. This fund constitutes the Severance Fund (“FGTS”).

Employment agreements are generally stipulated for an indefinite term. Employees can only be hired for

a fixed term in very few special circumstances. The execution of a written employment agreement is not

required by Brazilian law; the admission of a new employee requires completing the information in the

employee’s Employment Booklet (Carteira de Trabalho), regarding the employer, the date of admission,

salary, and function to be performed by the employee. This information should also be included in the

company’s books.


Either the employee or the company may terminate the contract at any time, and for any reason, with or

without cause. Termination is only considered with cause in case of severe fault by the employee. In case

of termination of an employee, without cause, written prior notice must be given. A 30-day prior notice

term is required whenever the termination is carried out within the first year of employment. After the first

year, the employee will be entitled to three additional days per completed year worked, up to a cap of 60

days (i.e., the prior notice may add up to 90 days). Failure by the employer to give said notice will entail

the payment of an indemnity corresponding to one month’s compensation to the employee. 60

Termination is considered with cause in the following cases: a. Performance of a dishonest act b. Lack of

self-restraint and improper conduct c. Performance of regular business transactions, without permission

of the employer, when such transactions are in competition with the employer’s business and are detri-

mental to the employee’s activities d. Criminal conviction of the employee, upon a final and a non-

appealable decision, provided that the enforcement of the penalty has not been suspended e. Sloth by

the employee in the performance of his or her duties f. Usual drunkenness or drunkenness during working

hours g. Violation of the company’s secrets h. Act of insubordination i. Abandonment of employment j. Act

injurious to the honor or reputation of any person, performed during the working hours, and any physical

violence performed under the same conditions, except in case of legitimate defense k. Act injurious to the

honor or reputation of the employer or the employee’s superiors, as well as any physical violence to them,

except in case of legitimate defense l. Constant gambling m. Acts against the national security duly

evidenced by administrative investigation. 61

According to the Labor Code, there is a special type of employee known as “an employee occupying a

position of trust.” This type of employee generally performs managerial duties and has more authority

compared to other employees. This condition of “trust” depends on the actual duties performed by the

employee, not on the employee’s position or title. The Labor Code defines “employee occupying a

position of trust” as an employee who has sufficient powers to bind the company, as well as the officer or

chief of the department in all cases, and receives higher compensation than other employees in the

department. The “employee occupying a position of trust” is not required to record his working hours, and,

consequently is not entitled to receive overtime payment.

In Brazil, employers and employees are represented by their respective unions on matters of collective

employment relations. Employees are free to organize professional and union associations but they

cannot organize more than one association representing the same professionals in the same territorial

base (i.e., the municipality).

The creation and activities of the unions for both employers and employees are consigned in the Consti-

tution. No specific number of workers is required to form a union. In Brazil, unions are organized

according to business activities, such as commerce, metallurgy, chemicals, and others. The association

representing a given company shall be that of the main activity of the company. Both employers and

employees must pay annual contributions to their respective unions.

The employers’ association and the employees’ union annually negotiate the terms of a collective

agreement including issues such as salary increases due to inflation, for a term of one year. If no agree-

ment is reached, the parties can escalate the issue to mediation by the labor department or the labor

courts. All parties must observe collective bargaining agreements between employees and employers’

unions. Bargaining agreements generally set forth rights that are more beneficial to the employees than

those set forth in the Labor Code.

60

Overview of Labor and Employment in Latin America, 2012. Baker McKenzie. 61

Overview of Labor and Employment in Latin America, 2012. Baker McKenzie.


Once all the parties agree to the collective bargaining agreement, only the labor court may suspend or

declare it null and void. This may be requested by any of the parties or by the Public Labor District

Attorney.

The right to strike is guaranteed by the Constitution. The workers must decide on the advisability of

exercising it and on the interests to be defended. It is worth noting that a union meeting is always required

to vest the strike with legal effects, and that a “lockout or suspension of the company’s activities at the

employer’s request is forbidden. According to the Labor Law, the union is considered a competent

authority to declare the beginning of a strike, after holding the appropriate union meeting and complying

with the other statutory requirements.

Upon receiving the strike notice, the Labor Court must schedule a meeting to try to reach an agreement

between the parties. The Labor Court may not rule on whether the strike is legal or not, but may only act

as a mediator. If the parties fail to reach a settlement agreement, the Labor Court will rule. If the employ-

ees refuse to go back to work, they will not be paid their salary, and in case of damages, the responsible

parties will be subject to the corresponding penalties.

The CUT or Central Unica dos Trabajadores is the main trade union in Brazil, and in the last decade it

has actively participated in sustainable development and green economy debates. In 2007 it created the

Workers’ Agenda for Development, which establishes the fundamentals for the development model in

Brazil; its main priority is the promotion of economic growth with social inclusion.

POWER GENERATION LEGISLATION

The Brazilian power industry is organized under a large interconnected power system, the Sistema

Interligado Nacional, which comprises most of the country’s regions, and other remote minor systems.

Generation, transmission, distribution and marketing are activities that are legally separate.

The industry is regulated by the Federal Government through the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME)

and the National Electric Power Agency (ANEEL).

Law No. 10,848 of 2004 changed the rules for the commercialization of energy in Brazil by establishing

two distinct business frameworks, the Regulated Contracting Environment (RCE) and the Free Contract-

ing Environment (FCE). Under this scheme distribution companies are only allowed to buy energy from

regulated environment companies (RCEs) and must supply 100% of their markets. On the other hand,

generators must guarantee 100% of electricity, with their own production or buying contracts. Therefore

all distribution utilities have to sign a power purchase agreement (PPA) with all sellers (generators),

through Brazilian Electric Power Commercialization Chamber (CCEE) supervising.

Given that distribution companies can only purchase energy through public auctions, except for bilateral

contracts that were celebrated before Law No. 10,848 of 2004, and the compulsory annual acquisition of

Binational Itaipu’s energy for the South, Southeast and Center-West regions, ANEEL promotes three

types of auctions that are executed by the CCEE:

1. Energy from Existing Power Plants;

2. Energy from New Power Plants

3. Energy Adjustment (only for existing power plants).

The Free Contracting Environment concentrates energy purchase and selling through bilateral contracts,

among generators, energy retailers, free consumers, with the freedom to negotiate their prices and

contracts period, but without distribution utilities participation. In Brazil, free consumers must have at least

3 MW of demand, and since 1995, new ones can be attended by any tension level and choose other

energy suppliers, different from the local distribution company. In addition, consumers with installed


power between 500 kW and 3000 kW can also be included in the FCE, although they have to buy energy

directly from renewable sources, like SHPs, biomass, wind power and solar or buy it from a retailer, which

has to guarantee that this energy is obtained from renewable sources. Generators can sell their assured

energies in the FCE through the following options: exclusive selling auctions for free consumers or

purchasing auctions organized by consumers or auctions or public calls for others sellers (to cover their

contracts).

Transmission operates under monopoly conditions. The tariffs for transmission companies are set by the

Brazilian government. The transfer fee is fixed and transmission revenues do not depend on the amount

of transmitted electricity.

Distribution is a public service that also operates under conditions of monopoly and provided by compa-

nies that in turn have received concessions. Distributors in the Brazilian system are not entitled to: (i)

develop activities related to the generation or transmission of electricity; (ii) sell electricity to non-regulated

customers except those within its concession area and under the same conditions and rates applicable to

its captive customers in the Regulated Market; (iii) hold proprietary interest in any company, corporation

or partnership, directly or indirectly; or (iv) develop activities that are unrelated to their respective conces-

sions, except those permitted by law or in the relevant concession agreement. Generators are not

allowed to have proprietary interest in distribution companies in excess of 10%.

The regulated market does not include the sale of electricity between generation concessionaires,

independent producers, self-producers, electricity brokers, electricity importers, non-regulated consumers

and special clients. It also includes existing contracts between generators and distributors under the old

regulatory framework, until they expire, at which time the new contracts must conform to the new regula-

tory framework. According to provisions stipulated in Law 9,427 of 1996, non-regulated consumers in

Brazil are those that: (i) demand a capacity of at least 3,000 kW and choose to contract the energy supply

directly with generators or brokers; or (ii) demand a capacity in the range of 500-3000 kW and choose to

contract the energy supply directly with generators or brokers.

The Brazilian system is coordinated by the Brazilian Electric System Operator (ONS) and is divided into

four sub-systems: Southeast, Central-West, South, Northeast and North.

There are also some isolated systems, i.e., systems that are not part of the ONS system and are usually

located in the north and northeast of Brazil, and have coal or oil plants as their sole source of thermal

power.

Bids for new energy contemplate long-term contracts (15 years thermal plants and 30 for hydro plants) in

which new generation projects should cover increases in demand anticipated by distributors. Bids for old

energy have shorter terms periods.

Decree 5.163 of 2004 stipulates that the selling agents must ensure 100% coverage of the energy and

power contracts. This coverage may consist of physical collateral in the form of their power plants or any

other plant, and in the latter case, through a power purchase agreement. Among other things, the ANEEL

Resolution 109 of 2004 specifies that when these limits are not met agents are subject to financial

penalties.

Finally, regarding generation activities, in January 2013, the Government approved Law No. 12,783,

which establishes the conditions under which power sector concessions that expire between 2015 and

2017 can be renewed and the reduction of taxes on the electricity tariff.


REFINING LEGISLATION

According to Articles 20 and 176 of the Brazilian Federal Constitution, oil and gas reserves located in the

Brazilian territory, including continental shelf, territorial sea and exclusive economic areas are considered

property of the Federal Union.

Until 1995, activities pertaining to the oil and gas sector were subject to the monopoly of the Federal

Union and were performed by state-owned Petróleo Brasileiro SA (Petrobras). Constitutional Amendment

No. 9 of 1995 eliminated the monopolistic conditions by allowing the government to contract the following

activities with both state-owned and private companies: prospection and exploitation of deposits of oil,

natural gas and other hydrocarbons; oil refining; importation and exportation of products or basic by-

products resulting from the activities of prospection and exploitation of oil, natural gas and other hydro-

carbons, as well as oil refining activities; and, maritime transportation of crude oil or basic oil by-products

produced in Brazil, as well as pipeline transportation of crude oil, oil by-products and natural gas from any

source.

Petrobras was created in 1954, a state company whose primary objective was the exploration production,

transportation and refining of oil, making all activity in an exclusive state monopoly.

In parallel to the activities performed by Petrobras, and in order to raise funds and reduce exposure to

exploration risk, starting 1976 the risk contract regime is instituted, whereby foreign companies entered

into a partnership with Petrobras during the exploratory stage, with consequent benefits in the event of a

discovery. This type of contract involved an outlay of 100% of exploration expenditures and in case of

discovery, the formation of a consortium in which Petrobras and the contractor entered 50/50 regarding

development costs and potential earnings. This regime is eliminated in 1987 with the enactment of the

new Brazilian constitution, returning the oil monopoly to Petrobras.

Act 9,478 is enacted in 1997, also called "Lei do Petróleo," which marked a definite change in the sector.

The exploration, mining and marketing of hydrocarbons and their derivatives is no longer the monopoly of

Petrobras, allowing free concurrence and competition between domestic and international companies.

The National Petroleum Agency (ANP) is created as a governmental regulatory body for all activities both

upstream and downstream. It has the power to grant concessions as well as monitor the operations

pertaining to them. Within this framework, crude was made freely available, although in practice

Petrobras continues to maintain an absolute monopoly on the production and sale of oil and derivatives.

Like most countries, mineral resources belong to the State, which not only grants the licenses for explora-

tion but also collects from them royalties and taxes resulting from the legislation. In this sense, the ANP

regulates all activities in the Brazilian oil sector.

The path towards deregulation began with Act 9.478 of 1997, which opened up the upstream portion of

the business, and some downstream activities of downstream subject to the monopoly were liberalized,

such as the import of crude oil imports in 1999, import of products in 2003 and logistics in 2002, and

lastly the liberalization in the refining prices. It is worth noting that retail sales were already open.

Main actions and objectives of this Act:

» Creation of the National Energy Policy Council (CNPE ): Government entity attached to the Pres-

idency of the Republic and chaired by the Minister of Mines and Energy, which is responsible for

formulating public policies in the energy sector.

» Creation of the National Petroleum Agency (ANP): Governmental regulatory entity, attached to

the Ministry of Mines and Energy. It is responsible for the regulation, supervision and contracting

of all activities in the sector, both upstream, and downstream. Its main objective is to create a

competitive environment for oil and gas markets in Brazil, to ensure lower prices and better ser-

vices for consumers.


Until the enactment of the Petroleum Law, the Brazilian government fully regulated prices for crude oil

and oil byproducts from the cost of the crude imported for use in our refineries to the retail price of refined

oil products. As of January 2, 2002 and in accordance with previous laws, state control over prices of oil,

oil byproducts and natural gas ends, except for the natural gas sold to combined cycle plants. As a result,

competition increased and prices were adjusted, as other companies were allowed to participate in the

Brazilian market, and export and import crude, oil byproducts and natural gas from and to Brazil.

Exploration, development and production activities pertaining to oil and natural gas are exercised through

concession contracts, allocated through "bidding rounds" where companies interested in participating in

the sector, bid to get concessions to the different areas or fields. The tenders organized by the ANP allow

for the participation of Brazilian and foreign companies with offices in Brazil.

Bid Contracts are signed with the ANP for terms of up to 34 years including the explorations stage (3 to 7

years) and the production stage (23 to 27 years). In case of success, the company agrees to pay 5% to

10% royalties, and in fields with large production volumes, a 10% to 40% special participation rate still

applies to the net production revenues. Concessionaries for large oil fields are required to assume a

research and development cost equivalent to 1% of gross income.

Under the concession scheme, companies granted with concession interests are entitled to the property

of their production and run all the risks of their undertaking. As in any typical concession or license

regime, the government’s compensation is based on the "tax and royalties" system. Concessionaires pay

certain government takes as compensation for their activities.

Since the opening of the market, the ANP has conducted twelve bidding rounds to grant onshore and

offshore blocks to concessionaries with the thirteenth one expected to take place in early 2015.

After two years of analysis by the federal government and Congress on the suitability and applicability of

the concession regime to exploration and production activities within the pre-salt layer, Act No. 12,351

(the PSA Law) was enacted at the end of December 2010. The PSA Law amended the Petroleum Law

and introduced the PSA as an additional legal-regulatory regime for the exploration and production of

hydrocarbons, applicable to the pre-salt layer and to strategic areas, defined as such by the Federal

Union.

The Federal Union does not bear any of the risks associated to exploration and production activities,

although any exploited hydrocarbons remain its property. However, once a commercially feasible discov-

ery is made, the Federal Union assumes some risks associated with these activities, by assigning part of

its production as reimbursement for the exploration, development and production costs incurred by those

oil companies that are party to the agreement (cost oil). The Federal Union then shares in the rest of the

production with these companies at a rate established in the agreement (profit oil).

In February 2013, the National Energy Policy Council (CNPE) issued Resolution No. 01 of 2013, regard-

ing incentives for the involvement of small and medium players in oil and gas exploration, development

and production. Pursuant to this Resolution, the ANP must hold annual rounds focused in blocks located

at mature basins and inactive areas with marginal fields. Those blocks and areas must be assessed for

their environmental feasibility by both the ANP and competent environmental authorities.

The general attorney of Brazil (AGU) issued Legal Opinion No. 061/2011/PF-ANP/PGF/AGU, which

states that the ANP is the competent authority for regulating the activity of shale exploration and produc-

tion and the compensation due upon the production of shale oil and gas.

On December 2010, Congress approved and the president sanctioned three separate bills already in

force regarding the exploration and production of the pre-salt reservoirs and of strategic areas. These

laws introduced a production sharing contract (PSC) regime which will be applied for future licensing of


the pre-salt area and certain other areas considered strategic by the government, and the implementation

of an oil fund which is expected to support social and economic development in Brazil.

Together with the Pre-Salt Act, a new company was created, Empresa Brasileira de Administração de

Petróleo e Gás Natural SA – Pré-sal Petróleo SA (the PPSA). One hundred percent state owned, PPSA

was created to represent the federal government in the consortium, which will be awarded the right to

explore and develop a block within the pre-salt area (Act No. 12,304 of 2010).

Petrobras must be the sole operator within this consortium, with a minimum of 30 per cent participating

interest, to be awarded with the production-sharing contract. PPSA will not perform upstream oil and gas

activities and will not invest, however it will be responsible for the following, among others:

» Management, audit and supervision of oil and gas activities performed under the PSC regime;

» Management and control of costs arising from the production sharing contracts;

» Participation in the operating committees, electing half of its members, including its chair, having

voting rights and veto power over operations; and

» Negotiation of unitization involving unlicensed acreage.

Brazil had its first pre-salt bidding round under the PSC regime in October 2013. The winning consortium

is comprised of Petrobras, Shell, Total, CNOOC and CNPC. They shall be joined by PPSA in the explora-

tion and production of Libra area. Impacts of the new regime are still being assessed.


The Brazilian Constitution stipulates that both the federal government and state and local governments

have the power to enact laws for the protection of the environment, most environmental regulations in

Brazil are held at the level of state and local government. According to Article 225, all individuals have the

right to enjoy an ecologically balances environment, considered as a common use asset and essential to

a healthy quality of life, while both the government and society are responsible for its protection and

preservation for the present and future generations.62

The main environmental regulations are as follows:

» Act 6.938 of 1981 sets forth the National Environmental Policy which expressly established the

Environmental Licensing Process and the Civil Liability for environmental damages;

» Act 9.433 of 1997, which states the National Policy on Water Resources and regulates the regime

for water use;

» Act 9.605 of 1998 is sets forth environmental criminal and administrative liabilities, and establish-

es sanctions applicable to over 60 different crimes against the environment.

» Federal Decree 6,514 of 2008, which regulates the abovementioned Act, provides more than 100

legal rules, violations of which are administratively punishable with warnings, fines, right re-

strictions, and eventual crime prevision and civil damages;

» Act 9,966 of 2000 governs the prevention, control, oversight of oil pollution and others hazardous

substances in Brazilian waters;

» Act 9,985 of 2000 establishes the Protected Areas National System for the protection of biodi-

versity and represents the main statute on the subject;

62

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» Provisional Measure 2,186-16 of 2001 regulates the access of genetic heritage and its protection

for associated traditional knowledge, regulating benefit share conditions and technologic com-

pensation for its use and conservation;

» Act 11,105 of 2005 regulates biosafety of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)Decree

8,124/2013 establish the National Contingency Program by oil pollution in Brazilian waters;

» Act 12,187 of 2009 represents Brazil’s commitment to addressing greenhouse gas emissions and

states the National Program of Climate Change;

» Act 12,305 of 2010 establishes the National Policy for Solid Waste, and is the main legal frame-

work regulating obligations on the generation, transport, management and destination of solid

waste;

» Complementary Act 140 of 2011 disciplines the hypotheses of shared assignments among the

environmental agencies of all federative levels for permitting and enforcement of pollutant activi-

ties; and

» Act 12,651 of 2012, also known as the New Brazilian Forestry Code, which regulates the protec-

tion of Legal Forestry Reserves and the Permanent Protected Areas, especially playing a key role

in rural areas.

The key regulatory authorities at a federal level are as follows:

1. IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for Environment and Renewable Resources), which is in charge of

applying environmental statutes and regulations, executing the environmental permitting of activ-

ities located in strategic areas for the country and those with regional impacts, besides nuclear

related activities;

2. ICMBio (Chico Mendes Institute for Preservation of the Environment and Biodiversity), which is

in charge of management and enforcement of environmental policies in federal protected areas;

3. CONAMA (National Environmental Council) which has the power to pass regulations applicable

nationwide in several matters environmentally important, working as a body of technical special-

ists;

4. CGEN (Genetic Heritage Management National Council) is responsible for regulating, monitor-

ing and running policies for genetic heritage management, such as analysis and special permits

to access genetic heritage components and associated traditional knowledge for purposes of

science research, technological development and bio-prospecting; and

5. CNBS (Biosafety National Commission) is responsible for the approval of GMOs’ market-use,

considering CTNBio (Biosafety National Technical Committee) indication.

TAX LEGISLATION

In Brazil, the main tax regulations are set forth in the 1988 Constitution, and the National Tax Code of

1966 and the Federal Income tax. The regulating authority in fiscal matters is the Brazilian Revenue

Service.

A company is considered a resident in Brazil if it is incorporated in Brazil; all others are considered non-

resident or foreign companies. Resident companies are taxed on a worldwide income, while foreign

companies are taxed only if it performs certain activities through an agent or representative that is

domiciled in the country and who has the power to legally bind the foreign seller, or through the domestic

branch of the above-mentioned. A representative acting as an agent is not subject to taxation if the final

transaction is concluded abroad by the foreign company.

Taxable income is stipulated as operating profits, defined as gross operating receipts, less the costs of

goods sold or services rendered, administrative and operating expenses, and other charges, reserves


and losses authorized by law. Companies may choose to be taxed annually based on an actual or a

presumed income (“lucro real” vs “lucro presumido”). Dividends received from other Brazilian companies,

and income received from premiums received on the issuance of new shares, are not considered taxable

income.

The following are the main taxes that affect companies doing business in Brazil:

Capital gains are treated as ordinary income. Those derived by a nonresident registered with the Central

Bank are subject to a 15% withholding tax (25% if derived by a tax haven resident).

Losses must be divided into operating and non-operating. Non-operating losses may be offset against

non-operating gains. Tax losses incurred in one fiscal year (calendar year) may be carried forward

indefinitely; however, the carry-forward amount that can be used may not exceed 30% of taxable income

in each corresponding year. Carryback of losses is not allowed.

Corporate income tax (IRJP) is levied on the taxable profits of a corporation at a rate of 15%.

In addition to the 15% income tax, a 10% surtax is applied on annual income in excess of BRL 240,000,

as well as a 9% social contribution tax (CSLL) levied on the adjusted net income. The CSLL for financial

institutions is 15%.

Interest paid to a nonresident is generally subject to a 15% withholding tax, unless the rate is reduced

under a tax treaty. The rate increases to 25% if the recipient is a tax haven resident.

The withholding tax on royalties is 15%, unless the rate is reduced under a tax treaty. A 10% tax corre-

sponding to the Contribution for the Intervention in the Economic Domain (CIDE) also applies.

The withholding tax rate on technical services and assistance fees is generally 15%, unless the rate is

reduced under a tax treaty. Payments for technical services that do not include the transfer of technology

may be subject to a 25% rate. The 10% CIDE also applies.

Real property tax is collected by the municipality where the property is located and is calculated on the

sales price of the property. The rate varies by municipality, but is generally in the range of 0.3% to 1.5%.

Rural property is taxed at rates of 0.03% to 20% depending on the region and the use of the property.

A real estate transfer tax is applied to any transfer of title of real property, at rates that range from 2% to

6%, according to the sales price. The buyer is responsible for paying this tax.

Although these are not considered corporate taxes, the PIS (Social integration program) and the

CONFIS, are levied at 0.65% and 3% respectively, where a Brazilian corporation pays income taxes

under the taxable income regime, and 1.65% and 7.6% where a Brazilian corporation pays taxes based

on actual income. Imports are subject to a combined rate of 9.25% or 10.25%

A financial transaction tax (IOF) is imposed on foreign exchange, credit and security transactions.

Brazil operates on a multiple rate system, with taxes levied at the federal, state and municipal levels. The

IPI is a federal excise tax levied on the import of goods into Brazil and the manufacturing of goods.

Exports are exempt of IPI. The average rate of IPI is 20%. ICMS is a VAT levied on the circulation and

import of goods and interstate and inter-municipal transportation and communication services, and the

rates range between 4% and 25%. IPI and ICMS are paid monthly.


Income tax returns are paid annually, and must be filed by the last business day of June. Late payments

are subject to penalties and interest.

TRADE AGREEMENTS

Brazil’s current trade policy is grounded on the concept of seeking opportunities and creating conditions

for international trade to underpin its development scheme, based on sustainable and socially inclusive

economic growth. Brazil attaches particular importance to its participation in the multilateral trading

system. The Brasil Maior Plan includes and develops a number of industrial, technological, and foreign

trade policies to underpin its development objectives, which are the increase the competitiveness of the

local industries, under the slogan “Innovation for Competition, Competition for Growth”.

One of Brazil's aims is to strengthen regional economic integration. Brazil is a founding member of the

Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR), and as such it has subscribed to preferential trade agreements

with Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela. Together with its

MERCOSUR partners, Brazil also has preferential trade agreements currently in force with India and

Israel, and three further agreements pending entry into force. Additionally, it has bilateral preferential

agreements under LAIA with Guyana and Suriname. The European Union and MERCOSUR have re-

launched negotiations in order to create a Bi-regional Free Trade Agreement.

According to the World Bank, in 2013 Brazil ranked as the seventh largest economy in the world, with a

GDP of 2246 trillion dollars, with foreign trade amounting to 27,6% of the GDP for that same year.63

Its main trade partners for 2014 were China, with exports amounting to 40,616 million dollars, the US with

$27.144 million dollars in exports, the European Union with 42,047 million dollars in exports, and

MERCOSUR with 25,054 million dollars in exports, with total exports amounting to 225,101 million

dollars64

.

63

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exterior?&actualiser_id_banque=oui&id_banque=12&memoriser_choix=memoriser 64

http://www.mdic.gov.br//arquivos


POLITICAL OUTLOOK

Brazil is a presidential federal republic which is comprised of 26 states and 1 federal district*(distrito

federal): Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias,

Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui,

Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao

Paulo, Sergipe, and Tocantin.65

Brazil has a bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional which consists of a 81 seat Federal

Senate or Senado Federal (3 members from each state and federal district elected according to the

principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third and two-thirds of members elected every four

years, alternately) and a 513 seat Chamber of Deputies or Camara dos Deputados (members are elected

by proportional representation to serve four-year terms).

The president and vice president are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for a single four-year

term; election last held on October 5th, 2014 and, because none of the candidates achieved absolute

majority, a runoff election was held on October 26, 2014, after which Dilma Rousseff, of the center-left

Workers Party, was reelected President with a 51.64% vote. Her vice president is once again her former

vice president Michel Temer.

President Rousseff took office on January 1, 2011, and is now in the first year of her second term. She

inherited a country that had benefited from 16 years of capable governance under Presidents Fernando

Henrique Cardoso (1995-2002) and Luis Inácio Lula da Silva (2003-2010), during whose terms Brazil

made significant advances in economic stabilization and social inclusion.

Given the fragmented nature of Brazil’s political system, presidents have traditionally distributed control of

ministries and state enterprises to coalition partners in order to construct governing majorities. Rousseff’s

distribution of appointments, which heavily favors the PT over the other seven parties with representation

in the 39-member cabinet, has upset some sectors of the coalition. Her dismissal of six cabinet ministers

accused of corruption during her first year in office and periodic efforts to more tightly control government

expenditures have exacerbated these intra-coalition divisions. While Rousseff has been able to win

legislative support for portions of her policy agenda, she has lost key congressional votes on issues such

as the distribution of oil royalties and reforms to Brazil’s forest conservation law. The main political parties

in Brazil are: the Workers Party (PT), the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), the Brazilian

Social Democratic Party (PDS) and the Democrats (DEM).

The current cabinet is comprised as follows:

Ministry Appointee Political Party

Chief of Staff Aloizio Mercadante PT

Agrarian Development Patrus Ananias PT

Agriculture, Livestock and Supply Katia Abreu PMDB

Cities Gilberto Kassab PSD

Communications Ricardo Berzoini PT

Culture Juca Ferreira PT

65

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook /br.html


Defense Jaques Wagner PT

Development, Industry and Trade Armando Monteiro PTB

Education Cid Gomes PROS

Environment Izabella Teixeira -

Finance Joaquim Levy -

Fishing and Aquaculture Helder Barbalho PMDB

External Relations Mauro Vieira -

Health Arthur Chioro PT

Justice Jose Eduardo Cardozo PT

Labor and Employment Manoel Dias PDT

Mines and Energy Eduargo Braga PMDB

National Integration Gilberto Occhi -

Planning, Budget and Management Nelson Barbosa -

Science, Technology and Innovation Aldo Rebelo PCdoB

Social Development and Hunger Alleviation Tereza Campello PT

Social Security Carlos Gabas -

Sports George Hilton PRB

Tourism Vinicius Nobre Lages -

Transportation Antonio Carlos Rodrigues PR

Brazil has experienced significant improvements in economic and social conditions over the past decade;

however, there are still significant socioeconomic disparities between races. While Afro-Brazilians

comprise about half of the Brazilian population, they account for less than 25% of Brazilians with college

degrees, and 17% of Brazilians that have completed graduate degrees. In 2010, the median income of

Afro-Brazilians was 64% of the median income of white Brazilians. Even after controls for education,

occupation, and location are enforced, white Brazilians reportedly receive higher wages than Afro-

Brazilians. Moreover, Afro-Brazilians are disproportionately the victims of Brazil’s high levels of crime and

violence. In an effort to reduce racial disparities, the Brazilian government has enacted a series of

antidiscrimination and affirmative action measures. Brazil became the first Latin American country to

endorse racial quotas in government service in 2002, and in 2003 became the first country in the world to

establish a special secretariat for racial equity promotion. In 2010, Brazil enacted the Statute of Racial

Equality. Among other provisions, the law offers tax incentives for businesses that practice racial inclu-

sion, promotes government affirmative action programs, and reaffirms that African and Afro-Brazilian

history be taught in all elementary and middle schools. In 2012, Brazil adopted a law that requires federal

universities to reserve half of their admissions spots for students who are Afro-Brazilian, indigenous, or

graduates of public high schools. The law gradually increases the admissions spots reserved from 12.5%

in 2013 to 50% in 2016, with half of the reserved spots set aside for low income students of all races with

the highest grades and the other half divided in accordance with share per race in each state. More

recently, Rousseff has proposed reserving 20% of jobs in the federal government for Afro-Brazilians.


Although race-based affirmative action policies have generated diverse reactions among the Brazilian

population, they have been upheld as constitutional by the Brazilian Supreme Court.

If inequality is the first mayor challenge for Rousseff administration, the second is deforestation and its

environmental impact. Recognizing that continued destruction of the Amazon Rainforest is damaging to

Brazil’s global image and could threaten energy generation and agricultural production in the future, the

Brazilian government has implemented a series of policies designed to slow deforestation. To meet this

target, the Brazilian government is increasing surveillance, replanting forest, and financing sustainable

development projects.

In 2011, President Rousseff signed a law transferring responsibility for environmental oversight of

nonfederal lands from Brazil’s federal environmental protection agency to local officials. While the federal

government maintains that local officials are better placed to manage such resources, critics argue that

local authorities lack the necessary finances and are more susceptible to intimidation and corruption.

ECONOMIC OUTLOOK

BRAZIL ECONOMIC DATA66

2012 2013



GDP (USD bn) 2,247 2,243




Investment (annual variation in %) -4.0 5.2

Industrial Production (annual variation in %) -2.3 2.0








Inflation (PPI, annual variation in %) 9.1 5.1



66

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http://www.focus-economics.com/






Trade Balance (USD billion) 19.4 2.6



Exports (annual variation in %) -5.3 -0.2

Imports (annual variation in %) -1.4 7.4



Brazil is the largest country in area and population in Latin America and the Caribbean. The country

experienced rapid economic growth between 2004 and 2010, driven mostly by an increase in internation-

al demand—particularly from China— for Brazilian commodities such as meat, sugar, soybeans, iron ore,

and crude oil. The initial expansion was reinforced by domestic consumption from Brazil’s fast-growing

middle class, which now accounts for a majority of the population. As international commodity prices

began to fall, however, economic growth slowed. The Rousseff Administration has sought to alleviate the

weaker international economic situation by boosting domestic consumption and protecting domestic

industry. The Administration has pursued an expansionary fiscal policy, implementing a series of short-

term stimulus packages. It has also adopted a new industrial policy, known as Brasil Maior (“Bigger

Brazil”), which has included targeted tax cuts and financing through the Brazilian Development Bank

(BNDES) for domestic manufacturing, stronger preferences for locally produced goods in government

procurement, and restrictions on imports.2367

These measures have also helped maintain a low unem-

ployment rate, 5.1% in February 2014. However, economic policies have pushed inflation to the upper

edge of the government’s targeted boundary (4.5% with a 2-point tolerance band), reducing the popula-

tion’s purchasing power and affecting national competitiveness. In order to keep inflation under control,

the Brazilian Central Bank, which previously had reduced interest rates to record lows, was forced to

reverse these measures and adopt a tighter monetary policy.

Among some of the measures implemented by the government in an attempt to remedy structural

deficiencies, it has cut taxes and encouraged private investment in the country’s overburdened infrastruc-

ture by tendering concessions to build and operate roads, railways, ports, and airports.

Brazil’s strong domestic market is less vulnerable to external crisis, and Brazilians are benefiting from

stable economic growth, relatively low inflation rates and improvements in social well-being.

The Brazilian economy slowed significantly between 2011 and 2012, reflected in a deceleration of the

GDP from 7.5% in 2010 to 2.7% in 2011 and 0.9% in 2012.68

Brazil’s economy continues to expand at a

very moderate rate of 1.7 per cent in 2014, with little prospects for investment demand and increasing

pressure for fiscal consolidation.69

For 2015, WB panelists see growth at 0.7%70

.

67

http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/brazil 68

http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/brazil 69

World Economic Situation and Prospects 2014, update as of mid-2014, United Nations Publication, pg. 15 70

http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/brazil





In an effort to bolster confidence, President Dilma Rousseff appointed Joaquim Levy, an orthodox

economist who has vowed to cut spending, as Finance Minister. Levy announced that he would target a

1.2% surplus in 2015, which would increase to above 2.0% in 2016 and 2017. However, Levy faces

significant rigidity in the budget since the vast majority of spending is attached to constitutionally mandat-

ed expenditure. In order to host the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games significant

investments were required in areas such as urban and social development and transport infrastructure.

So far, the financial sector has not been as affected as it could have been. The banking system has

remained sound, and despite rapid credit growth, lower interest rates have helped contain delinquencies

and generally allowed asset quality to stabilize. Foreign direct investment remains more than sufficient to

cover the current account deficit, which is approximately 2.2% of GDP. Brazil’s general macroeconomic

framework is solid and sustainable in the medium term. The main risks to the economic outlook relate to

the external environment, regardless of the high foreign reserve levels, favorable external debt composi-

tion, a current account fully covered by foreign direct investment and an overall low degree of trade

openness.

The Growth Acceleration Plan (PAC) was launched in 2007 by the Lula Da Silva administration in an

effort to increase investment in infrastructure and provide incentives for a more robust and accelerated

growth. The Rousseff administration has continued with the initiative under the name of PAC-2. In 2012,

the Government launched a range of initiatives to reduce energy costs, restructure oil royalty payments,

strengthen investment in infrastructure through foreign participation, and reform the subnational value-

added tax.

Energy has become an important area of U.S.-Brazilian cooperation in recent years. Brazil is widely

regarded as a world leader in energy policy for successfully reducing its reliance on foreign oil through the

development of alternative energy resources and increased domestic production. In addition to being the

world’s second-largest producer of ethanol (after the United States), Brazil generates 80% of its electricity

through hydropower. Brazil also has discovered large offshore oil deposits that have the potential to turn

the country into a major oil and gas producer and an important source of energy for the United States. To

facilitate greater cooperation in the development of safe, secure, and affordable energy, President

Obama and President Rousseff launched a Strategic Energy Dialogue in March 2011.


CONCLUSION

2014 ended with a cloud of uncertainty regarding the future of oil, and although 2015 has evolved on a

more positive note, there are still many players in the field - both private and public - who have yet to

completely implement cut backs, and restructure budgets and operations due to the financial shortages

they have been faced with. The drop in oil prices has not seen the last of its effect.

However, oil and energy are resources that humanity cannot yet do without. They will continue to pull or

drag economies, they will continue trading in world stock exchanges, and will continue to be drivers of

technological innovation and economic growth.

These sectors are incredibly dynamic; they represent a considerable portion of GDPs in all four of the

countries analyzed, and they are also the main tax contributors in the country.

Colombia and Brazil have major exploitation projects underway, Brazil with its Pre-Salt discoveries, and

Colombia with its non-conventional energy and offshore projects offer interesting business perspectives

for the future. Mexico continues to be an oil giant, with innumerable offshore projects in the Gulf of

Mexico, and an Energy Reform that opens up the market to private enterprise. Chile has the need to

increase its energy resources for the near future, in order to face the ever-increasing demand for energy.

The energy and oil sectors offer significant opportunities for investment and business development. Non-

renewable energy sources are at the base of many of the government policies for the current and next

presidential periods, with both Santos and Bachelet focusing on their development. Peña Nieto and

Rouseff have many issues on their plate, yet they also consider renewable energy sources as part of the

future mix of their country’s economies.


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