COMENIUS 2013/2015

EDUCATION FOR ENERGY IN EUROPE

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES IN FIVE EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

INDEX

Countries and schools involved in the project 1

Renewable Energy 2

Biogas Plant Virtual Tour 5

Biomass energy 6

Geothermal 9

Hydroeletric 19

Photovoltaic 35

Wind 47

Coal 59

Nuclear energy 72

Renewable energy plants in Italy 78

Energy consumption and energy transfer in Italy 113

Energy resources: The reduced availabilities in France 119

Natural resources and its products in Estonia 123

Hydroelectric plants in Estonia 132

Brown Coal in Germany's Energy Economy 134

Energy resources, Greece 151

Countries and schools involved in the project

ICS "P. Borsellino" Mazara del Vallo - Italy

" Basic School" Väätsa- Estonia

"Gymnasio Levidiou" Levidi- Greece

"College Le Marin" Le Mans- France

"Theodor-Heuss-Gymnasium" Essen- Germany

Renewable Energy HOW DOES A BIOGAS PLANT WORK

1 Organic input materials such as foodstuff remnants, fats or sludge can be fed into the biogas plant as substrate.

2 Renewable resources such as corn, beets or grass serve as feed both for animals such as cows and pigs as well as for the micro organisms in the biogas plant.

3 Manure and dung are also fed into the biogas plant.

4 In the fermenter, heated to approx. 38-40 °C, the substrate is decomposed by the micro organisms under exclusion of light and oxygen. The final product of this fermentation process is biogas with methane as the main ingredient. But aggressive hydrogen sulphide is also contained in the biogas. A fermenter made of stainless steel has the clear advantage that it withstands the attacks of the hydrogen sulphide and is usable for decades. Furthermore, a stainless steel fermenter provides the opportunity to operation the biogas plant also in the thermophile temperature range (up to 56 °C).

5 Once the substrate has been fermented, it is transported to the fermentation residues end storage tank and can be retrieved from there for further utilisation.

6 The residues can be utilised as high quality fertiliser. The advantage: Biogas manure has a lower viscosity and therefore penetrates into the ground more quickly. Furthermore, the fermentation residue quite often has a higher fertiliser value and is less intense to the olfactory senses.

7 But drying it and subsequently using it as dry fertiliser is also an option.

8 The biogas generated is stored in the roof of the tank and from there it

9 is burned in the combined heat and power plant (CHP) to generate electricity and heat.

10 The electric power is fed directly into the power grid.

11 The heat generated can be utilised to heat building or to dry wood or harvest products.

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12 Processing of biogas

13 Gas supply to the national grid or gas filling stations

Which substrates can be used?  For the generation of biogas, a multitude of organic substrates can be used. In the decision

for or against certain substrates, the individual circumstances have to be taken into

consideration. But the biogas yield of the different substances, which is decisive for the

efficiency of the biogas plant, also has to be taken into consideration. Our employees are

looking forward to providing you with advice regarding the optimal composition of your

formula. At our own laboratory we can furthermore accurately determine the methane

content of your substrates.

 Below, you will find some substrates that our customers are already using successfully: 

Agriculture:

Farm manure:e.g., cow manure, pig manure, poultry droppings, dung

Renewable resources:e.g., corn, whole crop silage, grass, grains, beets

Agricultural by-products:e.g., beet leafs, harvest residues

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Industry

Wastes of plant origin:e.g., contents of the biowaste bin, food remnants, fryer

grease, slop/silage, draff/marc, pressed beet slices, potato

peelings, grass clippings

Wastes of animal origin:e.g., fat, animal blood, gastro-intestinal contents, slaughter wasteother substrates:e.g., sludge

How can biogas be utilised? Biogas is a real all rounder and with its multitude of utilisation options, it is the only renewable energy source that is flexibly utilisable.  

Electricity: is generated either through the burning of biogas at the CHP or through the utilisation of pre-processed biogas, the so-called biomethane. Biomethane is available everywhere through the natural gas grid. 

Heat: when power is generated at a CHP, heat is created. This heat can be used for the heating of buildings, swimming pools or for drying wood. With an intelligent heat utilisation concept, the efficiency of the biogas plant is considerably increased. 

 Natural gas: through various methods, biogas can be cleaned from the undesirable components and be fed into the natural gas grid as biomethane or also as so-called bio natural gas.

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Fuel: biomethane as fuel provides a very high CO2 savings potential. With the additional of biomethane to natural gas, the CO2 output can be lowered considerably in comparison to gasoline. The biomethane of one hectare of corn permits a car to drive approx. 60,000 km.

Why biogas? Biogas has a multitude of utilisation option and is furthermore storable. As such, biogas is far superior to other renewable energies. Furthermore, biogas plants can generate power continuously and independent of sun, wind and water.

Good reasons for biogas

1. Biogas makes our energy production safer

2. Biogas does not just supply electric power but also heat3. Biogas is a replacement for natural gas4. Biogas can be used as fuel5. Biogas is good for the climate and saves CO2

6. Organic residues can be sensibly utilised and do not need to be simply disposed of7. Biogas manure can replace mineral fertiliser8. Biogas plants can be utilised by industry and agriculture9. Biogas strengthens rural areas and creates jobs

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Biogas Plant Virtual Tour

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Biomass energy

Biomass is a renewable energy source consisting of living or recently living organisms. Generally, this means plants and trees in the form of industrial and agricultural scrap.The amount of CO2 returned to the atmosphere when biomass fuels are burned is almost identical to the amount that was removed from the atmosphere while these organisms were growing. This maintains a closed carbon cycle, which significantly reduces the environmental impact. Although fossil fuels are technically also “organic,” millions of years separate the time during which CO2 was originally absorbed by the plant, dinosaur, or other organism, and its release back into the atmosphere. 

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How a biomass-fired energy plant worksUsing materials from nature to heat, cook and produce energy is by no means a new concept. In fact, it is the oldest source of renewable energy, used since our ancestors first learned to use fire. Today we can recover energy from biomass in highly efficient energy plants – generating heat, process steam, electricity, syngas, and/or bio-oil. Most of the biomass energy solutions are combined heat and power 

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How does a biomass combustion plant work?Some biomass needs pre-treatment before the fuel is fed onto a combustion grate where it is burned. The heat from the combustion is used to fire the boiler, which in turn generates hot water or steam. The steam turns a turbine that produces electricity. 

Using biomass as a replacement for fossil fuels reduces emissions and recycles biological waste from many forms of industrial products. Thus, biomass technology solves serious problems by protecting the earth and atmosphere from greenhouse gas emissions.

Click and watch the video

Ever Green Biomass Gasification Plant Demo Video

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Geothermal power plants

HOW IT WORKSGeothermal power plants exploit the heat of deep Earth, because the temperature of our planet increases as we descend towards the Earth core. This increase in temperature, which is called geothermal gradient, equal to about 3 degrees for every hundred meters of depth but in some areas, where there are geothermal systems, it is much higher, so to have temperatures of 250-350°C at a depth of about 2000-4000 m.Through the fractures of rock strata, heated water and vapour rise to the surface and are intercepted and produced by geothermal wells.The vapour delivered from the wells is then convoyed into ‘steam pipelines’ and sent to the turbine, where the energy is converted into mechanical rotation energy.The axis of the turbine is connected to the alternator which, by spinning, converts the mechanical energy into electrical alternate current that is transmitted to the (AC) transformer. The latter raises the voltage rate to 132.000 volts and feeds it into the distribution network.The steam leaving the turbine is taken back to a liquid status in a capacitor, while the uncondensable gases contained in the steam, are dispersed into the atmosphere.A cooling tower can cool the water produced by steam condensation and can supply cold water to the capacitor.The condensed water output from power plants is re-injected into deep rocks from which the steam has been extracted.When the wells provide a liquid phase with a temperature below 180°C circa, the heat of the fluid is used to evaporate, in a special heat exchanger, another liquid at a low boiling point (usually isobutane or isopentane) which, once transformed into steam in turn, will be channelled into the turbine triggering the procedure described above.

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ENERGY COURSE

Italy was the first country in the World to deploy geothermal energy, with the first generation plant constructed 1913 in Larderello. Since then the history of geothermal power has been a source of pride for the Italian energy industry. Italy, with about 700 MW, is one of the World's leading producers and by far the largest in Europe. Its geothermal generation is focused in Tuscany, which is therefore the Italian Region with the highest renewable production.

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Steam turbine

HOW IT WORKSThe steam turbine consists of two main components: the rotor, a large line of steel on which are mounted a number of "wheels" consisting of several rows of pallets and of a chest, a cylindrical steel casing inside which are fixed nozzles and other rows of pallets. These do not rotate, but form "rings", which come between the pallet rows of the rotor and are necessary to guide correctly the steam from one row of mobile palettes to another. The box is divided longitudinally into two halves, connected by large bolts. The steam, passing through the successive rows of fixed and mobile pallets from one end of the turbine to the other, sets the rotor in motion, thus turning its pressure and temperature energy into mechanical energy.

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Alternator

structureThe alternator is an electricity generator. It consists of two basic parts, one fixed and one rotating, respectively called ‘stator’ and ‘rotor’, on which are arranged insulated copper windings. The two windings are called ‘inductor’ and ‘induced’.

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 PUMP

StructureThe pump used in geothermal power plants has a vertical axis pump set in motion by a 6000 volt electric motor.

The pump consists of a forged steel cylinder inside which a body, called rotor, is rotated centrifuging water and giving it the necessary pressure to make it reach the boiler.The pumps used for feeding boilers of combined cycle groups are of the kind with several centrifugal impellers, mounted on the same shaft. Each of the rotating wheels spins in a ring that contains the diffusers capable of transforming kinetic energy into pressure energy.

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CAPACITOR

StructureThe capacitor is connected to the turbine’s exhaust and essentially consists of an empty volume through which passes the vapour and through which water is uniformly sprayed in the form of small droplets, so as to bring water and steam in close contact. Un-condensable gases present in geothermal steam are extracted from the capacitor by a compressor so as to maintain the vacuum level required.

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COOLING TOWER

StructureA building shaped like a cuboid, with several short chimneys; or circular, with a broad and deep cement fireplace that can reach 100 meters in height. Inside it, the water drips down and meets with a strong current of air that goes from the bottom up, entering from the base and exiting from the chimney. During this journey part of the water evaporates extracting heat from the rest of it, which is collected in the cold water bath, whilst the warm and moist air comes out from the chimney.

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EXTRACTION WELLS

StructureIts characteristics are similar to those of oil wells. Inside it is covered with steel pipes all the way down to the extraction area (geothermal reservoir) where there can either be no pipe coating, or there can be pipes with numerous holes to allow the extraction of geothermal fluids. The extraction wells are connected to steel pipings (steam pipelines) that allow to carry the steam to the geo-thermoelectric plant. The fluids contained in a geothermal reservoir can sometimes reach the surface spontaneously through the subsoil, resulting in natural geothermal manifestations such as geysers, fumaroles and hot springs.

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RE-INJECTOR WELL

structure

Its characteristics are similar to those of oil wells. Inside it is covered with steel pipes all the way down to the extraction area (geothermal reservoir) where there can either be no pipe coating, or there can be pipes with numerous holes to allow the extraction of geothermal fluids. The extraction wells are connected to steel pipings (steam pipelines) that allow to carry the steam to the geo-thermoelectric plant. The fluids contained in a geothermal reservoir can sometimes reach the surface spontaneously through the subsoil, resulting in natural geothermal manifestations such as geysers, fumaroles and hot springs.

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VISIT

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HYDROELETRIC POWER PLANT

HOW IT WORKSA hydroelectric power plant converts the hydraulic energy of a watercourse, be it natural or artificial, into electricity. Generally, the functional scheme includes the infrastructure barrier, a dam or crossbar, which intercepts the stream, creating a tank or basin, where a layer of water is created.Through works of abduction, canals and junction tunnels the water is piped into lading tanks and, through the penstocks, into the turbines through inlet   (safety)   valves  and flow regulators (distributors), according to the energy demand. The water activates the turbines and flows out, ending up into the spillway channel through which it is returned to the river. In direct connection with the turbine, according to a vertical or horizontal axis provision, there is the alternator, which is a rotating electric machine capable of converting the mechanical energy provided by the turbine into electricity. The power thus obtained must be transformed, if it is to be transmitted over long distances. Therefore, before being fed into transmission lines, electricity passes through the transformer which lowers the intensity of the current produced by the alternator, but raises the voltage to thousands of volts. Once arrived at its intended destination, before it can be used the energy must pass into a transformer once more, only this time it’s intensity of current is raised and the tension lowered, so as to make it suitable for domestic purposes.

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Energy course

How it worksThe term “small hydro” is conventionally used for hydroelectric systems with a capacity up to 10 MW, which differ from plants with a higher capacity. In fact, while the latter require large barrages (dams) and extended artificial lakes for water accumulation, small hydro systems practically work like the old wind mills (obviously as a high-tech version), without almost any environmental impact. On the contrary, they offer several environmental advantages. First of all they supply energy without emitting polluting substances, dust particles, heat and greenhouse gasses, thus helping to reduce local pollution and global warming.

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BASIN

STRUCTUREThe water basin is obtained by obstructing the course of a river. Size and shape of a river basin are generally determined by the geological characteristics of the area, while the branching of the catchment basin, or the density of small waterways, also depends upon, essentially, the rainfall regimen, the soil and vegetation types and human activity.

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DAM

STRUCTUREAn infrastructure meant to obstruct a water course, thus forming a basin or a tank with entrance infrastructures, tunnels or channels, and infrastructures for the overflow of excess water and spillways. The dams can be divided into two broad categories: gravity dams and arc dams. Gravity dams are generally carachterized by a triangular or trapezoidal vertical section, and by a straight horizontal section, which may sometimes be curved instead. The stability and resistance to buoyancy (hydrostatic push) are entrusted only to the weight of the building. With arch dams, the buoyancy (hydrostatic push) of water flooded is transferred on the side walls upon which the dam itself leans. Convex shaped ones can be built only to osbtruct not very wide valleys with rocky sides to which the dam is anchored.

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TURBINE

DAM

Kaplan turbine Francis turbine Pelton turbine

STRUCTURE

A hydraulic turbine is essentially composed of a modulating body, a distributor, and a wheel or impeller. The first convoys and regulates the water flow, the latter converts the kinetic energy taken from the water into rotational energy. From a construction point of view, to obtain the highest possible return there are 3 different types of turbine: PeltonA hydraulic turbine typically used with high jumps (50-1300 m) and small flows. Pelton turbines consist of a distributor with one or more nozzles (usually up to 6) in relation to the scope to be sent to the impeller and by a wheel, keyed on the drive shaft that transmits rotation to the electricity alternator. Each nozzle creates a stream, whose flow is regulated by a needle valve. FrancisA hydraulic turbine with fixed rotor blades, typically used with medium or low jumps (from 10 to 250 meters) and medium flows. Francis turbines are characterized by the fact that water enters the impeller in a radial centripetal direction, and also by an axial exhaust. In fast Francis turbines, the feeding is always radial, while the discharge of water is usually axial; in these turbines the water moves as in a pressurized pipe: through a distributor (fixed body) it reaches the wheel (moving body) to which it gives up its energy, without entering at any time in contact with the atmosphere. KaplanHydraulic turbine with adjustable impeller blades typically used with high flow and low jump (from 5 to 30 meters). These are axial flow turbines, generally used for low jumps (2-20 meters). In Kaplan turbines, the blades of the wheel are always adjustable, while the ones of the distributor can be either fixed or adjustable. When both turbine blades and those of the distributor are adjustable, the turbine is a real Kaplan (or ‘double setting turbine’); if only the lades of the wheel are adjustable, then the turbine is a semi-Kaplan (or ‘single setting’).

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Penstock

STRUCTURE

Penstocks generally consist of sheet steel pipes or reinforced concrete. Their front ends are fitted with shut-off and safety devices (generally butterfly valves) and the back ends with interception devices (rotary or butterfly valves) of turbines'security, below which regulatory bodies are installed (turbine distributors), directly related to the same turbines.

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Penstock

VALVE

Needle valve Rotary valve Butterfly Valve

The types of valve used in hydroelectric plants are: 

Butterflyconsisting of a circular lens that rotates around a pivoting axis perpendicular to the rotating pipe where the valve is mounted. They are used in systems with jumps up to 200 m and have a maximum diameter of 4-5 meters. These are not regulation valves, they are ‘on / off type’ ones (completely open or completely closed).

Rotaryconsisting of a spherical body inside which there is a rotating shutter with the same cross-section of the pipeline. The use of this type of valve, which can reach diameters of 4 meters, is fit for jumps up to 1500-1600 m. This one is also of the ‘on / off’ kind.

SpindleThe shutter body of this type of valve has the shape of a spindle that is moved in axial direction for opening or closing operations. This valve can regulate the water flow.

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Restitution Infrastructure

The restitution infrastructures are mainly composed of a channel or tunnel either pressurized or in free surface, which return the flows used to the water stream through a proper artifact outlet.

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TRANSFORMER

The transformer is a static electricity machine capable of transferring, by exploiting the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, alternate current electricity from one circuit to another, changing its characteristics. Schematically, a transformer consists of two windings, each made by a number of copper wire spires, wrapped around a highly magnetically permeable iron core, one of which receives energy from the power line, while the other is connected to use circuits. In the most recent constructions there is only one winding, in this case called "autotransformer".

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ALTERNATOR

The alternator is an electricity generator. It consists of two basic parts, one fixed and one rotating, respectively called ‘stator’ and ‘rotor’, which are surmounted by windings of isolated copper. The two windings are said ‘inductor’ (surmounts the rotor) and ‘induced’ (surmounts the stator).

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Virtual tour Hydroeletric power plant

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Hydrogen Power Plant

Watch the video

Hydrogen Power Plant

A hydrogen power plant is a concept design for a new widespread source of electricity.

Essentially, it is a facility which uses hydrogen to produce electrical energy. Plans were

first laid by GE in 2006; however, the logistics of supplying the power plant has delayed its

construction. The cost involved with obtaining the hydrogen means that the overall cost of

hydrogen-based electricity will be greater than that of current nuclear and petroleum-

produced electricity.

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Fusina: Hydrogen Power plant

How Does a Hydrogen Power Plant Work?

Large tanks of liquid hydrogen will feed into thousands of hydrogen fuel cells. These fuel

cells are solid structures containing an electrolyte fluid and two terminals, much like

batteries. The reactants flow into the cells, in this case hydrogen and oxygen. They

intermingle with the electrolyte to produce an electrical charge and water as a byproduct.

The water flows out another port while the electricity is siphoned off the terminals and held

in gigantic multi-ton batteries. The electricity resides in the batteries until it is needed, in

which case it is sent out through the local power grid just like any other type of power

plant. In theory, this could be a near perfect source of energy as it has no dangerous

byproducts and is just as fuel-efficient as the average internal combustion engine. The

biggest problem is, and always has been, obtaining cheap supplies of hydrogen.

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Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Hydrogen is a versatile energy carrier that can be used to power nearly every end-use

energy need. The fuel cell — an energy conversion device that can efficiently capture and

use the power of hydrogen — is the key to making it happen. 4Stationary fuel cells can be

used for backup power, power for remote locations, distributed power generation, and

cogeneration (in which excess heat released during electricity generation is used for other

applications). 4Fuel cells can power almost any portable application that typically uses

batteries, from hand-held devices to portable generators. 4Fuel cells can also power our

transportation, including personal vehicles, trucks, buses, and marine vessels, as well as

provide auxiliary power to traditional transportation technologies. Hydrogen can play a

particularly important role in the future by replacing the imported petroleum we

currently use in our cars.

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Fuel Cells Fuel cells directly convert the chemical energy in hydrogen to electricity, with pure water

and potentially useful heat as the only byproducts.

Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are not only pollution-free, but also can have two to three

times the efficiency of traditional combustion technologies.

A conventional combustion-based power plant typically generates electricity at efficiencies

of 33 to 35 percent, while fuel cell systems can generate electricity at efficiencies up to 60

percent (and even higher with cogeneration).

The gasoline engine in a conventional car is less than 20% efficient in converting the

chemical energy in gasoline into power that moves the vehicle, under normal driving

conditions. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, which use electric motors, are much more energy

efficient and use 40-60 percent of the fuel’s energy — corresponding to more than a 50%

reduction in fuel consumption, compared to a conventional vehicle with a gasoline internal

combustion engine.

In addition, fuel cells operate quietly, have fewer moving parts, and are well suited to a

variety of applications.

How Do Fuel Cells Work? A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two electrodes, an anode

and a cathode. Bipolar plates on either side of the cell help distribute gases and serve as

current collectors. In a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell, which is widely

regarded as the most promising for light-duty transportation, hydrogen gas flows through

channels to the anode, where a catalyst causes the hydrogen molecules to separate into

protons and electrons. The membrane allows only the protons to pass through it. While

the protons are conducted through the membrane to the other side of the cell, the stream

of negatively-charged electrons follows an external circuit to the cathode. This flow of

electrons is electricity that can be used to do work, such as power a motor. On the other

side of the cell, oxygen gas, typically drawn from the outside air, flows through channels to

the cathode. When the electrons return from doing work, they react with oxygen and the

hydrogen protons (which have moved through the membrane) at the cathode to form

water. This union is an exothermic reaction, generating heat that can be used outside the

fuel cell.

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Hydrogen tour

The power produced by a fuel cell depends on several factors, including the fuel cell type,

size, temperature at which it operates, and pressure at which gases are supplied. A single

fuel cell produces approximately 1 volt or less — barely enough electricity for even the

smallest applications. To increase the amount of electricity generated, individual fuel cells

are combined in series to form a stack. (The term “fuel cell” is often used to refer to the

entire stack, as well as to the individual cell.) Depending on the application, a fuel cell

stack may contain only a few or as many as hundreds of individual cells layered together.

This “scalability” makes fuel cells ideal for a wide variety of applications, from laptop

computers (50-100 Watts) to homes (1-5kW), vehicles (50-125 kW), and central power

generation (1-200 MW or more).

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Photovoltaic Power plant

HOW IT WORKSThe photovoltaic system is a set of mechanical, electrical and electronic components that

concur to the capture and conversion of all available solar energy, making it usable in the

form of electricity. This is done by exploiting a physical phenomenon, known as the

photovoltaic effect (i.e., the ability of some suitably doped semiconductor materials to

generate electricity when exposed to light radiation.When photons (energy particles from

the sun) strike a photovoltaic cell, a portion of energy is absorbed by the material and

some electrons, displaced from their position in the atomic structure, flow through the

(properly treated) semiconductor material, producing a direct current that can be collected

on the surface of the cell. More cells are connected in series or in parallel and packed to

form a module, which is the basis of the photovoltaic implant.

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PV systems can be divided into two categories: those connected to the electricity grid

(grid-connected) and the isolated ones (stand-alone). In the first case, the current

generated is sent to an inverter from which it comes out in the form of alternate current,

which can then be transformed into medium-voltage current from the transformer before

being fed into the distribution line. In the latter case however, that of the isolated plants,

they can feed powerloads in both direct current (without the presence of an inverter) and

alternate current forms, but they generally have a storage system. In this type of

photovoltaic system it is necessary to store electricity to ensure the continuity of supply

even at times when it is not produced. That is ensured by electrochemical accumulators.

The system connected to a network, however, does not incorporate storage systems

because the energy produced during the hours of sunshine is fed into the power grid; vice

versa during the hours of little or no sunshine, the local powerload is fed from the network.

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HOW IT WORKS

HOW IT WORKSItaly is not excluded from this development, since in this country distributed generation is

growing at a pace that could have never been predicted just a few years ago. For

example, in 2008 and 2009, about 70,000 PV systems were installed in Italy.

These plants have a limited capacity (up to 20 kW), allowing each home to become a small power station capable of meeting the needs of the family and, at the same time, to

inject power in the public grid.

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CELLS

STRUCTURE

The cell is the primary device at the base of every photovoltaic system for electricity

production. A photovoltaic cell is essentially a large-surface diode which, if exposed to the

sun, converts sunlight radiation into electricity. The cell behaves like a tiny battery and

produces a current of 3 amperes with a voltage of 0.5 volts and thus an output of nearly

1.5 watts. Photovoltaic cells are usually of a dark blue color, because of the titanium

oxidate present in the anti-reflective coating, which is essential to optimize the uptake of

solar radiation. Their shape is usually square and the measure may vary from that of the

most common (10 x 10 cm, 12.5 x 12.5 centimeters or 15 x 15 cm) to that of the more

unusual (5 x 15 cm and 10 x 15 centimeters). For the manufacture of the cells the

materials now mainly used are crystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, gallium arsenideand telloluro cadmium. The flow of electrons is directed and focused by an

electric field created inside the cell, with the overlap of two layers of silicon, each of which

is injected with another particular chemical element (doping operation), phosphorus or

boron, at a ratio of one atom for every million atoms of silicon. Of all the energy hitting the

solar cell in the form of light radiation, only a portion is converted into electricity. The

conversion efficiency of commercial crystalline silicon cells is typically between 10%

and 20%.

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MODULE

STRUCTUREThe PV module, which is the basic component of PV systems, is obtained from the

electrical connection of solar cells connected in series or in parallel. These are assembled

between a top layer of glass and a lower layer of plastic (the Tedlar) and enclosed by an

aluminum frame. The most common photovoltaic modules are made up of 36 or 72 cells.

In the rear of the module there is a junction box in which are housed by-pass diodes and

electrical contacts. The PV module has a size of about half a square meter and the normal sizes on the market range from 100 to 300 Watts of power .

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PANEL

STRUCTUREThe photovoltaic panel is a set of modules connected in series or in parallel in a rigid

structure. A number of cells, assembled and linked together, form the photovoltaic module

and multiple modules, mounted on a rigid structure, constitute a photovoltaic panel. The

PV system is obtained by connecting several panels, in order to obtain the desired voltage

and current and blending them with a control and power conditioning system (inverter).

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STRING

STRUCTUREIn order to provide the required voltage, more modules or more panels, depending on the

power required, are electrically connected in series forming a string.

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FIELD

STRUCTUREThe electrical connection in parallel of multiple strings constitutes the photovoltaic field. In

the planning phase of a PV field, some choices that will affect its functioning must be

made. A fundamental choice is the one regarding series or parallel configuration of the

modules, because it determines the electrical characteristics of the PV. The strings of a

field can be arranged in parallel rows with the desired angle. The minimum distance

between the panel rows cannot be set at random but must be such as to prevent the

shadow of the front row from covering the back row. It is therefore necessary to calculate

the minimum distance between rows depending on the height of the panels, the latitude of

the location and the (inclination) angle of the panels.

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INVERTER

Click and visit "Cerratina"

STRUCTUREThe electricity generated by photovoltaic panels is of continuous type. Since the national distribution system is based on alternate current an electronic device, the inverter, is

capable of transforming (and therefore used) direct electricity to alternate. Energy is

transferred from a photovoltaic power station to users through specific devices, necessary

to transform the current produced by the modules and adapt it to the needs of final users.

All of these devices are called ‘BOS’ (Balance of System) and include, in addition to the

inverter, the transformer, the switchboards and auxiliary plant systems.

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HAVE A LOOK AT THE GLOBAL SOLAR IRRADIANCE

Virtual tour of a photovoltaic power plant

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Heat collectors

Solar collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In the non-concentrating

type, the collector area is the same as the absorber area. In these types the whole solar

panel absorbs light. Concentrating collectors have a bigger interceptor than absorber.

Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are used to collect heat for space

heating, domestic hot water or cooling with an absorption chiller.

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Applications

The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water

has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family, or

a situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing.

Commercial applications include car washes, military laundry facilities and eating

establishments.  Solar water heating systems are most likely to be cost effective for

facilities with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with operations such

as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water. Unglazed liquid

collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools. Because these collectors

need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such as

plastic or rubber. They also do not require freeze-proofing because swimming pools are

generally used only in warm weather or can be drained easily during cold

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WIND POWER MAP WIND POWER PLANT

HOW IT WORKSA wind power plant consists of a group of aero generators of medium (600-900 kW) or

large (> 1MW) size, arranged over the territory in order to better exploit the wind resource

of the site; the aero generators are connected together electrically through underground

conduits. The wind power plant is associated with a delivery car-station, which in turn is

connected to the national grid. The aero generators consist essentially of a car or nacelle,

supported by a metal structure, which is connected to a rotor, which in turn consists of a

set of blades mounted on a hub and designed to steal part of the wind's kinetic energy, so

as to transform it into mechanical energy. When the wind blows the rotor spins, thus

activating the electrical generator which, via a gearbox, has the function to convert

mechanical energy into electrical energy. The wind's kinetic energy is transmitted from the

rotor to a generator connected to the control and transformation systems which regulate

the production of electricity and any network connection. The electricity produced in the

car is piped to the ground through electrical cables; the same thing happens to the signals

needed to control the proper functioning of the aero generator.

47

ENERGY COURSE

HOW IT WORKS

Wind power is the worldwide most successful source for electricity generation. In the ten

years going from 2000 to 2009, wind installed capacity grew at an extraordinary rate, rising

from just over 10,200 MW to about130,000 MW. These systems are particularly suitable

for single homes, as well as for agriculture, tourism and small and medium businesses.

Thanks to technological advance and to the introduction of specific incentivating mechanisms, these wind distributed generation systems are increasingly expanding, even

if only in areas with sufficient wind speed.

48

AERO GENERATOR

STRUCTUREThe typical configuration of a wind turbine consists of a metal support structure of either

lattice or tubular type bearing a nacelle, or ship, at its top; the nacelle houses the slow

transmission shaft, the gerbox, the speed shaft, the electric generator and the auxiliary

equipment. At the extremity of the slow transmission shaft and outside the nacelle a rotor

is mounted, and it consists of a hub equipped with blades. The aerogenerator begins

working with a wind of about 3 m / s (10 km / h) and reaches its full power when it comes

to about 17 m / s (50 ÷ 60 km / h).

49

ANEMOMETER

STRUCTURE

The anemometer consists of a vertical axis and three cups which 'capture' the wind. It

includes a speed and direction sensor. The number of revolutions per minute is recorded

by an electronic device that automatically halts the generator if the wind speed is above 25

÷ 30 meters per second.

49

Control System

STRUCTURE

The control system consists of a series of computerized devices that are used to monitor

the aero-generator's operating conditions and check the bearing support. In the event of a

malfunctioning, the control system automatically blocks the wind turbine and sends an

intervention notice to the tele-conduction point of the facility.

50

YAW SYSTEM

STRUCTURE

The motion of the nacelle (ship) in relation with the support structure is achieved by gears driven by an actuator which can either be electric or hydraulic.

51

ALTERNATOR

STRUCTURE

Normally, a brake is mounted on the shaft speed, and below it is the electric generator from which branch the power cables.

52

GEARBOX

STRUCTURE

The slow transmission shaft is connected to a gearbox from which branches off a speed shaft, which rotates with an angular velocity given by the slow shaft multiplied by the multiplication ratio of the multiplier

53

ROTOR

STRUCTUREThe rotor consists of a hub on which are set blades (usually 2 or 3, with diameters varying

from 40 to 50 meters, made of composite materials reinforced with fiberglass or innovative

composite materials) capable of rotating at a speed exceeding 200 kilometers per hour.

The hub is connected to a first shaft, or slow transmission (output) shaft, which rotates at

the same angular velocity of the rotor. Since high intensity winds BLOW for a very short

time during the year, it is not cheap to adopt wind turbines with fixed pitch rotors and size

them to take advantage of these limited periods of strong winds. Indeed, the significant

increase in the cost of the machine, due to the strong resistance of the blades and the high

peak power, would not be offset by modest increases in electricity produced. This

increased cost can be avoided by limiting the energy conversion process of the aero-

generator under the strong winds' regimen and this limitation is usually achieved by

adopting variable pitch blades the setting of which reduces the aerodynamic efficiency of

the rotor. The pitch can be varied in a continuous or stepped way; in the latest large size

machines it is preferable to adopt a blade type that can be adjusted only in the part closest

to the tip.

54

TOWER

STRUCTURE

The average height of a tower is comprised between 40 and 60 meters. The tower may consist of a metal structure the shape of a truncated cone (with an internal ladder that allows to go up and down for maintainance purposes) or of a lattice trellis metal structure.

55

TRANSFORMER

STRUCTURE

The transformer is a static electric machine which, by exploiting the electromagnetic induction phenomenon, turns the parameters of the incoming power, tension and current, into values of exiting current and tension that are predefined at a constant power (unless there are any trasformation losses). Schematically, a trasformer consists of two windings, each formed by a number of coils of copper wire wrapped around a highly permeable iron core. Of these, one receives energy from the feedline, whilst the other is connected to the circuits of use.

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VISIT THE ENERGY PLANTS PARK

What's inside a wind turbine?

57

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY

COAL POWER PLANT

HOW IT WORKS

Due to its high availability, secure supply, competitiveness and highly secure handling,

transportation and use – it’s nonflammable, and it’s not explosive or polluting for either

land or water - coal is the primary fuel for electricity generation in the world and in Europe.

The energy path in a coal fired power station starts in the steam generator area, which

contains the burners used for coal combustion. The high temperature of combustion

gasses produces the conversion into steam of the water contained in the pipes of the heat

engine. The steam reaches the turbine through thick pipes, and makes it rotate at 3,000

revolutions per minute. The turbine is connected to an alternator which generates

electricity. The fumes, after having emitted their heat to the steam generator, are sent to

the chimney following their passage through denitrificators, dust collectors and

desulphators, in order to abate, respectively, nitrogen oxides, dust particles and sulphur

dioxide. The steam, after having transmitted a large portion of its energy to the turbine, is

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conveyed to the condenser where it transfers its residual heat to the sea water –with

which it never comes in contact– extracted by means of specific pumps. This steam is thus

converted into water that is once more transferred by means of pumps to the steam

generator in order to start the cycle over. The voltage of the energy produced by the

alternator is heightened to 380 kV so that it can be grid-connected.

ENERGY COURSE

HOW IT WORKS

Worldwide, 39 % of electricity produced comes from coal, whilst in the 27 EU countries it

amounts to 33%. For the future, electricity generation from coal is bound to grow

strongly.Remarkable, however, is the technological innovation of the plants, which

provides us, today, with a greater efficiency of at least ten points compared to a few years

ago, with very low emissions. In particular, investments in "clean coal" technologies made

in Italy, For instance, the 1,980 MW Torrevaldaliga Nord plant, opened in July 2008 in

Civitavecchia, is one of the most advanced in the world: coal transport and handling

59

systems are completely sealed (the fuel never comes in contact with the air) and

emissions Are reduced up to 88% compared to the previous fluel-oil plant.

Steam generator

STRUCTURE

A steam generator essentially consists of a furnace in which the injected air and fuel are

burnt, thus heating and steaming the water flowing in the pipes and coils forming the

generator itself. Moreover, each generator is equipped with two rotating air heaters to

recover the heat from exiting fumes, as well as from blowing and auxiliary systems.

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Steam turbines

STRUCTURE

The turbine is a machine that converts the mechanical energy of a fluid in motion (liquid or

gas) into kinetic energy. In the case of thermal power stations, the fluid in question is

superheated steam. The essential element of the turbine is the rotor, which consists of a

wheel with "palettes". The mechanical energy gained by the rotor is then transmitted to a

crankshaft that is used to activate an electrical generator named alternator.

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ALTERNATOR

STRUCTURE

The alternator is an electricity generator. It consists of two basic parts, one fixed and one rotating, respectively called ‘stator’ and ‘rotor’, on which are arranged insulated copper windings. The two windings are called ‘inductor’ (mounting the rotor) and ‘induced’ (mounting the stator).

62

TRANSFORMER

STRUCTURE

The transformer is a static electricity machine capable of transferring, by exploiting the

phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, alternate current electricity from one circuit to

another, changing its characteristics. Schematically, a transformer consists of two

windings, each made by a number of copper wire spires, wrapped around a highly

magnetically permeable iron core, one of which receives energy from the power line, while

the other is connected to circuits of use. In the most recent constructions there is only one

winding, in this case called "autotransformer".

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FEEDING PUMP

STRUCTURE

The pump used in coal-fired power has a vertical axis pump set in motion by a 6000 volt electric motor.

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CONDENCER

STRUCTURE

The capacitor is connected to the turbine’s exhaust and essentially consists of an empty

volume through which passes the vapour and through which water is uniformly sprayed in

the form of small droplets, so as to bring water and steam in close contact. Un-

condensable gases present in geothermal steam are extracted from the capacitor by a

compressor so as to maintain the vacuum level required.

65

CATALYZER

STRUCTURE

The NOx removal process based on reaction with ammonia and oxygen requires high

temperatures: this may occur at the temperatures of fumes coming out of the boiler due to

the presence of suitable catalysts, consisting of "grids" coated with oxides of vanadium,

tungsten and titanium, inserted in layers (usually 2 or 3) inside the denitrificator.

66

DUST COLLECTOR

STRUCTURE

The operation is based on the principle of attraction between bodies with electrical charge

of opposite sign. The precipitators consist of a set of thread-like elements and plates,

arranged vertically in the smoke duct and held in tension by a system of DC power in order

to have an ionized electric field inside the duct. Thread-like electrodes have the task of

negatively charging solid particles of smoke, which will then be attracted by positively

charged plates. Systems of vibrators and shakers of the plates provide, at regular

intervals, the dropping of soot in the underlying hoppers.

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DESULPHURIZER

STRUCTURE

The operation is based on the principle of attraction between bodies with electrical charge

of opposite sign. The precipitators consist of a set of thread-like elements and plates,

arranged vertically in the fume duct and held in tension by a system of direct current power

in order to have an ionized electric field inside the duct. Thread-like electrodes have the

task of negatively charging the solid particles of fumes, which will then be attracted by

positively charged plates. Plates' vibrator and shaker systems provide, at regular intervals,

the dropping of soot into the underlying hoppers.

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Chimney

STRUCTURE

The chimney is made of a sturdy concrete "coating" containing numerous pipes, one for

each production unit, in order to increase the speed of fumes' outlet and allow the raising

of its plume.

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VISIT THE POWER PLANT IN PORTO TOLLE

Click and select Grand Tour to view the phases of coal-fueled energy production from start to finish

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NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear energy is a way of creating heat through the fission process of atoms. All power

plants convert heat into electricity using steam. At nuclear power plants, the heat to make

the steam is created when atoms split apart -- called fission. (Other types of power plants

burn coal or oil for heat to make steam.)

It also releases energy in the form of heat. The released neutrons can then repeat the

process. This releases even more neutrons and more nuclear energy. The repeating of the

process is called a chain reaction. In a nuclear power plant, uranium is the material used in

the fission process.

The heat from fission boils water and creates steam to turn a turbine. As the turbine spins,

the generator turns and its magnetic field produces electricity. The electricity can then be

carried to your home, so you can work on the computer, watch television, play video

games, or make toast!

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NUCLEAR REACTORSThere Are Two Types of Reactors

The Pressurized Water Reactor

(PWR)

PWRs keep water under pressure so that it heats, but does not boil. Water from the

reactor and the water in the steam generator that is turned into steam never mix. In this

way, most of the radioactivity stays in the reactor area.Pressurized Water Reactors are

known as "PWRs." They keep water under pressure so that it heats but does not boil.

Water from the reactor and the water that is turned into steam are in separate pipes and

never mix.

And the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

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Boiling Water Reactors are known as "BWRs." In BWRs, the water heated by fission

actually boils and turns into steam to turn the generator. In both types of plants, the steam

is turned back into water and can be used again in the process.

Radioactivity must be carefully managed because it can be dangerous if not handled

properly. It can damage human cells or cause cancer over time. Since the fission process

creates radioactivity, all nuclear power plants have many safety systems that protect

workers, the public and the environment. For example, systems allow the fission process

to be stopped and the reactor to be shut down quickly. Other systems cool the reactor and

carry heat away from it. Barriers keep the radioactivity from escaping into the environment.

In reactors, radioactive material is contained inside small ceramic pellets about the size of

an adult's finger. They are placed in long metal rods inside a reactor vessel, which is

enclosed in a concrete and steel containment building. These buildings have walls three to

six feet thick!

Virtual Nuclear Power Station

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RADIATION

In Reactors, Radiation Is Trapped and Contained in Several Ways:

Small amounts of radioactivity can be released into the environment but only under

controlled and monitored conditions. The only major accident in a nuclear power plant in

this country was at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in March 1979. At

Three Mile Island, there was major fuel damage, and radioactive gases and contaminated

cooling water filled the containment building. Some radioactivity was released into the

atmosphere, but it didn't hurt people or the environment.

A much more serious accident happened in 1986 at Chernobyl in the former Soviet Union.

That reactor was built differently than those in the U.S. Most importantly, it had no

containment system. The reactor core was severely damaged and a large amount of

radioactivity was released into the environment.

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Pressurized Water Reactors

In a typical commercial pressurized light-water reactor(1) the core inside the reactor vessel

creates heat, (2) pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the

steam generator, (3) inside the steam generator, heat from the steam, and (4) the steam

line directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it to turn the turbine generator, which

produces electricity. The unused steam is exhausted in to the condenser where it

condensed into water. The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series of

pumps, reheated and pumped back to the steam generators. The reactor's core contains

fuel assemblies that are cooled by water circulated using electrically powered pumps.

These pumps and other operating systems in the plant receive their power from the

electrical grid. If offsite power is lost emergency cooling water is supplied by other pumps,

which can be powered by onsite diesel generators. Other safety systems, such as the

containment cooling system, also need power. Pressurized-water reactors contain

between 150-200 fuel assemblies. See also  animated diagram.

CLICK FOR A VIRTUAL TOUR

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RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Nuclear power plants generate two types of waste: high-level and low-level.

High-level waste includes the fuel that was used in the nuclear reactor, called "spent fuel."

It is highly radioactive and very dangerous. It must be cooled for several years in deep

pools inside the plant, after which it can be transferred to special casks, which are like big,

concrete barrels. Some of the fission products in the spent fuel will take many years to

lose their radioactivity. A special disposal site is needed for this type of waste. In early

2012, a Blue Ribbon Commission of policy experts recommended creating one or more

large facilities where the waste from several nuclear plants can be stored until a disposal

site is found.

Low-level waste can come from nuclear reactors or from hospitals or universities. Low-

level waste is not as dangerous as high-level waste. It can be shipped to low-level waste

disposal facilities. There, it is packaged, buried in trenches and covered with soil. States

are responsible for selecting new disposal sites or using those that already exist.

Nuclear power provides about 20 percent of our nation's electricity. And nuclear materials

help in thousands of medical procedures and dozens of industrial uses. But many

scientists believe we haven't yet found all the ways to use nuclear materials. The NRC will be closely regulating any peaceful use of nuclear material to protect public health and safety, and the world in which we live. 76

RENEWABLE ENERGY PLANTS IN ITALY

Click and see the web site 77

Regional distribution of power in 2010

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Provincial distribution of power in 2010

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Regional distribution of production in 2010

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Provincial distribution of production in 2010

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Regional distribution number photovoltaic systems in 2010

82

Regional distribution of photovoltaic system in 2010

83

Regional distribution of photovoltaic power in 2010

84

Provincial distribution of photovoltaic power in 2010

85

Regional distribution of power production in 2010

86

Provincial distribution of PV production in 2010

87

Regional distribution number wind farm in 2010

88

Regional distribution of wind power in 2010

89

Provincial distribution of wind power in 2010

90

Regional distribution of wind power production in 2010

91

Provincial distribution of wind power production in 2010

92

Regional distribution of the number hydroelectric plants in 2010

93

Regional distribution of hydroelectric power in 2010

94

Provincial distribution of hydroelectric power in 2010

95

Regional distribution of hydraulic production in 2010

96

Provincial distribution of Hydropower Production in 2010

97

Regional distribution of bioenergy plants in 2010

98

Regional distribution of the power of bioenergy systems in 2010

99

Regional production from bioenergy in 2010

100

Provincial production from bioenergy in 2010

101

Regional production from biomass in 2010

102

Provincial production from biomass in 2010

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Regional production from biodegradable municipal waste in 2010

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Provincial production from biodegradable municipal waste in 2010

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Regional production from biogas in 2010

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Provincial production from biogas in 2010

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Regional production from bioliquids in 2010

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Provincial production from bioliquids in 2010

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Provincial distribution of geothermal power plants in 2010

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Hydrogen power plant

At FUSINA (VENICE), INAUGURATION OF FIRST INDUSTRIAL-SCALE HYDROGEN PLANT IN THE WORLD

• The plant will generate sufficient clean electricity to meet the annual needs of 20,000 households, avoiding more than 17,000 metric tons of CO2 emissions a year.

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ENERGY CONSUMPITION AND ENERGY TRANSFER IN ITALY

112

In 2010 Italy produced 77 kWh and it is on the 5th place among the EU-15 gross production of renewable energy, after Germany, Sweden, Spain and France. The increase in renewable energy production in Italy, from 69 TWh in 2009 to 77 in 2010 (about 12%) is driven by the hydraulic production (66% of production from RES) and is linked to favorable water logged.

113

NATURAL RESOURCES IN ITALY

In Italy, most of the existing mines at the beginning of the century are now closed. Coal

mines (in the area of Sulcis, Sardinia) have been abandoned due to the low concentration

of this mineral and higher production costs than other deposits located abroad.

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Oil and natural gas in Italy are modest, very fragmented and often located at great depths

or offshore, and this has made it difficult both their location and their exploitation. Italy is

the 49th largest oil producer in the world. The most important oil fields are located in Sicily

and offshore, particularly in the field of Ragusa, Gela and Gagliano Castelferrato. In

addition to these there are other fields in the eastern part of the island as in the west. Then

there are, among the most important ones from the Val d'Agri, Basilicata, and the Orsini in

the Adriatic port of Ravenna. Domestic production accounts for about 7% of our total oil

consumption, and the remaining 93% is therefore imported from abroad, the Italian

production, finally, corresponds to 1% of the world production, with the remaining reserves,

about 1 billion barrels, accounting for 0.1% of world reserves of crude oil.

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Forests occupy a major portion of our territory (36%), which is equivalent to slightly less

than 25% of the annual of biomass produced, compared to 65% of the European average.

Even if we produce a lot of wood, pellets and briquettes ,we import a lot of wood.

Wood pelletes

Briquettes We use fireplaces at home because it is cheaper than gas.

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We import oil and natural gas for our industries ,cars and for energy

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Energy resources:

The reduced availabilities in FranceFrance does not have large fossil and fissile energy resources.

The oil and conventional gas are limited and being depleted, coal mining is economically

deficient.

There are no more uranium mine in activity

Exploitation of Shale gas gives rise to debates about its impact on the environment.

The country needs to develop an energy policy to ensure security of supply of these

energies and to control prices

CoalCoal has long been the main source of energy in France. The peak of production was

reached during the Industrial revolution. After WWII, the exploitation decreased. The coal

reserves are estimated to be between 500 and 600 million tons but its poor quality and the

harsh conditions to mine it (it is burried deep underground) make its productivity a real

problem . The coal field in the North which has been the most important coal deposit in

France ceased its activity in 1991.

OilIn 2012, France produced nearly 20,000 barrels of oil per day on its soil. This production

can cover only about 1% of its end oil needs. To meet the demand, an additional 1.3

million barrels of crude oil are imported daily (1), plus imports already refined products,

including diesel and heating oil.

Nuclear Energy80% of the production of electricity in France is made by the nuclear industry. France is

the second producer of nuclear energy in the world after the United States. The rest of the

production of electricity mainly comes from renewable energy sources (13%). The aim is to

increase the amount of the renewable energies to 25% by 2025

With 58 reactors and 1100 sites containing nuclear waste, France holds the record for

most nuclear-armed country in the world relative to population. The exploration of Uranium

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started on the national territory in 1946. The last uranium mine was closed in 2001.

Nowadays, the natural uranium used in France is fully imported.

On this map, there are all of the nuclears power stations.

nuclear central of belleville

nuclear central of choz

nuclear central of saint laurent

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Solar energy

this is the map of the production of solar energy in France:

:less than 1220 kw per square meters and per yers:of 1220 in 1350 kw per square meters and per yers:of 1350 in 1490 kw per square meters and per yers:of 1490 in 1620 kw per square meters and per yers:of 1620 in 1760 kw per square meters and per yers:more than 1760 kw per square meters and per yers

Wind energyFrance has the third largest wind resources in Europe after Germany and the United

Kingdom. Elictricité de France, the main French electricity generator and supplier in

France plans to increase its capacity to 10 GW in the year 2010.

The French government plans to produce 21% of its electricity consumption with

renewable energy in 2010 to comply with European directive 2001/77/CE of 27 September

2001. This means that France has to produce 106 TWh of renewable energy in 2010 when

it only produced 71 TWh in 2006. Wind power represents 75% of the 35 TWh additional

production in 2010.

wind farm 31st march 2013 by EDFAround 63% of wind energy is assured by 6 regions:

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Hydroelectric energyHydropower has been used for electricity production in France since the end of the 19th

Century. The oldest installations have now been in existence for more than one hundred

years. A hydropower construction programme had been planned just before the Second

World War. The most active construction period was after the War, and it benefited from

technological advances and from the nationalization of the electrical sector in 1946.

The installed capacity increased from 5.0 GW in 1948, to 17.0 GW in 1975, to about 25.0

GW in 1995. Of the latter amount, EDF accounts for 23.0 GW produced by over 500 plants

and 140 major dams. The other private or publicly owned producers (such as the SNCF,

the French railways, and the CNR, own approximately 1200 plants. The total energy

production in 2010 was 67.6 TWh

PARIS

NANTES

MARSEILLE

LILLE

Around 83% of hydroelectric energy is assured by 4 regions 121

Natural resources and

its productsin Estonia

122

Väätsa Basic SchoolUse of natural resources

Estonia does not import energy. because there is a large amount of local resource - oil shale that is mainly used for producing energy.

Production of electricity 2012Statistc Estonia

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Natural gas 1% Peat 0,8 %Shale oil 0,5% Wood 7,9%Oil shale 81% Others renewable resources

0,4%Oil shale gas 4,3% Hydro 0,4%Wind 3,6%

Central heating in Estonia 2010

Heating in private houses 2010

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Natural gas 42%Oil shale 10%Oil shale gas 5,5%Wood 25%Shale oil 5.5 %Light fuel oil 3%Others 8,5%

Natural gas 20,3%Heat pumps 18%Others 3.8%Wood 58%

Most important power plants in Estonia

Eesti power plant 1610 MW in Narva

Balti power plant 839 MW in Narva

Iru heat- and power plant 190 MW in Tallinn

Eesti Energia started using waste to produce energy at Iru Power Plant in 2013, where a modern waste-to-energy power unit was built.

The Iru waste-to-energy unit can incinerate up to 220,000 tons of waste per year.

Kohtla-Järve power plant 39 MW.

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Combined heat and power (CHP)Kuressaare CHP (2,4 MW electricity ja 12 MW heat)

Weroli tehase (Painküla) CHP (natural gas, 4,3 MW electricity, 1,7 MW heat).

Aravete ja Oisu CHP (Biogas )

Paide CHP (2 MW electricity, 8 MW heat, wood chips)

Rakvere CHP (1 MW electricity, 10 MW heat, wood chips ),

Tartu CHP 25 MW electricity 50 MW heat wood chips)

Biomass is produced from low-quality wood, scrub, reeds and agricultural waste. Estonia has large resources of biomass. Wood chips are made from biomass.

In 2012 natural gas, liquid fuels, coal were imported for domestic consumptionEstonia's High Pressure Gas Pipelines

Use of Energy in Estonia

industry

agiculture transport

business households

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

Electrisity**, GWhHeating, GWh

Oil shale deposit

http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/pqlevkivi.html

Peat deposits and production in Estonia

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Hydroelectric plants in Estonia

There are quite a lot of hydroelectric plants (20)in Estonia, but on a global scale these are still micro hydroelectric plants (10…1100 kW)

http://

et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilt:Linnam%C3%A4e_HEJ_2009-10-12.JPG

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Wind

There were 126 turbines installed by the end of 2012 in Estonia.

Last year the wind turbines produced about 5,5 % of the total electricity consumption in Estonia.

http://www.ttu.ee/public/e/energeetikateaduskond/Instituudid/elektroenergeetika_instituut/moodul/Elektrienergia%20tootmine.html

Wind turbines in Estonia

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Brown Coal in Germany's Energy EconomyWith an output of approx. 185 mill. tons, brown coal contributes almost 40 % to Germany‘s primary energy generation and is thus the most important domestic energy supplier.

However,the main source of energy consumption in Germany is mineral oil.

Brown coal is more important for the production of electricity. Almost 90 % of total lignite output is used for domestic power and district heat generation. Brown coal accounted for electricity to the tune of 162 billion kilowatt hours, equivalent to about 25% of Germany's total electricity production of 629 billion kilowatt hours in 2013.

In 2012, lignite-fired power plants generated 159 bn. kilowatt hours of power. Every fourth kilowatt hour of power consumed in Germany is derived from domestic lignite.

Brown Coal Deposits / Mining Areas

There are three large lignite areas in Germany. The most extensive brown coal seams are all located at the northern edge of the Central German low mountain ranges. They developed in landscapes with swampland, fenland, bogs, open surfaces of water and woods.

Resources amount to 77 billion t, of which 40 billion t are reserves and 4,8 billion t are part of currently used and approved mines.

Lignite is the only domestic energy supplier that is available in large amounts. While mineral oil, natural gas, and pit coal must be imported brown coal can be mined domestically.

Over 54 % of all German brown coal is produced in the Rhineland brown coal field. As more than 25 % of all electricity in Germany is produced by brown coal, the Rhineland alone produces 13 % of the total German electricity production.

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What is brown coal?

Brown coal, often referred to as lignite, is a soft brown combustible sedimentary rock that is formed from naturally compressed peat. Brown coal is a lot denser than peat, being of a brownish to dark color and of solid wooden composure. It is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its relatively low heat content.Lignite has a carbon content of around 25-35%, a high inherent moisture content - sometimes as high as 66% - and an ash content ranging from 6% to 19%. The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 - 20 MJ/kg - on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.

Formation of Brown Coal

Coalification processes Coal is found in layers between different segments in the ground. These coal layers (seams) have been formed through the chemical transformation of different plant residues that fell into a swamp and, therefore, did not decompose completely.

Most of the brown coal formations emerged in the Mesozoic and the Tertiary. Coal was formed from decomposed fern and horsetail forests. The carbon dioxide rich environment of the carbon together with the humid and hot climate of that time allowed an extraordinary plant growth.

134

These swamp forests were located in valleys that lowered evermore through the formation of mountains. Through the increase of the water level these forests eventually died and sank into the swamps where these plant rests decomposed under anaerobic conditions (i.e. exclusion of air).

Over time, this newly created peat was compressed by the weight of the segments above leading to a partial drainage. Through this process, soft brown coal is created which under the influence of high temperatures and the loss of CO2 and Methane (CH4) transforms after a while to hard brown coal, or pit, or anthracite coal. This process is accompanied by permanent carbon enrichment.

Extensive coal deposits are found exactly at those points where there were forests earlier. This method of formation is revealed by the fact that tree stalks and root residues can be identified within the coal seams.

Environmental and Social Problems

The smokestacks from the five huge lignite-fired power plants along the edges of the gaping open-pit mines between Cologne, Mönchengladbach and Aachen can be seen for miles around. They generate enormous quantities of electricity, despite lignite coal being regarded as a major climate killer and cause of climate change. Burning lignite releases more carbon-dioxide than other fossil fuels.

Still, Germany produces more than 15 percent of its energy by burning lignite coal. The advantage is that Germany has large deposits and it does not need to import it. The disadvantages are that mining lignite gobbles up land, forcing the relocation of entire towns, while damaging the surrounding environment for many decades.

In a densely populated region like North Rhine- Westphalia such a dramatic change in landscape cannot take place without affecting the inhabitants or their infrastructure. As coal mining ensures the energy supply and, thereby, serves

the interests of the public it is possible to demolish entire settlements and relocate their inhabitants in order to mine the coal that is located in the ground below.

Brown coal surface mining has a massive influence on the landscape due to its enormous extent. Only a pronounced public interest justifies such a massive intervention into the landscape balance.

Germany, traditionally seen as one of the leaders in fighting CO2 emissions as it tries to wean itself from fossil fuels and nuclear power, seems to have grown tired of leading by example and it is about to erase entire towns of its map because they are sitting on vast coal deposits.

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The tiny village of Atterwasch, near the Polish border, is one of them. Swedish energy company Vattenfall is planning to relocate the community in order to strip-mine the ground underneath for lignite, or "brown coal," considered the dirtiest form of the fossil fuel, which is mined in open cast pits.

According to experts quoted by the BBC, the rural Lausitz region, home to pine forests, farm fields, and villages, also holds billions of tons of brown coal. There, in what was once East Germany, hundred of small towns have been destroyed to make way for massive strip mines since 1934.

While Germany has said it is committed to its "Energiewende," or energy revolution, with about 25% of its electricity currently coming from renewable sources, the sudden hunger for coal is threatening the future of several villages like Atterwasch.

Coal use in the country hit is highest level since 1990 last year, industry figures show.

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Press Reports / Material

Der Spiegel

Green Revolution? German Brown Coal Power Output Hits New High

Germany plans to wean itself off CO2-belching coal-fired power stations. But new figures show that coal power output in 2013 reached its highest level in more than 20 years. Researchers blame cheap CO2 emissions permits, and demand urgent reforms.

In 1990, Germany's bown coal-fired power stations produced almost 171 billion kilowatt hours of power. At the time, many old eastern German plants were still in operation.

It was a situation that the German government wanted to change, with the aim being that of radically reducing the output of the CO2-polluting lignite plants, but that's not happening. In 2013, it rose to 162 billion kilowatt hours, the highest level since reunification in 1990, according to preliminary figures from AGEB, a collection of industry associations and research institutes.

Electricity output from brown coal plants rose 0.8 percent in 2013, said Jochen Diekmann of the German Institute for Economic Research. As a result, Germany's CO2 output is expected to have risen in 2013, even as power from renewable sources has reached 25 percent of the energy mix.

Part of the reason, said Diekmann, is the low price of CO2 emissions permits in EU trading scheme. Another reason is that new brown coal plants, with a capacity of 2,743

megawatts, came on line in 2012, far exceeding the 1,321 megawatts from old plants shut down that year.

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The opposition Green Party called on the government to stop the trend. "Those serious about protecting the climate must ensure that less and less power is generated from brown coal," said Green Party politician Bärbel Höhn. CO2 emissions needed to be priced at a level that makes the more climate-friendly gas-fired power stations economical, she said. "Brown coal power stations, after nuclear plants, are the main source of profit for RWE and Co.," said Höhn, referring to Germany's major utilities. "So they don't even switch off the really old power stations."

Power output from anthracite coal also rose, by eight billion kilowatt hours to over 124 billion, while output from gas-fired plants fell by 10 billion to 66 billion. That means that coal plants are making up for the bulk of the energy production lost due to the 2011 shutdown of eight nuclear plants, while gas plants, which emit less CO2 but are more expensive to run, are barely profitable at present.

Energy Paradox

The increase in coal-generated power also led to a new record in German electricity exports to around 33 billion kilowatt hours. "In 2013 Germany exported more power than it imported on eight out of 10 days. Most of it was generated by from brown coal and anthracite power stations," said Patrick Graichen, a power market analyst at Berlin-based think tank Agora Energiewende. "They are crowding out gas plants not just in Germany but also abroad -- especially in the Netherlands."

Graichen said it was a paradox of Germany's "Energiewende," the energy revolution aimed at weaning the country off fossil fuel by 2050, that CO2 emissions were now rising despite the rapid expansion of solar and wind power. In 2014, the surcharge on electricity bills will provide some €23.5 billion of subsidies for renewable energies. A four-person household will pay a surcharge of almost €220 this year.

That, said Graichen, is due to the low price of CO2 permits. "The European market for emissions certificates must urgently be repaired to change that," he said. The volume of emissions certificates must be reduced in order to boost the price of CO2.

Gerald Neubauer of Greenpeace said Energy Minister Sigmar Gabriel, of the center-left Social Democrats, must stop "the shocking coal boom." No other country produces more brown coal than Germany, he added. "The coal boom now endangers Germany's credibility on climate protection and the energy revolution," said Neubauer. The Social Democrats need to adopt a more critical stance on this issue, he added.

cro -- with wire reports

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Financial Times

German coal use at highest level since 1990 (by Stefan Wagstyl in Berlin)

Brown coal electricity production in Germany rose in 2013 to its highest level since 1990, despite the country’s campaign to shift to green sources of energy.

The increase prompted calls from Green politicians and environmental lobbyists for energy reforms to raise the costs of operating coal-fired power stations – especially those using brown coal, a highly-polluting fuel.

But brown coal power producers hit back, saying any “forced changes” in Germany’s energy mix would not reduce carbon dioxide emissions in Europe, but shift them to other countries.

The exchanges come as chancellor Angela Merkel’s coalition looks to revise Germany’s energy policies – maintaining commitments to green energy while also controlling the costs and protecting economic competitiveness. At the same time, Berlin is also grappling with an EU probe into subsidies paid to some industries to shield them from high energy prices.

The German figures could reverberate across the EU as discontent grows over the bloc’s energy policies. The continent’s biggest utilities, in particular, have lambasted Brussels for measures they say have hurt industry without delivering hoped-for environmental benefits.

Germany, which is the world’s largest brown coal miner, last year used the fuel – also known as lignite – to generate 162bn kilowatt-hours of electricity, according to EnergieBilanz, an electricity industry association. That is up from 161bn kWh in 2012 and the highest total since the 171bn kWh recorded in 1990, when east Germany’s ex-Communist plants were still in full flow.

Although energy from renewable sources – such as wind and solar power – has risen steadily over the past decade, to 147bn kWh last year, Ms Merkel’s decision to phase out nuclear power has left a gap that only fossil fuels could fill quickly.

Hopes that low-emission gas-based plants might make up for the lost nuclear power were dashed by the fact that gas prices have been relatively high and coal prices low.

As a result, Germany’s carbon dioxide emissions, which rose from 917m tonnes in 2011 to 931m tonnes in 2012, are estimated to show an increase of 20m tonnes when figures are tallied for last year.

The brown coal industry insists it is becoming more efficient. It has invested in new generators that produce more electricity per ton of coal. As a result, even though power

output rose in 2013, brown coal mining declined 2 per cent, according to Debriv, the industry association.

The opposition Green party urged Ms Merkel’s conservative-social democrat coalition to encourage use of other fuels. “Whoever is serious about climate protection, must take care that less and less electricity comes from brown coal,” said Bärbel Höhn, a Green environment spokesperson.

Jens Tartler, spokesman for the German Renewable Energy Federation, an industry group, urged reform of the EU’s carbon market The EU’s decision last year to remove emissions worth 900m tonnes from trading was “not enough” to boost the market. “That emissions are rising again in Germany [with its commitment to green energy] is a very bad signal to other countries.”

Debriv retorted that to trigger fuel mix changes, carbon prices would have to increase tenfold, which “would have a devastating effect” on electricity prices and competitiveness.

The economic and political strains of promoting green energy are growing. The coalition agreement envisages the green share of power generation rising from 25 per cent today to 40-45 per cent in 2025.

But Ms Merkel has said she is worried about the effect of rising costs on industry and pledged to defend subsidies now paid to some industries – despite the EU investigation announced last month.

This week, the conservative CSU, the Bavarian partner of Ms Merkel’s CDU party, was split by a green energy dispute. Horst Seehofer, the CSU leader and Bavarian prime minister, on Tuesday postponed a party conference address by a day to shoot down a proposal from his economy minister to finance green subsidies with loans. Mr Seehofer said the next generation should not be burdened with the costs.

Reuters

FRANKFURT, April 26 (Reuters) - Germany's green energy drive is proving surprisingly good for dirty brown coal as utilities squeezed by rival renewables and low wholesale gas prices use more of it.

East Germany was a huge user of brown coal, or lignite, and Germany remains the world's biggest producer, but its use poses a problem for Berlin's environmental plans.

Limiting brown coal use is politically difficult, however, with 20,000 mining and utilities jobs involved and any move that could raise already high energy bills for consumers a risky gambit ahead of federal elections in September.

Coal also remains important to profits at utilities such as RWE and the German arm of Sweden's Vattenfall .

"Lignite load factors have remained high and gross margins held up better than for other fuels," JP Morgan analyst Vincent de Blic said.

RWE mines its own lignite and relied on it for 36 percent of its electricity production last year.

Coal helped RWE's power generation unit to a 14.1 percent rise in profits and prompted the company to add more as it started output at a 2.1 gigawatt twin-unit lignite-powered plant in Neurath near Cologne.

Despite Germany's green energy drive, which subsidises renewable wind and solar energy and aims to drop nuclear power, the country mined 5.1 percent more brown coal in 2012, industry association Debriv data showed.

Brown coal-fired plants also produced 6 percent more power, the 159 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) accounting for 25.7 percent of Germany's power production, industry figures showed.

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Germany needs nuclear, coal or gas for so-called base power to ensure steady supply alongside volatile wind and solar energy.

And it is coal that is winning out because German utilities can turn a profit using it to generate electricity, something they are failing to do with gas.

"Gas-fired capacity is being crowded out by wind and solar and, paradoxically, by coal-fired capacity," E.ON Chief Executive Johannes Teyssen said last month.

E.ON, Germany's biggest utility, is less exposed to coal than RWE, however, using lignite to fire just 6 percent of its generation last year. The German arm of Vattenfall relied on it for 31 percent of its power.

DARK OR SPARK?

While brown coal mining grows, Germany by 2018 plans to phase out mining hard black coal, which provides around 20 percent of the country's power using mostly imported supplies.

Power generators currently can earn more than 10 euros per MWh for benchmark 2014 power derived from hard coal while using gas means making a loss of almost 14 euros per MWh .

Using cheaper lignite is even more profitable at more than 20 euros per MWh, according to Morgan Stanley and JP Morgan analysts.

Current low prices for permits which utilities and manufacturers must purchase to offset their carbon output is also buying "dirty" utilities more time.

Yet Germany's environmental targets will eventually require it to rein in brown coal - which has a CO2 intensity of 1,153 grams per kWh versus 428 grams for natural gas, according to figures from the OekoInstitut, Germany's institute of applied ecology.

RWE's Neurath and Niederaussem lignite power stations are the second and third largest CO2-emitting installations in the European Union.

While Germany's carbon output held steady in 2012 helped by improved energy efficiency, its broader emissions (of gases monitored under the Kyoto Protocol) rose 1.6 percent partly due to pollution from brown coal.

Analysts say one possibility is that Germany might introduce a tax aimed at ensuring those cashing in on lignite help fund the country's 550 billion euro ($715 billion) shift to low carbon energy.

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"The greatest risk following this year's elections in Germany could be an increase in the nuclear fuel tax and a new tax on lignite," said Kepler Capital Markets analyst Ingo Becker, adding such a move would likely hit the share prices of utilities such as RWE.

($1 = 0.7689 euros) (Editing by Jason Neely)

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GEO-THERMAL ENERGY

overview:

1. Definiton2. Geothermal Energy3. Shallow Geothermal Energy4. Deep Geothermal Energy5. Usage6. Future Prospects7. Sources of Information

1 Definition

adjective geothermal combination of Greek “geo” = earth and “therme” = heat => heat from the earth

Definition:

Geothermal energy = energy stored as heat under the solid surface of the earth

2 Gerothermal Energy

The overall amount of geothermal energy is made up in range of 30 percents by residual heat.

Kinetic energy from the agglomeration of material 5 billion years ago, when the planet was created, was stored as heat energy within the rocky mass of the earth.

Today - due to the low heat conductivity - there is still residual heat from this genesis process present under the earth’s surface.

Approximately 70 % of the geothermal energy is supplied by the radioactive decay of the isotopes potassium 40, uranium 235, uranium 238 and thorium 232. This process continuously generates heat that is stored in the rocks.

Close to the earth’s surface the mean temperature is 10°C (50°F) and increases towards the core by 3°C (37.4°F) each 100 meters.

Since the residual heat and the heat from decay process are finite, geothermal energy is not a renewable energy.

However, its potential will prospectively ensure reliable energy supply for the next millions of years.

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Therefore geothermal energy can be considered to be a renewable energy on the human scale.

The essential advantage of energy taken from the earth’s inside in comparison to other renewable energies is its ability to supply baseload energy.

Geothermal heat is unaffected by daily, seasonal and annual changes and therefore constantly and consistently available.

It can be extracted from its subsurface reservoir by various proven technologies.

As virtually no carbon is emitted by using geothermal energy it is regarded to be outstandingly climate friendly.

The proportion of extracted primary energy to useful heat is very advantageous.

3 Shallow Geothermal Energy

Within a range of 0 - 400m of depth stored heat is categorised as geothermal energy close to the surface (shallow geothermal energy).

Direct usage of this heat is possible by combinations of heat pumps and subsurface heat exchangers, such as collectors, wells or piles.

4 .. Deep Geothermal Energy

Geothermal heat extracted from a depth beyond 400 meters is categorised as deep geothermal energy (DGE).

It can be either used directly for heating purposes or it can supply the energy for electricity generation.

The heat can be extracted by Hot-Dry-Rock (HDR) processes or by the drilling into aquifers or fault-zones.

5 Usage

Direkte Nutzung Geothermische Energie weltweit = Direct usage geothermal energy globally

Land = country

Installierte Leistung = installed production capacity

Nutzung = usage Veränderung = changing balance 146

Germany

share of renewable energy: 12,2 %

○ share of geothermal energy: 2,2%.

investment of geothermal energy:

○ 2010: 850 Mio. €

○ 2011: 960 Mio. €

6 Future Prospects

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tripling the usage of geothermal energy in the next 10 years

7 ….Sources of Information

http://www.geothermie-zentrum.de/en/geothermal-energy.html

http://www.geothermie.de/wissenswelt/geothermie/geothermie-weltweit.html

http://www.geothermie.de/news-anzeigen/2012/03/09/ausbauzahlen-2011-erneuerbare-energien-auf-dem-vormarsch.html

http://www.kwh-preis.de/oekostrom/strom-aus-erdwaermehttp://www.kwh-preis.de/oekostrom/strom-aus-erdwaerme

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Energy resources, Greece

Comenius partnership, Jan 2014,

Education for Energy in Europe

Problem A. Energy resources

Resources are limited

• Resources don’t belong to us• Resources are borrowed from next

generation• Sustainability is the target

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Problem B. Environment

• Greenhouse effect• Global warming• Acid rain• Climate change• Extreme weather phenomena • Sustainability is the target

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Non renewable energy resources

Limited & not environment friendly• Fossil fuels

– Coal (solid)• Peat• Lignite• Oil shale

– Oil (liquid)– Gas

• Uranium – nuclear energy

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Renewable energy sources

Unlimited & environment friendly• Solar• Hydro• Wind• Geothermal• Biomass

– Wood– Waste of plant processing (eg pits)– Plants – Indirect, producing biofuel

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Secondary energy resources

They transfer energy• Electricity• Hydrogen

Solution

They transfer energy• Electricity• Hydrogen

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Energy resources of Greecenon renewable

• Fossil fuels– Lignite

• main resource for producing electricity 62%

• Megalopoli, Ptolemaida – Few oil reserves– (imports oil, gas)

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Energy resources of Greecerenewable

• Solar – water heaters (use, produce, export)– panels for producing electricity

• Wind turbines• Hydroelectric power of dammed water• Geothermal (greenhouses, heating, thermal springs)• Biomass

– Wood– Pellet, briguette – Waste of plant processing (eg olive pits)– Plants

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