the coptic encyclopedia vol vi
DESCRIPTION
The Coptic Encyclopedia Vol VITRANSCRIPT
EdItOnl
Basilios IV Archbishop of lemsalem
PieTTC du Bf)urguet, SJ. Lollvre Museum, Paris
Rene-Georges Coquin College de France, "uris
w. H. C. Fl'cnd GltUgow Univers;ly
Mirri! BoUlI"OS Ghali Society of Coptic Archaeology. Cairo
Bishop Gregonos Higher Im;/iwle 0/ Caplic SlIldics. Cairo
Peter Grossmann Germatl Il/stiW/e of Archaeology, Coiro
AnlOine Guillaumont College de France, Paris
Rodolphe Kassel' Ulliversity 0/ Gelleva
Martin Kr-.luSC West/alische Wilhelms~U"iversilal, Milnsler
Subhi Y. I...,bib Kid Ulliversily
Tilo Orlandi University (If Rome
Marian Rob(,rtson Ulah State University
Khalil Samir Pontifical Oriental Ins/ilU.le, Rome
Consultants
J. M. Robinson h,slitllle of AIl/iquity alTd Chris/iallity, C/arCIIIOIlI, Colifomia
Magdi Wahba Cairo Ulli,'ersity
Fuad Megally Polytechllh' of Cell/rol London
•
Volume 6
•
Volume 6
,
Copyright C 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Company A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
All righLS reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any fonn or by any means, electronic or mechanical. including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and rClrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher.
Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022
Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 200, Don Mills, Ontario M3C JNl
Library of Congress c..,talog Card No.: 90-23448
Printed in the United Slates of America
printing number I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Library of Congress Cataloging·in-Publication Dala
The Coptic encyclopedia I Aziz S. Atiya, editor-in-chicf. p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN O·02·897025-X (set) 1. Coplic Church-Dictionaries. 2. Copts-Diclionaries.
I. Atiya, Aziz S., 1898 BXI30.5.C66 1991 281 '.7'03-dc20
90-23448 CIP
The preparation of this volume was made possible in pal1 by a groint from the National Endowment for lhe Humanities, an independent federal agency.
Photographs on pages 567, 736, 754, 755, 790. 791, 876-878, 1284. 1311, and 2168 arc reproduced courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Photography by the Egyptian Expedition.
1691
(continued)
1952). The following is a brid survcy of Ihe line of succession, with panicular reference to Ihe role played by the Copts during Ihe time of each ruler. Dales refer 10 the yean of their accession and de mise or abdication.
An outstanding soldier and statesman, Mu~am·
mad 'All wa~ the founder of modem Egypt and of the dynasty that ruled the country until the 1952 revolution.
Following the French Invasion or Egypl (1798), the sultan sent lin cltpedJtlooary force, including a contingent of Macedonlan Albanians, of whom Mu· J;lammad 'All W89 an officer. After the defent of the French and Iheir departure in 1801. Mu~ammad
'All stayed on and watched the ensuing confusion and struggle for power between the MamJuks, the OUOman governor, and the Egyptian people, whieh he eltploited for his own benefit.
In 1805, having won the contidence of the inhabi· tants, he was asked by Ihe '«/emas (the Muslim) 10 become Iheir ruler, and Ihe sultan had 10 con firm him as governor (walI). MuJ;lanullad 'All was subsequently able; 10 gel rid of his rivals and be come; the; unchallengcd master of the counlly. Ue
Mubammad 'All, Viceroy (1805-1849)
MUHAOHOHAB A....oIN ABO SA'ln IBN ARt SULAYMAN, physician son of Abi SuJ3ymflll D;'iwlid ibn Abi 31·Muna ibn Abl Fanah from whom, 3mong OIhers, he learned medicine, and brolher of AaO ALFAQL IBN ADI SUL\yM.\N and of Abu Sh:iklr ibn AbT Sulnymiin, to whom he laught Ihe 3n of medicine.
He wa.~ a skilled uoclor, respected and wilh a good position at coun. The suhlln al-M;lllk al·'Adil (1200-1218), for whom he worked, app..inted him to the sentlee of his son ai-Malik al-Mu'~m. He also worked as physician for ai-Malik al-Nl\sir Salt\h
• • • ai-DIn. He moved to Egypt and remained there umil his death in 1216, He wns buried at Diir ~i·Khandaq
in ClIiro. While in D(llna~ell~ he also taught his nephew
Rashid ai-DIn AnO t.tUL\YUAIl,
PENE,;WPE JOHNSTONE
MUI:fAMMAD 'ALI, VICEROY. See Mu~am. mad 'All Dynasty.
MUJ:lAMMAD 'ALI DYNASTY, a family dial ruled Egypt for about a eenlury and a half (1805-
1692 MUI:IAMMAD 'ALi DYNASTY
now SCt out 10 Ir(lllSfQr'ln ~gypt into 1l powerful slate sclf·sulfidcnt economically, industrially, and ag,'icuhUl'ally. 1·le rcbuih [he army alld the navy, with which he achic\'ed resounding succco;scs and victurics all lIround I;gypl. He Clltcndcd I,is influ ence into Arahia, the Sudan, Sy.ia. Crete, and Ana· tulia, upscuing the political balam;c in tht, arca.
With their inl(~reslS seriously thre:uened, the for· cign powers intervened, and in 1840, Muhammad 'All's vast empire was reduced to Egypt and the Sudan. He ....'35 also given hereditary rule of Egypt.
MuJ.tammad .All's physical and menial faculties deteriorated IOward the end of his life, and he died in 1849, 11is SOil Ib,..oIhim having prt:1.1l-'Ceas..'J him in 1848.
Among the innucnlial Copt:; who scrYl'd under Mu~ammad 'All, supplying him with huge amounts or money from their pri\'lnc sources to finance his projects, WllS Mu'allim JIMJIS AIAAWHAII.I (d. 1810), and Mu'allim CHAw. Mu~ammad 'AIT also l.'mployed some Cop!.s in key lIdmi"istrtltive positions as gov· ernors or provinces: Riu: Asha in Sharqiyyah, Ma kram Agha in Atnt.l, Mikha'll "II:M in Fashn. and Bu!ru~ Agh1 in Bardls (Riy!~ Sury:\l. 1984. pp. 49 50).
II is said that when Muhammad 'All was ap proached by Europeans st.-cking 10 ronn a o.:ompany to finance the building or a canal between the Med· itcrranean and the Red Sea, Mu'allim Ghalj pointcd out to him the inherent danll:cr of such a "Olnpany to the sovereignty of Egypt.
'AbbAs J;ltlmll, Khedive (1813-1854)
Frum the beginning of his reign. 'Abbfls l;Iilmi aimed at selling mles and policies contral)' to those of his predeccssol1l. He wanted to relieve the Egyp· tian economy of foreign pressure lmd inflllcnce by liquidating (III projects of economic growth inaugu· ntled by his gl1lndralher. Muhammad 'AIT, whicb, in his opinion, rendered the economy or Egypt suhser· vient to Eurupe, As " resull. he closed ,,11 modern factories and all higher schools, and decreased the l"orces of both the army and the navy. He believed that his grandfather had opened the door widll for Europe:tll influence :tnd weakellt.~ the Ottuman elll pil"e by the destruction of its rniHtal)' power in Egypt. Because uf his Otlumiln eduCiltiun ilnd up bl'inging, he lended to oppose the policies of both Mu~ammild 'Ali and Ibrahim. Cunscquentl.v, he de· viated from their policies and stal1ed pel-,;ccuting allthl.'ir fonner assistants in the European projects. In this way, 'Abb& thought to relUl'n Egypt to its
Islamic and Orienl:.1 Ch.\rtICler and lu fn:~ il frum Western ambitions. But soon lime Iwoved hi.~ gross misjudgment.
In fact, even his l-elationship with lhe Supreme Pone or ConSlanlinupl1; deleriur,lted later bt.-cause of his allempt 10 suppress some of its administrative privileges gr,lnled under iln [846 treaty. Owing to BI'itain's fa\'Ot"llble position with Turkey, 'Abb.'is thought 10 ask Ihe English authorities to negotiate on his behalf with Ihe Suprenle Pune and in return offered the British a projeci of constructing a rail W.lY linl; from Alexandria lu SUC"L via Cairo. In Ihe meantime, he insisted that this projecl should be rl,.-garded as an Egyptian one 10 avoid the infihm· tion or English influence into lhe country.
This siluation was indin.'t:t1y afT«ted by the oul· break of the Climean War between Russia and Tur key. The czar olfc~d Britain the oppol1unity to occupy EiYiJt in return for giving him a rree h.md 10 seize cenain J13l1!i of Ottoman terrilOry. Accord· ingly, 'AbbAs hasH:Ilt.'t! 10 accept lhe Turkish sui· tan's proposal 10 cnler Ihe Crimenn War, by rein· forcing the Egyplian amlY and the ronifieiltion of hi~ own coa.~!.'1 against any JI'05-~ible incur.;ions by the British navy. In the lonll: run, Egypt W,lS able to escape all h37.ards precipitated by this Orienlal cri· sis.
Internally, the viceroy enlertained lhe idea or lransport.ing the Coplic communily from Egypt to lhc Sudan and Ethiupl:l, thereby giving Egypl an unmixed Islamic color. Thl!! strange project was communicaled 10 Ihe Islnl1lie religious authurilY fur comment, and a clear' fulwo (religious opinion) was issued refuting this idea and informing lhe viceroy th,lt the Cupls were lhe ur'ill:innl inh'lbilnnls uf the land of Egypt and that their extelmination would he holh wrong and impractical.
On 14 July 1854, 'Abbfl.~ was assassinated by a group uf eonspirnlurs from his own f:lmily in his own palace at Sanh:'. Al the lime or hi.~ death, the nlilwuy line had re'jehed Karr ill·Zayynl; il was cum pletcd in the reign of his successor, Sa'Td [·asha.
Sa'ld, Khedive (1854-1863)
Unlike his preclecessul", 'Abbf\s Hilmi I, &l'td en· coumge<1 foreign par1icipaliotl in Ihe Egyptian economy and administr,ltiun, thus facilitating Euro pe:1Il infilll7\tlon. He gave various concessions to foreign companies for the development of the coun· try, Ihe IllOSI impol1ant beina the COllstnlclion of the Suez Canal. Consequently, by the end or Sa.'ld·s reign, Egypt had conlracled huge debts.
MUHAMMAD 'ALI DYNASTY • •
[693
Sa'id had great esteem for the Coptic patriarch. CYRil. IV (1854_1861), rntlll~r of rdorm. lie gave him permission to build a church in the l;Iarit al·S....q· qay'ln quarter of Cairo. lie alSQ relied on the patd· arch to negotiate with Emperor Theodoros of Ethio· pia an end to the dispute between the twu countries over the Sudane~e frontiers.
lsmA'II, Khedive (1863-1879)
Through his Western education and his connec tions in important European capitals at the time, Isma'i1 acquired subst:lOtial political experience. He ruled Egypt durinll a critical stage of its hilitory. through which European pre.~'lUre e.~ened ilo;elf throughout the country.
To ClIIT)' out the refomls that he had in mind, he had to have fC(:ourse to foreign aid and contracted several loons. He was therefore forced to usher the foreign pn'sencc and innuencc into Egypt. since he relied on l!uropean monetary sour'Ccs 10 finance Ilis economic and political projects.
Nc\'crthcless, !sma'II's reign was (ml; of cuhural enlightcnment. A.~ he was intent upon setting up a modern administr:tth'e system, Copts proved of great impOl1anCe during his reign. He appointed 5<;ver..1 of them 10 the Minililry of finance and othe,' administratl\'e branches of the governmem.
During his reign, American mission:uics stanl.'d their campaign in Upper Egypt to com'ert Copts to Protestantism. They succeeded in annexing two well·known fnmllic:,'s of Asyli!, the Wi..;M and the Khayyii!s. 10 the Evangelical church. The Copts fought ugainst prosclyti:.eation. They had the full suppol1 of the khedive, \Vho sponsored a tour for Pope Demitrius (1862-1870) in Upp<.:r 4:YPllo eon fronl the missionary activity there.
AI·Jllm'lyyah a!·Khuyl'iyyah (Cuptie Benevolent Society) waS eSlablished in 1871 to p""vide educa· liom.l tmd social services tu Copts. It W<lS lhtlt sude ty thai lnler sel up Ihe Coptic Hospital.
When Is''''\'11 founded the fll'St Egyptiun Parlia· ment (1866), a number OrCOplS were elected memo ben tI.~ repre~cntntivcs of some rural constituen· eies.
Tawf"1q, Khedive (1879-1892)
Tnwflq succeeded his father. Isma'lI, :,fter his de position in 1879. His reign wa.~ beset by \'arious political crises that he was too wcnk to deal with, giving rise to 'Uttibi's revolt (1881) and Ihe Brilish occupation (1882).
Lord Cromer, the High Commissioner, ran the country wilhout nny opposition from the khedive. He filled government posts wilh Europeans and preferred Syrian Christians to Copts, as he felt that the British were htlted by Copu no less than b)' the Muslims. However. some Copts whu had been ap pointed prior to the occupation m~e 10 high rank, such as OOIlfIl.OS G...At.1. who won the title Pasha.
Solidarity bet\liCC'l Muslims and CoplS wa.~ mani· fest during the 'Uttibl revolt. When Ihe kht-dive or· dered the dismissal of 'Urtlbl as nlinister of war, over five hundred Egyptian reprcsentativ(.'S, includ· ing tho: two religious leadel'$, the shuykh of al·AJ:hnr Mosque and the patriarch of Alexandria. CYRIL v (1874-1927), on 22 July 1882 signed a do;:daratkm of support of 'Unih1 and a condemnation of the kht..dive'5 surrender 10 fureign powers. Among the other signatories were Bou!fOS Ghall and other Copts (AI·Rafi'1, 1966, pp. 439-448).
'AbbAs I;Illmf II, Khedive (1892-1914)
The fifth member of the Mu~ammad 'All dynasly to rule Egypt. 'Abbas ~Iilnll acceded to the throne at the nge of eighteen. His reign was eventful be cause of the role he pillycd in the national move ment and his policy In relation to the British occu· plltion of I;gypl. Unlike his father, Khedive Tawfiq, he resented the idea of being a puppet in British hands. He therefore dismissed Mu~!nfa Fahml Pasha on 15 Janunry 1893. This was the first cabinet to include Bou!l'os GhAlT Pasha as a 'llinister, who was to become prime minister in November 1908.
At Ihe Qulsel Qf 'Abbas I~ilmill's reign, there WI,s
di:>agreement between the members of the COMMuNI TY COUNCIL. on the one hand, and Pope Cyril V, 0/1 the other, over the methods of reform. The council asked rQr the !'Cml)v;tl or the pope tl) I)AYIt A[..UAItA· MOS. where he stnyed for approximately one year berol'C returning 1Q his seul in C;liro through the intervention of some CoptS opposed to the council.
During 'Abb:'is l;Iilmi's reign, a group of Coptic intellectuals started to n1obllil':e COl'tic public opin iun in support I)r certain scctarlun requirements thnt were opposed by I)OU!I'OS GhAlI, thus leading to radical trends in the political movement. This I'eached its climaJl with the :lsS:lSsimltion of Bou!ros Ghali hy a Muslim fundamentalist and triggered sectarian duls.
••
1694 MUI;IAMMAD 'ALi DYNASTY
pt:rsonalities and some Copts, was held in Calro. It sought a $Olution 10 the sectarian crisis and put an end to the riots.
The British occupation forces look the opportuni t)' to muzzle the press. ban political meetings. and liquidate the muionalisl movcmcm.
l:Juaseln Kamll, Sultan (1914-1917)
When World War I broke out in 1914, 'Abbas l;IilmT II was on a vis!1 to the sultan in ConstanLino pie. The Brhish .sei7;ed the OpportUllily to depose him. on the grounds of his IOy;Jlty 10 their enemy. They installed his uncle l;Iusscin Kamel wilh the title Sultan, the first Egyptian ruler 10 carry this lille. Eaypl Wa$ declared a British protectorate, and martial law was imposed. The e(:onomic resources of the country were put in the servin' of the British anny. as Egypt became a military base. This in· flamed public feelings agaim;{ the British, culminat ing in the eruption of the 1919 revolL
':Iuuein Kamel died in October 1917, after a rei,n of three years. liis son declined to succeed him to the throne, which was men'fore offered to his brother, Fouad.
Fouad I, King (1917-1936)
Followinll the death of ':Iussein Kamel. his broth· er, Fouad. occupied the throne from 1917 to 19]6. As a )'<lung man, Fouad had accompanied his fa· ther, I~md'il, in his exile to Italy, where he finished his education at the military academy, after whil:h he was appointed I'lrtl1lel)' officer in the anny and later military allachc at the Turkish embassy in Vi enna.
Found's reign was characterized by his autocrat· ic approach to parliamentary life. MteT the prolll' ulgation of the 192] con~titution, he retained thc right to dismiss the government, sw;pend the con stitution, nnd dissolve Parliament. The WAFD gov ernment was rcpllleed by various authorilarian cabinets, When the constitution was restored, nego· tilltiOns with Brililin were resumed lu pave lhe way for the 1936 Anglo·Egyptian treaty,
Two major positive achievemcnts were fulfilled during King Fouad's reign: the establishment of the first Egyptian university, which rcvitali:l:cd the intel lectual life of the country; and the foundation of the Mi~r Bank in 1920, which helped to countcrbahmce the e1tcessive domination of roreign capital.
In addition to playing a prominent p.U1 in the 1919 revolution under Sa'd zaghllil. the Copts were active in the political and parliamentary life of the
country, with such well-known nallles as MAKRAM
EBEID and WISSA WASSEF. They found conditions fa· vorable for pursuing social and cultural activities by selling up benevolent societies and educational organizations.
Farouk I. King (1936-1952)
The last monarch of the Mu~ammad 'Ali dynasty, Farouk succeeded his father, Found, in May 1936, as a young man straight back from school in En gland. Farouk's reign coincided with various politi, cal and $OCial movementl Ihat evenrually led to the 1952 revolution. Among these may be mentioned Young Egypt (Mqr a/·FtJlfJh) and the Muslim Breth ren (a/·/khwiJn a/·!tfus!imiln), both of which adopted fascist ideologies within an Islamic fTamework. The reaction to these movementl was manifest in the formation of the shon·lived Coptic Nation Associa· tion (lamA'at al·Ummah al.Qibliyyah).
The seareh for a true Egyptian identity polarized two distinct tendencies: 10 consider Egypl as pan of the Mediterranean world, with ilS TOOtS in ancient Egyptian civilization, and to emphasize Egypt's 15 lamic past. In addition, a new current of Arab na tionalism led to the foundation of the Arab League in Mareh 1945,
In 1948 the outcome of the Palestine war dam aged Farouk's standing, and the country was seeth ing with the rumors of corruption in high places. The Cairo fire of 26 January 1952 was Ihc begin ning of a series of events that culminated in Fa rouk·s abdication and the proclamation of the Egyp tian republic,
8IBLIOGRAPHY
'Abd al-'A~.Im Rllmll~IAn. TU/llwwur al·f,lawka!r al· WII!Ulliyyah II Mi~'r, 1936-/948, Beirut, 1974.
'Abd al.Ra~ml\n :l1-JaburtT. 'AblIJ'ib al-AIMr If al·Ta· rIJjim wa·II/·AkhblJr, vol. 4, Cairo, A.H, 1297.
Abd al·Rahmtln al·RM'I, Fl A'qab al-Thawrah al· Mi.1riyyah, J vols, Cairo, 1946-1951.:==' 'A~r /smtl'II, 2 \lois. Cairo, 1948.
, AI·Thuwrah ul·'Urtlbiyyah wa-all~till'll al·/n {ifIll. Cairo, 1966,
A~mad Abd·al Ra~rm MuHaf1, Mi~r wa-al·Mas'alah al-Mqriyyah /875-1882. Cairo, 1965,
Chriol, Valentine, 1'he Egyptian Problem, London, 1920.
Cromer, Lord. Modem Egypl. 2 vols, London, 1908. E1g00d, P. G. The Transit of Egypt, London, 1928. Ghorbal, S. Mu1Jalllmad 'All al·Kablr. Cairo, 1944. Hanotaux, G. Hislcire de la nalion Egyptienne. Paris,
1931-1940.
MUHDJ, MUHAMMAD AL· 1695
Ikbal Ali Shah. Fallad Killg al Egypt. London. 1936. Jerrold, B. Egypt Under Ismail Pasha. London, 1879. King, J. W. Historical Dictionary 01 Egypt. London.
1984. Landau, J. Parliaments and Parties ill Egypt. New
York, 1954. la!lfah salim. Mi~'r Ii al'lIam ul.',l,lamiyyah al·MlJ.
Cairo, 1982. Uoyd, Lord. Egypt Since Cramer. 2 vals. London,
1933. MacCoan, J. C. 1:.DPt Undu Ismail. I...(lIldon, 1899. Manassa YO!;ulnnl. TiJrlkh al·Kanf$Uh al.Qib(iyyah,
pp. 508-510. Repr. Cairo, 1983. Marlo~, J. ,t.nll'().Egyptitl>1 Rdations, 1800-1953.
London, 1954. Mlkhl'lI ShAnlblm. AI·KlJ/r 11 TllrlkJr Mi:fr al..(}adim
wll·al fladrth. Cairo, 1900. Precis de I'histoire de I'Egyptt:. Cairo, 1932-1935. Dalllni Fahml (Pasha). Mudhllkkirllt 'an Ba'd lIawll·
dith Il/.MtJ.t!I, vol. I. Cairo, 1931. RamzJ Tlidrus. ,t./,AqbiJ! /t-flI·Qam tll·'hhnn, vol. 2.
Cairo, 1911. Ri~ Suryal. M-Mlljtllma' al.Qibri 11 Mi:fr Ii al·Oam
al·Tllsi' 'Ashar. Cairo, 1984. Sabry, M. L'Empire etyplian sous I.~mail. Paris,
1930. Safran, N. Egypt in St:llrch 0/ Political Community.
Cambridge, Mass., 1961. SchoIch, A. Egypt lor lIlt: Egyplians. London, 1982. Taw8q lskan1s. Nawllbigh al.Aqbii! wa
Mashllhlmhllttt II al·Qam al-Tllsf 'A.~har, vol. 2. Cairo, 1913.
Tignor, R. Modllmization ulld British Ca{ollial Rule in Egypl, 1881-19/4. Princeton, N.J.. 1966.
Ya'qob Nakhlah Ruraylah. Tlirikh al·Ummah al-Oib· (iyyah, pp. 282-81. Cairo, 1899.
Youssef, A. Independent Egypt. London, 1940.
RA'OI' 'Af:lIIAS HAMED
MUJ:lAMMAD RAMZJ (1871-[945), Egyptian scholar. He wa~ born and educated at Ihe town of al.Man~Orllh in the Delta and latcr al llic School of Law In Cairo. [n 1892 he joined the Ministry of Finance as a clerical employee, and by 1930 he had been promOled to the position of inspector general of land taxalion. During his lung carel", he visited every region of the country, making extensive sur· veys of every town, village, hamlet, and fann. He was keenly interested in the names, history, and background of every area, which he checked and revised in the light of information given mainly by al·Maql1lJ'S KillJh al.Khi{a! (Land Survey) and 'All Mubllrak's AI·Khital al-Tawliqiyyah, as well as many medieval and modem geographers, including such French geographers as Emile Aml:lineau, Jean Mas-
pero, a·M. Quat remere, and G. Daressy. He thus became the leading authorily on Egyptian topony· my.
In 1941 he published M·Dall1 al-lllghrafi (Geo· graphical…
Basilios IV Archbishop of lemsalem
PieTTC du Bf)urguet, SJ. Lollvre Museum, Paris
Rene-Georges Coquin College de France, "uris
w. H. C. Fl'cnd GltUgow Univers;ly
Mirri! BoUlI"OS Ghali Society of Coptic Archaeology. Cairo
Bishop Gregonos Higher Im;/iwle 0/ Caplic SlIldics. Cairo
Peter Grossmann Germatl Il/stiW/e of Archaeology, Coiro
AnlOine Guillaumont College de France, Paris
Rodolphe Kassel' Ulliversity 0/ Gelleva
Martin Kr-.luSC West/alische Wilhelms~U"iversilal, Milnsler
Subhi Y. I...,bib Kid Ulliversily
Tilo Orlandi University (If Rome
Marian Rob(,rtson Ulah State University
Khalil Samir Pontifical Oriental Ins/ilU.le, Rome
Consultants
J. M. Robinson h,slitllle of AIl/iquity alTd Chris/iallity, C/arCIIIOIlI, Colifomia
Magdi Wahba Cairo Ulli,'ersity
Fuad Megally Polytechllh' of Cell/rol London
•
Volume 6
•
Volume 6
,
Copyright C 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Company A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
All righLS reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any fonn or by any means, electronic or mechanical. including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and rClrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher.
Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022
Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 200, Don Mills, Ontario M3C JNl
Library of Congress c..,talog Card No.: 90-23448
Printed in the United Slates of America
printing number I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Library of Congress Cataloging·in-Publication Dala
The Coptic encyclopedia I Aziz S. Atiya, editor-in-chicf. p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN O·02·897025-X (set) 1. Coplic Church-Dictionaries. 2. Copts-Diclionaries.
I. Atiya, Aziz S., 1898 BXI30.5.C66 1991 281 '.7'03-dc20
90-23448 CIP
The preparation of this volume was made possible in pal1 by a groint from the National Endowment for lhe Humanities, an independent federal agency.
Photographs on pages 567, 736, 754, 755, 790. 791, 876-878, 1284. 1311, and 2168 arc reproduced courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Photography by the Egyptian Expedition.
1691
(continued)
1952). The following is a brid survcy of Ihe line of succession, with panicular reference to Ihe role played by the Copts during Ihe time of each ruler. Dales refer 10 the yean of their accession and de mise or abdication.
An outstanding soldier and statesman, Mu~am·
mad 'All wa~ the founder of modem Egypt and of the dynasty that ruled the country until the 1952 revolution.
Following the French Invasion or Egypl (1798), the sultan sent lin cltpedJtlooary force, including a contingent of Macedonlan Albanians, of whom Mu· J;lammad 'All W89 an officer. After the defent of the French and Iheir departure in 1801. Mu~ammad
'All stayed on and watched the ensuing confusion and struggle for power between the MamJuks, the OUOman governor, and the Egyptian people, whieh he eltploited for his own benefit.
In 1805, having won the contidence of the inhabi· tants, he was asked by Ihe '«/emas (the Muslim) 10 become Iheir ruler, and Ihe sultan had 10 con firm him as governor (walI). MuJ;lanullad 'All was subsequently able; 10 gel rid of his rivals and be come; the; unchallengcd master of the counlly. Ue
Mubammad 'All, Viceroy (1805-1849)
MUHAOHOHAB A....oIN ABO SA'ln IBN ARt SULAYMAN, physician son of Abi SuJ3ymflll D;'iwlid ibn Abi 31·Muna ibn Abl Fanah from whom, 3mong OIhers, he learned medicine, and brolher of AaO ALFAQL IBN ADI SUL\yM.\N and of Abu Sh:iklr ibn AbT Sulnymiin, to whom he laught Ihe 3n of medicine.
He wa.~ a skilled uoclor, respected and wilh a good position at coun. The suhlln al-M;lllk al·'Adil (1200-1218), for whom he worked, app..inted him to the sentlee of his son ai-Malik al-Mu'~m. He also worked as physician for ai-Malik al-Nl\sir Salt\h
• • • ai-DIn. He moved to Egypt and remained there umil his death in 1216, He wns buried at Diir ~i·Khandaq
in ClIiro. While in D(llna~ell~ he also taught his nephew
Rashid ai-DIn AnO t.tUL\YUAIl,
PENE,;WPE JOHNSTONE
MUI:fAMMAD 'ALI, VICEROY. See Mu~am. mad 'All Dynasty.
MUJ:lAMMAD 'ALI DYNASTY, a family dial ruled Egypt for about a eenlury and a half (1805-
1692 MUI:IAMMAD 'ALi DYNASTY
now SCt out 10 Ir(lllSfQr'ln ~gypt into 1l powerful slate sclf·sulfidcnt economically, industrially, and ag,'icuhUl'ally. 1·le rcbuih [he army alld the navy, with which he achic\'ed resounding succco;scs and victurics all lIround I;gypl. He Clltcndcd I,is influ ence into Arahia, the Sudan, Sy.ia. Crete, and Ana· tulia, upscuing the political balam;c in tht, arca.
With their inl(~reslS seriously thre:uened, the for· cign powers intervened, and in 1840, Muhammad 'All's vast empire was reduced to Egypt and the Sudan. He ....'35 also given hereditary rule of Egypt.
MuJ.tammad .All's physical and menial faculties deteriorated IOward the end of his life, and he died in 1849, 11is SOil Ib,..oIhim having prt:1.1l-'Ceas..'J him in 1848.
Among the innucnlial Copt:; who scrYl'd under Mu~ammad 'All, supplying him with huge amounts or money from their pri\'lnc sources to finance his projects, WllS Mu'allim JIMJIS AIAAWHAII.I (d. 1810), and Mu'allim CHAw. Mu~ammad 'AIT also l.'mployed some Cop!.s in key lIdmi"istrtltive positions as gov· ernors or provinces: Riu: Asha in Sharqiyyah, Ma kram Agha in Atnt.l, Mikha'll "II:M in Fashn. and Bu!ru~ Agh1 in Bardls (Riy!~ Sury:\l. 1984. pp. 49 50).
II is said that when Muhammad 'All was ap proached by Europeans st.-cking 10 ronn a o.:ompany to finance the building or a canal between the Med· itcrranean and the Red Sea, Mu'allim Ghalj pointcd out to him the inherent danll:cr of such a "Olnpany to the sovereignty of Egypt.
'AbbAs J;ltlmll, Khedive (1813-1854)
Frum the beginning of his reign. 'Abbfls l;Iilmi aimed at selling mles and policies contral)' to those of his predeccssol1l. He wanted to relieve the Egyp· tian economy of foreign pressure lmd inflllcnce by liquidating (III projects of economic growth inaugu· ntled by his gl1lndralher. Muhammad 'AIT, whicb, in his opinion, rendered the economy or Egypt suhser· vient to Eurupe, As " resull. he closed ,,11 modern factories and all higher schools, and decreased the l"orces of both the army and the navy. He believed that his grandfather had opened the door widll for Europe:tll influence :tnd weakellt.~ the Ottuman elll pil"e by the destruction of its rniHtal)' power in Egypt. Because uf his Otlumiln eduCiltiun ilnd up bl'inging, he lended to oppose the policies of both Mu~ammild 'Ali and Ibrahim. Cunscquentl.v, he de· viated from their policies and stal1ed pel-,;ccuting allthl.'ir fonner assistants in the European projects. In this way, 'Abb& thought to relUl'n Egypt to its
Islamic and Orienl:.1 Ch.\rtICler and lu fn:~ il frum Western ambitions. But soon lime Iwoved hi.~ gross misjudgment.
In fact, even his l-elationship with lhe Supreme Pone or ConSlanlinupl1; deleriur,lted later bt.-cause of his allempt 10 suppress some of its administrative privileges gr,lnled under iln [846 treaty. Owing to BI'itain's fa\'Ot"llble position with Turkey, 'Abb.'is thought 10 ask Ihe English authorities to negotiate on his behalf with Ihe Suprenle Pune and in return offered the British a projeci of constructing a rail W.lY linl; from Alexandria lu SUC"L via Cairo. In Ihe meantime, he insisted that this projecl should be rl,.-garded as an Egyptian one 10 avoid the infihm· tion or English influence into lhe country.
This siluation was indin.'t:t1y afT«ted by the oul· break of the Climean War between Russia and Tur key. The czar olfc~d Britain the oppol1unity to occupy EiYiJt in return for giving him a rree h.md 10 seize cenain J13l1!i of Ottoman terrilOry. Accord· ingly, 'AbbAs hasH:Ilt.'t! 10 accept lhe Turkish sui· tan's proposal 10 cnler Ihe Crimenn War, by rein· forcing the Egyplian amlY and the ronifieiltion of hi~ own coa.~!.'1 against any JI'05-~ible incur.;ions by the British navy. In the lonll: run, Egypt W,lS able to escape all h37.ards precipitated by this Orienlal cri· sis.
Internally, the viceroy enlertained lhe idea or lransport.ing the Coplic communily from Egypt to lhc Sudan and Ethiupl:l, thereby giving Egypl an unmixed Islamic color. Thl!! strange project was communicaled 10 Ihe Islnl1lie religious authurilY fur comment, and a clear' fulwo (religious opinion) was issued refuting this idea and informing lhe viceroy th,lt the Cupls were lhe ur'ill:innl inh'lbilnnls uf the land of Egypt and that their extelmination would he holh wrong and impractical.
On 14 July 1854, 'Abbfl.~ was assassinated by a group uf eonspirnlurs from his own f:lmily in his own palace at Sanh:'. Al the lime or hi.~ death, the nlilwuy line had re'jehed Karr ill·Zayynl; il was cum pletcd in the reign of his successor, Sa'Td [·asha.
Sa'ld, Khedive (1854-1863)
Unlike his preclecessul", 'Abbf\s Hilmi I, &l'td en· coumge<1 foreign par1icipaliotl in Ihe Egyptian economy and administr,ltiun, thus facilitating Euro pe:1Il infilll7\tlon. He gave various concessions to foreign companies for the development of the coun· try, Ihe IllOSI impol1ant beina the COllstnlclion of the Suez Canal. Consequently, by the end or Sa.'ld·s reign, Egypt had conlracled huge debts.
MUHAMMAD 'ALI DYNASTY • •
[693
Sa'id had great esteem for the Coptic patriarch. CYRil. IV (1854_1861), rntlll~r of rdorm. lie gave him permission to build a church in the l;Iarit al·S....q· qay'ln quarter of Cairo. lie alSQ relied on the patd· arch to negotiate with Emperor Theodoros of Ethio· pia an end to the dispute between the twu countries over the Sudane~e frontiers.
lsmA'II, Khedive (1863-1879)
Through his Western education and his connec tions in important European capitals at the time, Isma'i1 acquired subst:lOtial political experience. He ruled Egypt durinll a critical stage of its hilitory. through which European pre.~'lUre e.~ened ilo;elf throughout the country.
To ClIIT)' out the refomls that he had in mind, he had to have fC(:ourse to foreign aid and contracted several loons. He was therefore forced to usher the foreign pn'sencc and innuencc into Egypt. since he relied on l!uropean monetary sour'Ccs 10 finance Ilis economic and political projects.
Nc\'crthcless, !sma'II's reign was (ml; of cuhural enlightcnment. A.~ he was intent upon setting up a modern administr:tth'e system, Copts proved of great impOl1anCe during his reign. He appointed 5<;ver..1 of them 10 the Minililry of finance and othe,' administratl\'e branches of the governmem.
During his reign, American mission:uics stanl.'d their campaign in Upper Egypt to com'ert Copts to Protestantism. They succeeded in annexing two well·known fnmllic:,'s of Asyli!, the Wi..;M and the Khayyii!s. 10 the Evangelical church. The Copts fought ugainst prosclyti:.eation. They had the full suppol1 of the khedive, \Vho sponsored a tour for Pope Demitrius (1862-1870) in Upp<.:r 4:YPllo eon fronl the missionary activity there.
AI·Jllm'lyyah a!·Khuyl'iyyah (Cuptie Benevolent Society) waS eSlablished in 1871 to p""vide educa· liom.l tmd social services tu Copts. It W<lS lhtlt sude ty thai lnler sel up Ihe Coptic Hospital.
When Is''''\'11 founded the fll'St Egyptiun Parlia· ment (1866), a number OrCOplS were elected memo ben tI.~ repre~cntntivcs of some rural constituen· eies.
Tawf"1q, Khedive (1879-1892)
Tnwflq succeeded his father. Isma'lI, :,fter his de position in 1879. His reign wa.~ beset by \'arious political crises that he was too wcnk to deal with, giving rise to 'Uttibi's revolt (1881) and Ihe Brilish occupation (1882).
Lord Cromer, the High Commissioner, ran the country wilhout nny opposition from the khedive. He filled government posts wilh Europeans and preferred Syrian Christians to Copts, as he felt that the British were htlted by Copu no less than b)' the Muslims. However. some Copts whu had been ap pointed prior to the occupation m~e 10 high rank, such as OOIlfIl.OS G...At.1. who won the title Pasha.
Solidarity bet\liCC'l Muslims and CoplS wa.~ mani· fest during the 'Uttibl revolt. When Ihe kht-dive or· dered the dismissal of 'Urtlbl as nlinister of war, over five hundred Egyptian reprcsentativ(.'S, includ· ing tho: two religious leadel'$, the shuykh of al·AJ:hnr Mosque and the patriarch of Alexandria. CYRIL v (1874-1927), on 22 July 1882 signed a do;:daratkm of support of 'Unih1 and a condemnation of the kht..dive'5 surrender 10 fureign powers. Among the other signatories were Bou!fOS Ghall and other Copts (AI·Rafi'1, 1966, pp. 439-448).
'AbbAs I;Illmf II, Khedive (1892-1914)
The fifth member of the Mu~ammad 'All dynasly to rule Egypt. 'Abbas ~Iilnll acceded to the throne at the nge of eighteen. His reign was eventful be cause of the role he pillycd in the national move ment and his policy In relation to the British occu· plltion of I;gypl. Unlike his father, Khedive Tawfiq, he resented the idea of being a puppet in British hands. He therefore dismissed Mu~!nfa Fahml Pasha on 15 Janunry 1893. This was the first cabinet to include Bou!l'os GhAlT Pasha as a 'llinister, who was to become prime minister in November 1908.
At Ihe Qulsel Qf 'Abbas I~ilmill's reign, there WI,s
di:>agreement between the members of the COMMuNI TY COUNCIL. on the one hand, and Pope Cyril V, 0/1 the other, over the methods of reform. The council asked rQr the !'Cml)v;tl or the pope tl) I)AYIt A[..UAItA· MOS. where he stnyed for approximately one year berol'C returning 1Q his seul in C;liro through the intervention of some CoptS opposed to the council.
During 'Abb:'is l;Iilmi's reign, a group of Coptic intellectuals started to n1obllil':e COl'tic public opin iun in support I)r certain scctarlun requirements thnt were opposed by I)OU!I'OS GhAlI, thus leading to radical trends in the political movement. This I'eached its climaJl with the :lsS:lSsimltion of Bou!ros Ghali hy a Muslim fundamentalist and triggered sectarian duls.
••
1694 MUI;IAMMAD 'ALi DYNASTY
pt:rsonalities and some Copts, was held in Calro. It sought a $Olution 10 the sectarian crisis and put an end to the riots.
The British occupation forces look the opportuni t)' to muzzle the press. ban political meetings. and liquidate the muionalisl movcmcm.
l:Juaseln Kamll, Sultan (1914-1917)
When World War I broke out in 1914, 'Abbas l;IilmT II was on a vis!1 to the sultan in ConstanLino pie. The Brhish .sei7;ed the OpportUllily to depose him. on the grounds of his IOy;Jlty 10 their enemy. They installed his uncle l;Iusscin Kamel wilh the title Sultan, the first Egyptian ruler 10 carry this lille. Eaypl Wa$ declared a British protectorate, and martial law was imposed. The e(:onomic resources of the country were put in the servin' of the British anny. as Egypt became a military base. This in· flamed public feelings agaim;{ the British, culminat ing in the eruption of the 1919 revolL
':Iuuein Kamel died in October 1917, after a rei,n of three years. liis son declined to succeed him to the throne, which was men'fore offered to his brother, Fouad.
Fouad I, King (1917-1936)
Followinll the death of ':Iussein Kamel. his broth· er, Fouad. occupied the throne from 1917 to 19]6. As a )'<lung man, Fouad had accompanied his fa· ther, I~md'il, in his exile to Italy, where he finished his education at the military academy, after whil:h he was appointed I'lrtl1lel)' officer in the anny and later military allachc at the Turkish embassy in Vi enna.
Found's reign was characterized by his autocrat· ic approach to parliamentary life. MteT the prolll' ulgation of the 192] con~titution, he retained thc right to dismiss the government, sw;pend the con stitution, nnd dissolve Parliament. The WAFD gov ernment was rcpllleed by various authorilarian cabinets, When the constitution was restored, nego· tilltiOns with Brililin were resumed lu pave lhe way for the 1936 Anglo·Egyptian treaty,
Two major positive achievemcnts were fulfilled during King Fouad's reign: the establishment of the first Egyptian university, which rcvitali:l:cd the intel lectual life of the country; and the foundation of the Mi~r Bank in 1920, which helped to countcrbahmce the e1tcessive domination of roreign capital.
In addition to playing a prominent p.U1 in the 1919 revolution under Sa'd zaghllil. the Copts were active in the political and parliamentary life of the
country, with such well-known nallles as MAKRAM
EBEID and WISSA WASSEF. They found conditions fa· vorable for pursuing social and cultural activities by selling up benevolent societies and educational organizations.
Farouk I. King (1936-1952)
The last monarch of the Mu~ammad 'Ali dynasty, Farouk succeeded his father, Found, in May 1936, as a young man straight back from school in En gland. Farouk's reign coincided with various politi, cal and $OCial movementl Ihat evenrually led to the 1952 revolution. Among these may be mentioned Young Egypt (Mqr a/·FtJlfJh) and the Muslim Breth ren (a/·/khwiJn a/·!tfus!imiln), both of which adopted fascist ideologies within an Islamic fTamework. The reaction to these movementl was manifest in the formation of the shon·lived Coptic Nation Associa· tion (lamA'at al·Ummah al.Qibliyyah).
The seareh for a true Egyptian identity polarized two distinct tendencies: 10 consider Egypl as pan of the Mediterranean world, with ilS TOOtS in ancient Egyptian civilization, and to emphasize Egypt's 15 lamic past. In addition, a new current of Arab na tionalism led to the foundation of the Arab League in Mareh 1945,
In 1948 the outcome of the Palestine war dam aged Farouk's standing, and the country was seeth ing with the rumors of corruption in high places. The Cairo fire of 26 January 1952 was Ihc begin ning of a series of events that culminated in Fa rouk·s abdication and the proclamation of the Egyp tian republic,
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RA'OI' 'Af:lIIAS HAMED
MUJ:lAMMAD RAMZJ (1871-[945), Egyptian scholar. He wa~ born and educated at Ihe town of al.Man~Orllh in the Delta and latcr al llic School of Law In Cairo. [n 1892 he joined the Ministry of Finance as a clerical employee, and by 1930 he had been promOled to the position of inspector general of land taxalion. During his lung carel", he visited every region of the country, making extensive sur· veys of every town, village, hamlet, and fann. He was keenly interested in the names, history, and background of every area, which he checked and revised in the light of information given mainly by al·Maql1lJ'S KillJh al.Khi{a! (Land Survey) and 'All Mubllrak's AI·Khital al-Tawliqiyyah, as well as many medieval and modem geographers, including such French geographers as Emile Aml:lineau, Jean Mas-
pero, a·M. Quat remere, and G. Daressy. He thus became the leading authorily on Egyptian topony· my.
In 1941 he published M·Dall1 al-lllghrafi (Geo· graphical…