European Journal of Psychology of Education1989, Vol. IV, n? 4, 489-503© 1989, I.S.P.A.

The Development of Research-Oriented Learningin Five European Countries

Barbara Dippelhofer-StiemFree University of Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany

The demand of research-oriented learning in higher education whichwas raisedin various European countries at the end of the 1960s focusedabove all on institutional feasibilities. In this article a broader view0/1 the subject is given. Research-oriented learning is examined bothas part ofstudents' abilities and as a special learning style. The empiricaldata were gathered by means ofa scaledeveloped within an internationallongitudinal study on student socialisation. The findings show effectsof selection as well as of socialisation. They indicate heterogeneitybetween main fields at the beginning of study and continuousdevelopment, throughout the course of time spent attending university.This trend is similar for four of the five countries studied - Austria,Germany, the Netherlands and Poland. The fifth country Yugoslaviaproved to be an exception. But in all five countries the level reachedby students remains unsatisfactory in view of the university's objectives.The factors determining the development of a research-oriented learningstyle, in addition to the field of study, are motivation and gender.Throughout their studies women in all countries remain at a loweraverage level. This in particular, would have to be considered in arenewed discussion of the topic.

Frame of reference and empirical approach

Nearly two decades ago the West German federal conference of assistant professors(Bundesassistentenkonferenz, 1970) demanded the introduction of new and better ways ofteaching and learning in universities. According to their conception, which is unmistakablybased on Humboldt's ideas, students should not merely learn receptively but rather in anautonomous, scientific way. They ought to work independently, with self-determination andinterest. By participating in academic discussions and the research process itself, they are toexperience the consequences of scientific research - both the advantages and the risks. Inthe end, learning should merge with science and become a unity. During the Student Movement

This article presents findings from the FORM-project. The FORM-project takes its name from the French title- Diplornes de I'Universite: leur Formation et leur Conception de la Vie. It was a research programme initiated bythe German group and co-directed by W. Markiewicz (Polish Academy of Sciences) and H. Peisert (University ofConstance, Germany). Coordination was ensured by the European Coordination Centre for Research and Documentationin Social Sciences (Vienna Centre). 1 am indebted to my Constance colleagues as well as to Mrs. Margot Reinhardt,who translated the German version of this article.

490 B. DIPPELHOFER-STIEM

such ideas were also formulated in other European countries. In the Federal Republic ofGermany these ideas were differentiated and further developed (Huber, 1970) as well as beingtested in some initiatives on project work (Hering & Hermanns, 1978; Tippelt, 1979). Theseapproaches, however, did not enjoy broad effects and long-term success. Because of the rapidlyincreasing number of students, the universities had to deal with new and more urgent problems.

Given this background, it may seem somewhat belated to begin investigation of research­oriented learning at this time. However, the conjunction of these ideas, which were formulatedinitially for political reasons, with those from cognitive learning theories (see e. g. Bruner,1973; Piaget, 1970) suggested that the survey would be interesting and fruitful. The expecteddecrease in the number of students for the coming years may also allow the possibility oftesting and implementing alternative learning methods. And, in addition to differentapproaches such as «significant» and «meaningful learning» (Rogers, 1974), «deep processing»(Marton, 1975) or «meaning orientation» (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983), research-orientedpotentialities and procedures can be regarded as a noteworthy alternative to the presentacademic teaching and learning institutions.

The FORM-project provided the opportunity for investigating empirically this learningstyle in a comparative study of five European countries. It is concerned with socialisationat the university - its preconditions, processes and long-term results. Its focus is on thedevelopment of students' identity and personality as well as on the acquisition of subject­independent qualifications such as critical ability, rationality and social responsibility. It isinvestigating what notions and opinions students acquire in the course of their studies inrelation to certain areas (for example, academic orientations and academics, politics andsociety, profession and self) and how stable these patterns of throught remain after thetransition to a profession.

Research teams from five European countries - Austria, the Federal Republic ofGermany, the Netherlands, Poland and Yugoslavia - have been participating in thelongitudinal study. Teams from Great Britain and Sweden are also associated (see overview:Framhein, 1984). The FORM-study is based upon a very standardised instrument developedby all participants in collaboration. Because of the methodological problems associated withinternational comparisons, the chief goal of the instrument is to measure theoretical constructsby means of selected indicators (see: Sandberger et aI., 1982; Dippelhofer-Stiem & Lind,1987). An integrated data file was established and all statistical procedures have been doneby the software program package KOSTAS (Nagl, Walter & Staud, 1986).

Table 1The core sample of the FORM panel study.(*)

Austria FR Germany Netherlands Poland Yugoslavia(n=234) (n= 520) (**) (n= 136)

semesterArts I 181(national literature) 5 64 67 91 169 39

9 88

I 164Natural sciences 5 73 255 96 126 49

9 75

I 180Business and 5 97 198 88 95 48economics 9 111

Note. (*) University students who didn't change their field of study and who participated in each of the three panel waves.(**) The Polish data are based on three connected cross-sectional studies.

Tableau 1Echantillons d'etudiants interreges dans I'enquete internationale FORM

RESEARCH-ORIENTED LEARNING 491

In each country, a cohort of beginning students, chosen on the basis of field of studyand sex, was interviewed at two-year intervals. The first of a total of four surveys was madein the 1977-78 winter semester. It covered male and female students studying their respectivenational literature, natural science and economics (see Table 1). In addition, other fieldsas well as control groups were taken into account in the various countries to different extents.With the exception of Poland, all surveys were longitudinal, but in Poland, because of technicalproblems it became a series of connected cross-sectional studies.

Within the framework of this study, our conception of research-oriented learning containsall the criteria of academic working claimed at the West German Bundesassistentenkonferenz:autonomy, critical attitude, curiosity, and exploration. Our conception, however, goes muchfurther than that. Whereas the Bundesassistentenkonferenz was above all interested inorganisational innovations and didactical reforms at universities - such as the introductionof project-work - research-oriented learning, as the term is to be understood with regardto cognitive theories on human learning and thinking, puts the main emphasis on theindividual's ability and its development. According to the distinction between strategy andstyle, proposed by Entwistle, Hanley & Hounsell (1979, p. 368), research-oriented learningis a relatively consistent individual style of learning which is complementary to the institutionalobjective, and is leading students to academic orientations in order to qualify themscientifically Research-oriented learning is also related closely to the concept of «deepapproach», which is defined among other things by the intention to seek understanding,to relate new ideas to previous knowledge, to relate evidence to conclusions, and to examinethe logic of the argument (see overview: Entwistle, 1987). Additionally, research-orientedlearning includes aspects of students' activity in gaining new knowledge, which is done bycreating and working in research projects and investigations.

From this description of the concept, a six item scale of «research-oriented learning»was developed, It contained aspects of critical and problem-centred thinking, autonomousand creative learning as well as finding out the background of how a particular problemhas developed and carrying out small experiments or investigations (see Table 2). The scale,which asked students for self-descriptions of relevant learning behaviour, was used on threeoccasions (first, fifth, and ninth semester) in the five countries. Confirmatory factor analyseswith LISREL-methods corroborate the hypothesis of unidimensionality (Sand berger, 1984).Internal reliability analyses, applying the procedure of item analysis according to Edwards(1957), reveal satisfactory results in all five countries. The consistency coefficients are about0.7 in each of the three surveys and the discrimination of the items can be described asadquate. The following remarks refer only to the data of university students who did notchange their field of study and who were respondents on all three occasions.

Research-oriented learning between the first and the ninth semester

Developing an understanding of science, leading students to academic thinking, andteaching them appropriate techniques for working and studying, are all elements of preparingfor university which school-Ieavers have not experienced adequately. Not only in the FederalRepublic of Germany but also in Austria, in Poland and in Yugoslavia, the efforts on thepart of the school in order to prepare students for higher education are rated as ambivalentto negative by beginning students. One has to bear in mind that, in all countries investigated,this opinion is influenced by the respondents' attempts to dissociate and distance themselvesfrom their role as secondary school students. Therefore the opinion is likely to be morenegative than the actuality. Nevertheless, this assessment gives a hint of an underdevelopedacademic learning style and lack of any research-relevant attitude when entering university.

The empirical findings confirm this assumption for the three Western European countriesand for Poland. In terms of our scale, beginning students usually do not describe themselvesas research-oriented learners (see Table 2). The universities in Austria and in the Federal

492 B. DIPPELHOFER-STlEM

Republic of Germany can least of all expect entering students with such a learning style.It is true that in the first survey, the Austrian and German respondents show first signsof a critical and autonomous attitude, demonstrated for example ill thinking out solutionsof their own to problems, in reading literature in addition to that recommended, and inchallenging the author's argument when reading a book. Nevertheless, frequency and extentdo not seem to be enough to indicate research-oriented learning, particularly because inthe first semester the following essential elements are inevitably missing: understanding thelogic of a research process and gaining personal experiences through small experiments andinvestigations.

Professors and lecturers in the Federal Republic of Germany and other Western Europeancountries critically identify a so-called «inability for studying at universities» among the

Table 2Research-oriented learning between the first, the fifth and the ninth semester. Medians fornational samples *

Austria FR Germany Netherlands Poland Yugoslavia(n=234) (n = 520) (n=275) (**) (n=136)

semesterRead literature in I 1,0 1,6 1,6 1,6 2,1addition to recommended 5 1,5 1,9 1,6 1,9 2,0literature 9 1,7 1,9 2,0 1,8 2,2

When reading a book I 1,6 1,4 1,6 1,7 1,7find yourself challenging 5 1,8 1,8 1,9 1,8 1,8the author's argument 9 2,1 1,9 2,1 1,7 1,8

Decide for yourself I 0,9 1,1 1,2 1,5 1,5central areas of interest 5 1,3 1,4 1,2 1,8 1,4and work on them 9 1,8 1,6 1,5 1,7 1,5independently

Think out solutions of 1 1,7 1,6 1,8 1,9 1,8your own to problems 5 1,7 1,7 1,9 1,8 1,7

9 2,0 1,8 2,0 1,8 1,8

Find out for yourself the 1 0,9 1,0 1,5 1,2 1,9background of how a 5 0,8 1,1 1,6 1,3 1,7particular problem has 9 1,2 1,3 1,8 1,2 1,9developed

Carry out for yourself a 1 0,3 0,2 0,7 0,5 1,1small experiment or 5 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,8 0,9investigation of a 9 1,4 1,2 1,0 0,6 1,2particular topic

Sum score of the 1 12,6 13,2 14,3 14,4 16,3scale *** 5 13,6 14,4 15,0 15,7 15,3

9 16,0 15,9 16,5 14,7 16,4

Significance of the linear 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.005trend over-time ****

Note .• Question: «In your field of study how often do you do the following?» - Scale: 0= never; I = seldom: 2= sometimes;

3=often.*. The Polish data are based on three connected cross-sectional studies. First semester 11=525; fifth semester 11=390;ninth semester 11=274.

••* Range of the sum-score: 6 . 24; 6 means the lowest degrees. 24 the highest degree of research oriented learning,based on a rescaling of responses on to a 1-4 scale.

•••• Multivariate analysis of variance with orthogonal polynomial contrasts (Bock, 1975).

Tableau 2Evolution de l'activite d'etude orientee par la recherche entre le let; Ie Seme et le veme semestred'enseignement (medianes)

RESEARCH-ORIENTED LEARNING 493

younger generation. The reason for that may be seen in their rather undeveloped attitudetowards research and science in the first semester. In this article we cannot judge how farthe school is to be blamed for that exclusively, or to what extent the university itself oughtto take that responsibility. We can only emphasise that the institutions of higher educationin Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and Poland cannot expect to take in first-semesterstudents with an adequate and appropriate learning potencial for science and academicresearch. In Yugoslavia, however, where the investigation was done only in Slovenia thesituation is different. Both measured by our scale, and when compared with other countries,the respondents show an above-average degree of a research-oriented learning style. Thisis true for almost all items, especially for frequent reading of literature in addition to thatrecommended, for finding out the background of how a particular solution has developedand for carrying out small investigations or experiments.

Are Slovenian first-semester students exceptionally research-oriented and hard-working?Do they encounter extremely favourable conditions allowing them already in the first semesterto develop a special academic working-style? The answers to these questions must take intoaccount the respondents' specific answer-behaviour in the survey. As we have seen in otherparts of our survey, a slight tendency towards extreme answer-categories is a marked featureof the Yugoslavian data. Taken at face value, at least, this suggests that Siovenian studentsenter university with particularly high and positive expectations-presumably an effect of therecently realised university reform which has raised students' hopes. Admittedly, during thecourse of studies this atitude of expectation changes from positive and promising to a realisticand even critical view of the university and their own learning and working (see Dippelhofer­Stiem et al., 1984). So, in the event, Siovenian students do not develop their initially highstandard of research-oriented learning. During the fifth semester this learning style is evenon the dedi ne, though by the ninth semester the initial standard is regained. From thisobservation one can conclude that apparently the Slovenian universities do not succeed indeveloping and promoting those potentials which students have when leaving school. Thiscorresponds with the students' perception of the university environment. Compared withother countries, Siovenian students have perceived more possibilities for working autonomouslyand for communicating with others in the first semester. However, in the fifth semester theirappraisal is different: the demands on factual knowledge and achievement are lower, butso are the chances for developing their own topics of interest, for reflective science, andfor working independently. And, as will be shown later, these are exactly the elements ofthe university environment which are found to simulate research-oriented learning.

The differences between the Yugoslavian data and those in other countries are not onlymarked in terms of the initial degree of this learning style, but also in regard to its developmentin the course of studies. The universities in the Western European countries, and, as faras can be judged from the cross-sectional investigation, in Poland, predominantly seem totake up, promote, and develop, the existing abilities of first-semester students, at least toa certain extent, in order to foster research-oriented learning in the course of time. Accordingto the longitudinal findings in Austria, Germany and the Netherlands there is a continuousincrease in all items of the scale between the first, fifth and ninth semester. In other words,the respondents-especially the Austrian ones - realise an intensification of autonomous,critical and exploratory learning. Such an increase can be stated similarly for the otherindicators, with one exception: direct experience with research work by carrying out onesown experiments. Although there is an improvement in this aspect in the ninth semesterin Austria and in the Federal Republic of Germany it seems to be a rather rare experienceby prospective examination candidates.

For developing a research-oriented learning style the time effect is statistically significant(see Table 2). A multivariate analysis of variance for dependent measurements with orthogonalpolynomial contrasts (Bock, 1975) shows a highly significant linear trend. Since the testedgroups in question are homogeneous, cohort effects can certainly not be avoided. This maybe the reason why the German control groups each show lower values for first and ninth

494 B. DIPPELHOFER-STIEM

semester students. But the cross-sectional comparison similarly confirms a significant increasebetween the first and the ninth semester.

In the course of studies, research-oriented learning is further developed in the threeWestern European countries and can therefore be regarded as a culture-independent resultof university socialisation. Yet the linear increase is not all that great, as the obtained standardin the ninth semester (as measured by our scale) lies between «seldon» and «sometimes»in most items. It is questionable whether such a level is sufficient for an academic trainingand for coping with the requirements of the university.

Huber (1970) and Geulen (1980) have both commented that the requirements of studyingoften interfere with autonomous and creative learning. And students in our sample, especiallythe German and Austrian ones, did not experience their faculty environment and lessonsas being particularly supportive in this respect. In the respondents' eyes the university laysmuch emphasis on factual knowledge and good achievement while students are not givenenough scope to develop their own interests or to participate in the research process (seeDippelhofer-Stiem, 1986). In the Netherlands the students appear to have better opportunitiesfor autonomous working and developing critical views. Compared with the other two WesternEuropean countries, a higher level of research-oriented learning is a marked feature ofthe Netherlands sample. From this there is a first indication that granting students morescope and autonomy might be a supporting factor for developing this in the other countriestoo.

Already among freshmen there is a different level of research-oriented learning amongthe various disciplines. The hierarchy of the subjects follows the same pattern in all thecountries investigated and is therefore another common feature which is, in a way, culture­independent. First-semester students of literature achieve the highest level of this learningstyle, then natural sciencists while economics students have a comparatively low standard.At first glance, differences in the components of research-oriented learning seem to correspondwith the specific requirements of certain disciplines. This corresponds with the argumentof Ramsden & Entwistle (1981) concerning the deep and surface approach to learning.Respondents of national literature are highest on all aspects of autonomy and critical appraisalwhen reading books, as well as most often independently developing topics of their owninterest, whereas beginning students of natural sciences score highest on problem-solvingand research-oriented working. A similar specialisation can be noted for the Eastern Europeancountries, but there are no subject-specific differences in the chosen aspect of first priority:Polish students of all subjects point to thinking out solutions to problems as the mostimportant feature of their learning style, while the Slovenian students of all disciplines endorsethe reading of literature in addition to that recommended.

On the whole, the findings from the first testing refer to significant selection processeswhich undoubtedly take place before going to university. Findings of the German projectstudy on secondary schoolleavers indicate that individual interests and vocational orientation,as well as the orientation towards science and academic research, are of great importance forthese selection processes (see the essays in Peisert, 1981). Therefore, already in school, thedeveloping of a certain learning style could be encouraged as follows: school students intendingto choose arts with the aim of, say, working as a journalist, should probably strive for auton­omy and critical attitudes. Prospective students of natural sciences inevitably tend to developspecial interest in science and research. Finally, the striking orientation towards promotionand career with candidates of economics (Bargel, 1984) might possibly lead to passive orreceptive learning styles, interested in good marks rather than in research - a behaviourwhich is analogous to the strategic approach, described by Entwistle & Waterston (1988).

Even though these interpretations require more detailed study, it has to be pointed outthat in various European countries a research-oriented learning attitude obviously plays animportant role in the differentiated and complex process of choosing one's education andprofessional training-influenced by determinants such as one's own interests and vocationalframe of reference. In other words, first-semester students in Austria, West Germany, the

RESEARCH-ORIENTED LEARNING 495

Figure 1. Developpement de l'activite d'etude orientee par Ia recherche sur 9 semestres, pourtrois disciplines et dans quatre pays

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Figure 1. The developmerit of research oriented learning in three fields of study. Mediansfor national samples.

Netherlands, Poland and Yugoslavia choose their field of study in a similar way. And thisdecision is in fact to a certain extent dependents on the degree of research-oriented learningthey have already reached.

In addition to these highly significant and subject-specific selection effects we have toconsider the socialisation effects in the three Western European countries (see Figure 1).

They are more of a general than a subject-specific kind. Variance analyses for dependentmeasurements for the factor «subject» at the second and third time of measurement, andfor the «interaction» between subject and time, show no significant values for Austria, theFederal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands. That means that there is a linear increase

496 B. DIPPELHOFER-STlEM

in developing a research-oriented learning style between the first, fifth and ninth semesterfor students of all disciplines, with certain reservations for the arts sample in the Netherlandswhere the development proceeds in a kind of parallel increase. The subject-specific featuresof the different items of research-oriented learning at the beginning of the studies are inprinciple maintained. Both in the fifth and in the ninth semester, the subject-specific difference,show a similar relation ship to each other. This is also true for the Yugoslavian universitiesinvestigated. There is no change in the rank order of the three disciplines, although thereis a decline of research-oriented learning with fifth-semester students of natural sciencesand economics who regain their initial standard in the ninth semester.

It does not seem to be the particular subjects which develop the abilities referring toscience, academic thinking and research, but far more the duration of studies. Obviouslyit is not only the «objective» context itself which influences the development of this learningstyle. To what extent students adopt it is determined by the initial point of the specific subjectselected. This is a result which basically has validity for all countries investigated and whichfurthermore reveals a common effect of attending universities in various European countries- mainly independent of cultural background.

Research-oriented learning - a male domain?

Findings on sex-specific developments within the various subjects again demonstratea phenomenon, which is found in all five countries examined. At the beginning of studiesthe situation is heterogeneous - it differs from subject to subject and from country to country.In all countries except Austria, female economics students start with a higher standard ofresearch-oriented learning than their male counterparts. Yet in Austria, female first-semesterstudents of national literature are ahead of their male counterparts. In the Netherlands,however, the similarity between female and male students of natural sciences is striking,particularly since in other national contexts the male first-semester students are distinctly ahead.

Table 3Differences in research-oriented learning between female and male students. Medians of thesum-score for national samples *

First Fifth Ninthsemester semester semester

Austria female (n=124) 12,8 13,3 15,8male (n=IIO) 12,3 13,9 16,1

FR Germany female (n=178) 12,8 13,8 15,3male (n=342) 13,5 14,6 16,1

Netherlands female (n = 89) 14,5 14,9 IS,Smale (n=186) 14,2 15,1 16,7

Yoguslavia female (n = 67) 15,9 14,8 16male (n = 69) 16,8 15,9 16,6

Note . • Range of the sum-score: 6-24.

Tableau 3Differences d'activite orientee par la recherche, entre hommes et femmes, en fonction dusemestre d'enseignement et du pays (medianes des scores globaux)

Despite the different starting position for women and men in respect to nationality andsubject, there is a similar development in all countries investigated: in the ninth semestermale students are superior to female ones (see table 3). Of course, this development has subject-

RESEARCH-ORIENTED LEARNING 497

specific determinants, too. In Austria, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Yugoslavia,there is an increasing discrepancy between male and female students of natural sciences inresearch-oriented learning during the fifth semester, actually to the disadvantage of women.With students of national literature, we found a parallel development between male andfemale students in Germany, the Netherlands and Yugoslavia. Finally, in economics, wherein the first semester female students from Yugoslavia, Germany and the Netherlands wereahead of male students, the situation is reversed by the fifth semester. Towards the end oftheir studies male respondents of all subjects and countries show a better developed research­oriented learning style.

It would be over-simple to explain the sex-specific dissimilarities as an effect of differentanswering behaviour. The changing pattern of responses rules out this explanation. Hardlytenable either is the possibility that differences in the individuals' perception of the universityas an environment are reflected in research-oriented learning. At least, the female and malerespondents of the German sample perceive the demands and conditions of their subjectsand lectures in a similar way. Assessment and evaluation of the demands experienced aredifferential, as it all depends on whether the general faculty environment or the conditionsin the lectures are assessed, and it also depends on the subject itself and stage of the course.In general, there is no evidence that female students evaluate the university environment(as measured in our investigation) in a more critical or a more positive way than men. Towhat extent sex-typed teaching styles of the predominantly male staff are a relevant influencingfactor remains as an open question, because teaching styles have not been the subject ofour study.

In order to explain sex-typed research-oriented learning behaviour further aspects haveto be considered. For instance, features of the personal value system as well as scientificand professional orientations are important. Among secondary schoolleavers from the FederalRepublic of Germany, inclination, foci, and range of interests (Lind, 1981), and the professionalvalue system (Sandberger, 1981) are determined in several, though not in all, ways by traditionalpatterns. Females are more interested in pedagogy, psychology, philosophy and literaturethan in mathematics and technology, male school students favour technology, and the naturaland social sciences. Professional values in turn affected by this orientation. Female schoolleavers emphasize rather altruistic and social-oriented values and thus tend to choosecorresponding fields of study. Male students, however, emphasise income, career and, aboveall, scientific and research occupations.

There are hints of similar tendencies across international comparisons. When asked aboutthe relevance of various areas of life especially in Slovenia, the Federal Republic of Germanyand the Netherlands, female students give less priority to the domain of academic thinking,science and research than do their male counterparts. Furthermore, in the countries mentioned,women in the fifth and ninth semester less often indicate an intention to work in researchfields after finishing their studies. Alternative notions and conceptions of the aims and thepurpose of science academic working could explain this behaviour. Especially towards theend of their studies, many female respondents support the idea of academic research beingdevoted to solving practical problems, instead of being used to strive for knowledge for itsown sake. Consequently, it is not surprising that, for women in the sample, some of ouritems describing research-oriented learning seem less relevant for their way of studying, asthe scale focusses on a very limited, discipline-based area of thinking and working. Thereflective link between science and pratical and social relevance is omitted, a link whichhas proved to be quite important for female students.

Following the opposite line of the argument, we can draw the following conclusion.Students who choose academic thinking, science and research explicitly as their frame ofreference and associate professional careers with it, very early in their courses try to developa learning style compatible with their orientation. This behaviour is found more often withmale students in all the countries investigated. Those more socially-oriented - and this isparticularly true for female students - may develop and practise aspects of their own learning

498 B. DIPPELHOFER-STIEM

style which are not included in our scale. At the same time the data about the perceiveddemands and requirements of the various disciplines indicate that such learning styles wouldnot be appropriate for academic study. Developing social orientations and reflecting thepractical relevance of academic research is not seen as an important demand of the universityenvironment.

Nonetheless we would like the university to put less emphasis on research-oriented learningto avoid disadvantaging women. If the institution is interested in maintaining an academicand scientific training - and this objective is actually an integral part of European highereducation - the university has to make every effort to convey research-oriented learningas the method for obtaining the mentioned objective. But the university should make moreallowance for the females' conceptions of science and academic orientations and offer themas possibilities for identification for male students too. A broad discussion of the social,moral and ethical implications of academic thinking seems to be necessary in all disciplines.Research-oriented learning should contain and reflect these issues explicitly. Students' researchactivities and investigations should include ideas about the consequences of academic researchto society's reality and future.

The relevance of academic orientations and intrinsic motivation

When interpreting the sex-specific findings it was hinted that there is a link betweenthe students' academic thinking and orientation and their level of research-oriented learning.A further analysis gives more evidence about this relationship. It reveals that not so muchthe assessment of the actual objectives but far more the assessment of the normativeorientation of science covaries systematically with a research-oriented learning style at alltimes of measurement and within all nations (see Table 4). Right from the beginning oftheir studies, those respondents both in Eastern and Western European countries who areinclined to see the primary purpose of science as striving after knowledge for its own sake

Table 4On the relation between research-orientedlearning and normative concepts of academic work.Medians of the sum-score for national samples *

Austria FR Germany Netherlands Poland Yugoslavia(n=234) (n =520) (n=275) (**) (n =136)

Should academicresearch...

semesterA) first and foremost 1 14,2 13,6 14,5 15,1 16,9

strive for knowledge 9 16,0 16,6 17,3 15,3 17for its own sake

B) above all concentrate I 12,4 13,0 14,3 14,3 15,9on solving practical 9 15,8 IS,S 16,2 14,3 16,0problems

C) don't know 1 12,1 13,4 14,4 13,7 16,29 16,0 16,1 16,4 14,0 17,1

Note.• Range of the sum-score: 6-24.. The Polish data are based on three connected cross-sectional studies. First semester n= 525; fifth semester n= 390;

ninth semester n=274.

Tableau 4Evolution des opinions relatives aux objectifs d'une forme d'etude orientee par fa recherche(medianes des scores gfobaux)

RESEARCH-ORIENTED LEARNING 499

instead of concentrating on solving practical problems tend to show a higher degree of aresearch-oriented learning style. This pattern of relations remains stable equally in the fifthand ninth semester. Obviously in all countries investigated there is a small number of students(mostly males) who right from the start face more than others the inherent problems andthe epistemological interest of science and academic work. For these students such anorientation is obligatory and they account for that in their learning behaviour. In our scale,which consists of discipline-based features of the science and research process, these studentsscore higher values than their fellow students who favour more a practical and socially­oriented purpose of academic thinking and research.

The general direction of this relationship cannot completely be explained. It may bethat students who are already research-oriented learners are more likely to attend lecturesconveying an academic approach reflecting only the aquisition of knowledge for its ownsake. But bOlh the mutual interaction of learning style and normative understanding of sciencein the tested items, and the actual relevance for students' learning behaviour, become evidentin the data. This ought then to be the very reason for universities in the various countriesto reconsider their efforts at conveying an academic approach, and as a result of that toredefine and take account of the students' differing learning styles. The important thinghere is not :>0 much the conveying of a certain way of thinking, or views of actual andnormative purposes of scientific work, but far more important is the initiation of acommunicative discourse about it, in which various epistemological positions as alternativesof equal value are introduced. The intention of such a discourse is not to change the preferencefor a particular learning style, but to give insights into alternative ways of thinking andlearning which also may lead to productive results.

The lack of reflective references, the few chances for reflecting about science, and theinsufficient opportunities for participating in the research process, are some of the criticismsmade of the environmental demands experienced by the majority of students in the fivecountries (see Dippelhofer-Stiern et a!., 1984). Although the cell frequencies are sometimeslow, corresponding analyses confirm that particularly in the Federal Republic of Germany,the Netherlands and in Austria, the perceived conditions and demands of faculty and courseswhich interact in a positive way with research-oriented learning are those which indicateautonomy, opportunities for communication about and relation to, science and research. Thisfinding is in accordance with Ramsden (1983) who pointed out the relatedness of «freedomin learning» with a deep approach to studying. Our data also give first indications that amere reduction of demands emphasising the acquisition of factual knowledge, receptive learningand achievement would not inevitably lead to a high level of research-oriented learning. Thislearning style develops beyond the limited goal of gaining knowledge and responding to thepressure for good marks and achievement in all the countries investigated. It is beyond disputethat it is very sensible to reduce demands when students ask for a reduction in regimentationand greater emphasis on receptive learning and achievement but, for promoting research­oriented learning, it certainly is more important to give students more scope for communicationand discourse and to involve them in both the epistemological and the research process.

When trying to intensify research-oriented learning, it is not only the institutionalconditions which have to be investigated. Apart from the demands and wishes of the students,further individual components have to be considered closely. Based on our findings, andin accordance with the literature (Portele, 1975; Laurillard, 1979; Entwistle, 1989), studymotivation turns out to be of major importance. Measured on the basis of self-attributedpleasure in learning, and in relation to various incentives which motivating factors for learning,intrinsically motivated students (Keen on contents and their own interests) score higher valuesfor exploratory behaviour than do extrinsically motivated students (interested in gratificationsand advantages). This findings which applies mainly to Austria, the Federal Republic ofGermany and the Netherlands, and not, or only slightly, to Poland and Yugoslavia, is clearlyshown in the assessment of selected incentives (Figure 2). At all three times of measurement,respondents in the Western countries who are especially encouraged to work when they can

500 B. DIPPELHOFER·STIEM

decide for themselves on the subject and the method of learning, and when they can learnwithout pressure, score a significantly higher level of research-oriented learning than studentswho are only slightly motivated by these factors. Conversely, examinations in prospect areassociated with a lower degree of this learning style. Again, these findings are in accordancewith Ramsden's (1983) «freedom in learning» as well as with Entwistle (1987), who founda positive correlation between students' intrinsic motivation and a deep approach to learning.

Figure 2, Valeur incitatrice accordee respectivement au choix personnel d'activite et auxexigences d'activite suscitees par l'imminence d'un examen. (geme semestre)

240;- 24

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14 14

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learning incentive:

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Figure 2. The relation between research oriented learning and learning incentives in the ninthsemester. Selected examples. Medians for national samples

RESEARCH-ORIENTED LEARNING 501

Such variations are also detectable within the different fields of study, at least as faras can be determined from the small size of cell frequencies. It does appear that, in theWestern European countries, intrinsic learning motivation is an important contributory factorto exploratory learning behaviour. With rather extrinsically oriented respondents a lineartrend has been found, too, even though they score lower. Although this shows that intrinsiclearning motivation cannot entirely determine the development of a research-oriented learningstyle, this element is strongly related to learning at the Western European universities.Promoting and supporting the intrinsic motivation of students, enforcing intrinsic learningincentives, giving them more autonomy and better chances for reflecting on science - allthese determinants could contribute to developing exploratory learning, autonomous andcritical thinking as lasting socialisation effects of studying at universities.

These conclusions are partly valid for the Polish sample too, although the links betweenlearning incentives and exploratory learning are not so distinct at all three times ofmeasurement. In Slovenia, however, the various motives do not seem to have differential or,over the course of studies, stable influences on the degree and the development of research­oriented learning. Student learning seems to be determined by conditions different from thosein Poland and the Western European countries. As a result of the Slovenian university reformand the traditionally close linkage between studies and prospective occupation in that country,it is quite probable that practical-oriented learning is particularly stressed, but this formof learning behaviour is not part of our scale and so cannot be illustrated by the continuumof intrinsic-extrinsic learning incentives as a promoting factor. In future comparative studiesit would therefore be worthwile considering vocational learning more closely.

Concluding remarks

When arguing in this article for more intensive reflection on the significance of research­oriented learning as an individual component and for developing institutional opportunitiesin order to promote this component at the various universities in Eastern and Western Europe,the intention is not to increase achievement and success rates. Research-oriented learnersare not inevitably «successful» students. From a small-scale study in Germany it does seem,however, that only a few students who fail to complete their course of studies show thislearning behaviour. Anyway, this relation does not tell us how the other ones cope withtheir examinations. It remains an open question whether students passing their exams withparticular success are rather receptive learners or not. What is of great importance is a betterlinkage between learning style and academic claims about the university's training whichcan only be guaranteed by adequate learning forms. The other point is the interpretationof research-oriented and science-reflecting working as part of an integral notion of learning.This would make it much easier to transform the classical idea of education, in ways whichare not only favoured by institutions but above all by students of different nationalities(Dippelhofer-Stiem et aI., 1984).

The granting of more scope and independence and the implementation of new learningforms would be a major step, but it would have to go beyond changes in formal conditionssuch as course and examination regulations. First of all one has to look at initial approachesand the current (though limited) opportunities for promoting autonomous and research­oriented learning in the departments, and above all, in the lectures. A few current Germanprojects give ideas how it might be done. Recommendations and advice are also providedin the case-studies edited by Boud (1981), as well as in the historically interesting experiencesdescribed by Parsons (1951). Already in the forties a somewhat interdisciplinary studyprogramme for graduates was developed, where elements of research-oriented learning ­as they are understood in this essay - came to fruition. In view of the decreasing numberof students and the resulting new orientation of the university it seems worthwile to reexaminesuch projects in order to add available experiences from one's own national and subject­specific context and to implement them in the everyday life of the university.

502

References

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Bargel, T. (1984). Zur sozialen Identitat von Studienenfangern. In G. Framhein & 1. Langer (Eds.), Student und Studiumim interkulturellen Vergleich. Student worlds in Europe (pp. 127-150). Klagenfurt: Kanner Druck- undVerlagsanstalt.

Bock, R. D. (1975). Multivariate statistical methods in behavioral research. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Boud, D. (Ed.), (1981). Developing student autonomy in learning. London: Kagan.

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Dippelhofer-Stiern, B. (1986). How to measure university environment? Methodological implications and some empiricalfindings. Higher Education, /5, 475-495.

Dippelhofer-Stiem, B., Bargel, T., Bromberek, B., Jetten, E., Kump, S., Sagrneister, G., & Waiter, H.-G. (1984). Studentsin Europe: Motives for studying, expectations of higher education and the relevance of career prospects. EuropeanJournal of Education, /9, 309-325.

Dippelhofer-Stiern, B. & Lind, G. (Eds.), (1987). Studentisches Lemen im Kulturvergleich. Ergebnisse einer internationalvergleichenden Landsschnittstudie zur Hochschulsozialisation. Weinheim: Deutscher Studienverlag.

Edwards, A. (1957). Techniques of attitude scale construction. New York: Appelton,

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Sandberger, l-U., Jetten, E., Juznic, P., Langer,J., Bromberek, B., Framhein, G., Percy, K. A., & Walter, H.-G. (1982).Between uncertainty and commitment. A comparison of first semester university students' occupational perspectivesand values in five European countries. In M. Nieben & J. Peschar, (Eds.) Comparative Research on Education(pp. 79-122). Oxford: Pergamon.

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Le developpement de la formation par la recherchedans cinq pays europeens.

A la fin des annees 60 s'est developpe un interet pour des formesd'enseignement superieur mettant les etudiants en situationd'entrainement iJ la recherche. Les aspects institutionnels de cetteevolution ayant deja ete examines, nous privilegierons l'etude desaptitudes des etudiants pour ce type d'enseignement et l'idee de stylesd'apprentissage qui leur sont associes. Les donnees empiriques ont eteobtenues a l'aide d'une echelle utilisee a la faveur d'une etudelongitudinale sur la socialisation des etudiants, etude conduite danscinq pays europeens. Les resultats mettent en evidence l'effet de laselection aussi bien que de la socialisation des etudiants. lis indiquentune heterogeneite de reussite initiate entre les principales disciplinesenseignees, ainsi qu 'un developpement continu dans Ie temps consacrea l'etude. Les tendances sont constatees en Autriche, en Allemagne,en Hollande et en Pologne, mais pas en Yugoslavie. Mais dans les cinqpays concernes Ie niveau atteint par les etudiants reste insuffisant auregard des objectifs universitaires. Les facteurs qui injluencent l'adoptiond'un style d'apprentissage oriente par la recherche, sont, outre ladiscipline enseignee, Ie sexe et la motivation des etudiants. Les etudiantsapparaissant avoir en moyenne de moins bons resultats, dans tous lespays, cet aspect merite de nouvelles approches du probleme.

Key words: Research-oriented learning, Longitudinal study, International comparison.

Revision received: March 1989

Barbara Dlppelhofer-Stlem. Freie Universitat Berlin, Fachbereich Erziehungswissenschaften, Arnimallee 12, 0-1000Berlin 33.

Current theme of research:

Socialization in early childhood

Most relevant publications in the field of Educarional Psychology:

Dippelhofer-Stiem, B. (1986). How to measure university environment? Methodological implications and some empiricalfindings. Higher Education, 15, 475-495.

Dippelhofer-Stiem, B., Bargel, T., Bromberek, B., Jetten, E., Kump, S., Sagmeister, G., & Walter, H.-G. (1984). Studentsin Europe: Motives for studying, expectations of higher education and the relevance of career prospects. EuropeanJournal of Education, 19, 309-325.

Dippelhofer-Stiem, B. & Lind, G. (Eds.), (1987). Studentisches Lemen im Kulturvergleich. Ergebnisse einer internationalvergleichenden Landsschnittstudie zur Hochschulsozialisation. Weinheim: Deutscher Studienverlag.