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Chapter -IV

The Defence System

The ancient Arthasastra scholars opine that strong defence

system of a state is the sign of a vigorous and powerful kingdom. In the

absence of a strong and effective defence system, a state cannot last for

a long time. So, to make the sovereignty of a king or a state unassailable

and long-lasting, the king should build up an impregnable defence system.

According to the Mahabharata, danda (army) is considered to be the

chief organ of the state.1 The political thinkers of ancient India refers to

seven limbs of a kingdom, which are equally important as well as

interrelated with each other. Amarakosa, the Sanskrit Lexicon, enumerates

these seven limbs as follows –– the king, ministers, ally, treasury, kingdom,

fort and the army.2 All these seven limbs of state are connected with war

efforts and defence preparedness.

So, the defence system of a country should be stream-lined

and strengthened; and to make the defence policy pragmatic and flawless,

all the organs of the state should be well-knit and well-equiped. In this

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respect, we have to take up the armed forces first, as the bala or the army

is directly entrusted with the duty of protecting the boundaries of the

state and the people from external aggression and also lunching war against

the enemy king, if ordered to do so by the king.

The Armed Forces :

In order to protect the state from the adverse or hostile

circumstances and for the well-being of the subjects, the king should

take all the necessary steps to recruit armed forces, arrange for proper

training facilities for them and also equip them with effective and sufficient

arms and ammunitions. These armed forces safeguard the state and the

people from external invasion and if necessary, from internal disturbances.

Army or bala is that wheel of the state, without which, the smooth process

of the state administration can not be imagined.

In the Ramayana, we find that all the kings like Dasaratha,

Janaka, Rama, Ravana and Vali or Sugriva have trained and skilled armed

forces. In this epic, five classes of army or bala are mentioned.3 These

are – (1) Mitra (the martial troops of the king’s allies), (2) Atavi (jungle

tribes soldiers), (3) Maula (hereditarily appointed soldiers), (4) Bhrta (the

hired paid regular army) and (5) Dvisad bala (soldiers recruited from

enemy side). The authors of Arthasastra have classified the soldiers into

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different categories. The classification as found in the Ramayana seems

to be in conformity with the relevant Arthasastra principle. Srenibala,

mentioned by Kautilya and Kamandaka is however, not mentioned by

Valmiki. Mentions of the word ‘Caturanga’4 and words like charioteers,

arme blanche, elephant-riders and infantry5 proves the existence of four

wings of the army.

The army or bala helps the king in war efforts and defence

preparedness of the country. The frequent usage of words like sainya or

bala is found in the Ramayana. Words like ‘atiratha’, 6 (a chief

commandant, who has a vast army under his command and who is

capable to fight alone with ten thousand Maharathas) or ‘maharatha’,7

(who is capable to fight alone with ten thousand soldiers) ‘yuthapala’ or

‘yuthapah,’8 ‘senagra’ or ‘senapati’9 etc. indicate the existence of different

ranks amongst the officers of the armed forces. They are entrusted with

the duty of leading large groups of soldiers, who are put under their

command. The soldiers are directed to spread in all the quarter of the

state and to keep watching whether any kind of adversity comes from

any direction or not.

Terms like ‘Senapati’ and ‘Baladhyaksa’ are available in the

Manusamhita10 which explicitly supports the notion of the existence of

ranking system in the armed forces of ancient India.

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The qualities of the soldiers of the army are described in

some texts of the epic. A warrior born in noble family, is extolled as

most reliable. The soldiers belonging to this category are always ready to

immolate their lives for the sake of their master’s welfare. The soldiers of

this class are found in large numbers in the armies of king Dasaratha,

Sugriva and Ravana. It is prescribed in the epic that the king should

ensure that the soldiers are paid handsome salaries and rations are regularly

distributed to them. The evil consequences arriving out of the grievances

of unpaid soldiers are related in the epic.11 The convention of paying

respect to the departed soul of a martyr soldier through blowing of martial

band at the time of cremation, as found in the Ramayana, is noteworthy.12

While discussing the qualities of a commander of the army,

it is said in the Ramayana that he should be capable of win over the

enemy and hold be endowed with heroic qualities, forbearing, talented,

holy-hearted, of noble birth, trustworthy, dexterous as well as vigorous,

powerful, skilled in warfare and conversant with the sastras.13

Kautilya maintains that soldiers should be recruited

hereditarily and on permanent basis. They should also be obedient, not

disappointed during expedition, indomitable everywhere, capable of putting

up with troubles, having experience of fighting many battles, skilled in all

types of war and weapons, having no seperate interest because of

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possessing a sense of sharing prosperity and adversity with the king. In

other words the soldiers should be wellversed in the art of warfare, loyal

to his monarch and intrepid warriors.14

The Ramayana exhibits that, there are many police-stations

(Gulma) situated all through the country15. A group of vigilant guards

always keep watching on all the happenings of the cities, towns or villages

from these police outposts. Such police stations have great importance

in the sphere of defence preparedness of a state. Besides this, the Border

Security Force ( )16 are also appointed to guard the frontier

provinces of the state and to protect the border from any offence that

may come from the enemies.Valmiki enumerates that some recruited

soldiers of ancient India come from several daring and indomitable lineages

such as Pahlava, Saka, Yavana, Kamboja, Varvara, Mleccha, Harita, Kirata

etc. These types of prowessed commandos, holding sharp swords and

spears, swiftly and violently strike on the enemy soldiers and demolish

the opponents.17 A king who enriches his army through recruiting such

turbulent forces, is surely regarded as an invincible king. Existence of

female battalion in the inner apartment shows the prudence of the kings

of ancient India in the matter of defence requirements in the palaces.18

The evidences cited above, exhibit an all-pervading network of armed

forces which are organised and properly trained in order to strengthen

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the defence preparedness of a state in the age of Ramayana.

Most of the ancient scholars mention six categories of

soldiers, viz-Maula, Bhrtaka/Bhrta, Sreni, Mitra, Amitra and Atavi/Atavika.

Both Kautilya and Kamandaka also maintains that the recruited soldiers

are classified into six categories.19 These are –– (1) Maula : – hereditarily

appointed soldiers, (2) Bhrtaka (Kautilya) or Bhrta or Bhuta (Kamandaka)

: – the hired, paid regular army, (3) Sreni-bala : – the banded forces living

in the kingdom, (4) Mitra-bala (Kautilya) or Suhrd-bala (Kamandaka) : –

the martial troops of the king’s allies, (5) Amitra-bala (Kautilya) or Dvisad-

bala (Kamandaka) : –– the slave-like soldiers recruited from the enemy

camp and (6) Atavi-bala (Kautilya) or Atavika-bala (Kamandaka) : ––

Soldiers recruited from the jungle tribes. Another class of soldier is

Autsahika20. The soldiers of this category come from different regions

and they remain always prepared to voluntarily attack any enemy kingdom,

whether asked or unasked by the king.

Both the learned scholars establish the supremacy of

hereditary class of soldiers, as reliable one because of their tested and as

such unquestionable loyalty towards their king.

The Raghuvamsa also mentions the six categories of soldiers

such as Maula, Bhrtaka or Bhrta, Sreni, Mitra, Amitra, Atavi or Atavika.21

About the wings of the soldiers, there is no unanimity

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amongst the scholars. Generally, the existence of four wings of the army

are accepted by the scholars. Manu, however, makes a mention of six

wings of the armed forces22. Besides him, Kamandaka23 and the author

of Agnipurana24 also refer to six wings of the soldiers. These are –

infantry, cavalry, elephant-riders, charioteer, mantra i.e. policy and Kosa.

The eight wings of the army that is Astangabala are alluded by the epic

Mahabharata.25 These are – elephant-riders, cavalry, charioteer, infantry,

boat, paid servants, native helpers (soldiers) and hill-tribe helpers

(soldiers). As per the author of Mahabharata amongst the organs of the

state, danda (armed force) is regarded as the chief-organ of the state.26

But still, the four wings, known as Caturangabala – that is – charioteers,

cavalry, elephant-riders and infantry are the universally accepted wings

of the armed forces in ancient India.27

Manu opines that for properly maintaining the defence

system of the country, the king should appoint a troop of army in a

police-outpost ( ), under the supervision of a commander, who acts

as a commanding officer in charge of several (two, three, five or hundred)

villages depending on the number of troops as well as the extent of area,

assigned to the commander.28

Thus, we find, that there is a harmony of thoughts of the

ancient smrtikaras and the authors of Arthasastras as well as the Ramayana

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pertaining to building up a strong defence system of the state in order to

protect the same from internal disturbances and external aggression.

Animals and Vehicles :

Animals and vehicles are considered indispensable

components of the armed forces in ancient India and the Ramayana period

is not an exception to this. The use of animals and vehicles on the field of

battle gives substantial advantage to the armed forces and as such, the

monarchs take due care to develop a full-fledged army through providing

the necessary carriers to the soldiers in order to improve their striking

abilities.

We find that in the Ramayana war the army of Sugriva

consists of foot-soldiers only while the army of Ravana is composed of

all the four divisions of army.29 As per the account given by Vibhisana,

in Ravana's army, the strength of army is ten thousand while that of

chariots also is ten thousand. The strength of horses is twenty thousand,

while that of foot-soldier is over one crore.30

The warrior can carry various kinds of weapons and other

essential items in the chariot. Detailed descriptions of the chariots of

some celebrated warriors are found in the epic. A charioteer, who can

read the mind of the horses, yoked to his chariot and is sagacious enough

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to give good counsel to the car-warrior, is considered to be a superb

charioteer.31 Generally, all the famous warriors used chariots in the battle

field. However, there are instances of the change of carrier on the battle-

ground. For example, Virupaksa, an ogre chieftain finding large number

of ogres being annihilated by Sugriva, leaps down from his chariot and

mounts the back of an elephant,32 evidently in order to be able to build

up a better resistance.

The warriors take advantage of every opportunity of

destroying the carrier of the opponents, because the hostile forces can

be immobilized in the process. At the fag end of the war of Lanka, Indra,

the king of gods, sends Matali (his charioteer) with a well-equipped chariot

to Rama, as a token of assistance. We find that Rama who is an

accomplished car-warrior, derives better advantage in his decisive last

battle with Ravana.

Authors of ancient books on the science of polity refer to

four-fold divisions of the army; these are – car-warriors, elephant-riders,

cavelry and infantry. Kautilya describes for the appointment of the

superintendents of chariots, elephants, horses and foot-soldiers and

discussed their duties and functions in details.33 Kautilya opines that the

commandant of the army should be conversant with the functions to be

carried out by the four-fold troops.34

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Reference to horses and chariots as the chief carriers of the

armed forces are found in the Rgveda.35 The Amarakosa holds that the

horses, which though struck with weapons do not forsake their masters,

are called high-born ones.36 The same treatise also records that the vehicles,

which are accompanied with wheels and are useful in warfare, are called

Satanga, Syandana or ratha.37

Importance of Forts :

While considering the defence system of a country,

construction of fortified cities are considered very much important.

Descriptions found in the Valmiki Ramayana show that strong fortification

system is developed and properly maintained in individual states of ancient

India. In the Ramayana, we find that, the cities situated in the Gangetic

region, are surrounded by big walls. Thus, Ayodhya, the capital city of

Kosala country, the length of which is twelve yojana and breadth is three

yojana, is surrounded by invincible strong walls or deep ditches which is

inaccessible to the enemies. This city abounds in all kinds of instruments

or weapons. There are hundreds of cannons, placed on various important

spots of the city; those are capable of slaughtering hundreds of people.38

In this city, there are several concealed and well-protected places for

secret deliberations comparable to those of Indra in Amaravati.39 This

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fortified city is full of trained and valorous warriors.40 The entrances of

this city and its palaces are well-guarded by those valiant sentinels.41 It

is further said that this city is replete with so many elephants, horses and

charioteers and is adorned with such a strong gate-way that nobody can

win over this city; and for this reason, this city is called ‘Ayodhya’.42

Description of the existence of a large number of strong horses and

mighty elephants in the fortified cities is also found in many verses of the

epic.

The descriptions of the strong fortified cities of Lanka and

Kiskindhya are also sketched by the poet. Lanka is surrounded with

stupendous golden walls with four main wooden doors (Gopur) made

of shal tree. These doors, including some other golden doors, are very

strong and always guarded by mighty armed forces. There are many

store-houses of arms and ammunitions in the city of Lanka. The exterior

of the boundary wall of this city is again encircled by broad and deep

trenches in order to prevent the enemy from entering into the city.43 This

city is a well-planned city and surrounded by the unfathomable sea. The

Lanka fort is situated on Trikuta mountain.44 There are many other

important places, such as the Asoka garden or some beautiful palaces,

which are also surrounded with high and insuperable walls and deep

trenches.45

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The strong defence system in inner and outer parts of the

city of Kiskindhya is also nicely portrayed by the poet. This city is

described as an impenetrable one. This city is situated in a specious

valley amidst the mountains. The depiction of the strong fortified city of

Kiskindhya, its stone-walls surrounded by deep ditches on the outskirts

of the city, the reinforced entrance of the city protected by the mighty

and vigorous armed forces, the multistoreyed well-guarded palaces,

concealed inner-apartments of the royal mansion, encircled by high and

insurmountable mountains etc. enhances the beauty of the poem.46

The Valmiki Ramayana uses the term 'Pancavarga'47 to mean

five kinds of fortress; these are –– Jala-durga or water-fort, Giri-durga or

hill-fort, the fort made of trees, desert-fort and the fort, which remains

cool in hot weather. Moreover, the epic enumerates four kinds of forts in

the city Lanka. These are – Nadi, Parvata, Vana and krtrima durga.48

The name of these forts suggest that the first kind of fort is surrounded

by water or river, the second kind of fort is situated on mountain; the

third category implies that the fort is protected by dense forest and the

fourth indicates the type of fort which is artificially made by men. It is

further stated that the forts should be always replete with sufficient food,

water, weapons, archers, instruments and artists.49 This shows the

prudence and pragmatism of the rulers of ancient India. Repeated use of

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the word ‘Durga’ occurs in all through the Ramayana.

Manu places pura (fortified capital city or nagara) at the

third place amongst the saptangas of a state. According to the commentator

Kulluka Bhatta, the word 'pura' denotes the fortified capital city where

the king dwells.50 He further emphasises that all the kings should have

some fort as his dwelling place, because nobody can cause any harm to

the king living in a fort. Besides this, one soldier, staying in a fort, can

fight with one hundred soldiers of the hostile party, while one hundred

soldiers can fight with ten thousand enemies.51 The fortified capital city

of a state is the principal administrative centre of that state from where

from the whole administrative machinery of the kingdom is run and

regulated.

Manu refers to six kinds of forts.52 These are ––

(1) Dhanva-durga : – A fort surrounded by extended gritty barren

tract of extensive desert. Kulluka Bhatta’s comment explains that the

waterless desert should be spread upto five Yojana, that is forty miles.

(2) Mahi-durga : – A fort surrounded by thick and wide walls,

made of stones or bricks. The proposed height of these walls should be

double of their breadth or not less than twelve cubit i.e., eighteen feet.

The width of the top of the walls should be specious so that the troops

of soldiers can easily move on; the walls should also be provided with

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concealed windows.

(3) Abdurga : –– A fort encircled by unfathomable water.

(4) Barksa-durga : –– A fort, situated in a dense and impenetrable

forest and environed by immense trees, spiny shrubs and creepers upto

one Yojana or eight miles.

(5) Nrdurga : –– A city-based fort, defended by infantry, cavalry,

elephant-riders and charrioteers.

(6) Giri-durga : –– A fort, built upon such a mountain which is

insurmountable, where the sources of water are the natural fountains inside

the fort itself and where there are abundant productive plots of land,

yielding plentiful crops.

According to Manu, giri-durga or mountain fort is the best

amongst all the forts because of its unapproachable nature and other

various excellences and therefore, a king should take shelter in such a

fort.53 Kullukabhatta in his commentary illustrates : ––

54

The Mahabharata expresses that the forts should be

replenished with kosa or treasury, armed forces, friends or allies and

traders; and these should be gradually increased by the king.55 All these

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elements along with an effective and vigorous defence system are

essentially required in order to ensure the safety of the king and his subjects.

Yajnavalkya prescribes that the safety of the king and his vassals as well

as his treasury mainly depend upon the adequately built up and safeguarded

forts.56 Acarya Parasara remarks that the fort or durga is more important

than Janapada. He further observes that, it is only the fort, where all the

people can take shelter at the time of calamity or trouble.57

Maru durga, Bhumi-durga, Giri-durga, Manusya-durga,

Mrttika-durga and Vana-durga are the six varieties of fortress enumerated

by Bhisma in the great epic, the Mahabharata. Amongst these varieties,

Nara-durga is very much eulogised by the scholars.58 The importance of

high walls and deep ditches is also highlighted in the Mahabharata. It is

stated in this epic that the king should choose a fortified city, surrounded

by deep moats, full of aquatic animals, like crocodiles and capricornuses

carefully nurtured in the water. Moreover, innumerable pikes should be

implanted under the water of the moats. The encompassing walls should

be equipped with installed apparatus viz. Sataghni and big cannons. He

should choose a fort, replete with all the requisite accessaries along with

armed forces, treasury etc., as his dwelling place for the safety of himself

and his people.59 Details of fortified city occur in many verses of the

Mahabharata.

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Sukra, another scholar of Arthasastra enumerates nine kinds

of forts ––

(1) Airina-durga : – A fort, which is inaccessible due to deep

trench, thorns and gigantic rocks.

(2) Parikha-durga : – A fort, encircled by extensive ditch.

(3) Parigha-durga : – A fort, surrounded by high and large walls

made of bricks, stones and soil.

(4) Vana-durga : – A fort, surrounded by huge and thorny trees.

(5) Dhanva-durga : – A fort, environed by waterless desert spread

upto a great distance.

(6) Jala-durga : – A fort constructed in the middle of the vast

watery place.

(7) Giri-durga : – A fort, situated on a lonely high insurmountable

mountain having sufficient pure water in it.

(8) Sainya-durga : – When the king is surrounded by strategically

deployed and impenetrable ambuscade manned by the clever

and valient soldiers, this defensive position is called a sainya

durga.

(9) Sahaya-durga : – A fort, replete with brave warriors as well

as favourable and helpful friends and relatives.

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Sukra further declares the excellence of sainya-durga

amongst these nine durgas.60 The king, who takes shelter in a fortified

city, inhabitated by assistants and equipped with other accessaries, attains

victory without fail.61 He further opines that one lone soldier, residing in

a fort, can fight with one hundred soldiers and such hundred soldiers can

fight with ten thousand soldiers.62

Ancient scholars like Manu and Kautilya mention that the

king should take his shelter in a fortified city. But Kautilya mentions only

four kinds of forts.63 These are ––

(1) Audaka-durga or water fort which is of two types ––

(a) a fort, surrounded by natural water like river etc. and

(b) a fort, surrounded by deep ditch. This type of fort is

similar to abdurga type of fort as mentioned by Manu.

(2) Parvata durga : – This type of fort is also of two types.

(a) A fort constructed on a mountain and made of rocks and

(b) a fort situated in natural caves. It is similar to the giri-

durga of Manu.

(3) Dhanvana-durga : – There are two types of this category of

fort; one situated in a place devoid of water and plants or

vegetation and another situated on a barren or sandy land.

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This type of fort has resemblance with the Dhanva durga of

Manu.

(4) Vana-durga : – This type of fort is also divided into two

kinds; one, surrounded with miry water and therefore putting

up impediments to entering into the fort; and another encircled

by impassable densely packed trees. This category of fort

seems to be similar with barksadurga named by Manu.

The detailed descriptions about the construction of forts as

given by Kautilya in the Durga-Vidhana and Durga-Nivesa Prakarana,64

are found to be conformity with the delineation of fortified cities as

aforeded in the Ramayana. The instructions pertaining to the construction

of these forts reveal that the statesmen of ancient India bestow profuse

importance on the invincible quality of forts. They are very much aware

of adequate defence preparedness which is a must for resisting assaults

of powerful enemies.

Espionage Network :

The secret agents also play an indispensable role in the

defence system of a country. A king desirous to secure victory against

the enemy, should develop an efficient and effective network for collecting

information about the conditions prevailing in enemy state, its employees

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and also about the motive as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the

enemy king so that he can take adequate precautions and necessary

measures against the hostile parties.

The evidences found in the Ramayana exhibits the practice

of appointing learned, expert and honest spies. In the Ramayana, the role

of secret-agents is noteworthy; the espionage network is found to be

very active and well managed. To know the strength and defence secrets

of respective hostile party both Rama and Ravana appoint spies or secret

agents.65 Sugriva, who is experienced in statesmanship and tactics,

enumerates about the duties of a king like proclaiming war against the

enemy, initiating welfare measures for his own army on taking steps for

subduing the enemies. He observes that the king should remain alert in

employing the four fold means, in appointing spies etc.66 The author of

Tilaka commentary says –– “

”67 The commentary of Govindaraja, on the concerned verse

runs as follows ––

68

Among the monkey force, Hanuman and Angada perform

the role of spies to make Rama aware about Ravana’s strength. Vibhisana

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and his four ministers Anala, Panasa, Sampati and Pramati by names,

also ably perform the job of spies from the side of Rama.69 Ravana also

sends Suka and Sarana, the two ministers, as spies to know the military

strength of Rama.70 In the epic Surpanakha is found to stress on the

need of maintaining a vigilant and active intelligence network. The king,

willing to conquer, should put the rein of a vigilant espionage network in

his own hand. A spy is said to equip the king with an extended eye-sight.

It is stated in the same epic that the king is said to be long-sighted ( ),

as he beholds the events occurring at distant places through the secret

agents.71 Such knowledge helps the monarch to rearrange or strengthen

his defence system accordingly. The spies only can keep the king

incessantly watchful and conversant with the movements of enemies so

that he can take appropriate steps in matters relating to offence or defence

as the situation demands.72

In the Ramayana, we find the presence of two types of

espionage network –– those, who keep a watch on the civilians73 and

those, who secretly watches the movements of the hostile party.74 The

epic holds that a wise king can be victorious with a little efforts, if he

collects information about the defence secrets of the opponents previously

through the well-spread network of his expert secret agents.75 The epic

observes that the king should appoint a parallel team of three secret agents,

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not known to one another, for a particular mission so that he can minutely

know the activities of these spies. This is a crafty step that should be

adopted by a shrewed king, willing to triumph. Such spies should know

fifteen and eighteen important matters of his own party and of the hostile

party respectively.76 The epic further informs that all the happenings of

present as well as events likely to happen in future in his own country and

in other countries are disclosed to the kings of Ayodhya through their

active secret agents.77

Some sages mentioned in the Ramayana are also found to

be used to collect information through the secret agents; and as such

they are found capable of affording advices to the monarchs in

administrative matters. For example, sage Bharadvaja collects information

about the city of Ayodhya by sending one some of his disciples, known

by the name Pravrtti.78

The description of the spies as found in the Ramayana shows

that they are endowed with some qualities such as trustworthiness,

undauntedness, patience, allegiance etc. Thus we find description of a

strong, active and well-managed espionage network in the Ramayana.

Manu opines that a king should maintain a vigilant and active

espionage network. He should appoint secret agents in other states in

order to know the activities of his hostile kings.79 Even the women of

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inner-apartment of the king may sometimes become very harmful to the

king. If there is any apprehension on this count, he should appoint female

spies; in order to know the activities of secret agents, sent in other states,

he should appoint another parallel team of emissaries.80

The statesmen of ancient India mention that with a view to

properly knowing the internal condition of his own country and alien

kindoms, the king should appoint efficient secret agents. Manu classifies

the secret agents into five categories. They are collectively known as

Pancavarga.81 They are classified on the basis of their respective projected

profession and the nature of undertakings, assigned to them. The five

classes are ––

a) Kapatika : – An eloquent student who is skillful in collecting

the hidden mystery of others.

b) Udasthita : – A monk, retractor of a vow, who due to

mammonism adopts the job of an informer of the king. He is

entitled to convey information about the evil deeds of any

one, instantly to the king.

c) Grhapativyanjana : – An indigent peasant, employed as a

secret agent. His work is equal to that of Udasthita.

d) Vaidehikavyanjana : – A merchant, who is unsuccessful in

trade and therefore with inconsiderable income and is assigned

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the duty same as that of Udasthita or Grhapativyanjana is

called Vaidehikavyanjana.

e) Tapasavyanjana : – A feigned ascetic, collecting secret

information in the guise of an brahmacarin with a shaven

head or with matted hair. He, remaining with his feigned

disciples, acquires the confidence of all the persons and

collects valuable information.

Kautilya puts a list of nine categories of secret agents. They

are : –– 1) Kapatika, 2) Udasthita, 3) Grhapati-vyanjana, 4)

Vaidehikavyanjana, 5) Tapasa-vyanjana, 6) Satri, 7) Tiksna, 8) Rasada

and 9) Bhiksuki.82 Among them, the first five are same as mentioned by

Manu. Satri versed in various sastras such as Laksmana Sastra, Angavidya,

Jambhaka Vidya etc., depends on the king for his subsistence. Tiksna is

a daring villain, engaged in spy-craft. Rasada is a poison-giver and

Bhiksuki is a brahmin nun, engaged in collecting secrets from the inner

apartments of the king or other officials. The first five categories collect

messages staying in one place. They are called samstha and rest four are

called samcara as they gather secret information roaming various places

in the state or abroad. Besides these, there is another type of secret agent

mentioned by Kautilya. This kind of informer collects information from

foreign countries while residing there and serving under the king of the

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particular country where he resides, pretending as if he is a citizen of that

country. He takes salary from both the kings, that is the first appointing

king as well as the king of the foreign country, chosen for collecting

secret information. Such a spy is called Ubhayavetana.83

According to the Mahabharata, a king should maintain a

watchful espionage network, for keeping an updated information of the

activities of his own subjects as well as those of other states.84 In this

epic, Bhisma opines that, a king, knowing the conditions of his subjects

properly through his spies and providing them all the facilities for their

well-being, is equivalent to Sun-god, the omniscient and beneficial god

amongst all the gods.85 The activities of the spies and the advantages,

derived from the existence of a vigilent espionage network are lucidly

explained in various chapters of the Mahabharata.

While discussing the role of secret agents, Kamandaka

opines that a king should appoint intelligent and expert spies to get detailed

information about his own country as well as about his enemies and

allies.86 According to this prudent scholar, an informer should be an

expert logician, acquainted with gesture, possessing of good memory,

moderate, painstaking and laborious, skillful and so on. He also mentions

in details the duty of a secret agent in his famous literary work Kamandakiya

Nitisara. According to him the spies are of two main categories ––

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(1) visible, i.e., envoys and (2) secret, i.e., secret watcher.87 Kamandaka

also follows the principles of classification, adopted by Kautilya in his

Arthasastra.88 In his renowned work Kamandakiya Nitisara, he describes

in details the duties of a secret agent. The information, acquired from the

secret agents, help the king to strengthen or rearrange his defence system

according to the needs of time and circumstances. Thus, the political

thinkers of ancient India put forth their discerning thoughts on the defence

system of a state, facilitating the protection of the kingdom and the citizens.

Application of the Four-Fold Expedients :

Ancient Indian books, dealing with the science of polity,

prescribe four-fold expedients which should be applied by a king for the

smooth running of state administration and for defending the state from

foreign aggression. These four-fold expedients are –– (a) sama

(conciliation), (b) dana (gift), (c) bheda (causing discord among the

enemy) and (d) danda (punishment). Manu says that a king, willing to

dominate others, should apply these four-fold expedients.89

The terms like ‘naya’,90 'upaya'91 and ‘yoga’92 are

employed in the epic Ramayana to mean the four-fold expedients. The

repeated use of terms like sama, dana, bheda and danda show a wide-

spread application of these four-fold expedients in that remote past.93

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The term ‘Caturvarga’94 implies the four-fold means i.e. sama, dana,

bheda and danda. The epic reveals that the accomplishment of a task

depends upon the proper application of these four-fold expedients. A

monarch, willing to accomplish his mission successfully, should apply

these four-fold means one after another, after duly ascertaining the

necessity of the application of each.95 Rama's sagacity on these four-

fold expedients (Yoga) is described in the epic. The names and application

as well as importance of these four expedients are mentioned in the epic.

A king, adept in fourteen vidyas, should come into a treaty

with the enemy after considering the time and condition of his own as

well as of the hostile party. If he finds himself less powerful than his

adversary or equally powerful as his opponent, he should win over the

heart of his opponent by means of conciliation or gift. If the king feels

that his opposition is weaker than himself, only then he should declare

war against him.96 This indicates that the king should apply the expedients

of sama or dana in order to defend the state from the attack of the foes

and to make the enemy his friend and bring him to behave in a friendly

manner through conciliation. Rama, the prudent politician, brings Vibhisana,

the younger brother of Ravana, under his control as an ally mainly with

the intention of knowing all the defence secrets of the lord of ogres so

that the former can chalk out the stratagem properly with a view to

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achieving decisive victory over Ravana in war. But, where there is no

such scope, the king should apply the means like bheda or danda if, of

course, it becomes inevitable. Sending of envoy to Sugriva by Ravana in

order to cause dissension of the former with Rama is the example of

bheda.97 Such endeavour can diminish the strength of the opponents. It

is stated in the epic that a king should adopt sama and dana toward his

allies and dana, bheda and danda towards his enemies as it is prescribed

in the books on science of polity.98 Thus the Ramayana exhibits that

these four-fold means are important features of ancient state policy and

these play very important role in successfully executing defence and

diplomatic policies of a state.

Manu opines that a king, willing to dominate other kings,

should apply these four-fold expedients over the adversaries beginning

with sama. If the application of first three expedients, i.e., sama, dana

and bheda become unsuccessful to win over the enemies, then the fourth

i.e., danda should be applied. That is, in these circumstances, the king

should make the enemy bound to accept his supremacy by force or

through war. It implies that the king should adopt the first three means to

defend the state before inflicting the tough one i.e., the danda. He also

upholds that amongst these expedients, sama and danda are eulogized

by the learned people because the wealth accumulated by the king turns

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inexhaustible by the application of sama and although danda leads to a

huge diminution of wealth, still it accurately accomplishes the task,

undertaken.99

The thirteenth chapter of the first book of Kautiliya

Arthasastra deals with the application of four-fold expedients. This famous

work on the science of polity holds that the king should show kind

treatment towards the persons, satisfied with the king and show due

honour to them. Those, who are discontented with the king, should be

made contect through application of sama or dana (gift). If, even after

undertaking these steps, the discontented persons do not come to the

king's side, they should be separated from their patrons/officials/supporter

by means of bheda. In case, they still remain dissatisfied, he should make

them contemptible to the countrymen by appointing them as chastisers

or tax/fine collectors.

On finding some opportune time in future, the king should

punish them without any hindrance and according to his will. An elaborate

note on the adoption of these four-fold expedients are found in the

Arthasastra.100

Adoption of Six-Fold Policy :

The six fold policy or Sadgunya or sadguna is known as the

175

collection of six indispensable measures, which should be initiated by

the king willing to conquer over the adversaries. It is observed that a king

should adopt six-fold policies in order to consolidates his position and

subdue his enemies. These six-fold policies are ––

(a) Sandhi – alliance with some other king preceded by an

understanding to help one another in need.

(b) Vigraha – declaring war against an enemy king.

(c) Yana – marching against the hostile kingdom.

(d) Asana – staying in the fortified city and pretending as

not concerned at all, but waiting for a chance of

counterattack.

(e) Dvaidhibhava or Dvaidha – some say that following

this policy, the king divides his own army into two parts

and encountering the enemies from two sides puts them

to rout. But, others say that it is a double-standard

adopting which the king shows himself apparently

friendly but actually waits, searching for an opportunity

to destroy the opponent.

(f) Samsraya – the king being oppressed by the enemy

seeks shelter to a more powerful king.101

176

The epic applies the term ‘Sadgunya’ or 'Sadyuktayo' to

mean the six-fold policy.102 The instances of the employment of these

six-fold policies lay scattered all through the Ramayana. Among these

six-fold policies, Sandhi, Asana, Dvaidhibhava or Dvaidha and Samsraya

are the policies, which can be applied as defence precautions. We find

that, the friendship of Rama with Sugriva and Vibhisana is the illustration

of Sandhi. Sugriva and Rama enter into an agreement to help each other

in fulfilling their respective needs –– such as, slaying of Vali and providing

full assistance in the war of Lanka for delivering Sita from captivity. This

treaty helps Rama to get the possession of the great army of vanaras, led

by Sugriva. On the other hand, Rama enters into the contract with

Vibhisana, on the condition that the former will enthrone the latter on the

throne of Lanka, in lieu of which the latter should help him to earn a

victory over Ravana. This prudent step, taken by Rama, helps him to

protect his army from various calamities. On the other hand, Ravana,

staying in his fort while waiting for an opportunity to attack the opponents,

follows the defensive policy, otherwise known as asana. In this stage, the

ogre-king tries to strengthen his defence preparedness in order to be able

to effectively counter the offensive from the army of Rama. Thus, in the

Ramayana, we come accross concrete examples of how the six-fold

policies are employed in varied circumstances.

177

Manu also upholds the importance of six-fold policies. He

observes that, a king should deliberate diligently with a Brahmin minister,

who is virtuous and is well-versed in six-fold policies.103 According to

Manu, the six-fold policies are –– sandhi, vigraha, yana, asana,

dvaidhibhava and samsraya.104

Manu also opines that the king should apply the six-fold

policies, after minutely pondering over the well-being of his own and

disservice to others i.e. the hostile party. He further mentions that the

king should adopt the policies, considering the place and their

requisiteness. The sagacious author has furnished elaborate notes on this

six-fold policies in his great smrti literature Manu Smrti.105

Kautilya, the scholar with a superb excellence, upholds that

the six-fold policy is the root cause of peace and activity and the

consequences of the six-fold policy are decline, stability and advancement

of a king.106 The entire seventh Book of his work Kautiliya Arthasastra

presents various complicated issues relating to the application of six-fold

policies. The discussions made by Kautilya on various intricate issues

relating to the six-fold policies shows that the prudent scholar takes the

six-fold policy as the most vital component for the development or

enhancement as well as decay or durability of the state.107 Kamandaka,

known as the follower of Kautilya, also discusses in detail about all various

178

aspects of these six-fold policies in his famous work Kamandakiya Nitisara

in order to show the inevitability and indispensabily of these policies in

the interest of smoothly and efficiently run the state administration.108 We

can conclude that a prudent application of these six-fold measures are

conducive to the stability, development and progress. These policies

serve the purpose of fulfilling defence requirements and diplomatic needs

in a meaningful manner.

Importance of Weapons :

To different stages of the advancement of human

civilization, weapon of offence and defence have been developed by

different races dwelling various countries. The forms, shapes and

functions of the instruments of offence and defence have undergone

changes with the passage of time. The invention of various arms and

weapons can be traced back in the pre-historic age. A large number of

objects and articles discovered in the process of archaeological

excavations at Mahenjodaro and Harappa make the scholars conclude

that weapons of war and chase have been very much invogue in ancient

India.

P. C. Chakravarti, the renowned scholar observes – "It would

seem that the chief weapons used by the people of the Indus Valley were

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axes, spears, daggers, bows and arrows, maces, slings and possibly –

though not probably – Catapults. But they do not appear to have known

the use of defensive armours such as shields, helmets or greaves. At

least, no trace of any of these has beed discovered. The materials of

which most of the weapons were made were either copper or bronze."109

All the measures taken for the development of an effective

defence system of the state will be meaningless if there is a dearth of

arms and ammunition in the arsenal. Protection of the state from external

aggression is not possible without appropriate number of effective

weapons i.e., instruments of offence and defence. Therefore, weapons

are considered as powerful and indispensable components, which

alongwith properly trained warriors, ensure the protection of the state.

From the very remote past, i.e. from the age of the Rg Veda, iron and

other metals are found as the chief components of the implements of

defence as well as the instruments of offence. V. S. Apte mentions that

the Sanskrit word ‘ ’ is used to mean ‘iron, steel, gold, a metal in

general’ or ‘Aloe wood’, while the term ‘ayaskanda’ means ‘an iron-

arrow, excellent iron’ or ‘a large quality of iron.’110 Dr. Jogiraj Basu, the

celebrated scholar, opines that in the vedic period, the weapons are

manufactured of iron, gold and stone.111

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Classification of weapons :

We come accross words like 'sastra' and 'astra' in the two

great epics, the 'Harivamsa' as well as in the Puranas. Amarakosa uses

the words like 'ayudha praharana, sastra' and 'astra' to mean a weapon.112

We find an illustration about the difference between 'sastra' and 'astra' in

the 'Amararthacandrika' –

113

The weapons, which is held in the hand by a soldier, is

called 'sastra' while the weapon, which is thrown by hand or by means of

a throwing machine towards the enemy, is called 'astra'. Sukranitisara

says that the weapons, thrown with the chanting of a mantra or by means

of a machine (yantra) or fire (agni), are called 'astra'; on the other hand

weapons like sword, kunta etc. fall under the class of sastra; again the

same treatise classifies the weapons into three categories; i.e., Divya,

Asura and Manava.114

The author of the Mahabharata classifies weapons into four

kinds, but does not refer to the principle on which the classification is

based upon.115 Kautilya, on the other hand, furnishers an eight-fold

classification of the arms and armours viz., Sthitayantrani (fixed machines),

Calayantrani (mobile machines), Hulamukhani (weapons with piercing

points), Dhanumsi and Isavah (the bow and arrows), Khadgah (swords),

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Ksurakalpah (razor-type weapons), Asmayudhani (stone-weapons),

Varmani and Avaranani (armours and shields).116 The sagacious statesman

also mentions ten varieties of fixed machines (Shitayantrani) and seventeen

varieties of movable machines (Calayantrani) in the same chapter of his

work. Agnipurana also refers to some notes on the topic of weapons.117

These weapons may be either defensive or offensive.

Defensive weapons are those, which the soldiers use to protect their

head, chest and other parts of the body form the weapons used or

discharged by the enemies. Kautilya refers to a coat of mail of metal rings

or metal plates, an armour of fabrics, and combinations of skin, hooves

and horns of dolphin, rhinoceros, dhenuka (bison), elephant and bull as

armours (varma).118 He further enumerates some more defensive weapons

(avaranani), such as, sirastrana (helmets), Kanthatrana (neck guard),

Kancuka (a defensive covering for the breast and back) as well as breast-

plate, coat of mail, thigh-guard etc. made of iron for the protection of

different parts of the body. Besides these, use of various kinds of bucklers

made of skin, wood, string etc. are also prescribed for safeguarding the

limbs of the warriors.119

In the Ramayana war, we find the armours are used by the

warriors of both the sides. Some of the ogres of exalted ranks use the

helmets or sirastrana to cover their heads. Reference to the breaking of

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the armour of the warriors in the great war of Lanka shows the frequent

use of this defensive dress by the warriors. The epic further informs that

these armours are made of hid.120

Offensive weapons are subdivided into two categories :

conventional and mystic or divine (divyastra).

Conventional Weapons :

In the Ramayana war, various kinds of conventional offensive

weapons are used by both sides. In the momentous war of Lanka, abundant

use of weapons like Dhanus (bow), Bana (arrow), Asi (sword), Sakti

(spear-like weapon), Prasa (lance-like weapon having a piercing edge),

Sula (a sharp-headed javelin or spear), Tomara (one kind of sharp-edged

javelin), Cakra (discus with sharp edge), Gada (mace) Mudgara (hammer),

Trisula (Tridents), Sataghni (cannon), Isupala, Pattisa (Sword- like

weapon), Nalika, Yantra etc. are found. References to some other weapons

like Ayasadanda (an iron cudgel), Ayasa-mudgara (steel hammer)

Bahukantaka Gada (a mace with various points) etc. also are found in the

Yuddhakanda of the epic. All these weapons, mentioned above are

considered as the principal conventional weapons used by the soldiers

of various ranks.

183

Among these conventional weapons, the bow and arrows

as well as the sword are regarded as the most widely used instruments of

attack in ancient India. The use of gloves made of iguana-skin (a defensive

weapon) by the ancient Indian archers is very much common. It is found

in the Balakanda of the Ramayana that while merching towards the

hermitage of Visvamitra in order to facilitate the protection of sacrifice,

Rama and Laksmana are equipped each with a quiver full of arrows and

a bow ( ).121 Iguana-skin glove are fastened about their

fingers for avoiding the frictions of the bow-string; they are also armed

with a sword ( ).122

It deserves to be noted that a few of these ancient weapons

mentioned above are likely to be very approximate to some of the weapons

used now-a-days. As for example, the term’ Nalika’, found in the epic,

has more or less resemblance with modern gun. The meaning of the

word ‘Nali’ is pipe; so Nalika is, perhaps, the gun or gun-like weapon.

Sataghni is another weapon of this type; the literary meaning of this term

is the ‘hundred-killing weapon’ or the ‘hundred-killer’. This weapon plays

an important role in the defence system of a state. The description as

found in the epic shows that this weapon is not movable or usable by

hands. The huge-sized Sataghni is found to be placed on the rampart of

the fort or in front of the entrance of the fort to prevent the enemies from

184

entering the fort. On the other hand, the small sized one can be moved

from one place to another after fastening the same with a thick rope.123

The citation given by Dr. P. G. Bhattacharjee, from the Sadasiva

Dhanurveda, prescribes that this apparatus should be installed on the

broad wall of the fort and ‘ranjaka’ should be hoarded in copious quantity

for facilitating effective use of its destructive capabilities.124

Dr. Bhattacharjee takes the word ranjaka as gun power. Thus, it can be

inferred that ‘Sataghni’ is something like a cannon. Some scholars interpret

the word sataghni as cannon, but Wilson takes the word as ‘rocket’.

The version made by him runs thus –– “Rockets appear to be of Indian

invention and had long been used in native armies when European came

first in contact with them. Whether they are mentioned by some Sanskrit

authorities, has yet to be determined. It is commonly said by pundits that

the rocket is intended by Sataghni a weapon named by the poets."125

The fire-arms are found to be of different sizes, shapes and varieties

during the epic period.

The ancient Indian genius invents another wondrous

instrument called Isupala, which has a great value in protecting the fort

from foreign attack. The annotation given by Dr. D. N. Chakraborty

about Isupala yantra is that – Isupala, a machine, literary means – an

arrow-discharging stone (isu means arrow and upala means stone or rock).

185

It is a self-acting installation, where, perhaps, the arrows are erected in

such a manner that when the enemies enter into its shooting-range, this

machine begins to shower arrows automatically.126 According to Singh

–– “The word yantra is of ancient usage, dating back to the Rgveda,

where it occurs in the sense of any instrument for holding or restraining

or fastening, a prop, support or barrier."127

A list of the conventional weapons has been furnished in the

'Appendix' of the present work.

Divyastra or Mystic Weapons :

While a conventional weapons are used by ordinary soldiers

and illustrious fighthers alike, another class of weapons are also put to

use in the battles and war, narrated in the Ramayana. These are called

Divyastra or mystic/divine weapons. The knowledge of and capability of

using these superb weapons appear to be limited to a few warriors. The

knowledge of those excellent mystic missiles is indeed acquired from

some other expert warrior, having a mastery in the use of such superb

weapons. A considerable degree of physical and mental discipline and

intellectual capabilities are necessary for acquiring expertise in the use of

this kind of weapons, which produce much more devastating impact in

comparison with that produced by the conventional weapons. The

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knowledge of those mystic weapons are therefore, restricted to a very

limited number of people, adorned with extra-ordinary qualities.

We find that, amongst the millions of warriors, fighting in

the great war of Lanka, only six heroes have the capability to employ

these divine weapons. Those who are proficient in using these mystic

missiles are Rama, Laksmana, Ravana, Indrajit and Atikaya, the two sons

of Ravana and Makaraksa, the son of Khara, the stepbrother of Ravana.

Atikaya and Makaraksa are, however, not so well versed in the knowledge

of all the mystic missiles. They are endowed with the skill of only a few

of these divine weapons; as such, they cannot defend themselves along

with their vast army for a long time in front of more competent warriors

like Rama and Laksmana. Because, to protect his own party from the

aggression of the opponent, one should have the skill of building up a

lasting resistance through his expertise in all the branches of the science

of weapons. Some of these divine weapons, as mentioned in the epic are

–– Brahmastra, Agneyastra, Nagastra, Rudrastra, Aindrastra, Sakti,

Vayavyastra, Saurastra, Gandharvastra, Asurastra, Yamastra, Kuverastra,

Mahesvarastra, Varunastra, Garudastra, Daivastra, Vajrastra, Raksasartra,

Sulavata, Dharmacakra, Kalacakra, Visnu cakra etc. These weapons have

the miraculous and unfailing power to hit the targets and produce

devastating impact on the enemy camp.

187

It is found in the Balakanda of Valmiki Ramayana, that Rama,

who is thought to be a most qualified recipient of the mystic weapons is

imperted the knowledge of one hundred one mystic missiles by sage

Visvamitra. The sage acquires the knowledge of these powerful divine

weapons by virtue of severe austarities. The sage also imperts the

knowledge of some mystic weapons to Laksmana. The sage observes

that through obtaining knowledge and training in using these mystic

missiles, Rama can become invincible in all the three worlds.

128

These mystic missiles are described by the sage to be

exceedingly powerful, capable of assuming any form and also supremely

beneficial.

129

Missile, precided over by Brahma and known as Brahmastra is the most

powerful of all missiles and has varied functions and this is evident from

the narration of battles and war in the Ramayana. It is also found that

warriors endowed with expertise in the employment of mystic weapons

can transform even a straw into a weapon, having the potency of

Brahmastra or changing the way of the missile in another direction or

188

minimize the effect of such divine weapons.

The knowledge of divine weapons are considered incomplete

unless one learns the art of calling those back. It is noteworthy that the

warriors acquirring mastery over the science of weapons are skilled in

the techniques of pulling the weapon back to the quiver or in the place

where it was, after performing its allotted job. Dr. Bhattacharjee compares

this technique with the use of one kind of bent missile of Australian

natives called ‘Boomerang’, which returns to its thrower.130

In the Ramayana, we find that sometimes the gods also

handover formidable weapons to worthy heroes. For example, the noble

sage Agasthya also hands over to Rama, a collection of foremost weapons

bestowed to him, previously by Indra, the king of gods.131 However,

Indra again hands over a collection of celestial weapons to Rama through

his charioteer Matali, in the last stage of the great Ramayana war. Indra,

through his charioteer, bestows upon Rama a mighty mystic bow, a radiant

armour, shining arrows and a javelin with extra-ordinary lustre along with

his own amazingly divine chariot.132

It is interesting to note that various divine weapons produce

different adverse impacts on the hostile forces. For instance, it is found

in the epic that the Varunastra is a rain-causing weapon; heat is created by

the application of Raudrastra while Aindrastra creates hurricane cloud

189

and lightning. The existence of such powerful weapons, manufactured

through a sophisticated scientific process, demonstrate the matchless

genius of the scientists of ancient India.

Thus, we find that heroes of the epic period are very much

dexterous in the science of weapons. This expertise helps them in

defending the country from foreign aggression or in launching effective

offence against the enemy state. Invention of various weapons of diverse

sizes and forms and also the invention of gun powder etc. exhibit the

inquisitive and cogitative mentality of ancient Indians in the matter of

evolving an efficient defence mechanism. Relating to the origin of

gunpowder, Dikshitar puts forth the opinion of Sir A M Elliot in his

writing. He remarks –– "Sir A M Elliot tells us that the Arabs learnt the

manufacture of gunpowder from India, and that before their Indian

connection they had used arrows of naphtha. It is also argued that though

Persia processed saltpeter in abundance, the original home of gunpowder

was India.”133

Protection of Cities :

From the discussion presented above, we can conclude that

the monarchs of the age of Ramayana developed a strong multifarious

power of resistance, which evidently exhibits the prudence of the defence

190

experts of ancient India in building up defence structure of a superior

quality after taking various factors into consideration. We find that the

cities of Ramayanic age are surroudned with high and broad walls,

encircled by deep ditches. Provitions of appropriate vigil by trained army

men with devastating weapons in hand are make for proper protection

of the cities from hostile forces. The cities and palaces are protected by

big walls having several distended doors and are always guarded by

young soldiers.134 Because, they know that young sentinels are very

sprightly as well as strong and efficient in performing their duty of

protecting the country from any possible danger. Moreover, these cities

are replenished with weapons of high quality. The bridges put up on the

ditch surrounding the city, are also decorated with the instruments or

weapons in order to protect the city from the enemies. Hence, nobody

can enter into these cities or cause any harm to these while remaining

unnotified by the watchful armed forces. The procedure of protecting

the city at the time of war also deserves to be applauded. The epic refers

that six hundred ogres are placed as mount-guards in front of the royal

court of Ravana. The thatched hut of Rama at Citrakuta is also equipped

with various kinds of bright and sharp weapons in order to defend

themselves from wild beasts and other miscreants.

The Ramayana informs that the forts and capital cities or

191

the states are rendered almost inaccessible; also, the kings are aware of

their own safety in course of their journey towards other places. Thus the

encampment of the king is also found to be encircled by ditches which

are very diffficult to be crossed over by the enemies.135 In the way of his

expedition towards Lanka, the prudent statesman, Rama puts an all-round

vigilant watch through appropriate posting of his sentinels. The temporary

camp of the vast army of Rama is safeguarded by the armed forces. The

evidence found in the epic proves that the martial troops of ancient India

are very disciplined136 and discipline is regarded as the primary quality

of a soldier.

From a study of materials presented above, we find that the

defence system, as illustrated by ancient Arthasastra scholars, is more or

less reflected in the Valmiki-Ramayana. The description of the defence

system of Ayodhya, Kiskindhya, Lanka and other states as well as the

six-fold policy or four-fold expedients, secret agents etc. as portrayed in

the Valmiki-Ramayana exhibit the elaborate thoughts on and endeavour

for building up effective machineries of defence and offence by the king

of the ancient India.

192

Notes and References :

1. Mbh. (S.P.) - 118, 47

2.

Amk. Book II, Ksatriyavarga, I, No. 36

3.

V.R. - 6.17.24 (Gita Press edition)

4. Ibid - 1.20.10 ; 1.66. 24 ; 1.69.3

5. Ibid - 1.54.12 ; 1.55.4

6. Extract from Tilaka comm. on

V.R. 1.6.2 ;

Ibid - 6.11.7

7. Ibid - 3.12.30 (as explained by Dr. D. N. Chakraborty)

8. Ibid - 4.29. 30 ; 4. 39.11. 21- 23 etc.

9. Ibid - 4.29.30 ; 2.100.30

10. M.S. - 7.189

11. V.R. - 2.100. 32-33

12. Ibid - 6.111.108

13. Ibid - 2.100. 30-31 ; 5.48.14

14. K.A. - VI. 1.11

15. V.R. - 5.6.30

193

16. Ibid - 4.29.31; 5.6.9

17. Ibid - 1.54.18, 21-23; 1.55. 2-4

18. Ibid - 4.33.22 ; 5.6. 29-30 ; 5.16.29 ; 5.17. 4, 9 ; 5.30. 22-23

19. K.A.- IX. 2.1 ; K.N.S. - 19.3

20. Ibid - IX.2.9

21. Raghu. - 4.26

22.

M.S. - 7. 185

23. K.N.S - 18.24

24. Agn. Pu. - 242. 2.3

25. Mbh. (S.P.) - 118.42-46

26. Ibid - 118.47

27. M.S. - 7, 101 (Kulluka commentary); Agn. Pu. - 228.1-8 ; 242.28-

31, 35-40 ; K. A - X. 4.15

28. M.S. - 7. 114

29. V.R. - 6.37.24

30.

V.R. - 6.37.16

31. V.R. - 6.90.10

32. Ibid - 6.96.14

194

33. K.A. - Book II, Chapter 31-33

34. Ibid - II. 33.9

35. R.V. - 6.75.6

36. Amk. Book II, Ksatriyavarga, I No. 112

37. Ibid - I No. 133

38. V. R.- 1.5. 10-11, 13 ; 2.88.24

39. Ibid - 1.5.15

40. Ibid - 1.5.22

41. Ibid - 1.5.19

42. Ibid - 2.100.40

43. Ibid - 4.58.21-22 ; 5.2. 14-2 6 ; 5.3.6 ; 6.3.10-28 ; 6.41.31, 51;

7.3.28 ; 7.5.26.

44. Ibid - 3.55.19 ; 4.58.24 ; 6.39.20 ; 6.40.2

45. Ibid - 5.4.26 ; 5.30.31

46. Ibid - 4.14.5-6 ; 4.19.14-15 ; 4.26.41 ; 4.31. 16-27 ; 4.33. 4-5, 7-8,

12,14, 17,19

47. Ibid - 2.100.68

48.

V.R. - 6.3.20

49. Ibid - 2.100.53

50. Ibid - 9. 294 (Kulluka commentary)

195

51.

M.S. - 7. 73

M.S. - 7.74

52. M.S. - 7. 70

53. M.S. - 7. 71

54. Kulluka commentary on M.S., No. 7. 71

55. Mbh. (S.P.) - 84.11

56. Y.S. - 1.321

57. K.A. - VIII. I. 24-27

58. Mbh. (S.P.) - 84.5; 55. 35

59. Ibid - 84. 6-17 ; 67. 40, 45, 47

60. S.N.S. - 4.6. 2-8

61. S.N.S. - IV. 6.13

62.

S.N.S. - IV. 6.10

63. K.A. - II. 3.1

64. Ibid - Book II, ch. 3 & ch. 4

65. V.R. - 6.19. 9-16 ; 6.20.1-2

66. V. R. - 6.17.20

67. Extract from Tilaka comm. on V. R. - 6.17.20

68. Extract from Govindaraja’s comm. on V.R. 6.17.20

196

69. Ibid - 6.37.7-8

70. Ibid - 6.25.1, 4-9

71.

V.R. - 3.33.10

72. Ibid - 3.33.7, 9, 11, 20

73. Ibid - 2.100.36

74. Ibid - 6.20.1-2 ; 6. 25. 1-9 ; 6.29.18-24

75.

V.R. - 6.29.21

76. Ibid - 2.100.36

77.

Ibid - 1.7.9

78. Ibid – 6.124.16

79. M.S. - 7. 104

80.

M.S. - 7. 153.

81. Ibid - 7. 154

82. K.A. - I. 11.1

83. Ibid - I. 12. 17-18

84. Mbh. (S.P.) - 56.17

197

85. Ibid - 66.43

86. K.N.S. - 16. 52

87. Ibid – 13.33

88. Ibid – 13. 36-37

89. M.S. - 7. 107

90. V.R. – 6.9.8 ; 6.17.20

91. V.R. – 5.41.2

92. V.R. – 6.41.59

93. Ibid – 4.17.29 ; 6.35. 8-11 ; 6.84.12 ; 7.11.8

94. Ibid - 2.100.68

95. Ibid - 5.22. 37-38 ; 5.41.2-4 ; 6.63.11

96. Ibid - 6.35.7-9

97. Ibid - 6.20.9-12

98.

Ibid - 5.36.17

99. M.S. - 7. 107-109, 159

100. K.A. - Book I. ch. 13

101. Kulluka commentary on M.S., No. - 7.160

102. V.R. - 2.100.69 ; 3.72.8

103. M.S. – 7. 58

198

104.

M.S. - 7. 160

105. Ibid - 7. 161-170

106. K.A. - VI. 2. 4-5

107. Ibid - VII. 1.38

108. K.N.S. - 9th-12th chapter

109. Chakravarti, P. C., Art of War ; Karan Publications ; Delhi, 1987,

p. 150

110. Apte . V. S. - ‘Sanskrit-English Dictionary’, P. 48

111. Dr. Jogiraj Basu - Veder Paricay, P. 213

112. Amk. - Book II, Ksatriyavarga; illustration no. 209-210

113. Amk. - Commentary on Illustration no. 209

114. Roy Y. C. - Dhanurved (Bengali), Calcutta, 1955, P. 5

115. Mbh. (K.P.) - 1.40 & 5.6

116. K.A. - II. 18. 5-17

117. Agn.Pu. - 252.15, 18 & c

118. K.A. - II.18.16

119. Ibid - II.18.17

120. V.R. - 6.11.5

121. Ibid - 1.22.7

199

122. Ibid - 1.22.9

123. Ibid - 6.60.54

124.

Sadasiva Dhanurveda, as quoted

in ‘Ramayane Yuddhavidya’, P. 75

125. Wilson, H. H., 'Art of War and Medical & Surgical Sciences of the

Hindus', P. 14

126. V.R. - 6.3.12 (as explained by Chakraborty, D. N.)

127. Singh, S. D. ‘Ancient Indian Warfare’, P. 112

128. V.R. - 1.27.3

129. Ibid - 1.27.21

130. Bhattacharjee, P. G. ‘Ramayane Yuddhavidya’, P. 58-59

131. V.R. - 3.12. 32-37

132. Ibid - 6.102. 14, 15

133. Dikshitar, V. R. R. ‘War in Ancient India’, P. 103

134. V.R.- 2.16.2

135. Ibid - 2.80. 18

136. Ibid - 6.12.3.

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