the facts about "dirty bombs"

8/8/2019 The Facts about "Dirty Bombs"

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The Facts About

DIRTY BOMBS

Prepared forTHE AMERICAN COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND HEALTH

ByKathleen Meister, M.S.

P. Andrew Karam, Ph.D., CHP

Art DirectorJennifer Lee

June 2005

AMERICAN COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND HEALTH1995 Broadway, 2nd Floor, New York, NY 10023-5860

Phone: (212) 362-7044 Fax: (212) 362-4919URLs: http://acsh.org http://HealthFactsAndFears.com

E-mail: [email protected]


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Copyright 2005 by American Council on Science and Health, Inc.This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by mimeograph or any other means, without per-mission.


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01 Executive Summary

01 Introduction

02 Radiological Dispersal Devices

03 Differences Between Radiological and Nuclear Weapons

04 History of Radiological Dispersal Devices

05 Health Effects of Radiation

06 Economic Consequences of a Radiological Attack

07 What to Do in Case of a Dirty Bomb Attack

08 Policies and Regulations

09 Summary

09 References

The Facts About

DIRTY BOMBS

TABLE OF CONTENTS


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1The Facts AboutDIRTY BOMBS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Dirty bombs, more correctly called radiological dis-persal devices, are weapons that are designed tospread potentially harmful radioactivity. The prin-cipal type combines a conventional explosive withradioactive material.

Dirty bombs are not nuclear weapons. Unlike anuclear bomb, which could cause hundreds of thou-sands of deaths and devastate an entire city, a dirtybomb would most likely cause a few hundred

deaths at the most. Physical damage would be com-parable to that produced by other conventionalexplosions, and radioactive contamination wouldprobably affect an area of only a few city blocks.

Most deaths and injuries from a dirty bomb attack would result from the explosion itself, rather thanthe radioactive material. However, the presence of radioactive contamination could lead to panic, dis-ruption, and the need for costly and time-consum-ing cleanup.

The cost of recovery after a dirty bomb attack couldbe reduced, without increasing risks to humanhealth, by modifying regulations pertaining to per-missible levels of residual radioactivity so that theyare based on real risk rather than the ability todetect ever-lower levels of contamination.

In the event of an explosion, experts advise people tomove away from the immediate area (by walking atleast several blocks from the explosion), go

indoors, and turn on local radio or TV for instruc-tions (including instructions about testing forradioactive contamination). If it is determined thatthe explosion involved radioactivity, people whowere in the immediate area should remove and saveclothing and take a shower if possible. Experts rec-ommend that people should not handle any objectthrown off by an explosion and should not takepotassium iodide unless specifically advised to doso. Driving away from an attack is also unwise,since it can hamper emergency response and causecrashes.

INTRODUCTION

Of all the possible types of terrorist attacks, thoseinvolving radioactivity are among the most feared.One type of attack that involves radioactivity is the useof a radiological dispersal device (RDD) or dirtybomb. Misconceptions about dirty bombs may lead

people to be more anxious than the facts justify andmight even prompt some people to take inappropriateactions in the event of a dirty bomb explosion.

This report by the American Council on Science andHealth summarizes the scientific facts about radiolog-ical dispersal devices what they are, how they might

be made, the possible health and economic conse-quences of an attack, the actions that citizens shouldand should not take if a radiological attack occurs, andthe types of policy changes that may need to be consid-ered to facilitate prevention of radiological attacks and

recovery from them. The principal source of informa-tion for this booklet was a technical manuscript enti-tled Radiological Terrorism, written by Dr. P.Andrew Karam of the Rochester Institute of Technology. Additional information sources are listedat the end of this report.


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The Facts AboutDIRTY BOMBS

2

RADIOLOGICAL DISPERSAL

DEVICES

Radiological dispersal devices, also called radiologi-cal weapons, are devices that are designed to spreadpotentially harmful radioactivity as part of a hostileact. The principal type of radiological dispersal devicecombines a conventional explosive, such as dynamite,with radioactive material. This is the type of devicethat is often referred to as a dirty bomb. When adirty bomb explodes, the explosion itself can causeconsiderable damage just as any explosion can. Inaddition, the area surrounding the explosion may

become contaminated by radioactive material.1

Although the exact details would vary dependingupon the type and amount of radioactive materialused, as well as the nature of the explosive device,most deaths and injuries from a dirty bomb wouldalmost certainly result from the explosion itself, ratherthan the radioactive material. People who were closestto the explosion and therefore most likely to havebeen injured by it would also be the most likely tobe exposed to dangerous amounts of radioactivity.Some radioactive material might be spread beyond thedamaged area perhaps to a distance of a few city

blocks but the intensity of contamination would bemuch less than that in the immediate vicinity of theexplosion. Experts expect that there would be few, if any, deaths or serious illnesses caused by radiation inindividuals who had not been in the immediate vicin-ity of the blast for a prolonged period of time.

Although the radioactive component of a dirty bombwould probably cause few deaths or injuries, problemsof other kinds would result. The presence of radioac-tivity would make the jobs of firefighters and rescuepersonnel who respond to the emergency more diffi-cult. Healthcare facilities might have to cope withinjured patients who are also contaminated withradioactivity. Large numbers of people might seek care out of concern over possible contamination, pos-sibly overloading healthcare facilities. Widespreadpanic could develop, and this might prompt people to

take unwise or even unsafe actions. (For example,people who mistakenly believed that they would needto get many miles away from a dirty bomb attack inorder to be safe might drive away at dangerous speedsor crowd the roads with their cars, thus interferingwith access to the scene by emergency vehicles andalso causing a risk of death and injury from motorvehicle crashes far greater than the risk of death orinjury from the attack itself.) Costly cleanup effortswould almost certainly be necessary, and the buildingsand facilities in the affected neighborhood (probablyseveral city blocks) might be unavailable for a pro-longed period of time. In addition, as has been seen inincidents of accidental radioactive contamination,anxiety and economic disruption due to stigmatizationof the affected area might continue for long periods of time.

Dirty bombs are not classified as Weapons of MassDestruction because the number of deaths and injuriesthey are likely to cause is relatively small. However,they are sometimes referred to as Weapons of MassDisruption because of the many disruptive effectsthat they could have on a community.

Although there have been no successful radiologicalattacks, it is possible to get a rough idea of the typeand extent of problems that might result from theradioactive component of a dirty bomb from instancesof accidental radioactive contamination.

One well-known incident that involved widespreadradioactive contamination occurred in Goiania, Brazil,in 1987. A cancer treatment facility had closed, and itsradiation therapy source, which contained radioactivecesium, had been left behind. 2 Unsuspecting residents

found the abandoned equipment, and someone openedthe canister containing the radioactive cesium.Fascinated by the blue powder they found, residentsplayed with it and spread it on their bodies, unawareof its radioactivity. By the time the nature of the mate-

1. It is also possible to design a radiological attack that does notinvolve an explosive. For example, a powerful source of radioactivitymight be hidden in a public place. Terrorists might also spread radioac-tivity covertly or try to contaminate the food or water supply.

2. Obviously, this should not have happened. Regulations should be inplace in all countries to require that sources of radioactivity no longerin use are disposed of safely. Unfortunately, the extent of control overradioactive sources, both at the t ime of the Goiania incident and today,varies greatly in different parts of the world.


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A radiological weapon (dirty bomb) is very differentfrom a nuclear weapon (atomic bomb). In a nuclearweapon, energy is produced by splitting uranium or plu-tonium atoms in such a way that enormous amounts of energy are released in a very brief period of time. Theresulting explosion is huge and can devastate a very largearea. In a radiological weapon, the explosive itself is aconventional one; it releases a much smaller amount of energy and causes much less destruction. The radioactivematerial present in the bomb is dispersed by the explo-sion, but it does not cause or participate in the explosion;the explosion in this instance is not a nuclear blast.

To understand the difference in magnitude between con-ventional and nuclear bombs, it may be helpful to com-pare a large conventional bombing the bombing of theAlfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in1995 with the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima duringWorld War II. The bomb used in Oklahoma City wasequivalent to a few tons of TNT; the bomb detonated overHiroshima was approximately 10,000 times more power-

ful. In Oklahoma City, 168 people were killed, the targetbuilding was destroyed, and nearby buildings were seri-ously damaged. In Hiroshima, nearly 100,000 peoplewere killed, and an entire city was virtually destroyed.

An attack with a large radiological weapon might com-bine the physical destruction and casualty level of anOklahoma City-type bombing with a small number of additional radiation-related casualties and substantialradiation-related disruption similar to that resulting fromthe Goiania incident.

Nuclear bombing of Hiroshima during World War II.Photo by US Army

Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building after bombing attack.Photo by Oklahoma City Police Department

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RADIOLOGICAL AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS

rial was known, nearly 250 people had been exposed toelevated radiation levels; four died of radiation sick-ness.

During the response to the Goiania incident, more than3,000 cubic meters of contaminated materials wereremoved for disposal and over 100,000 persons weresurveyed for contamination at the citys soccer stadium(of whom only a few hundred were actually contami-nated). The recovery process was time-consuming and

expensive. However, the social impact was far greater;even a decade later, Goiania residents were stigmatizedby their association with the region. This stigmatizationincluded an economic impact because sales of agricul-tural products from Goiania declined for absolutely noreason related to food safety or health.


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4

HISTORY OF RADIOLOGICAL DISPERSAL DEVICES

The idea of radiological weapons is not new. Thepossibility of using bombs that would distributeradioactivity in enemy territory as military weaponswas considered as early as 1941. Today, radiologi-cal weapons are no longer considered practical formilitary use; instead, they are potential terroristweapons.

No radiological dispersal device has ever been suc-cessfully used as a weapon. However, attempts

have been made. In 1997, Chechen terrorists set butdid not explode a device containing radioactivecesium in a Moscow park. In 2002, an arrest wasmade in the U.S. of a person involved in an allegeddirty bomb plot. In several instances, radioactivematerials that might be suitable for use in a radio-logical dispersal device have been stolen, andattempts have been made to smuggle or sell suchmaterials. Thus, it is clear that terrorists continue tobe interested in the possibility of radiologicalattacks.

Constructing and detonating a dirty bomb are not

easy tasks, however. First, radioactive materials

must be obtained most likely either by theft orby smuggling them from countries where they areavailable for legal or illegal purchase. Second, thematerials must then be incorporated into a bomb a difficult task, since working with radioactivematerials can be hazardous. Obviously, many ter-rorists are not deterred by sacrificing their lives, buta terrorist would need sufficient working time tocomplete his work; it is hard to construct a device if the terrorists working on it receive an incapacitat-ing radiation dose within 15 minutes, for example.Finally, once constructed, the device must be trans-ported to the destination and detonated withoutbeing discovered.

Each of the steps in this process suggests ways inwhich radiological attacks may be prevented. Forexample, increased security at facilities that useradioactive materials, such as hospitals andresearch laboratories, can help to deter theft, andincreased use of radiation detectors at border cross-ings can make it easier to detect smuggling of radioactive materials.

HEALTH EFFECTS OF RADIATION

The health effects of radiation exposure vary,depending upon the type of radioactive material,the dose of radiation to which a person is exposed,and the route of exposure (e.g., inhalation, inges-tion, external exposure). Exposure to very highdoses of radiation can cause radiation sickness,

which is fatal at very high doses but is milder andtemporary at lower doses. Contact with radioactivematerial can also cause radiation burns, which canalso range from mild to severe. In most dirty bombscenarios, however, radiation exposure levelswould be far lower than those shown to cause theseeffects, except perhaps for individuals in immediateproximity to the blast. Unlike the situation with anuclear attack, widespread radiation sicknesswould not result from a dirty bomb attack.

In the event of a radiological attack, people arelikely to find themselves in situations where theyhave an opportunity to aid a victim of the attack,and they may wonder whether it is safe to do this inspite of the possibility of radioactive contamina-tion. For example, a bystander might see an injured

person with dust on his clothing coming out of abuilding where an explosion had taken place.Would it be safe for the bystander to help the vic-tim move to a safe place or to provide first aid?Experts say that the answer is yes; contaminatedpatients do not pose a hazard to those who are help-ing them. Emergency responders and medical per-sonnel can and should help these people;bystanders can do so as well without jeopardizingtheir own health.


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It is often reported that the initial symptoms of radiation sickness include nausea, vomiting, anddiarrhea. This is correct, but it is important toremember that these are nonspecific symptomsthat can also be produced by many other causes,including stress (as millions of people who havebecome sick to their stomachs in response toupsetting events can attest). In the aftermath of adirty bomb incident, it is likely that many peoplewould experience such symptoms. However, in allor practically all cases, the symptoms would provenot to be the result of radiation exposure.

Exposure to radiation doses lower than those thatcause radiation sickness, but much higher thanthose normally found in the environment, mayincrease a persons risk of developing cancer laterin life, especially if exposure is prolonged.However, although radiation is known to be a car-cinogen (cancer-causing agent), it is a weak car-cinogen, and even radiation levels significantly inexcess of natural background levels do not signif-icantly raise cancer risks. Just because a person is

near a source of radioactivity for a short time orcomes in contact with a small amount of dust thatcontains radioactive material does not mean thatthe person will develop cancer. The increase inrisk resulting from such exposures would be quitesmall. In most instances, the detonation of a radi-ological dispersal device would not lead to a sub-stantial increase in the number of cases of cancerin the affected population in later years.

Some recent news accounts have predicted thatexposure to even small amounts of radiation froma radiological attack would cause some additional

cases of cancer. Such predictions are based on thefaulty assumption that effects that occur at highdoses of radiation can be directly extrapolated tomuch lower doses. Increasing scientific evidenceindicates, however, that this type of extrapolationis not valid, and that the health risks associatedwith low-level radiation exposure are smaller thansuch extrapolation would predict.

Another health issue that is often misunderstood isthe effect of radiation exposure during pregnancy.People often believe, incorrectly, that any expo-sure to radiation during pregnancy, no matter howsmall, will have disastrous effects on the unbornchild. Thus, women who had routine dental X-rays before realizing that they were pregnantsometimes panic and consider abortion, eventhough this is unnecessary (routine dental X-raysresult in insignificant radiation exposure to theunborn child). Low doses of radiation pose muchless risk to an unborn child than most people (andeven some physicians) realize. In the event of adirty bomb attack, most pregnant women in theaffected area would not be exposed to amounts of radiation sufficient to cause harm and would notneed to consider terminating their pregnancies.


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Although the number of casualties from a radiolog-ical attack would probably be relatively small (tensto hundreds), the economic impact could be verygreat. Some experts think that the cost of recoveryfrom a dirty bomb attack could equal or evenexceed the $30 to $40 billion cost of restoringlower Manhattan after the September 11 attack,despite a much smaller amount of physical damageand fewer casualties.

The high costs would result primarily from theneed to clean up and decontaminate the affectedarea. Much of this effort would consist of physical-ly removing contaminated material (perhapsincluding a layer of soil, as was done in Goiania)and hauling it away to a low-level radioactivewaste depository. Buildings would also need to bedecontaminated a process that is difficult and insome instances not technically feasible with currenttechnology. If a structure could not be decontami-nated successfully, it might be necessary to demol-ish it, even if it was not physically damaged by the

attack.3

In addition to being expensive, cleaning up an areaafter a radiological attack would be very time-con-suming; it is likely that normal activities in physi-cally undamaged areas surrounding an attack sitewould not be able to resume for much longer thanin the case of a non-radiological attack. After theSeptember 11 attack, much of the surrounding areawas reoccupied within days or weeks; in the case of a radiological attack, it could be months or longerbecause of the need for decontamination.

It may be possible to substantially reduce the extentof the area that would receive extensive decontam-ination after a radiological attack without increas-ing risks to human health by changing the regulato-ry standards for the amount of radiation permittedto remain after cleanup. This type of change, whichis discussed in more detail below under Policies

and Regulations, could decrease the cost of recov-ery after a radiological attack and allow normalactivities to resume more quickly.

Peoples fears of radiation could add to the eco-nomic impact of a radiological attack. The biggestlong-term economic problems faced by people inGoiania (an agricultural region) resulted from therefusal of people from outside the region to buy itsagricultural products, even though those productswere safe. In the case of a radiological attack on anurban area, similar fears might lead to a reluctanceto purchase industrial products, conduct business inthe area, or visit tourist attractions, all of whichcould cause lasting economic damage.

ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF A RADIOLOGICAL ATTACK

3. Alternatively, a building or area could be abandoned and fenced off, but this option is unlikely to be practical in a major metropolitan area.


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It is important to note that radioactivity cannot be seen,felt, or smelled. Therefore, the fact that an explosioninvolved radioactivity would not be immediately obvi-ous (unless a terrorist group announced it). In mostinstances, emergency responders, who routinely haveaccess to radiation detectors, would be able to conductradiation surveys and determine fairly quickly, probablywithin a half hour, that a radiological attack had takenplace. This information would then allow the authoritiesto issue correct instructions to the public via the newsmedia.

If a dirty bomb attack occurred, people would find outabout it in two different ways. Some individuals wouldbe close enough to hear, see, or feel an explosion.Others, who were farther away, would hear about theattack through the news media or official announce-ments.

For those people who were not close enough to theexplosion to hear, see, or feel it, the most importantthing to do would be to turn on a local radio stationor television channel and wait for advice from emer-gency response authorities. In all likelihood, peoplein this situation would not be at any immediate risk.

However, just as with any other type of emergency,the authorities might have important instructions forthe public to follow. For example, people might beadvised to stay away from an affected area to avoidinterference with emergency personnel and perhapsalso to avoid exposure to radioactive contamination.

For people who heard, saw, or felt an explosion, thesituation would be different. These individualswould know that an emergency had occurred, butthey would not know immediately whether radioac-tivity was involved. Because these individuals wereclose to an explosion and might continue to be indanger, they would need to take some actions thatpeople farther away from the explosion would not.

After an explosion, experts recommend that peopleshould do the following:

Move away from the immediate area at least sev-eral blocks from the explosion and go indoors.

Turn on local radio or TV channels for advisoriesfrom emergency response and health authorities.

If it is determined that an explosion involved radioac-tivity and if facilities are available, people who were

within sight of or downwind of the explosion shouldconsider changing clothes and showering if possible.These actions will remove at least 90 percent of external contamination. Contaminated clothingshould be placed in plastic bags and sealed until theamount of contamination can be measured.

If radioactive material was released, local newsbroadcasts will advise people where to report forradiation monitoring and blood and other tests todetermine whether they were in fact exposed andwhat steps to take to protect their health.

Because inhaling any kind of dust, and especially

dust that may be contaminated with radioactivematerial, is unhealthful, some experts recommendthat people take simple precautions to avoid inhalingcontaminants during the immediate aftermath of anexplosion, such as breathing through a folded cloth if one is readily available and going indoors and clos-ing doors and windows as soon as possible.

Another important precaution is to not handle or pick up any object thrown off by an explosion. In theevent that the object was part of the radioactivesource used in a dirty bomb, it could be quite danger-ous. Handling things without knowing what theywere is what got people into trouble in Goiania; the

same could occur after a dirty bomb explosion.

People sometimes wonder whether they should takepotassium iodide to protect their health if a radiologicalattack occurs. The answer in almost all possible dirtybomb scenarios is no. Potassium iodide protects onlyagainst damage to the thyroid gland from radioactiveiodine; it does not protect other parts of the body, and itis of no use against other radioactive materials. It is veryunlikely that radioactive iodine would be used in a dirtybomb.

Another course of action that is usually unwise (unlessspecifically advised by authorities) is driving away fromthe area of an attack. People can move to a safe distancefrom a radiological attack by walking rather than driv-ing; staying off the roads reduces the risk of traffic con-gestion that can hamper response to the emergency orcause crashes. Also, an automobile that was in the imme-diate vicinity of a dirty bomb explosion could be con-taminated with radioactivity. People who drive away inthat automobile might expose themselves to moreradioactivity than they would if they walked to a safelocation.

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF A DIRTY BOMB ATTACK


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As societies make efforts to prevent radiologicalattacks and to ensure the most effective response if anattack occurs, consideration may be given to modify-ing some policies and regulations that were notdesigned with radiological attacks in mind. Citizensneed to understand the rationale behind such propos-als in order to make informed decisions about theirmerits. A proposal that appears overly restrictive orinsufficiently protective on the surface might wellbe found to be beneficial when all its advantages anddisadvantages are taken into consideration. The fol-lowing examples may help to illustrate this point.

Legal purchase of radioactive materials in the U.S.requires possession of a radioactive materials license.These licenses are considered public documents andtherefore are available for public scrutiny. Thismeans that a terrorist organization may be able toobtain copies of the documents and use these to iden-tify likely targets for theft. Thus, it may be worth-while to consider prohibiting public access to thesedocuments. The government and by extension, thepublic would need to decide whether the potentialbenefits of this regulatory change justify limiting cit-izens freedom of access to this particular type of

information.

If terrorists are to construct and transport a radiolog-ical dispersal device with reasonable safety to them-selves, they would need to obtain large quantities of lead to use as shielding. Accordingly, a case could bemade for requiring lead vendors to report large salesof their products. If such a proposal is considered, itspotential benefits would have to be weighed againstthe additional burdens that would be placed on thelead industry and the likely resulting increases in thecost of this industrys products.

Some current regulations pertaining to permissiblelevels of radioactive contamination may have beenbased more on what is achievable or what isdetectable than on what is truly necessary to protecthealth and the environment. In the event of an attack,

these unnecessarily stringent regulations might ham-per a communitys ability to recover by increasingthe amounts of time and money mandated for cleanupwithout providing any benefits that would offsetthese costs. Therefore, society may wish to revisitregulatory guidance so that regulations are based onreal risk rather than the ability to detect ever-lowerlevels of contamination.

It has been proposed, for example, that the standardfor the amount of added radioactivity allowed toremain after cleanup from a radiological attack be

increased tenfold.4

This might decrease the cost of recovery by perhaps 90 percent and somewhatdecrease the time needed for cleanup.

The current standard set by the Nuclear RegulatoryCommission is 25 mrem (millirems) of addedradioactivity per year 5; the Environmental ProtectionAgencys standard is 15 mrem per year. For compar-ison, it helps to know that the natural backgroundradiation to which people are normally exposed isseveral hundred millirems per year, with substantialvariations from place to place. Residents of Washington, D.C., for example, are exposed to 300mrem/year, which is close to the national average.Residents of Denver, Colorado, which is at a higheraltitude (therefore allowing more exposure to cosmicradiation) and has underground uranium deposits, areexposed to about 500 mrem/year.

Increasing the standard for residual radioactivity ten-fold would mean allowing about 200 mrem/year of added radiation to remain in the environment aftercleanup from a radiological attack; this is the same asthe additional exposure that would come from livingin Denver rather than Washington. No radiation-asso-ciated health risks have been associated with living inDenver; cancer rates there are similar to those inWashington. Similarly, no adverse effects on humanhealth would be expected if a residual radioactivitystandard of around 200 mrem/year were adopted.

POLICIES AND REGULATIONS

4. This proposal is recommended and discussed in detail inZimmerman, Peter D. with Cheryl Loeb, Dirty Bombs: The ThreatRevisited, National Defense University, January 2004. Availableonline at http://hps.org/documents/RDD_report.pdf

5. A rem is a unit that relates the absorbed dose of radiation in humantissue to the effective biological damage of the radiation. Differenttypes of radiation have different biological effects; expressingamounts of exposure in rems allows these different types of radiationto be compared.


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SUMMARY

Dirty bombs, more correctly referred to as radio-logical dispersal devices or radiological weapons,are conventional explosive devices with addedradioactive material. They are designed to spreadradioactive contamination and with it, panic,anxiety, and social and economic disruption ina community. To ensure appropriate responses inthe event of a radiological attack, citizens need tounderstand that the principal danger from a dirtybomb lies in the explosion itself; in most

scenarios, few if any people who were not closeenough to the blast to be injured by it would expe-rience any adverse health effects from radiationexposure. Citizens can help to minimize the harm-ful impact of a radiological attack by followingthe instructions of emergency response authoritiesand by avoiding hasty actions prompted by panicor unwarranted fears of even small amounts of radioactivity.

REFERENCES

Karam, P. Andrew, Radiological Terrorism. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment , in press.

Ferguson CD and Potter WC. 2004. The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism. Monterey Institute forInternational Studies Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Monterey CA.

Ferguson CD, Kazi T, and Perera J. 2003. Center for Nonproliferation Studies Occasional Paper #11,Commercial Radioactive Sources: Surveying the Security Risks. Monterey Institute Center forNonproliferation Studies, Monterey, CA.

NCRP (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements). 2001. Report #138.Management of Terrorist Events Involving Radioactive Material.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Dirty bombs [fact sheet], March 2003. Available online athttp://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/dirty-bombs.html

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Backgrounder on dirty bombs, April 2005. Available online athttp://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/dirty-bombs.html

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Frequently asked questions about dirty bombs,March 2005. Available online at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/dirtybombs.asp

Zimmerman, Peter D. with Cheryl Loeb, Dirty Bombs: The Threat Revisited , National DefenseUniversity, January 2004. Available online at http://hps.org/documents/RDD_report.pdf


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Elizabeth M. Whelan, Sc.D., M.P.H., President

A C S H B O A R D O F D I R E C T O R S

John H. Moore, Ph.D., M.B.A.Chairman of the Board, ACSH Grove City College

Elissa P. Benedek, M.D.University of Michigan

Norman E. Borlaug, Ph.D.Texas A&M University

Michael B. Bracken, Ph.D., M.P.H.Yale University School of Medicine

Christine M. Bruhn, Ph.D.University of California

Taiwo K. Danmola, C.P.A.Ernst & Young

Thomas R. DeGregori, Ph.D.University of Houston

Henry I. Miller, M.D.Hoover Institution

A. Alan Moghissi, Ph.D.Institute for Regulatory Science

Albert G. NickelLyons Lavey Nickel Swift, inc.

Kenneth M. Prager, M.D.Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons

Stephen S. Sternberg, M.D.Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center

Mark C. Taylor, M.D.

Physicians for a Smoke-Free Canada

Lorraine ThelianKetchum Public Relations

Kimberly M. Thompson, Sc.D.Harvard School of Public Health

Elizabeth M. Whelan, Sc.D., M.P.HAmerican Council on Science and Health

Robert J. White, M.D., Ph.D.Case Western Reserve University

A C S H B O A R D O F S C I E N T I F I C A N D P O L I C Y A D V I S O R S

Ernest L. Abel, Ph.D.C.S. Mott Center

Gary R. Acuff, Ph.D.Texas A&M University

Alwynelle S. Ahl, Ph.D., D.V.M.Tuskegee University, AL

Julie A. Albrecht, Ph.D.University of Nebraska, Lincoln

James E. Alcock, Ph.D.Glendon College, York University

Thomas S. Allems, M.D., M.P.H.San Francisco, CA

Richard G. Allison, Ph.D.American Society for Nutritional Sciences (FASEB)

John B. Allred, Ph.D.Ohio State University

Philip R. Alper, M.D.University of California, San Francisco

Karl E. Anderson, M.D.University of Texas, Medical Branch

Dennis T. AveryHudson Institute

Ronald Bachman, M.D.Kaiser-Permanente Medical Center

Robert S. Baratz, D.D.S., Ph.D., M.D.International Medical Consultation Services

Nigel M. Bark, M.D.Albert Einstein College of Medicine

Stephen Barrett, M.D.Allentown, PA

Thomas G. Baumgartner, Pharm.D.,M.Ed.University of Florida

W. Lawrence Beeson, Dr.P.H.Loma Linda University School of Public Health

Barry L. Beyerstein, Ph.D.Simon Fraser University

Steven Black, M.D.Kaiser-Permanente Vaccine Study Center Blaine L. Blad, Ph.D.University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Hinrich L. Bohn, Ph.D.University of Arizona

Ben Bolch, Ph.D.Rhodes College

Joseph F. Borzelleca, Ph.D.Medical College of Virginia

Michael K. Botts, Esq.Ames, IA

George A. Bray, M.D.Pennington Biomedical Research Center

Ronald W. Brecher, Ph.D., C.Chem.,DABTGlobalTox International Consultants, Inc.

Robert L. Brent, M.D., Ph.D.Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children

Allan Brett, M.D.University of South Carolina

Kenneth G. Brown, Ph.D.KBinc

Gale A. Buchanan, Ph.D.University of Georgia George M. Burditt, J.D.Bell, Boyd & Lloyd LLC

Edward E. Burns, Ph.D.Texas A&M University

Francis F. Busta, Ph.D.University of Minnesota

Elwood F. Caldwell, Ph.D., M.B.A.University of Minnesota

Zerle L. Carpenter, Ph.D.Texas A&M University System

Robert G. Cassens, Ph.D.University of Wisconsin, Madison

Ercole L. Cavalieri, D.Sc.University of Nebraska Medical Center

Russell N. A. Cecil, M.D., Ph.D.Albany Medical College

Rino Cerio, M.D.Barts and The London Hospital Institute of Pathology

Morris E. Chafetz, M.D.Health Education Foundation

Bruce M. Chassy, Ph.D.University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Dale J. Chodos, M.D.Kalamazoo, MI

Martha A. Churchill, Esq.Milan, MI

Emil William Chynn, M.D.Manhattan Eye, Ear & Throat Hospital

Dean O. Cliver, Ph.D.University of California, Davis

F. M. Clydesdale, Ph.D.University of Massachusetts

Donald G. Cochran, Ph.D.Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

W. Ronnie Coffman, Ph.D.Cornell University

Bernard L. Cohen, D.Sc.University of Pittsburgh

John J. Cohrssen, Esq.Public Health Policy Advisory Board

Neville Colman, M.D., Ph.D.St. Lukes Roosevelt Hospital Center

Gerald F. Combs, Jr., Ph.D.Cornell University

Michael D. Corbett, Ph.D.Omaha, NE

Morton Corn, Ph.D.John Hopkins University

Nancy Cotugna, Dr.Ph., R.D., C.D.N.University of Delaware

Roger A. Coulombe, Jr., Ph.D.Utah State University

H. Russell Cross, Ph.D.Future Beef Operations, L.L.C.

James W. Curran, M.D., M.P.H.Emory University

Charles R. Curtis, Ph.D.Ohio State University

Ilene R. Danse, M.D.Novato, CA

Ernst M. Davis, Ph.D.University of Texas, Houston

Harry G. Day, Sc.D.I ndiana University

Robert M. Devlin, Ph.D.University of Massachusetts

Seymour Diamond, M.D.Diamond Headache Clinic

Donald C. Dickson, M.S.E.E.Gilbert, AZ

John DieboldThe Diebold Institute for Public Policy Studies

Ralph Dittman, M.D., M.P.H.Houston, TX

John E. Dodes, D.D.S.National Council Against Health Fraud

Sir Richard Doll, M.D., D.Sc., D.M.University of Oxford

John Doull, M.D., Ph.D.University of Kansas Theron W. Downes, Ph.D.Michigan State University

Michael Patrick Doyle, Ph.D.University of Georgia

Adam Drewnowski, Ph.D.University of Washington

Michael A. Dubick, Ph.D.U.S. Army Institute of Surgical Research

Greg Dubord, M.D., M.P.H.RAM Institute

Edward R. Duffie, Jr., M.D.Savannah, GA

David F. Duncan, Dr.Ph.Duncan & Associates

James R. Dunn, Ph.D.Averill Park, NY

Robert L. DuPont, M.D.Institute for Behavior and Health, Inc.

Henry A. Dymsza, Ph.D.University of Rhode Island

Michael W. Easley, D.D.S., M.P.H.State University of New York, Buffalo

J. Gordon Edwards, Ph.D.San Jos State University

George E. Ehrlich, M.D., F.A.C.P.,M.A.C.R., FRCP (Edin)Philadelphia, PA

Michael P. Elston, M.D., M.S.Rapid City Regional Hospital

William N. Elwood, Ph.D.Center for Public Health & Evaluation Research

James E. Enstrom, Ph.D., M.P.H.University of California, Los Angeles

Stephen K. Epstein, M.D., M.P.P.,FACEPBeth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

Myron E. Essex, D.V.M., Ph.D.Harvard School of Public Health

Terry D. Etherton, Ph.D.Pennsylvania State University

R. Gregory Evans, Ph.D., M.P.H.St. Louis University Center for the Study of Bioterrorism and Emerging Infections

William Evans, Ph.D.University of Alabama

Daniel F. Farkas, Ph.D., M.S., P.E.Oregon State University

Richard S. Fawcett, Ph.D.Huxley, IA

John B. Fenger, M.D.Phoenix, AZ

Owen R. Fennema, Ph.D.University of Wisconsin, Madison

Frederick L. Ferris, III, M.D.National Eye Institute

David N. Ferro, Ph.D.University of Massachusetts

Madelon L. Finkel, Ph.D.Cornell University Medical College

Jack C. Fisher, M.D.University of California, San Diego

Kenneth D. Fisher, Ph.D.Washington, DC

Leonard T. Flynn, Ph.D., M.B.A.Morganville, NJ

William H. Foege, M.D., MEmory University

Ralph W. Fogleman, D.V.MDoylestown, PA

Christopher H. Foreman, Jr.University of Maryland

E. M. Foster, Ph.D.University of Wisconsin, Madison

F. J. Francis, Ph.D.University of Massachusetts

Glenn W. Froning, Ph.D.University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Vincent A. Fulginiti, M.D.University of Colorado

Arthur Furst, Ph.D., Sc.D.University of San Francisco

Robert S. Gable, Ed.D., Ph.Claremont Graduate University

Shayne C. Gad, Ph.D., D.AGad Consulting Services

William G. Gaines, Jr., M.DScott & White Clinic

Charles O. Gallina, Ph.D.Professional Nuclear Associates

Raymond Gambino, M.D.Quest Diagnostics Incorporated

Randy R. Gaugler, Ph.D.Rutgers University

J. Bernard L. Gee, M.D.Yale University School of Medicine

K. H. Ginzel, M.D.University of Arkansas for Medical S

William Paul Glezen, M.D.Baylor College of Medicine

Jay A. Gold, M.D., J.D., MMedical College of Wisconsin

Roger E. Gold, Ph.D.Texas A&M University

Rene M. Goodrich, Ph.D.University of Florida Frederick K. Goodwin, M.DThe George Washington University MCenter

Timothy N. Gorski, M.D., FArlington, TX

Ronald E. Gots, M.D., Ph.DInternational Center for Toxicology aMedicine

Henry G. Grabowski, Ph.D.Duke University

James Ian Gray, Ph.D.Michigan State University

William W. Greaves, M.D., MMedical College of Wisconsin

A C S H E X E C U T I V E S T A F F


14/17

A C S H B O A R D O F S C I E N T I F I C A N D P O L I C Y A D V I S O R S

Kenneth Green, D.Env.Reason Public Policy Institute

Laura C. Green, Ph.D., D.A.B.T.Cambridge Environmental, Inc.

Saul Green, Ph.D.Zol Consultants

Richard A. Greenberg, Ph.D.Hinsdale, IL

Sander Greenland, Dr.P.H., M.A.UCLA School of Public Health

Gordon W. Gribble, Ph.D.Dartmouth College

William Grierson, Ph.D.University of Florida

Lester Grinspoon, M.D.Harvard Medical School

F. Peter Guengerich, Ph.D.Vanderbilt University School of Medicine

Caryl J. Guth, M.D.Hillsborough, CA

Philip S. Guzelian, M.D.University of Colorado

Alfred E. Harper, Ph.D.University of Wisconsin, Madison

Terryl J. Hartman, Ph.D., M.P.H.,R.D.The Pennsylvania State University

Clare M. Hasler, Ph.D.University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Robert D. Havener, M.P.A.Sacramento, CA

Virgil W. Hays, Ph.D.University of Kentucky

Cheryl G. Healton, Dr.PH.Columbia University

Clark W. Heath, Jr., M.D.American Cancer Society

Dwight B. Heath, Ph.D.Brown University

Robert Heimer, Ph.D.Yale School of Public Health

Robert B. Helms, Ph.D.American Enterprise Institute

Zane R. Helsel, Ph.D.Rutgers University, Cook College

Donald A. Henderson, M.D., M.P.H.Johns Hopkins University

James D. Herbert, Ph.D.MCP Hahnemann University

Gene M. Heyman, Ph.D.McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School

Richard M. Hoar, Ph.D.Williamstown, MA

Theodore R. Holford, Ph.D.Yale University School of Medicine

Robert M. Hollingworth, Ph.D.Michigan State University

Edward S. Horton, M.D.Joslin Diabetes Center

Joseph H. Hotchkiss, Ph.D.Cornell University

Steve E. Hrudey, Ph.D.University of Alberta

Susanne L. Huttner, Ph.D.University of California, Berkeley

Robert H. Imrie, D.V.M.Seattle, WA

Lucien R. Jacobs, M.D.University of California, Los Angeles

Alejandro R. Jadad, M.D., D.Phil.,F.R.C.P.C.University of Toronto, Canada

Rudolph J. Jaeger, Ph.D.Environmental Medicine, Inc.

William T. Jarvis, Ph.D.Loma Linda University

Michael Kamrin, Ph.D.Michigan State University

John B. Kaneene,Ph.D., M.P.H.,D.V.M.Michigan State University

P. Andrew Karam, Ph.D., CHPUniversity of Rochester

Philip G. Keeney, Ph.D.Pennsylvania State University

John G. Keller, Ph.D.Olney, MD

Kathryn E. Kelly, Dr.P.H.Delta Toxicology

George R. Kerr, M.D.University of Texas, Houston

George A. Keyworth II, Ph.D.Progress and Freedom Foundation

Michael Kirsch, M.D.Highland Heights, OH John C. Kirschman, Ph.D.Emmaus, PA

Ronald E. Kleinman, M.D.Massachusetts General Hospital

Leslie M. Klevay, M.D., S.D.in Hyg.University of North Dakota School of Medicine

David M. Klurfeld, Ph.D.Wayne State University

Kathryn M. Kolasa, Ph.D., R.D.East Carolina University

James S. Koopman, M.D, M.P.H.University of Michigan

Alan R. Kristal, Dr.P.H.Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center

David Kritchevsky, Ph.D.The Wistar Institute

Stephen B. Kritchevsky, Ph.D.Wake Forest University Health Sciences

Mitzi R. Krockover, M.D.Humana, Inc.

Manfred Kroger, Ph.D.Pennsylvania State University

Laurence J. Kulp, Ph.D.University of Washington

Sandford F. Kuvin, M.D.University of Miami

Carolyn J. Lackey, Ph.D., R.D.North Carolina State University

Pagona Lagiou, M.D., DrMedSciUniversity of Athens Medical School

J. Clayburn LaForce, Ph.D.University of California, Los Angeles

James C. Lamb, IV, Ph.D., J.D.Blasland, Bouck & Lee

Lawrence E. Lamb, M.D.San Antonio, TX

William E. M. Lands, Ph.D.College Park, MD

Lillian Langseth, Dr.P.H.Lyda Associates, Inc.

Brian A. Larkins, Ph.D.University of Arizona

Larry Laudan, Ph.D.National Autonomous University of Mexico

Tom B. Leamon, Ph.D.Liberty Mutual Insurance Company

Jay H. Lehr, Ph.D.Environmental Education Enterprises, Inc.

Brian C. Lentle, M.D., FRCPC, DMRDUniversity of British Columbia

Floy Lilley, J.D.Amelia Island, FlF

Paul J. Lioy, Ph.D.UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School

William M. London, Ed.D., M.P.H.Walden University

Frank C. Lu, M.D., BCFEMiami, FL

William M. Lunch, Ph.D.Oregon State University

Daryl Lund, Ph.D.University of Wisconsin

George D. Lundberg, M.D.Medscape

Howard D. Maccabee, Ph.D., M.D.Radiation Oncology Center

Janet E. Macheledt, M.D., M.S.,M.P.H.Houston, TX

Roger P. Maickel, Ph.D.Purdue University

Henry G. Manne, J.S.D.George Mason University Law School

Karl Maramorosch, Ph.D.Rutgers University, Cook College

Judith A. Marlett, Ph.D., R.D.University of Wisconsin, Madison

James R. Marshall, Ph.D.Roswell Park Cancer Institute

Mary H. McGrath, M.D., M.P.H.Loyola University Medical Center

Alan G. McHughen, D.Phil.University of California, Riverside

James D. McKean, D.V.M., J.D.Iowa State University

John J. McKetta, Ph.D.University of Texas at Austin

Donald J. McNamara, Ph.D.Egg Nutrition Center

Michael H. Merson, M.D.Yale University School of Medicine

Patrick J. Michaels, Ph.D.University of Virginia

Thomas H. Milby, M.D., M.P.H.Walnut Creek, CA

Joseph M. Miller, M.D., M.P.H.University of New Hampshire William J. Miller, Ph.D.University of Georgia

Dade W. Moeller, Ph.D.Harvard University

Grace P. Monaco, J.D.Medical Care Management Corp.

Brian E. Mondell, M.D.Baltimore Headache Institute

Eric W. Mood, LL.D., M.P.H.Yale University School of Medicine

John W. Morgan, Dr.P.H.California Cancer Registry

W. K. C. Morgan, M.D.University of Western Ontario

Stephen J. Moss, D.D.S., M.S.Health Education Enterprises, Inc.

Brooke T. Mossman, Ph.D.University of Vermont College of Medicine

Allison A. Muller, Pharm.DThe Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia

Ian C. Munro, F.A.T.S., Ph.D.,

FRCPathCantox Health Sciences International Kevin B. MurphyMerrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith

Harris M. Nagler, M.D.Beth Israel Medical Center

Daniel J. Ncayiyana, M.D.University of Cape Town

Philip E. Nelson, Ph.D.Purdue University

Malden C. Nesheim, Ph.D.Cornell University

Joyce A. Nettleton, D.Sc., R.D.Aurora, Co

John S. Neuberger, Dr.P.H.University of Kansas School of Medicine

Gordon W. Newell, Ph.D., M.S.,F.-A.T.S.Palo Alto, CA

Thomas J. Nicholson, Ph.D., M.P.H.Western Kentucky University

Steven P. Novella, M.D.Yale University School of Medicine

James L. Oblinger, Ph.D.North Carolina State University

Deborah L. OConnor, Ph.D.University of Toronto/The Hospital for Sick Children

John Patrick OGrady, M.D.Tufts University School of Medicine

James E. Oldfield, Ph.D.Oregon State University

Stanley T. Omaye, Ph.D., F.-A.T.S.,F.ACN, C.N.S.University of Nevada, Reno

Michael T. Osterholm, Ph.D., M.P.H.University of Minnesota

M. Alice Ottoboni, Ph.D.Sparks, NV

Michael W. Pariza, Ph.D.University of Wisconsin, Madison

Stuart Patton, Ph.D.University of California, San Diego

James Marc Perrin, M.D.Mass General Hospital for Children

Timothy Dukes Phillips, Ph.D.Texas A&M University

Mary Frances Picciano, Ph.D.National Institutes of Health

David R. Pike, Ph.D.University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Thomas T. Poleman, Ph.D.Cornell University

Charles Poole, M.P.H., Sc.DUniversity of North Carolina School of Public Health

Gary P. Posner, M.D.Tampa, FL

John J. Powers, Ph.D.University of Georgia

William D. Powrie, Ph.D.University of British Columbia

C.S. Prakash, Ph.D.Tuskegee University

Kary D. PrestenU.S. Trust Co.

Marvin P. Pritts, Ph.D.Cornell University

Daniel J. Raiten, Ph.D.National Institute of Health

David W. Ramey, D.V.M.Ramey Equine Group

R.T. Ravenholt, M.D., M.PPopulation Health Imperatives

Russel J. Reiter, Ph.D.University of Texas, San Antonio

William O. Robertson, M.University of Washington School ofMedicine

J. D. Robinson, M.D.Georgetown University School of M

Bill D. Roebuck, Ph.D., DDartmouth Medical School

David B. Roll, Ph.D.University of Utah

Dale R. Romsos, Ph.D.Michigan State University

Joseph D. Rosen, Ph.D.Cook College, Rutgers University

Steven T. Rosen, M.D.Northwestern University Medical S

Kenneth J. Rothman, Dr.P.HBoston University

Stanley Rothman, Ph.D.Smith College

Edward C. A. Runge, Ph.DTexas A&M University

Stephen H. Safe, D.Phil.Texas A&M University

Wallace I. Sampson, M.D.Stanford University School of MedHarold H. Sandstead, M.DUniversity of Texas Medical Branch

Charles R. Santerre, Ph.D.Purdue University

Herbert P. Sarett, Ph.D.Sarasota, FL

Sally L. Satel, M.D.American Enterprise Institute

Lowell D. Satterlee, Ph.D.Oklahoma State University

Jeffrey Wyatt SavellTexas A&M University

Marvin J. Schissel, D.D.S.Roslyn Heights, NY

Lawrence J. SchneidermanUniversity of California, San DiegoEdgar J. Schoen, M.D.Kaiser Permanente Medical Center

David Schottenfeld, M.D.,University of Michigan

Joel M. Schwartz, M.S.American Enterprise Institute

David E. Seidemann, Ph.DBrooklyn College/Yale University

Patrick J. Shea, Ph.D.University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Michael B. Shermer, Ph.DSkeptic Magazine


15/17

The opinions expressed in ACSH publications do not necessarily represent the views of all ACSH Directors and Advisors. A

Sidney Shindell, M.D., LL.B.Medical College of Wisconsin

Sarah Short, Ph.D., Ed.D., R.D.Syracuse University

A. J. Siedler, Ph.D.University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Lee M. Silver, Ph.D.Princeton University

Michael S. Simon, M.D., M.P.H.Wayne State University

S. Fred Singer, Ph.D.Science & Environmental Policy Project

Robert B. Sklaroff, M.D.Elkins Park, PA

Anne M. Smith, Ph.D., R.D., L.D.The Ohio State University

Gary C. Smith, Ph.D.Colorado State University

John N. Sofos, Ph.D.Colorado State University

Roy F. Spalding, Ph.D.University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Leonard T. Sperry, M.D., Ph.D.Barry University

Robert A. Squire, D.V.M., Ph.D.Johns Hopkins University

Ronald T. Stanko, M.D.University of Pittsburgh Medical Center

James H. Steele, D.V.M., M.P.H.University of Texas, Houston

Robert D. Steele, Ph.D.Pennsylvania State University

Judith S. Stern, Sc.D., R.D.University of California, Davis

Ronald D. Stewart, O.C., M.D.,FRCPCDalhousie University

Martha Barnes Stone, Ph.D.Colorado State University Jon A. Story, Ph.D.Purdue University

Michael M. Sveda, Ph.D.Gaithersburg, MD

Glenn Swogger, Jr., M.D.Topeka, KS

Sita R. Tatini, Ph.D.University of Minnesota

Steve L. Taylor, Ph.D.University of Nebraska, Lincoln

James W. Tillotson, Ph.D., M.B.A.Tufts University

Dimitrios Trichopoulos, M.D.Harvard School of Public Health

Murray M. Tuckerman, Ph.D.Winchendon, MA

Robert P. Upchurch, Ph.D.University of Arizona

Mark J. Utell, M.D.University of Rochester Medical Center

Shashi B. Verma, Ph.D.University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Willard J. Visek, M.D., Ph.D.University of Illinois College of Medicine

Donald M. Watkin, M.D., M.P.H.,

F.A.C.P.George Washington University Miles Weinberger, M.D.University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics

Lynn Waishwell, Ph.D., CHESUniversity of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey

Janet S. Weiss, M.D.University of California at San-Francisco

Simon Wessley, M.D., FRCPKings College London and Institute of Psychiatry

Steven D. Wexner, M.D.Cleveland Clinic Florida

Joel Elliot White, M.D., F.A.C.R.John Muir Comprehensive Cancer Center

Carol Whitlock, Ph.D., R.D.Rochester Institute of Technology

Christopher F. Wilkinson, Ph.D.Burke, VA

Mark L. Willenbring, M.D.Veterans Affairs Medical Center

Carl K. Winter, Ph.D.University of California, Davis

Lloyd D. Witter, Ph.D.University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

James J. Worman, Ph.D.Rochester Institute of Technology

Russell S. Worrall, O.D.University of California, Berkeley

Panayiotis M. Zavos, Ph.D., Ed.S.University of Kentucky

Steven H. Zeisel, M.D., Ph.D.The University of North Carolina

Michael B. Zemel, Ph.D.Nutrition Institute, University of Tennessee

Ekhard E. Ziegler, M.D.University of Iowaa


16/17

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