This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in The Physician

and Sportsmedicine on [18 May 2021] available at http://wwww.tandfonline.

com/doi.org/10.1080/00913847.2021.1931525.

The Prevalence of Pre-Conditioning and Recovery Strategies in

Senior Elite and Non-Elite Amateur Boxing.

Mitchell J. Finlay1*, Richard M. Page1, Matt Greig1 and Craig A.

Bridge1.

1Sports Injury Research Group, Sport and Physical Activity Department, Edge Hill

University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, L39 4QP, United Kingdom.

Submission type: Original research article

Title of the Article: The Prevalence of Pre-Conditioning and Recovery Strategies in

Senior Elite and Non-Elite Amateur Boxing.

Preferred running head: Pre-conditioning and Recovery Strategies in Amateur

Boxing.

Abstract word count: 296

Text-only word count: 4847

Number of figures: 2

Number of tables: 3

Abstract

Objectives: A variety of acute strategies around competition are used to prepare and

promote physical and mental restoration in athletes. However, to date no research exists

on the prevalence of such methods in amateur boxing. Therefore, this study aimed to 1)

examine the prevalence of pre-conditioning and recovery strategies in amateur boxing;

2) ascertain whether this was discriminated by competitor level.

Methods: This study surveyed 101 senior amateur boxers (Senior Elite SEB n= 59;

Senior Development SDB n= 42), on their application and perceptions of pre-

conditioning and recovery strategies.

Results: Reported findings determined a significantly greater number of SEB

performed resistance priming activity up to 48 hours prior to competition (11, 19% vs 2,

5%; P = 0.040), and post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) activity in the

pre-competition warm-up (18, 31% vs 1, 2%; P < 0.001), compared to SDB. Likewise,

SEB reported they were also significantly more likely to utilise massage (SEB 35, 59%,

SDB 11, 29%, P = 0.001) and cold-water immersion (CWI) (SEB 28, 47%, SDB 10,

29%, P = 0.016) as recovery modes, compared to their SDB counterparts.

Conclusions: This study was the first to provide data on the use of PAPE, priming and

recovery methods around amateur boxing bouts. Increased access to multi-disciplinary

staff could be expected in SEB, possibly explaining the greater prevalence of evidence-

based methods around competition. Once athlete responsiveness to PAPE and longer-

term priming methods are initially assessed, these strategies could be implemented to

improve punch-specific performance, though more research is needed on their efficacy.

Likewise, boxers could utilise evidence-based recovery modes where possible, with

increased importance during repeat-bout scenarios, such as domestic tournaments.

Coaches and practitioners may use this data to implement pre-conditioning and recovery

strategies, to optimise performance and reduce the risk of injury of amateur boxers.

Keywords: Post-activation performance enhancement, performance, fatigue, recovery,

combat, injury reduction.

Introduction

The intermittent, high intensity nature of amateur boxing demands a high level of

physical fitness, including, aerobic and anaerobic fitness, strength, power and speed

[1,2,3]. This is reflected in an increased focus on training to develop these physical

qualities close to competition [3]. For coaches and practitioners, the day of the bout and

the immediate days prior to and post-bout, can provide an opportunity to incorporate

pre-conditioning and recovery strategies that can aid or optimise sport performance

[4,5,6,7,8]. More specifically, this period may allow for a more controlled environment

for standardised practice, in the form of acute interventions [8]. Pre-conditioning

strategies can include the warm-up, passive heat maintenance, post-activation

performance enhancement (PAPE), ischemic pre-conditioning, hormonal priming and

resistance priming [8]. Likewise, athletes often partake in recovery modalities,

including but not limited to, cold-water immersion (CWI), active recovery, massage,

and acute interventions to improve sleep quality [4,5,7,9,10]. Previous literature has

shown greater rear hand punch force capabilities in elite boxers (4800 ± 277 N), when

compared to intermediates (3722 ± 133 N) and novices (2381 ± 216 N) [11]. This could

suggest that differences in technical or physical capabilities are to be expected between

competitor level. However, there is currently no data on the between-competitor level

differences in the physical preparation, in particular the pre-conditioning and recovery

strategies, of elite and non-elite amateur boxers.

The more prominent method used to acutely improve neuromuscular performance prior

to competition, is the pre-competition warm-up [12]. Typically performed following a

pulse-raiser, mobility and activation phases, the potentiate segment is responsible for

raising warm-up intensity to competition levels and inducing PAPE [12]. The PAPE

phenomena can be described as an acute increase in neuromuscular performance for up

to ~15-minutes, via prior muscle activity in responding athletes [13,14]. The exact

mechanisms responsible for PAPE remains unclear, though Blazevich and Babault [13]

suggest that it may be attributable to changes in muscle temperature and intramuscular

fluid accumulation, or neural mechanisms. Numerous forms of prior activity have been

shown to acutely improve subsequent performance, including; free weight, plyometric,

ballistic, variable resistance, resisted sprints and isometric activity [14,15]. The typically

small area given to the amateur boxing for the pre-bout warm-up, may not logistically

allow for PAPE activity such as heavy resistance training or sprinting. A strength and

conditioning coach or sport scientist is likely to have the expertise to create logistically

feasible, and perhaps novel PAPE conditioning activities. However, access to the above

performance staff and their resources may differ between elite and non-elite boxers. An

effective punch in boxing requires rapid proximal-to-distal sequencing, culminating in

high peak fist velocities towards the target prior to impact [16,17,18]. Recent research

has demonstrated acute increases in the velocity of combat striking and throwing

techniques, following a PAPE conditioning activity comprising elastic resistance

[19,20]. This would suggest that it may also be a viable method to include in the pre-

bout warm-up to acutely improve boxing punching performance.

Another form of performing enhancing activity, though arguably the more under-

researched and less understood of the aforementioned pre-conditioning strategies, is

resistance priming. Relatively new evidence suggests that prior resistance activity may

induce a longer-term or delayed performance enhancement in responding athletes,

whereby increases in neuromuscular performance can be present for 6 – 48 hours

[6,8,21]. The activity and intensity used to induce this longer-term performance

enhancement can be similar to PAPE, albeit resistance priming sessions typically

consist of greater volume, [22] and athletes are not constrained by the competition

environment in such a way that is evident during the pre-competition warm-up.

Performance benefits following resistance priming activity are thought to be attributable

to changes in both hormonal status and neuromuscular mechanisms [6,8,21]. Previous

literature has shown this strategy to be prevalent in a team setting and select individual

sports, [22] though no study has yet explored the prevalence in combat sports. Whilst a

resistance priming session is generally of high intensity, the overall volume load would

not induce the levels of fatigue that a typical strength and power session would, [6]

therefore suggesting its appropriate inclusion as a novel pre-conditioning strategy in

amateur boxers. Again, the prevalence of such resistance-based methods in elite and

non-elite boxers, may differ according to the access to performance staff and their

resources.

Post-activity is also a window of opportunity whereby subsequent performance can

potentially be improved via acute recovery methods. The intermittent and high intensity

activity profile of amateur boxing, [1] induces a significant biomechanical,

physiological, psychological and hormonal demand [2,23,24]. Combat athletes may

experience inflammation and muscle soreness, temporary reduction in muscular force

production and an increased risk of injury up to 24 hours post-combat [25,26]. Such

demands emphasise the importance of recovery strategies within the sport. When

considering that finalists in domestic amateur boxing championships may compete in 3

bouts in as many days, [27] these demands are potentially exacerbated [28]. Common

recovery strategies used by team sport athletes include, but is not limited to, massage,

cold-water immersion, supplementation, compression garments, active recovery and

many more [4]. However, to the authors best knowledge, only a single study has

provided data on the prevalence of such recovery modes in combat sport athletes,

unfortunately this did not include boxers [7]. Nevertheless, that particular study

presented a variety of popular recovery modes completed by combat athletes, including

sauna use, massage, cryotherapy and active recovery-based activity. A more thorough

analysis of the recovery modes used by combat athletes is required, specifically related

to amateur boxers. This information could be useful for the practitioner and coach, in

designing effective and evidence-based recovery strategies following training or

competitive bouts. Furthermore, an exploration into whether there is a disconnect

between the recovery practices of more elite boxers, and non-elite boxers, may provide

interesting comparisons. It is likely that full-time amateur boxers, or those on national

team scholarships, would almost certainly have increased access to multi-disciplinary

support, at no financial detriment. Potential implications include informing future

intervention research, or incentivising the design of more accessible strategies and

opportunities, across all competitor levels. Moreover, findings from this study could

highlight whether the contemporary evidence on pre-conditioning and recovery

strategies, is reaching the amateur boxer.

The aims of this study therefore, are twofold; (1) to use survey-based research

previously utilised in the literature [29,30] to examine the prevalence of pre-

conditioning and recovery strategies in amateur boxing; (2) to compare differences in

strategies between senior elite (SEB) and senior development (SDB) boxers. It was

hypothesised that there would be a greater reported application of pre-conditioning and

recovery strategies in SEB, compared to their SDB counterparts.

Methods

Experimental approach

This study utilised an online self-administered survey to examine the application and

perceptions of pre-conditioning and recovery strategies in amateur boxers.

Subjects

Both SEB (n=59; Mean ± SD age 20 ± 3 yrs; mass 71.5 ± 9.7 kg; training experience 7

± 2 yrs ) and SDB (n=42 Mean ± SD age 21 ± 4; mass 69. 4 ± 9.9 ; training experience

6 ± 2 yrs) completed the survey. The total of 101 survey completions translated to a

completion rate of 88%. All boxers were >18 y.o and carded with their respective

governing body. Boxers were defined as SEB if they had previously competed at their

respective National Elite Championships, and SDB were defined as those who had not.

All boxers were informed of the benefits and risks of participating by reading the

accompanied information on the study procedures, and providing written informed

consent prior to completing the survey. The survey was administered during the 2019-

2020 boxing season. Ethical approval for this study was provided by the University’s

Research Ethics Committee and was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki

Declaration.

Procedures

The survey “Pre-conditioning and Recovery Strategies in Amateur Boxing” was

produced with Google forms software (Google, US), and was accessed voluntarily and

anonymously via an open weblink. Participants were recruited via social media

advertisements linking to the open weblink and in person during visits to boxing gyms

in the North of England. The suitability and content validity [31] of the questionnaire

was initially pilot tested by a 6 person advisory group comprising licensed boxers and

coaches (England Boxing), accredited S&C coaches (UKSCA) and sport scientists (PhD

and MRes). All questions were assessed for relevance, clarity, simplicity and ambiguity,

and subsequently ranked via the content validity index (I-CVI) described in detail by

Vazquez-Espino et al. [32]. All questions received an I-CVI rating of 0.86 with the

exception of one question that received a rating 0.67. As such, revisions were made to

the terminology and format of the specific question, until agreement was reached that

the I-CVI rating was now 0.78. This process also provided an opportunity for the

advisory group to assess the suitability of the questionnaire. As such, minor changes to

the wording and terminology of text throughout the survey were made upon agreement

of the advisory group. Of the 16-item survey, 14 were multiple-choice, with answers

based on the experiences of the advisory group. Questions pertaining to the rationale of

recovery mode choices, and the potential negative consequences of tournament-style

amateur boxing, were open-ended questions. Thus, a thematic analysis process was

followed, described in a following section. The final survey comprised 3 sections, as

below, with participants required to answer each question.

Survey sections

To increase the clarity of the questions, contemporary definitions and key terminology

of pre-conditioning and recovery strategies were adapted and provided at each section

of the survey. Specifically, PAPE was described as resistance activity performed in the

pre-competition warm-up, to elicit a delayed enhancement of neuromuscular

performance. Resistance priming was described as resistance activity performed up to

48 hours prior to competition, to elicit a delayed potentiation of neuromuscular

performance. A recovery strategy was described as activity performed with the aim of

promoting physical and psychological recovery from training or competition.

Background information

Boxers initially provided background information on their boxing experience and

competitor level, for classification purposes.

Application of pre-conditioning activity prior to competition

This section comprised boxers detailing their resistance priming activity up to 48 hours

prior to competition (48 hours, 24 hours and bout day), and also the activity performed

in the pre-competition warm-up.

Perception and application of recovery methods from training and competition

This section comprised boxers detailing their typical rest durations and application of

recovery modes (sports massage, CWI, mobility, supplementation, active recovery,

training load monitoring. Boxers were also asked whether they actively sought ≥ 7

hours sleep [10]. Lastly, boxers provided their rationale for recovery choices, and their

perceptions of repeat-bout performance.

Statistical analyses

Regarding the open-ended questions, a 6-stage thematic analysis process [33] was

performed. This comprised; data familiarization, generating initial codes, searching for

themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and lastly producing the report.

Using the rationale for recovery choice as an example, long narrative text was analysed

and coded, prior to identifying and reviewing patterns in the data. The themes were then

defined, in this instance, as coach or practitioner preference, cost efficiency, time, own

experience and available equipment/facilities. A selection of the categorical questions

were of a nominal nature and analysed via chi-square tests for association [34]. In

instances where expected cell frequencies were less than 5, a Fischer’s exact test was

performed as an alternative [34]. These tests were selected to determine possible

differences in pre-conditioning and recovery practices between the two competitor

levels. Significance level was set at P < 0.05, and Phi (φ) was consulted to determine

the strength of associations in the instance of a statistically significant difference found

in the chi-square tests [34]. Where applicable, percentages of the differences between

both groups for multiple choice and open-ended questions, were also provided for

comparison.

Results

Resistance priming

As identified in table 1, there was a statistically significant association between

competitor level and the reported completion of resistance priming activity (χ2(1) =

4.216, P = 0.040, φ = 204), demonstrating a greater prevalence in SEB (19%), when

compared to their SDB counterparts (5%). A small minority of all boxers (13%)

reported performing resistance priming activity in the 48 hours prior to competition,

highlighting the low overall application.

**Table 1 about here**

Warm-up activity

As identified in figure 1, there were statistically significant associations between

competitor level and the reported completion of several warm-up activities (PAPE

activity, χ2(1) = 12.709, P < 0.0005, φ = .355; activation activity, χ2(1) = 7.499, P =

0.006, φ = .272; shadow boxing, χ2(1) = 4.499, P = 0.034, φ = .211). These results

indicated a greater application in SEB when compared to SDB. There were no

statistically significant associations between competitor level and all other warm-up

activities (dynamic stretching χ2(1) = .011, P = 0.917; static stretching χ2(1) = .023, P =

0.880; mobility χ2(1) = 1.622, P = 0.203; pad-based activity χ2(1) = .121, P = 0.727). A

majority of all boxers (97%) reported performing pad-based activity in their pre-

competition warm-up routine, followed by shadow boxing (77%), dynamic stretching

(71%), static stretching (60%), mobility (57%), activation work (37%), PAPE (19%),

and other (1%).

**Insert figure 1 about here**

Recovery

As identified in table 2, there were no significant differences between competitor level

and periods of recovery post-training session, and post-bout. A majority of all boxers

(84%) reported typical rest durations of 24 hours between training sessions, with 16%

resting between 25 – 48 hours between training sessions, suggesting a boxers training

schedule is demanding. Slightly less than half of all boxers (49%) reported rest-periods

of 25 – 48 hours post-bout before recommencing training, followed by 49 – 72 hours

(34%) and both 24 hours and >72 hours (9%).

**Insert table 2 about here**

As identified in table 3, SEB reported significantly greater use of sports massage (χ2(1)

= 10.859, P < 0.001, φ = .328) and CWI (χ2(1) = 5.846, P < 0.016, φ = .241) compared

to SDB during a typical week. Table 3 shows there were no statistically significant

associations between competitor level and all other recovery modes during a typical

week, and post-bout. More than half of all boxers (59%) stated they actively sought ≥ 7

hours sleep during a typical week, with sports massage being the prefered recovery

mode (46%), followed by CWI (38%), mobility (37%), supplementation (37%) active

recovery (32%) and TL monitoring (23%). There were no statistically significant

associations between competitor level and all recovery modes post-bout. Half of all

boxers (50%) stated they sought ≥ 7 hours sleep, whilst supplementation was the

preferred choice of post-bout recovery (28%), followed by mobility (20%), sports

massage (18%), CWI (14%) and active recovery (9%).

**Insert table 3 about here**

There was a statistically significant association between competitor level and the

reported rationale for choosing recovery mode being influenced by ‘coach or

practitioner preference’ (χ2(1) = 4.652, P = 0.031, φ = .215). This demonstrated SEB

were more likely to follow staff advice (31, 53%), when compared to SDB (13, 31%).

There was no statistically significant association between competitor level and all other

reasons for recovery mode choice (own experience SEB 30, 51% SDB 22, 52% χ2(1)

= .023, P = 0.879; cost efficiency SEB 14, 24% SDB 13, 31% χ2(1) = .654, P = 0.419;

time SEB 12, 20% SDB 10, 24% χ2(1) = .173, P = 0.677; available equipment/facilities

SEB 16, 27% SDB 9, 21% χ2(1) = .882, P = 0.348). Own experience (whereby athletes

were not influenced by a coach or practitioner) was the most common answer amongst

all boxers (51%), followed by coach or practitioner preference (44%), cost efficiency

(27%), time (22%), available equipment (24%) and other (2%).

There was a statistically significant association between competitor level and the

reported completion of repeat-bout scenarios across consecutive days (χ2(1) =

14.231, P < 0.001; φ = .375), demonstrating a greater exposure of repeat-bout scenarios

in SEB (49, 83%) when compared to SDB (20, 48%). More than half of all boxers

(68%) had reported competing in repeat-bout scenarios of multiple bouts across

consecutive days, such as domestic tournaments. Those who did compete in this format,

stated typically did so once a season (54%), whilst a smaller percentage of boxers did so

twice (29%) and three times in a season (16%).

**Insert figure 2 about here**

As identified in figure 2, no statistically significant differences were found between

competitor level and all perceived negative consequences to repeat-bout scenarios

(fatigue and tiredness χ2(1) = .748, P = .387; injury risk χ2(1) = .151, P = 0.698; under-

performance χ2(1) = .236, P = 0.267; psychologically challenging χ2(1) = .133, P =

0.715; no perceived negative consequences χ2(1) = .001, P = 0.979). A majority of all

boxers (71%) stated they perceived there to be negative factors to performance in

repeat-bout scenarios, with fatigue and tiredness being the most frequent choice (57%),

followed by injury risk (48%), under-performance (31%), psychologically challenging

(21%). In contrast, (29%) of all boxers stated they did not have any negative perceptions

of performance in repeat-bout scenarios.

Discussion

The study sought to examine the prevalence of pre-conditioning and recovery practices

applied by amateur boxers around competition. Additionally, this study aimed to

determine potential differences between elite and more novice competitiors. In support

of the studies hypothesis, a greater prevalence of pre-conditioning strategies in the form

of acute and delayed performance enhancement methods, were reported in SEB when

compared to SDB Likewise, there was a greater reported application of CWI and

massage as acute recovery modes in SEB, compared to SDB. Reported findings showed

that a significantly greater percentage of SEB (31%) included PAPE activity in their

warm-up compared to SDB (2%), although only 19% of all boxers regularly included

this as part of their pre-competition warm-up. The PAPE phenomena is a more well-

researched and applied method compared to resistance priming [13,14,15]. As such,

although a low application was hypothesised, the extent to which the method is not

applied, particularly in SDB, is surprising. However, this may offer a novel application

to this type of athlete. The particularly low reporting of PAPE activity in SDB,

compared to SEB, could be partly explained by a lack of knowledge or access to

expertise in non-funded athletes. The activity type and intensity used to induce PAPE is

similar to that of resistance priming activity, though volume is typically greater in the

latter.[6] Improved sprinting, jumping, throwing and striking performance have been

reported following PAPE activity [14,15,19,20]. Throwing and hitting sports comprise

loosely similar kinetic sequencing to that found in punching, [16,17] which could

suggest an acute PAPE conditioning activity may influence subsequent punch-specific

performance. The production and dissemination of research specific to boxing may be

needed, if this strategy is to be adopted more widespread in the sport.

There are many logistical barriers to implementing traditional free-weight PAPE

conditioning activities in an amateur boxing competition environment which may

explain the low prevalence, including; travel, inadequate warm-up facilities and

equipment, or a lack of qualified performance staff. However, recent research in combat

sports have successfully utilised elastic resistance to achieve an acute performance

enhancement [19,20] perhaps due to the movement specificity, or mechanical

similarities, between the PAPE activity and the sporting action [14,15]. This alternative

method has potential to alleviate the conventional barriers to implementing PAPE

activity close to boxing competition. Considering the acute benefits of PAPE on athletic

performance, [13,14] amateur boxers could consider utilising the more accessible and

movement-specific methods to induce PAPE during the warm-up [19,20].

As shown in figure 1, nearly all boxers completed dynamic stretching; however, over

half of boxers also completed static stretching in the warm-up. In recent years, static

stretching has been associated with decreased maximal voluntary strength and

performance in jumping and sprinting tasks [35]. A greater percentage of SEB

performed activation and mobility exercise in comparison to their more novice

counterparts, aimed at activating key muscle groups and mobilising joints [12]. There is

seemingly an emphasis on movement quality and task-specific activity in an amateur

boxers warm-up; however, greater consideration to PAPE activity could acutely

improve performance.

This study was also concerned with resistance priming activity performed in the days

prior to amateur boxing competition to induce a delayed performance enhancement.

Table 2 demonstrated that despite the developing evidence on resistance priming, [6]

and it’s ability to induce a delayed performance enhancement, only 19% of SEB and 5%

of SDB reported performing this activity in the 6 – 48 hours prior to a bout. Research in

team sports has shown that various forms of resistance activity performed in the days

prior to competition, can elicit neuromuscular performance benefits via a delayed

potentiation, thought to last between 6 – 48 hours [6,8,21,36]. This includes, but is not

limited to, free-weight, plyometric, ballistic and elastic resistance activity [6]. Whilst

there is no clear knowledge of the mechanisms involved in resistance priming inducing

a longer-term and delayed performance enahancement, it is currently understood that

hormonal status and neuromuscular mechanisms contribute [8,21,22]. There was a low

application of resistance priming reported by boxers in the current study, compared to

that reported in team sports (59%) [22]. Again, this could be attributed to a limited

understanding of the potential benefits of such methods, or a lack of access to the

expertise of practitioners. This could also explain the increased likelihood of SEB

completing resistance priming activity compared to SDB. Other factors could include

weight-making strategies taking precedence over other targeted training adaptations

during bout-week [37]. Additionally, there is limited research to consult that is boxing-

specific for the technical coach, or the athlete themselves. Resistance training in general

has traditionally received a mixed reception in boxing, due to long-standing myths and

negative associations with such methods in relation to boxing performance [38]

Considering recent evidence that a resistance priming session may be an efficient pre-

conditioning tool to improve neuromuscular performance, [6] amateur boxers could

adopt this method to possibly improve boxing performance. It must be noted that

responders and non-responders to PAPE and priming activity exist due to a number of

modulating factors, therefore suggesting a greater need for an individualised approach

[14]. Additionally, greater research on resistance priming in a boxing-specific

population is needed to justify the use of this method within the sport.

This study also explored the recovery practices of amateur boxers post-training and

competition. No significant differences between groups were observed for all rest

periods. Amateur boxers in England train throughout the boxing season (September –

May) and compete several times per year, in either single bouts, or repeat-bout

competitions [27]. A majority of all boxers typically had 24 hours rest in-between

training sessions excluding double training days, and between 25-48 hours post-

competition. The mechanisms of muscle recovery can last up to 72 hours post-exercise,

with performance detriment evident for up to 48 hours post-exercise [39]. Specific to

combat sports, increased inflammation and muscle damage have been found 10-mins

post-competitive boxing,[40] whilst muscle damage and physiological stress biomarkers

such as creatine kinase and protein myoglobin have been shown up to 24 hours post

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) activity [25,26]. However, a need exists to consider such

time-courses in future boxing research. This could be of particular importance when

considering the proportion of boxers in this study who compete in repeat-bout scenarios

where the physical demands would be intensified, [28] thus having implications for

tournaments such as national boxing championships. Indeed, boxers of both competitor

levels in this study similarly report fatigue or tiredness and injury risk as the more

negative factors associated with repeat-bout scenarios. The short recovery window

between training sessions, and between bouts in tournaments, suggest implementing

effective recovery strategies could be important to success.

Whilst there were no differences in the rest periods post-training or post-bout between

groups, there were differences in some of the recovery modes chosen. Reported findings

suggested SEB were significantly more likely to use massage to assist in the recovery

from training and competition. Similarly, SEB reported significantly greater use of CWI

compared to their SDB counterparts. Again, this could be due to boxers of a greater

level having more access to equipment and expertise of performance staff. Previous

literature is inconclusive on the performance and physiological restoration benefits of

sport massage and CWI. Some authors have suggested that both recovery modes appear

to be more effective at increasing the perception of recovery and DOMS, rather than

actual performance benefits and physiological restoration [41-43]. In contrast, other

authors have suggested decreased inflammation and promotion of mitochondrial

biogenesis occurs post-massage recovery intervention, [44] and that performance in

neuromuscular tests is improved post continuous and intermittent CWI protocols [5].

Though some recovery benefits following isolated activity and subsequent performance

post-CWI may exist, this method may even blunt desirable long-term physiological

adaptations when used too routinely [42]. Whilst the literature is not in agreement on

the performance and physiological restoration benefits of massage and CWI, they may

be suitable options for amateur boxers in the perceptions of recovery from training and

competition, particularly as an acute intervention during repeat-bout scenarios. This

study found ~40% of both groups of boxers did not have a minimum of 7 hours sleep,

the minimum recommendation (7 – 9 hours)for athletes [10]. It is possible that athletes

could experience poor sleep quality or sleep deprivation due to nervousness about

competition, overtraining or unusual surroundings and travel [9,10]. Interventions such

as reducing electronic device usage in the evenings and taking short naps, are evidence-

based methods that could be used to improve sleep quality, and thus improve athletic

performance and reduce injury [9,10].

Mobility activity was similar between both groups (SEB 22, 36%; SDB 10, 24%),

whilst SEB were more likely to complete active recovery sessions compared to SDB,

although this was not significant. The ergogenic effects of supplementation such as

caffeine and sodium bicarbonate on single and repeat-bout combat performance and

recovery has been researched [45,46]. In this study, supplementation was not

significantly different between groups, despite previous qualitative research suggesting

more novice level boxers could be more likely to be discouraged from using

supplements by their boxing coaches [47]. Interestingly, when boxers in this current

study were asked which factors influenced their choice of recovery modes, SEB were

significantly more likely to follow their coach or practitioner preference, when

compared to SDB. This may be due to the coaches being part of a multi-disciplinary

team of practitioners, thus, being more knowledgeable or trusting of evidence-based

methods. Approximately half of both groups of boxers chose recovery methods due to

their own preference, whilst other factors that did not differ significantly between

groups included cost and time efficiency, and available equipment and facilities.

Although non-significant, it is perhaps unsurprising that a greater number of SDB chose

cost and time compared to SEB, due to the inclusion of funded and full-time athletes in

the SEB group. Further education on the benefits of the above acute recovery

interventions is required in amateur boxing, so that boxers can make informed choices

on effective strategies supported by scientific evidence.

Limitations of the study

The authors acknowledge the possible differences in self-reported information,

compared to the objective measurement of variables [48]. Further, as highlighted by

Altaribba-Bartes et al. [4] respondents may not always report accurate information,

potentially due to the fear of scrutiny of individual or boxing club practices. To

minimise this potential issue, the survey in this present study ensured all responses were

submitted anonymously. An additional limitation of the current study is the lack of a

priori power calculation in choosing the study sample size. The authors aimed to include

>100 respondents, based on previous survey-based studies in this area [7,30].

Conclusions

This study found a lack of PAPE and priming activity performed prior to amateur

boxing competition, although this activity was more prevalent in SEB compared to

SDB. Similarly, SEB reported a significantly greater prevalence of massage and CWI

recovery modes in comparison to SDB, yet evidence-based techniques were overlooked

in some instances across all boxers. The differences between competitor level could be

largely attributed to the increased likelihood of access to education, expertise and

resources of performance staff in SEB. These findings suggest that PAPE, priming and

evidence-based recovery modes could be adopted to enhance boxing-performance and

recovery from single and repeat-bout scenarios. Greater dissemination of scientific

research is required to reach the amateur boxer and boxing coach, who may not have

access to performance staff. This current study, therefore, provides contextual

information and recommendations that could be implemented in an amateur boxers

physical preparation, around competition.

Practical applications

This present study is the first to explore the prevalence of pre-conditioning and recovery

strategies within an amateur boxing cohort. The findings suggest boxers may be missing

out on evidence-based methods to enhance their performance, both acutely in the warm-

up to a bout, and more longer-term in the days prior to a bout. Likewise, the results

show boxers may benefit from post-bout recovery strategies to optimise recovery, and

subsequent repeat-bout performance. Both areas are likely to offer novel and effective

interventions for the amateur boxer, particularly in those who do not have access to

multi-disciplinary staff through scholarships and national teams. Thus, athletes and their

coaches should identify and implement some of the recommendations in the study or

seek the assistance of a clinical or performance practitioner. For the practitioner, the

results of this study show an opportunity to positively impact the performance of an

athlete cohort, through the implementation of evidence-based interventions.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the amateur boxers who completed the survey, and the

coaches and practitioners who assisted in the promotion of the survey.

Conflict of interests

The authors report no conflict of interests relevant to the content of this manuscript, and

that no funding or grants were received.

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Figure legend

Figure 1: Percentage of boxers who regularly performed warm-up activity, according to

competitor level. *denotes significant difference between groups (P .005).

Figure 2: Percentage of boxers who shared negative perceptions of repeat-bout

scenarios.

SEB (n) (%) SDB (n) (%) χ2 p-value φ

48hrs 6 10% 2 5% - - -

24hrs 5 8% 0 0% - - -

Competition

day0 0% 0 0% - - -

Total 11 19% 2 5% 4.216 .040* .204

Table 1 Resistance priming activity performed up to 48hrs prior to competition, according to competitor level.

Typical rest

periodSEB (n) (%) SDB (n) (%) χ2 p-value

Between training

sessions≤24hrs 52 88% 33 79% - -

25 – 48

hrs7 12% 9 21% 1.683 .194

Post-bout 24hrs 4 7% 5 12% - .484

25 – 48

hrs30 51% 19 45% 309 .578

49 – 72

hrs22 37% 12 29% .835 .361

>72hrs 3 5% 6 14% - .158

*denotes a significant difference between competitor level (p .005).

Table 2 Typical rest durations between training sessions, and post-single bout prior to recommencing training, according to competitor level.

Table 3 Recovery modes regularly performed by boxers during a typical training week, and post-bout, according to competitor level

Typical SEB (n) (%) SDB (n) (%) χ2 p-value φ

≥ 7hrs Sleep 37 63% 23 60% .643 .423 -

Supplementation 20 34% 13 31% .097 .756 -

TL monitoring 13 22% 10 24% .044 .834 -

Sports massage 35 59% 11 29% 10.859 .001* .328

CWI 28 47% 10 29% 5.846 .016* .241

Mobility 21 36% 16 38% .066 .792 -

Active recovery 22 37% 10 24% 2.059 .151 -

Post-bout

≥ 7hrs Sleep 27 46% 23 55% .795 .373 -

Supplementation 17 29% 11 26% .084 .772 -

Sports massage 14 24% 4 10% 3.380 .066 -

CWI 7 12% 7 17% .474 .491 -

Mobility 9 15% 11 26% 1.848 .174 -

Active recovery 6 10% 3 7% .277 .599 -

TL – Training load. CWI -Cold water immersion. *denotes significant difference between competitor level (p .005)

Figure 1 Percentage of boxers who regularly performed warm-up activity, according to competitor level. *denotes significant difference between groups (p .005).

Figure 2 Percentage of boxers who shared negative perceptions of repeat-bout scenarios.