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Technical papers in hydrology 13

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The Unesco Press

A contribution to the International Hydrological Decade

Technical papers in hydrology 13

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In this series:

1 Perennial Ice and Snow Masses. A Guide for Compilation and Assemblage of Data for a World Inventory.

2 Seasonal Snow Cover. A Guide for Measurement, Compilation and Assemblage of Data.

3 Variations of Existing Glaciers. A Guide to International Practices for their Measurement.

4 Antarctic Glaciology in the International Hydrological Decade.

5 Combined Heat, Ice and Water Balances at Selected Glacier Basins. A Guide for Compilation and Assemblage of Data for Glacier Mass Balance Measurements.

of Contents of Selected Textbooks. 6 Textbooks on hydrology-Analyses and Synoptic Tables

7 Scientific Framework of World Water Balance. 8 Flood Studies-an International Guide for Collection and

9 Guide to World Inventory of Sea, Lake and River Ice. Processing of Data.

10 Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology. 11 Teaching Aids in Hydrology. 12 Ecology of Water Weeds in the Neotropics. 13 The Teaching of Hydrology.

A contribution to the In tern at ion al Hydro logical Decade

n

The Unesco Press Paris 1974

The selection and presentation of material and the opinions expressed in this publication are the responsibility of the authors concerned, and do not necessarily reflect the views of Unesco. Nor do the designations employed or the presentation of the material imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of any country or territory.

Published by the Unesco Press, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Printed by Union Typographique

ISBN 92-3-101168-5 French edition: 92-3-201168-9

Q Unesco 1974 Printed in France

Preface

The International Hydrological Decade (IHD) 1965-74 was launched by the General Conference of Unesco at its thirteenth session to promote international co-operation in research and studies and the training of specialists and technicians in scientific hydrology. Its purpose is to enable all countries to make a fuller assessment of their water resources and a more rational use of them as man’s demands for water constantly increase in face of developments in population, industry and agriculture. In 1974 Natonal Committees for the Decade had been formed in 107 of Unesco’s 131 Member States to carry out national activities and to contribute to regional and international activities within the programme of the Decade. The implementation of the programme is super- vised by a Co-ordinating Council, composed of thirty Member States selected by the General Conference of Unesco, which studies proposals for developments of the programme, recommends projects of interest to all or a large number of countries, assists in the devdop- ment of national and regional projects and co-ordinates international co-operation.

Promotion of collaboration in developing hydrological research techniques, diffusing hydrological data and planning hydrological installations is a major fea- ture of the programme of the I H D which encompasses all aspects of hydrological studies and research. Hydro- logical investigations are encouraged at the national, regional and international level to strengthen and to improve the use of natural resources from a local and a global perspective. The programme provides a means for countries well advanced in hydrological research to exchange scientific views and for developing countries to benefit from this exchange of information in elaborat- ing research projects and in implementing recent devel-

opments in the planning of hydrological installations. As part of Unesco’s contribution to the achieve-

ment of the objectives of the IHD, the General Con- ference authorized the Director-General to collect, exchange and disseminate information concerning research on scientific hydrology and to facilitate contacts between research workers in this lield. To this end Unesco has initiated two collections of publications: ‘Studies and Reports in Hydrology’ and ‘Technical Papers in Hydrology’.

The collection ‘Technical Papers in Hydrology’ is intended to provide a means for the exchange of information on hydrological techniques and for the co- ordination of research and data collection.

The acquisition, transmission and processing of data in a manner permitting the intercomparison of results is a prerequisite to efforts to co-ordinate scientific projects within the framework of the IHD. The exchange of information on data collected throughout the world requires standard instruments, techniques, units of measure and terminology in order that data from all areas will be comparable. Much work has been done already towards international standardization, but much remains to be done even for simple measurements of basic factors such as precipitation, snow cover, soil moisture, streamflow, sediment transport and ground- water phenomena.

It is hoped that the guides on data collection and compilation in specific areas of hydrology to be published in this collection will provide means whereby hydrologists may standardize their records of observations and thus facilitate the study of hydrology on a world-wide basis.

Contents

Foreword 9

1 Some remarks on the functions of the hydrologist

2 Diverse approaches to teaching hydrology 2.1 Reasons for the diversity 2.2 Principles

3 Levels in teaching hydrology 3.1 Research hydrologists an'd professors 3.2 Professional hydrologists 3.3 Hydrological technicians and auxiliary

personnel

4 The role of hydrology in various study programmes 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Major fields in which a general course in

hydrology is offered

5 Educational systems for teaching hydrology 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Special features of some educational systems

6 Technical-assistance policies 6.1 The need for planning 6.2 The creation of new institutions 6.3 Forms of aid 6.4 Affiliations between institutes in different

countries

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11 11 11

13 13 13

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16 16

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25 25 25

30 30 30 31

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9

Foreword

The Co-ordinating Council of the International Hydro- logical Decade (IHD), considering that hydrological education is one of the most important activities carried out within the I H D , established a Working Group on Education and Training in Hydrology with the main task of strengthening hydrological education in all parts of the world. In this connexion, the working group studied the education of hydrologists as it is undertaken in different countries and considered effective programmes suitable for international use. During the discussions held by the working group on this subject, it became apparent that approaches to the teaching of hydrology vary from country to country, that ‘hydrology’ is not clearly defined, and that the contents of the various subjects which make up a hydrological course also differ greatly.

In order to assess the methods used for teaching hydrology, the working group undertook a careful examination of hydrological topics, of the literature available on hydrology, of curricula and syllabi being used in hydrology courses, and of the training aids available. The material was collected, evaluated and summarized in four Unesco publications: Textbooks in Hydrology (vol. I and II), Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology, and Teaching Aids in Hydrology.

These publications offer valuable material on specific aspects of hydrological education for those who teach hydrology or organize new teaching activities. However, the working group considered that there was still a need for a publication giving a general review of hydrological teaching. The present technical paper, in

which basic methodological concepts are presented, together with specific subjects that were not covered in the other publications, is designed to meet this need and thus complements the previous publications.

The paper was compiled by the IHD secretariat on the basis of the reports of the first and second sessions of the IHD Working Group on Education, and particularly on a paper ‘Manpower Requirements, Train- ing and Research’, by Professor L. J. Mostertman, Unesco Consultant for the United Nations Panel of Experts on Water Resources Development Policies, Buenos Aires, 1970. Sections of the paper that were provided by individual members of the working group or by individual authors bear the names of their res- pective authors. The draft was approved by the working group at its fifth session in April 1973, with the following members and observers participating: E. Custodio (Spain), A. Dembele (Mali), J. Dvorak (Czechoslova- kia), J. S. Gandolfo (Argentina), W . L. Moore (United States), L. J. Mostertman (Netherlands), J. Sircoulon (France), K. Stelczer (Hungary), M. R. Tarafdar (Bang- ladesh), D. Tonini (Italy), S. J. Vartazarov (U.S.S.R.), J. Nemec (World Meteorological Organization), M. W. Terentiev (World Meteorological Organization), H. W. Underhill (Food and Agriculture Organization) and W . H. Gilbrich (Unesco).

A review of the manuscript was undertaken by an ad hoc panel which met in Paris in August 1973. This panel consisted of W . L. Moore (United States), L. J. Mostertman (Netherlands), M. R. Tarafdar (Bang- ladesh) and W. H. Gilbrich (Unesco).

1 Some remarks on the functions of the hydrologist

Water resources schemes are now increasingly considered as integrated systems and consequently, civil engineers, geologists, agricultural engineers and hydraulic engineers engaged in planning and design no longer work in isolation. During the planning phase, it is indispensable to ensure the collaboration of a team which, besides engineers and scientists, may also include sociologists, geographers, economists, political scientists and representatives of rural and urban planning authorities. Even for the technical aspects of his task, the engineer woirks as a member of a team which may include physicists, mathematicians, meteorologists, bio- logists and economists. As a general rule, the water resources engineer will play the leading role and will be the project co-ordinator.

Hydrology, which may be defined as the science of the waters of the earth and of the behaviour of water within the hydrological cycle, as well as its relation to the environment, is an indispensable requirement for planning and design in the field of water resources development. Owing to its rapid development during the last decade, hydrology has become a fundamental science for water resources management. Never- theless, projects for river training, irrigation and drainage, hydropower, water supply, flood control and navigation are frequently executed without first carrying out an adequate programme of hydrological investigations.

Such investigations, including the collection and interpretation of data on precipitation, evapotranspiration, discharge, etc., are essential for the practical planning and design of water development schemes. The hydrologist is best qualified to undertake these tasks and should, therefore, be associated with other specialists in the planning and execution of such projects.

In spite of its important role, hydrology is not a common choice for a career, for two main reasons: (a) the hydrological profession has not yet developed a clear identity of its own, and (b) in many agencies, the career prospects for hydrologists are unoortain. The science of hydrology has developed within many different fields of study, including civil engineering, meteorology, geology, physical geography and geophysics, and it has

thus been difficult for it to emerge as a separate branch. In fact, hydrology has been established as a separate field of study in only a few of the largest and most highly developed countries.

In order to follow modern teaching programmes in hydrology, the student requires a preparatory knowledge of basic science as well as of some aspects of civil engineering, geology, geography, meteorology and agricultural engineering. Because of his knowledge of these related fields, the hydrologist may find employment in a variety of jobs. The diversity of the basic training of a hydrologist gives him flexibility and the capacity to rapidly understand and solve various types of problems. Of course, this does not mean that a hydrologist should independently undertake responsible tasks in professions that are not his own.

Since, in the organization of many water-resources agencies, hydrological tasks are performed within a wider framework of water-resources work, engineers are employed as hydrologists for only part of their time. Where this is the case, engineers and scientists are not usually trained as full-time hydrologists but provided with a sound hydrological background so that they can work as hydrologists as well as carrying out other tasks.

An attempt to compare the teaching of hydrology at various levels may encounter difficulties because of the complexity of the relations between hydrology and its allied subjects. The different approaches to teaching hydrology have led to syllabi differing in extent and depth of coverage, and consequently to personnel with differing capabilities. These differences are so numerous, and the variations are so wide both as regards principles and levels that it is not feasible to describe fully the various methods and ways of teaching hydrology, and this is reflected in the present report.

The Working Group on Education and Training in Hydrology considered drafting a model programme for hydrological education for use in universities, but decided against this course because variations in local circumstances and in approaches to the subjects taught would make the general application of a model programme impracticable.

2 Diverse approaches to teaching hydrology

2.1 Reasons for the diversity Analysis of the professional activities of a hydrologist brings to light the manifold aspects of hydrology and these must of course be reflected in hydrological education. The diversity in educational programmes is even greater than in the subject matter itself due to differences in local conditions.

The different systems for teaching hydrology follow the pattern of the existing facilities from which they emerge and also reflect the specific natural, economic, social and administrative conditions of a given country. The achievements of scientific research and the results of international programmes such as the Inter- national Hydrological Decade have also influenced the development of hydrological education. The history of the I H D is partially a history of hydrological education, and it reflects the full spectrum of educational activities undertaken under this programme.

The necessity of adapting hydrological education to particular needs and to the socio-political structure of a country is characteristic, and distinguishes hydrology from other closely related fields such as meteorology, for which teaching follows internationally accepted guidelines. The absence of such strict guidelines for hydrology is advantageous because the educational process can adjust more quickly to changing needs and available facilities. However, it then becomes difficult to compare the different teaching programmes.

The aim of this technical paper is to offer background material for the management of educational programmes. The reader will not find in these pages explicit instructions which avoid the need for study and reflec- tion. The proper answer for a given case will depend on the local needs and facilities, on the objectives, the system and level of education and also on the local social, economic and political conditions. Therefore, the working group has attempted only to summarize the experience gained in the course of its study of the teaching of hydrology and, on this basis, to present a systematic discussion. At the same time, the working group sought to develop an appropriate framework for

its technical notes1 on hydrological textbooks, curricula and syllabi, and the application of modem teaching aids.

The working group identified three main parameters which influence hydrological teaching and which are the basis of the systematic discussion which follows: (a) levels in teaching hydrology, (b) the role of hydrology in various study programmes, (c) educational systems for teaching hydrology.

2.2 Principles

This section is devoted to a discussion of the principles that are valid for all types of educational activities in hydrology. It is not possible to develop a uniform system for teaching hydrology which would be valid for all countries. Nevertheless, it is useful to identify certain principles whose application may improve the quality and increase the efficiency of teaching programmes under a wide range of local conditions.

2.2.1 PLANNING AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING

The planning of a system for teaching hydrology must start by defining the objectives. Besides the geographical features and the water resources of the country, the level and nature of the future employment of the hydrologist should be considered. In this planning process, the numbers and the educational attainments of poten- tial students will also be determining factors. Hence there should be close liaison between the planning of hydrological education and the over-all educational system, taking account of the national priorities. After a study of these factors, a written statement of objectives should be prepared.

1. Textbooks in Hydrology, Paris, Unesco, 1970. (Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 6.) Curricula and Syllabi in Hydro- logy, Paris, Unesco, 1972. (Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 10.) Teaching Aids in Hydrology, Pans, Unesco, 1972. (Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 11.)

The teaching of hydrology 12

2.2.2THE ROLE OF BASIC SUBJECTS

The choice of subject matter to be taught depends on the objectives of teaching; as remarked above, curri- ala and syllabi cannot be designed to be universally applicable. However, all future hydrologists-regardless of their eventual specialkation-need a certain basic knowledge, part of which should be acquired prior to ;their specialization in hydrology. This remark refers primarily to mathematics, physics, fluid mechanics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography and meteorology as applied to hydrology. In addition to this basic knowledge, it will be necessary to teach more advanced topics in these basic sciences during the specialized hydrology course.

2.2.3 REQUIRED LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE IN HYDROLOGY

The I H D Working Group on Education and Hydrology Training distinguished between topics which are indispensable for all hydrologists and those topics which can be added to a hydrology curriculum if circumstances warrant. A number of examples are given in CurrkuZu and Syllabi in Hydrology.

2.2.4 NEED FOR PRACTICAL TRAINING

'The teaching of most scientific disciplines requires practical training. Hydrology is no exception-on the con- trary, it is particularly well suited to practical methods. A significant part of the hydrologist's ability in the basic sciences-physics, geology, geography, etc.-and also in hydrology itself, requires practical study and experience. Theoretical study of physical processes should

be illustrated and amplified by laboratory and field work. Observations and measurements under field con-

ditions are needed not only to demonstrate the principles but also to provide the dexterity and self- confidence needed. The future hydrologist should have some experience, in selecting a site for a gauging sation. Exercises in prospecting for ground water by geophysical methods and in the use of isotopes in hydrology are also very desirable. Hydrological training institutions should have access to a hydrometric and meteorological field station and to a representative or experimental basin equipped for training purposes. This type of practical training is otten easier to conceive than to organize and carry out. The same applies to the demonstration of hydrological instruments, to measurement methods and to data treatment.

Some hydrological phenomena cannot be demonstrated economically in their natural dimensions. Several processes in river-bed morphology, for example, can best be shown in small-scale models.

Phenomena that cannot be observed readily owing to their scale, to their very rapid or very slow rate of change or to their poor reproducibility can be studied with the aid of films. Additional advantages are that students may ask for specific scenes to be repeated for later study. The best methods of using such films deserve exploration as also does the making of films specially adapted to the needs of teaching.

Slides, charts, schematic drawings-and in particular hydrological maps-are important aids to the visualization of concepts. Training institutions should have access also to a collection of hydrological, geological, topographical, pedological and hydromietrical maps, together with records of meteorological and hydrometrical observational data.

Details of these teaching aids are described in the Unesco publication Teaching Aids in Hydrology.

3 Levels in teaching hydrology

A n educational programme should follow closely the manpower requirements of the branch of activity that will employ its graduates. Hydrological personnel are needed at four main levels: research hydrologists, professional hydrologists, hydrological technicians and auxiliary personnel. The role of the research hydrologist is to develop new techniques of observation and to undertake basic studies of a scientific nature. The professional hydrologist at university level is needed for the study of hydrological phenomena relevant to the design, construction and operation of water resources schemes. Teachers of hydrology may be selected from either the research or the professional level. Hydrolo- gical technicians are needed to conduct measurements and process observed data, for which they usually apply only standard methods and techniques. Other auxiliary hydrological personnel (observers) are employed for reading instruments and for the maintenance of instruments and field stations.

The range of the subjects taught increases with the educational level, and reaches its maximum in the case of the professional hydrologist. At higher levels there is also a greater need for elective subjects.

The above definition of levels is similar to that ganerally accepted for meteorological personnel; in hydrology the levels are not defined so strictly, they are not applied in such a rigid manner and they have fewer implications for the careers of the persons concerned.

3.1 Research hydrologists and professors

Hydrological research is not usually restricted to professional hydrologists but is also undertaken by scientists with various backgrounds-civil engineers, hydraulics engineers, agricultural engineers, mathematicians, physicists and other natural-science specialists. Research workers are normally introduced to hydrology at the post-doctoral level under the guidance of a professor or of a senior scientist.

Summer training schemes and short refresher courses have proved to be effective means of imparting

to research workers a more thorough knowledge of a special subject or of recent developments. Informal seminars may be organized with research workers and hydrology professors from well-established institutions as participants. Such seminars are held at universities where modern hydrology has reached an outstanding level. The programmes include discussions on modern methods and curricula, lectures, exercises and laboratory work in different topics; the discussions also cover the newer developments in hydrology such as automatic data collection, the application of models in hydrology, etc. Experimental classes may be conducted, followed by discussions.

Similar training may be accomplished at international symposia where the latest developments in hydrology are presented. The participants learn by personal exchanges of information and experience, by field trips and visits to exhibitions, institutes and laboratories.

3.2 Professional hydrologists

At the professional level, education usually takes the form of a prescribed course of studies. However, there is no standardized or uniform pattern. A general introduction to hydrology is most frequently given as part of undergraduate curricula or specialized courses in water-resources engineering, civil engineering, agricultural engineering, geography, geology and meteorology and, in special cases, in other subjects such as agronomy and forestry. Hydrology is thus taught within a very large number of departments in universities. The schools (universities, colleges, polytechnics, etc.) which offer courses in general hydrology or in one or all of its aspects (hydrometeorology, surface-water hydrology, ground-water hydrology, etc.) are extremely varied. The extent of the variety depends mainly on the differences among educational systems in various countries, regardless of whether they are industrially developed or not. Hydrology is also taught as part of the educational programmes in related subjects and some students may thus acquire the ability to perform simple hydrological tasks.


For more complete studies in hydrology, three different possibilities exist. The most common one consists of post-graduate studies; the others are the complete undergraduate university course, and in-service training.

A candidate for post-graduate studies should already hold a degree as a civil or agricultural engineer or, in special circumstances, a mining engineer, geologist, meteorologist or physical geographer.

Post-graduate courses are, of course, needed in many fields other than hydrology and, as a general rule, such courses are given in universities or special training institutes. As the number of specialists in many countries is too small to warrant the organization of national courses, it seemed desirable to set up international courses. Consequently, in 1962 Unesco initiated a programme to promote post-graduate courses in several sciences (mathematics, physics, geology, ecology, hydrology, etc.). In the field of hydrology, one national course functioning at that time received support from Unesco and a number of new courses were organized upon the initiative of Unesco. In 1973, Unesco-sponsored post- graduate courses in hydrology were given in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Nether- lands, Spain, United States and U.S.S.R. While some of these courses cover nearly all fields of hydrology, others concentrate on special aspects. The courses have an average duration of six months (two specialized courses are shorter; and two of the courses last eleven months). Detailed information on the subjects taught in these courses is contained in Annex IV of Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology.

At present, complete specialized undergraduate courses for the training of professional hydrologists exist in the U.S.S.R. and to some extent in other countries of Eastern Europe. Graduates are primarily employed in the State Hydrometeorological Service (GUGMS in the U.S.S.R.) and in other State water- resources services; this influences, to a certain extent, the programmes of the courses. One programme in the United States at the University of Arizona has started graduating professional hydrologists at the B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. levels. (Details of the above undergraduate courses are contained in Curricula and Syllabi in Hydro- logy (Annex 111).

Several universities in various parts of the world are considering the introduction of undergraduate programmes in hydrology. Most of these plans are still at a preliminary stage and no official detailed information is yet available. On the other hand, general trends in university education throughout the world seem to indi- cate that a high degree of specialization in undergraduate study is not desirable, except where special conditions

of employment exist. This conclusion is valid not only for highly industrialized countries but also for the developing countries where the professional hydrologist must have a broader background, generally in hydraulic, agricultural or sanitary engineering.

An undergraduate student who has taken only a general course in hydrology (as one subject of a curriculum) obviously cannot be considered a professional hydrologist. On the other hand, the natural and economic characteristics of countries differ and the full range of hydrological subjects is not required in all cases. Frimary attention may be concentrated on surface water exploitation or on ground water, coastal hydrology, etc. At the undergraduate level, a student who is later to specialize in hydrology must receive a broad education. During his undergraduate studies he might be given an introduction to hydrology and specialization may be achieved through in-service training where the student learns from older and more experienced colleagues. This method takes longer than the others and it is applicable only where a sufficient number of experienced hydrologists are available. On the other hand, the method permits the training to be completed with less intermp- tion of the hydrologist’s services to his agency.

3.3 Hydrological technicians and auxiliary personnel

The greatest manpower need in hydrology is for technicians, observers and other auxiliary personnel. Unfor- tunately, in most developing countries the existing provisions for training hydrological technicians are inadequate to cope with present needs and the expected demands.

3.3.1 TECHNICIANS

It is desirable that technicians be prepared for a number of related tasks in hydrology, rather than receive training only for specific tasks. This is particularly necessary in countries where manpower is limited or where the technician will work on his own at remote observation stations. The training of such technicians may be effected through on-the-job instruction under the super- vision of a professional hydrologist and also by means of relevant manuals and guidebooks.

At the international level, efforts so far have been concentrated on the education of university-level professional hydrologists, research hydrologists and hydrology teachers. The education of technicians and observers is an equally important task, but priority was given to

15 Levels in teaching hydrology

the training of professional hydrologists who would then be able to conduct the training at lower levels. The technician should be familiar with the procedures and methods in use in the country where he is working. The training of technicians outside their home country in a philosophy different from that of their parent service may lead to confusion and feelings of frustration upon their return. Therefore, technician training is best carried out in the country and preferably in the service in which the !technician is employed. Where the hydrological services in neighbouring countries are organized along similar lines and have adopted a similar professional philosophy, it may be advisable to organize regional courses. However, long absences from work to attend training programmes are undesirable and it is advisable to limit the total duration of the course or else to give a series of short courses.

Among other tasks, the technician will be expected to assist in the setting up and installation of measuring stations, to supervise observers and to take measurements and process the data. H e may also be responsible for calculations, for designing small facilities and for local administrative tasks.

For hydrological purposes the technician needs training in the following subjects: engineering drawing, errors in observations, principles of mapping, principles of hydraulics, general hydrometry, general hydrology and maintenance of instruments. This basic programme should be supplemented by a few other subjects according to the physical and climatic conditions of the country.

Technician trainees should have a complete secondary education, preferably technical, and during their training period they should be employed on hydrological work. The duration of a training course can then be limited to two or three months. If during the trainee’s previous education a number of basic subjects, such as mathematics, physics, meteorology, surveying and earth sciences were not covered adequately, they should be included in the programme of the course. Correspondence courses could be used to provide prior

training in these basic subjects so that, during the training course proper attention may be directed exclusively to hydrological subjects. Correspondence courses have been developed in a number of countries, particularly for mathematics and physics.

In countries with a very large water-resource service, it is possible to organize special intermediate-level training institutes for technicians. These can be attached to existing technical schools or to the hydrographical or hydrometeorological service.

Refresher courses are a necessary complement to technician training programmes. While refresher courses are needed at all levels, they are particularly important at the technician level. As a general rule, technicians have little opportunity to follow new technical developments and they may be faced with the introduction of new instruments or procedures with which they are unfamiliar. Refresher courses should be organized when- ever innovations occur and, in any case, at intervals not exceeding five years.

3.3.2 AUXILIARY PERSONNEL AND OBSERVERS

Auxiliary personnel and observers are recruited from among the vocational school leavers and are given in- service training.

During this period of on-the-job training, auxiliary personnel should acquire sufficient ability and understanding to enable them to observe hydrological phenomena accurately and objectively and to appreciate the underlying significance of their routine tasks which consist mainly of reading and maintaining hydrological instruments, in particular gauges, and maintaining the observational records. Their duties may also include simple technical office work and the plotting of hydrological diagrams. Additional auxiliary personnel are needed for repair and maintenance of instruments, water analysis and so on.

4 The role of hydrology in various study programmes

4.1 Introduction

Because water occurs naturally in many forms and places and has many uses, it is of concern to several professions. The elements of hydrology are therefore present in many different study programmes.

The I H D Working Group on Education and Train- ing in Hydrology1 listed a number of such fields with the subdivisions in which hydrology is generally taught. For the purpose of this paper, the following fields and subdivisions were selected for a more detailed discussion: (a) geophysics (meteorology); (b) civil engineering (hydraulic engineering); (c) agronomy (agricultural engineering); (d) forestry (watershed management); (e) geology (hydrogedogy); (f) geography (geomorphology); (g) sanitary engineering (water quality); (h) biology and chemistry (environmental biology and chemistry).

4.2 Major fields in which a general course in hydrology is offered

4.2.1 METEOROLOGYz

The need for introducing hydrology as a general subject in the training of meteorological personnel and the possibility of meteorological personnel specializing in the specific boundary field between meteorology and hydrology-hydrometeorology-instead of the whole field of hydrology was recognized long ago by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

In 1969, the WMO distributed among its Member States a publication entitled Guidelines for the Education and Training of Meteorological Personnel (WMO No. 258.TP. 144). The material contained in this publication is the synthesis of the work of practically all of the WMO technical commissions and a number of WMO panels and includes in addition contributions received from numerous individual scientists. The Guidelines at present contain methods of training and syllabi in the following fields: dynamic meteorology, synoptic meteo-

rology, physical meteorology, climatology, agroclimato- logy, hydrometeorology, marine meteorology and meteorological instruments.

As described in the Guidelines, meteorological personnel (including personnel working in the field of hydrometeorology) are divided into four classes. These are described briefly below: Class I: University-trained personnel with adequate education in mathematics and physics who have sucess- fully completed training in various fields of meteorology including hydrometeorology. The minimum basic educational qualification of this class of personnel is a B.Sc. degree or equivalent. There is no upper limit. Those conducting research must be Class I personnel.

Class 11: Personnel must have completed secondary school or equivalent education supplemented by additional training in mathematics and physics to a level approximating to first- or second-year university standards. They will then have at least ‘two years of full+time meteorological training. The distinction between Class I and Class I1 personnel lies not in the skills acquired but in the fund of theoretical knowledge at their disposal.

Class 111: Personnel will have received complete secondary school or equivalent education plus training in meteorology. Their main duties will be processing observational data and handling various meteorological instruments. They will also assist personnel of higher classes. The duration of their meteorological training is eight to ten months’ classroom work, plus three to four months’ on-the-job training.

Class IV: Personnel must have the minimum of nine years’ primary- and secondary-school education, plus training in meteorology. Their training permits them to observe and record various phenomena accurately and objectively, and at the same time understand and appreciate the underlying significance of their routine tasks. The duration of training is about four months’

1. Final Report of Working Group on Hydrological Education, First session, Paris, 29 November to 3 December 1965, Annex X, Table I. (Doc. Unesco/NS/204.)

2. Provided by the World Meteorological Organization.


classrom work plus three to four months’ on-the-job training.

A certain amount of training is common to all the personnel, irrespective of their fields of specialization. Therefore, when formulating the various programmes in the Guidelines a distinction was made between (a) fundamental education and @) specialization. This is described schematically in Figure 1 for Class I personnel.

A study of Figure 1 brings out the following facts: all of the Class I meteorological personnel should have an adequate knowledge of mathematics and physics- the ‘education in the basic sciences’ stage. This basic training is followed by ‘fundamental meteorological education’, a programme common to all Class I meteorological personnel. Hydrology is part of this fundamental training. Such a programme will normally lead to at least the lowest university degree (B.Sc. or equivalent). Also, at the ‘advanced training or specialization’ level, hydrometeorology, as a boundary field between meteorology and hydrology, is an important area of specialization which comprises: geomorphology and soil science; surveying; hydraulics; open channel flow, dynamics and channel processes; streamflow and hydrological calcula- tion; hydrometry; hydrological forecasts; general and special hydrogeology; principles of hydraulic engineering, water management.

These topics are also available to Class 11, Class I11 and Class IV meteorological personnel. Thus, hydrology is part of the fundamental training of these classes and hydrometeorology is a field of specialization for

meteorological personnel. Meteorologists who specialize in hydrometeorology either ‘on-the-job’ or in hydrological post-graduate courses, may work as hydrologists.

Finally, it should be noted that the Guidelines do not recommend formal courses for research workers, since their training can only be acquired through experience, personal interest and close collaboration with scientists of high repute. It is understood, however, that specialists engaged in research activities should have at least Class I training.

4.2.2 CIVIL ENGINEERING (HYDRAULIC ENG1NEERING)l

Before an attempt is made to evaluate hydrology as a subject for students in civil engineering/water management, the concept of water management should first be defined.

Water management

Water management is the application of all available knowledge to the practical development of water resources. Consequently, water management is, on the one hand, the management of material goods, physical forces and human efforts used for transforming the natural rtgime of water (hydraulic engineering).

1. By Dr K. Stelczer, Director, Research Institute for Water Resources Development, Budapest (Hungary).

EDUCATION IN THE BASIC SCIENCES

Mathematics

FUNDAMENTAL METEOROLOGICAL EDUCATION

1 Dynamic Synoptic Physical Ocean/Atmospheru 1 meteorology meteorology meteorology C1imatolo~ interaction

/=&GNG AND SPECIALIZATION I < Advanced training Specialization

A _ _ ~ w t

FIG. 1. Curricula for training Class I meteorological personnel. Schematic representation of contents (from WMO publication Guidelines for the Education and Training of Meteorological Personnel, prepared by the Executive Committee Panel of Experts on Meteorological Education and Training).


One of the fundamental sciences of water manage ment is hydrology and its practical application is hydraulic engineering.

Most of the engineers employed in water management are civil engineers (in certain countries there are specific educational programmes for hydraulic engineering or water management). The extent of their education in hydrology is controlled by the requirements of their professional careers. Evidently, an engineer working in the field of water-resources management needs hydrological knowledge at a higher level than one employed in the constructional aspects of hydraulic engineering. It should also be emphasized that all those working in hydraulic engineering need a knowledge of hydrology. This requirement is not dependent on whether a single State water management organization exists in the country or whether the tasks are divided between several agencies. However, it is recognized that, except for some countries having large territories, most countries do not need to provide a separate education for hydrologists, even if their water resources are highly developed.

In most cases hydrology can conveniently be taught within the framework of civil-engineering education. For those choosing a career in water-resources management (professional hydrologists or research hydrologists) twe required special knowledge in hydrology could be acquired by post-graduate education (national or international) taken after two to three years of practice. Nevertheless it might be advisable for some of the professional hydrologists or research hydrologists to be graduates of a university with a complete programme in hydrology.

Now that hydrology is changing its character from a purely empirical and descriptive science to an analytic science, education in hydrology can well be offered within the framework of civil engineering. Modern applied hydrology, statistical methods, analytic and syn- thetic models require a knowledge of advanced mathematics which is generally given in civil engineering schools.

Teaching hydrology within the framework of education in civil engineering

The civil engineer engaged in design, construction or operation of hydraulic works must solve practical problems. These are of varied nature and in most cases hydrology is needed for their solution. The following fields may be mentioned: (a) Rural water management (Land improvement: surface drainage by removal of surface waters unwanted and harmful for agriculture and human settlements; subsurface drainage by removal of subsurface waters unwanted and harmful for agriculture and engineering works; erosion control (sheet erosion, bed erosion, gully erosion). Water utilization: irrigation,

ponds for fish cultures). (b) River training (Protection against damage: flood control; river training. Water power development. Inland navigation). (c) Municipal water management (Water supply. Sewerage and sewage treatment).

As a basis for performing these tasks, the engineer should be familiar with the basic components of the hydrological cycle, with the means and methods of their measurement (hydrometry), with data processing and interpretation. In addition, he should know how to establish the quantitative and qualitative relationships between important parameters with the aid of systems analysis, mathematical statistics, etc. For teaching the above, three or four semesters with two to four hours per week for theory and the same time for practice can be recommended. W i e it is necessary to undertake field measurements in the teaching of hydrometry, in systems analysis it is important to demonstrate the theory by solving suitable numerical examples, recogniz- ing at every stage the physical nature of the phenomenon.

Post-graduate education for civil engineers working in hydrology

For the research hydrologist or professional hydrologist, post-graduate education is recommended. After graduation and two to three years of practical experience, a high-level course in hydrology is taken. Larger and hydrologically developed countries can organize national courses; smaller or hydrologically less developed countries can make use of international post-graduate courses. Their duration should be at least six but preferably ten to twelve months. National post-graduate education may take the form of correspondence courses, with one or two oral sessions per month. In this case the duration of the programme should be at least two years.

The educational content of a post-graduate programme would mainly consist of the most recent and modern methods of systems analysis, applying stochastic and parametric methods. Examples should be worked out on the TCgime of water couses, hydrology of subsurface waters, hydrology of lakes and reservoirs and surface run-off. Emphasis should be given to mathematics and hydromechanics and the course should also include selected topics from electrotechnics, instrument techniques, isotope techniques, hydrochemistry and hydrobiology. The most modem measuring equipment and techniques should be demonstrated, including automa- tization, nuclear techniques and data processing. The bulk of the time of post-graduate education would be spent on theory; approximately one-fifth of the total time is recommended to be used for practical training, if possible in experimental or representative basins.


After the formal post-graduate education, an individual programme of study may be developed leading to the highest possible qualification. One prominent expert in hydrology can give guidance to several candi- dates at the same time. The conditions for such a qualification would be: a minimum of three years of practical experience in the field or in a research institute, the preparation of a thesis, and finally an oral examination.

4.2.3 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING'

The role of hydrology in agricultural engineering

Hydrology is one of the main subjects in agricultural engineering study programmes. Agricultural engineers design, construct and operate systems for irrigation and drainage, the protection of agricultural land against erosion, the regulation of small water courses and land reclamation. The task of hydrology is to provide the necessary knowledge for the determination and evaluation of the basic factors of the works proposed.

In the basic study of agronomy, on the other hand, hydrology is not included as a separate subject, but some of its principles are incorporated in other subjects, i.e. soil science, agro-meteorology, irrigation, drainage, soil conservation etc.

Plant production has a substantial influence both on the water regime and water balance of the watershed. Knowledge of the basic properties of individual cultures and different methods of cultivation enables an understanding of hydrological processes and the evaluation of their influence on components of the water balance. The natural water balance is further influenced by measures for the increase of crop production (irrigation, drainage, soil conservation, etc.). Knowledge of the influence of these measures on the water balance enables the hydrologist to evaluate the evolution of the water balance. Thus, studies in agronomy will improve the understanding of the hydrological cycle as influenced by plant cover.

As a main subject in the study programme at agricultural universities, hydroIogy is indispensable for specialists engaged in the improvement of soil fertility. Professional hydrologists usually deal with medium-sized and large watersheds, for which purpose they investigate or process hydrological data necessary for the design of water management structures. They are also concerned with the r&gime or control of the run-off in river systems. They devote less attention to the study of small watersheds, which form the basis for the planning of reclamation projects. Studies for small agricultural watersheds and for the planning of reclamation works

should be undertaken by specialists having a knowledge of both hydrology and agriculture. In 'these watersheds the process of surface run-off is substantially influenced by factors which are of little importance or are even insignificant in larger watersheds, for instance soil char acteristics , vegetation, soil cultivation methods , etc. Thus, the teaching of hydrology at agricultural universities is an important contribution to agricultural practice. Their knowledge of certain aspects of hydrology will help agronomists to find ways to increase agricultural production. The influence of land-use and the precipitation-run-off process are of special importance in connexion with the supply of soil moisture.

Agricultural engineering for the hydrologist

Hydrologists working in the field of agronomy should be acquainted with the main types of plant cultures, their water requirements, and the required depth of the ground-water table, together with the influence of different cultures on the water balance. Methods of soil cultivation for various plant cultures and the influence of agrotechnical practices on the water balance and particularly measures for soil reclamation are further important factors to be studied. This concerns above all factors influencing evapotranspiration, soil evapo- ration and infiltration. The influence of the various factors which may affect the above parameters, the process of surface run-off and its relation to water erosion, as well as the precipitation-run-off relations are of primary interest.

Since agronomy is a complex science, it wouId be desirable for the purpose of hydrological education to introduce an abbreviated course which would include selected material from the subjects of plant production, soil cultivation and agrometeorology. Hydrology students should study in detail soil science and methods of soil reclamation and soil conservation.

4.2.4 FORESTRY2

The role of hydrology in forestry

In study programmes for forestry engineering, hydrology is a separate subject for the education of specialists. Such

1. By Dr 3. Dvorbk, Acting Director of the Post-Graduate Course in Hydrology, Prague Agricultural College, Prague- Suchdol (Czechoslovakia).

2. By Dr J. DvorAk, Acting Director of the Post-Graduate Course in Hydrology, Prague Agricultural College, Prague- Suchdol (Czechoslovakia).


programmes include drainage of forest soil, protection against erosion, torrent control and transportation structures. The task of hydrology is to supply data for the planning of these structures and measures.

In basic study programmes, on the other hand, hydrology is usually not taught as a separate subject, its principles being included in other subjects such as bioclimatology, forest structures and torrent control.

Forests represent an important type of vegetational cover and substantially influence the water rbgime and water balance of the watershed. Basic information concerning properties of forest stands and methods of their exploitation leads to a better understanding of hydrological phenomena and evaluation of the water balance.

The introduction of hydrology into forestry study programmes will be beneficial not only for the education of specialists in the reclamation of forest soil and in torrent control but for the training of specialists in forest management. In forestry, hydrological knowledge is needed for the assessment of the laws controlling the rbgimes of surface and ground water of forests and for the application of these laws to the management of forest areas.

A forest manager with a good hydrological education will be able to promote an almost constant run-off from watersheds in regions with a water deficit and where ground or surface water is accumulated in reservoirs. The application of hydrological knowledge, esps cially with respect to ground water, to silviculture may be expected to result in higher wood production. Hydro- logy is useful for the design of torrent control works, measures against avalanches, the stabilization of land- slides, transport structures, and drainage of forest Soils.

Forestry for the hydrologist

A hydrologist engaged in forestry studies should be acquainted with the main types of forests and their properties and, furthermore, with forests at various elevations. All these stands differ in their water rbgimes. A good knowledge of the forest cover in a region compared with other local land uses is therefore indispensable. For such hydrologists a general knowledge will be required of the main properties of the most important tree species, especially in relation to light, temperature, moisture, snow, fog, frost and soil. A knowledge of forest ecology and of the principles of silviculture will be desirable.

Knowledge relating to agorestation is especially important for hydrologists. Data from small watersheds are important for this activity, although not always sufficiently available.

In view of the complexity of the science of forestry,

it is desirable !to introduce a short course specially adapted to the needs of hydrological education. This would include selected material from the theory of forest stands, forest phytocoenology, typology, dendro- logy, bioclimatology, elements of forest management and of economical forest exploitation. Some information concerning the techniques of afforestation should be included.

4.2.5 GEOLOGY (HYDROGEOLOGY)l

An adequate understanding of geology is necessary for most ground-water studies. The description and specialized study of water-bearing strata lead to a separate branch of geology, namely hydrogeology.

Some hydrogeological studies require a thorough knowledge of geology, whereas for other studies a general descriptive knowledge suffices. In somes cases the existing geological theory or the available descriptive material is not a sufficient basis for ground-water studies.

Ground water has been studied in a descriptive manner by geologists and in an analytical way by engineers. Geologists are increasingly engaged in practical ground-water problems and therefore need to apply more quantitative methods.

Hydrology in geological education

Many geologists, geophysicists, some geological engineers and mining engineers are successfully engaged in ground-water studies. This is a logical consequence of their basic training. Although prior to the IHD only a few universities offered specific courses in hydrogeology, at present this type of course is more common. Many of these courses are still devoted to nonquanti- tative aspects and they sometimes do not give sufficient insight into ground-water flow. This results from the inadequate mathematical background of some students and teachers in developing and developed countries alike. The growing interest in ground-water studies is the outcome of a search for new employment possibilities and a rising demand for specialists in this field.

Especially in developing countries there is an appreciable demand for geologists with a hydrological background. They are engaged mainly in prospecting, making inventories, preliminary reporting, surveying and evaluations. Geologists with a wide hydrological background are also engaged in surveying and studying ground-water pollution, and settling conflioting water claims. 1. By Dr E. Custodio, Vice-Director, International Ground

Water Course, Barcelona (Spain).


Most geology students take a general introductory course of thirty to forty class hours in basic principles of ground water. Those who desire a special competence in ground water need between 150 and 250 hours of teaching in ground-water subjects, such as hydraulic properties of earth materials, ground water flow, well hydraulics, models, geohpdrochemistry, tracers and some nuclear techniques. In preparation for these courses some preliminary short courses on mathematics, calculus, and chemistry will be necessary in many cases. Some universities offer courses in hydrogeology for a duration of one or two terms only and this is generally insufficient.

Geology in hydrological education

Hydrologists deal with natural processes on and in the earth, and therefore a general geological background is needed. Examples of teaching geology to hydrologists can be found in Unesco’s publication Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology. A thirty- to forty-hour course in physical geology followed by a fifteen- to thirty-hour course in hydrogeology may suffice for general and surface-water hydrologists. This teaching should be supplemented by field work. For ground-water hydrologists education in geology should be more extensive and may encompass about sixty to eighty hours on physical geology, including elements of stratigraphy, tecto- nics, sedimentology and earth materials.

For geological problems of some importance, the services of a geologist should be obtained. When a hydrologist encounters a geological problem of minor importance he may be able to deal with it himself.

Geology in post-graduate hydrological education

Geology teaching in post-graduate courses on hydrology varies according to the special purpose of the course and the previous knowledge of the students. Some complementary information may be found in Unesco’s publication Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology.

Special fields

Geohydrochemistry is a developing field which is concerned with the mutual relationships between rock, water composition and ground-water flow. These relationships are very important in many scientific and practical ground-water studies. With an adequate training in chemistry, engineers and geologists may carry out this work, but complex problems are best handled by chemists with a special understanding of ground water, geology, sedimentology and geochemistry. Ground-water tracing and some nuclear techniques are also of concern to geohydrochemists.

Since the development of ground water often involves legal problems, several hours of teaching in water law are needed.

4.2.6 GEOGRAPHY]

Everywhere on the land surface of the earth, water is a component of the geographical landscape in the form of rivers, lakes and glaciers, and also as soil water and ground water. In the form of ground water, ins- tration water and water in the zone of aeration, it influences the ecology of a region, and is of essential importance for vegetation and agriculture, and also for the development of settlements and industry.

Geography is interested not only in the present occurrence of water on the earth but also in the ways in which it has shaped the surface of the earth in the course of centuries and millennia. Geography also con- siders water as the most important eIement influencing ecology and as an economically important factor which may determine the location of industry.

For a long time the science of water has been taught as the study of streams (potamology), lakes (limnology) and glaciers (glaciology). Since the geoscientists A. Penck and E. Briickner developed the first water balance equations for Middle Europe at the end of the nineteenth century (at about the same time as A. Voeikov), such investigations have gained greater importance in geographical research.

The main endeavour of a geographer engaged in hydrological studies is to attain a comprehensive view of water as an integral component of all environmental conditions. It is not the aim of geographical research to find laws for the flow of water as does hydraulics. One who is concerned with run-off-as in the studies of floods, soil erosion or lake currents-must be familiar with some results of hydraulic research. This comprehensive view should not prevent one from studying special phenomena such as pollution, temperature changes or the water balance of lakes.

Physical geography is concerned with the earth as the space in which man develops his activities. Nature determines the possibilities given to man, and on the other hand man influences his natural environment. The study of this mutual interaction is a main theme of geography in which hydrology is of special importance, for example how hydrological processes are influenced by man.

Some aspects of the planning of canals, reservoirs,

1. By Professor R. Keller, Head of the Geographical Institute I of the University of Freiburg, 78 Freiburg-Breisgau (Federal Republic of Germany).


water supply and irrigation systems are also problems of applied geography, the solution of which comprises aspects of physical geography, economic geography and social geography. If, for example, reservoirs and cultures based on irrigation are set up in arid regions, these not only influence the local climate and water balance but also the vegetation, fauna and the social structure of the area.

The position of hydrology in geography differs widely from country to country. Many, if not most of the university departments of geography in America and Western Europe deal with hydrology only in occasional lectures and exercises. A much greater number of hydrological problems are included in research and teaching under different names and belong to the standard subjects of geographical teaching programmes as, for example, glaciology, geomorphology of rivers and watersheds, karst morphology and karst hydrology, geography of soils (comparative pedology), climatology, geography of vegetation, ecology of the landscape. Other hydrological problems are dealt with by economic geographers or by agricultural geographers, as for example, problems of irrigation and agriculture as a location factor for settlements and industry.

In Northern and Eastern Europe as well as in Japan and other countries, however, geographers deal more extensively with hydrology (Moscow, Krakow, Belgrade, Uppsala, Tokyo, etc.). Here they are often concerned with the description and typification of waters; for many years investigations of the water balance of smaller and laTger regions have been carried out by geographical hydrologists. Co-operation with other branches of science and technology is essential. Although several aspects of hydrology are dealt with by geographers, they do not include all fields of hydrology. A hydrologist cannot be educated in geography alone: complementary related sciences must be added which will often predominate. The solution of purely geographical problems will often depend on the results of engineering and other sciences. The geqrapher is dependent on insights obtained in practice and on hydrological data provided by engineers. Thus there cannot be a sharp delimitation between general hydrology and geographical hydrology.

Training of hydrologists in geography

It is not possible to present a general survey of the hydrological lectures and exercises given in geographical institutes dealing with hydrology, since ,they differ very much from country to country and from university to university. At the departments of geography of universities in Eastern Europe that train hydrologists, lec-

tures and exercises are offered in related disciplines. In the Federal Republic of Germany, a training programme has been developed which combines geo- sciences, engineering, biology and chemistry. The subjects to be taught are divided into two parts: (a) topics and subjects which are obligatory for all hydrologists without regard to their specialization; CO> specializations within hydrology.

Thus the training is not carried out within one of the traditional disciplines alone. To the first part of the hydrological training, geography contributes regional and general hydrology, general climatology, geomorphology and pedology, geography of vegetation and settlements as well as the fundamentals of geodesy and cartography. Within the geographical training the hydrologist may then specialize in morphology of rivers, water balance, potamology, limnology, glaciology, water resources management and sometimes data treatment and hydrological forecasting.

At some universities these subjects are also dealt with outside geography within other traditional disciplines, for example pedology or geology. Field training and studies in experimental and representative basins are part of the basic training; here the students become acquainted with the use of instruments and with the problems arising in practical work.

4.2.7 SANITARY ENGINEERING'

Hydrology for sanitary engineers

During the major effort to improve health conditions in the cities at the end of the nineteenth century, many sanitary engineering works were needed. In designing these works, the shortcomings in our knowledge of the hydrological cycle were revealed. The sanitary engineers in charge of such schemes had, therefore, to undertake hydrological research and they made notable contributions to this science. In 1856, Darcy formulated his law on the movement of ground water. His motivation was not a theoretical one but rather the sheer necessity of his assignment to improve the water supply system of the city of Dijon. When Allen Hazen, one of the most prolific civil engineers of our century, was given the assignment to improve the sanitary conditions in Massachusetts, he could not restrict his studies to water quality, but was obliged to develop new methods in hydrology. His studies on flood flow and his introduction of statistical methods undertaken in connexion

1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International Cour- ses in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, 95 Oude Delft, Delft (Netherlands).


with storm drainage and water supply schemes are milestones in the history of hydrology. Several other examples could be cited of sanitary engineers who were outstanding hydrologists at the same time.

Tapping water sources which are reasonably close to a densely populated urban centre requires an optimal use of scarce water resources. Prediction of amounts of storm drainage from heavily built-up areas requires advanced research. For the design of systems for water supply and water quality protection, one needs more than just a limited knowledge and experience of the laws of hydrology. A sufficient mastery of the qualitative aspects of water resources and of the biological and chemical laws underlying the design of water and waste treatment plant constitutes, however, a vast field of studies in itself. It is hardly possible for an engineer to master the control of water quality together with advanced methods of predicting water quantities and advanced hydrological methods.

For schemes of any significance, the hydrologist and sanitary engineer must work together with other professionals in a multidisciplinary team. This does not mean, however, that hydrology is not an important subject for sanitary engineers. They should not only know enough of it to be able to converse with the professional hydrologists but they should also be able to undertake independent hydrological work for smaller or simpler schemes. In countries where ground water is an important source of supply, the sanitary engineer should be well versed in the hydrology and hydraulics of ground water. Recommendations on curriculum contents could hardly be given in a general way because they would depend very much on local circumstances. One could assume, however, that the sanitary engineer should have at least sixty hours (expressed in equivalent lecture hours) in hydrology. Wherever necessary, he should also carry out exercises in hydrological calculations and, where possible, field measurements. In the past, sanitary engineers used purely empirical methods in their water resources studies. Teaching the concepts of scientific hydrology to sanitary engineers could contribute significantly to an improvement in the design of schemes for water supply management and domestic water supply. Hydrology should, therefore, be an important subject in every sanitary engineering curriculum.

Sanitary engineering for hydrologists

The extent to which it will be necessary and desirable for a hydrologist to follow instruction in sanitary engineering will be determined by the nature of his future job.

More explicitly, one can say that operational hydrologists will be required to co-operate in studies of water demands and the dilution of waste effluents. They will therefore need a rather profound knowledge of the quantitative and qualitative aspects of water demand for various purposes and of liquid wastes. It is not sufficient to work out water quality studies on paper, they should also be undertaken as practical exercises in the laboratory.

General theoretical hydrologists would not need to go as deeply into water demand studies as would the operational hydrologists. However, when the circumstances permit, they should also receive instruction in water quality.

It is possible for hydrologists to practise the most important techniques of water examination in a laboratory course that does not exceed twelve half-day sessions. However, in order to make the most efficient use of this short-term course, the laboratory instruction must be well organized. This course should encompass primarily natural impurities. Standard techniques for turbidity, salinity, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate content should be included in addition to tests for iron, man- ganese and magnesium which are indigenous to ground waters. Wherever equipment and staff is available, man- made pollutants would also be studied, including bac- terial counts (coli) and a demonstration of measuring methods for biochemical and chemical oxygen demand.

4.2.8 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY1

Hydrology for the environmental scientist

Water, as a universal solvent, is the main vehicle for the transportation of many other substances in nature. It is also the main transporter of pollutants. Therefore, the pathways of several substances in nature, such as nitro- gen, phosphorus and carbon, coincide to a large extent with the hydrological cycle. Even in the earth’s natural state, the quality of the water undergoes several changes during the hydrological cycle. When water falls, several gases are absorbed into it. During its stay at the surface of the earth or underground, it may undergo important geochemical changes. In the discharge of water into lakes and oceans, the chemical properties of water undergo further changes. The environmentalist’s work is, therefore, very closely related to hydrology. Any programme on environmental science and technology

1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International Courses in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Delft (Netherlands).


should contain a treatment of the hydrological cycle and its components. Those fields of hydrology in which the behaviour of pollutants transported by water are studied are still relatively underdeveloped and more research work is needed in them.

Persons specializing in environmental science and technology have as a rule already acquired a background in chemistry, biology, microbiology or related branches of natural science. It should not be diacult for them to master within a relatively short time the main concepts of the hydrological cycle. For deeper studies of the behaviour of water vapour in the atmo- sphere the mathematical background of a biologist may prove inadequate. Most chemists will be able to work with these quantitative aspects after taking a course of one academic year’s duration. The requirements of environmental control may make it necessary to devise curricula in which both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the hydrological cycle can be considered.

Environmental science and technology for the hydrologist

Every professional worker should be knowledgeable about the possible impact of his work on the environ-

ment. The hydrologist, as a natural scientist concerned with one of the most important components of the environment, requires a more than superficial knowledge of environmental influence. For studies of practical water use also, sufficient insight is needed into the state of lakes, ponds and other natural waters. A study of the principles of hydrobiology with some notions of geochemistry is therefore recommended.

Two days’ hydrobiological field-work would suffice for a good cross-section of the problems which would be encountered in practice. The first day could be devoted to quality studies of running waters. For example, turbidity, oxygen and nitric content could be measured upstream from a human settlement where the water is relatively unspoiled and then compared with the same parameters immediately downstream of a settlement where wastes have been discharged and, finally, a few kilometres further downstream. The experience of actually observing oxygen depletion and its subsequent recovery is a most valuable lesson.

The second day could be used to study the strati- fication of a lake or, if possible, two neighbouring lakes, a deep one and a shallow one. The data from these measurements of gradients of temperature, oxygen and other water-quality parameters should be evaluated in the classroom.

5 Educational systems for teaching hydrology

5.1 Introduction Although it is not possible to set up a detailed classi- fication of systems of university education, two broad types may be distinguished among the many existing national educational patterns: the elective curriculum type in which the undergraduate, particularly in the last two years of study, has a choice among several elective subjects (this might be called the Anglo-Saxon type, since it is used particularly in American and British universities) and the prescribed curriculum type in which the student, after choosing a study field, must take all the subjects which are prescribed and fill the entire curriculum (this might be called the Continental European type as it is used in most of the Central European universities and to some extent in the French and Soviet educational systems). There is no rigid geographical boundary between these types. In some countries both systems co-exist. For instance, some American universities use the prescribed curriculum system and in France, where the universities offer elective subjects, the grandes e‘coles use the prescribed curriculum system. As a general rule, the variety of fields in which a hydrology course is offered is greater in the elective curriculum system.

In both systems, so far as hydrology is concerned, it is sometimes dficult to draw a sharp line between the undergraduate and lower post-graduate level. It is just as difficult to make any comparison of standards.

The situation in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America does not differ mate- rially from that described above. Obviously, in most of these countries the number of universities that off er courses in hydrology is considerably smaller than in the highly industrialized countries, mainly because of the lack of adequate training staff and also because of the relatively small number of students graduating from technical colleges in general. A survey made by the Unesco Secretariat shows that the fields in which a general hydrology course is offered are usually civil engineering, agricultural engineering, geology and geography *

Professional and research hydrologists are at present being trained under the following systems: (a) post- graduate study (at M.Sc. or Ph.D. level in established academic programmes)’ (elective curricula; prescribed curricula); (b) in specialized post-graduate courses, mainly international courses, lasting from six months to one year; (c) comprehensive undergraduate courses (United States, U.S.S.R.).

Study of the methods currently employed for training hydrologists may facilitate the selection of the most suitable among the existing methods and may also lead to the recommendation of new methods.

5.2 Special features of some educational systems

5.2.1 ELECTIVE CURRICULA IN HYDROLOGY*

Definition

Even in an elective curriculum which allows the greatest flexibility in the choice of courses, there are always some specified requirements. Certain prerequisites must be met before starting the programme of studies. These may take the form of specific courses which must be passed satisfactorily or, for post-graduate programmes, an undergraduate degree from one of the following fields would usually be appropriate: engineering, geology, agriculture, forestry or meteorology. There are usually some requirements as to the number of credit hours in the major field and additional hours in a minor field or in ‘supporting course work‘. Sometimes a named ‘area of concentration’ within the field is selected and a portion of the programme is specified by listing certain required courses in that area. In addition, the student must

1. For additional information on these programmes, see Curri- cula and Syllabi in Hydrology (Technical Papers in Hydro- logy, no. 10).

2. By Professor W. L. Moore, Department of Civil Engineer- ing of the University of Texas, Austin, Texas (United States of America).

The teaching of hyarology 26

develop his programme in consultation with an adviser and submit it to a graduate dean for final approval. In this way an elective curriculum allows for a considerable difference in individual programmes, but maintains a relevant content at an adequate level.

Institutional setting

The elective curriculum is feasible only at a large diversified educational institution with a sufficient number of students and a large number of disciplines. In this setting, various departments offer courses in their res- pective fields, some primarily of interest to students in the department's own field and some of interest to students in other related fields. Courses in hydrological subjects will usually be available in departments such as civil engineering, geology, agricultural engineering, forestry, atmospheric science and, to a limited extent, in other departments. The hydrology student may be based in one of these departments but select courses from several of the other departments.

As a general rule, this type of diversified elective programme would not be possible in a small, specialized institution. However, in a very few small institutions elective programmes have been outstandingly successful. In these instances, a small faculty of high quality has dealt with a few carefully chosen graduate students in a close relationship providing individual instruction. This setting provides for great flexibility in the educational content.

Characteristics of the elective system

One of the characteristics of the elective system is the opportunity it provides for variety. However, all students completing such a programme should have a good grounding in the basic subjects. Having made a personal choice as to what to include in his programme and what to exclude, the student is aware of the limi- tations of his education and of the importance of related topics for his professional work. H e may wish to study these topics independently at a later time.

In most situations, the elective system would be more flexible in adapting the educational system to new concepts and changing conditions. In such a system it is relatively easy to develop courses that cover new topics and new methods. A new course can be offered on a trial basis and easily modified or adjusted to meet a current need. If it is successful it will continue, while if it is not accepted by the students and their advisers it will drop out. In this process of experimentation, only a few people are affected and hence it is easy to expe- riment. In contrast, in a prescribed system a decision

for a change in the curriculum may affect all of the faculty and students in the programme. A change or adjustment then becomes of major importance to the entire group and it may be difficult to gain acceptance of the proposed changes.

Economic eficiency

The prescribed system is capable of more efficient use of faculty and facilities than the elective system. In the prescribed system, the total number of students in a given institution can be set within close limits and then the number of students in each of the individual classes can be determined in advance. This means that the number and type of faculty required, the size and number of classrooms, and the necessary laboratory space and equipment can be determined within close limits. As long as the programme continues without changes, all of these factors will remain constant and the most efficient utilization pattern can be developed. Thus, in terms of immediate financial cost, the prescribed system is probably more efficient. Owing to its flexibility, the elective system is more diflicult to predict and the faculty and facilities may not be always utilized in the most efficient manner. Thus, on a short-term basis and considering classroom teaching only, the elective system is probably more costly.

The reduced direct teaching efficiency of the elective method may be at least partially offset by an increased availability of faculty time for research in developing improved methods of analysis and incorpor- ating these methods in the educational system. The gains to society from improved methods in professional work will be much greater than the loss of maximum economic efficiency in the educational system. The greatest contribution education can make is to prepare students to enter the profession prepared to use and develop improved methods and techniques to replace outdated and less efficient methods for performing their hydrological activities. The flexibility of the elective system will encourage adaptation to new and more effective methods.

5.2.2 PRESCRIBED CURRICULA IN HYDROLOGY1

Definition

The prescribed curricula system in hydrological education is prevalent in Central Europe and is also in use

1. By Dr J. H. Sircoulon, Bureau Central du Service Hydro- logique de l'Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM), Paris (France).


in a number of other countries. In such a system the student must follow a prescribed programme in which the subjects offered are compulsory.

Section 5.2.1 has shown that a strict separation between the two types is not possible and that the student never has to face an absolutely rigid programme. The compulsory subjects never restrict the inspiration of a student, who may always devote special attention to a field of his choosing. The experience of the professors, who follow his educational career very closely, is always available to guide the student. Moreover, distinguishing between the two systems is particularly difficult because many institutions have a tendency to change. In France the grades e‘coles, which employed a prescribed system for a long time, are now using a mixed system in which the compulsory subjects are com- plemented by optional subjects (i.e. subjects selected from a prescribed list).

Characteristics of the system

In a prescribed curricula system the student acquires a sound basic education which is indispensable for a good understanding of hydrological phenomena: hydraulics, statistics, meteorology, geomorphology, etc. The subjects taught are well prepared, as are the practical exercises in the laboratory and in the field (for example, in perma- nently operated experimental basins). The students can be limited to the number that can be taught effectively. The prescribed system ensures a better-balanced programme in which the student does not lose sight of certain important items. Moreover, in the prescribed system, the student’s choice of subjects is not affected by the relative popularity of the professors.

In order to ensure their effectiveness, both systems must be subjected to certain constraints. Hydro- logy is still a young science; new techniques are being found, other techniques are being developed. This progress requires constant updating of the teaching programme. Subjects that develop gradually along with the general growth of knowledge and others that represent new bodies of knowledge, for example the use of computers, must be added during the course of repeated revisions of the programme. Fortunately, hydrology teachers are generally also research hydrologists and are therefore able to adjust their courses in response to new developments. The prescribed system will not stagnate because the students will demand that the teaching keep pace with scientific progress.

The content of a teaching programme is also influenced by local geographical conditions. A nucleus of subject matter is common to studies in all parts of the world, but the relevance of some other subjects vanes

considerably with climatic and physical conditions. For instance, snow and ice are studied in great detail in ‘cold countries’ while many countries are not concerned with them at all. A student studying in a foreign country where the circumstances differ from those in his home country-as well as a hydrologist preparing for work in developing countries-needs supplementary training, which would be more readily available in an elective system.

Results of curricula

The results of different curricula in terms of the effect on graduates cannot be determined with certainty. Either type of curriculum can produce graduates with a wide range of abilities. Both the elective and the prescribed types of curriculum have produced men who have made outstanding contributions to the science of hydrology and to teaching of the science.

5.2.3 SPECIAL ISSUES ARISING IN CONNEXION WITH THE ORGANIZATION OF POST-GRADUATE COURSES’

The organizers of post-graduate courses are, in many cases, bound by general organizational patterns determined by the statutes governing university education in the country considered. Therefore, the contents of the following paragraphs should be considered to be indi- cative rather than prescriptive.

Level of admission

A number of years of practical experience after the first degree may be an important advantage for those following a professional post-graduate course. One can expect not only a better motivation but also a better insight into the requirements of practice. For a subject like hydrology with multi-disciplinary aspects, one might consider it useful to have a class consisting of post- graduate students of different professional origins. For a study of scientific hydrology there are, however, certain minimum standards, for example in mathematics and physics, which will limit the permissible extent of the diversity in professional origins. A group of course participants that includes students with a variety of professional backgrounds may require the adaptation of the teaching in order to take into account the needs of individuals. Any deficiencies which exist should be taken care of by means of supplementary tutorials.

1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International Courses in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Delft (Netherlands).


Duration of the programme

When the aim of the programme is the training of professional hydrologists, the minimum duration should be one academic year. A full year of post-graduate studies would not be sufficient for an initiation into all the modern hydrological techniques, but it is a sufficient period for the specialist in hydrology to study the most important techniques. During this period he will also have an opportunity to select from a number of optional subjects those that are most relevant to his individual needs. For practising hydrologists, a course in which the programme is limited to specific selected modern techniques may prove to be most useful. Such a course would have a duration of a few months.

Field-work and laboratory work

Many methods and techniques can best be studied in the field. In determining the period of the year during which the course will be held, it is wise to take clima- tological and seasonal hydrological conditions into account.

The field-work to be undertaken as part of a hydrology course should comprise stream gauging, simple meteorological measurements and, where possible, geo- electrical or other geophysical tests. In some instances the course institute has the necessary instruments available together with cars or boats for their transport. These cars or boats may even be equipped as mobile laboratories or workshops. Often, however, the course will have to rely on the loan of equipment from a hydrological service.

For chemical and biological water quality studies, interpretation of aerial photographs, or hydraulics model studies, use is often made of the facilities of nearby agencies and specialized institutes.

Computing facilities

Electronic computers have become indispensable tools in hydrologioal teaching. Each course in which hydrology is taught should, therefore, have its own programme library. Costs can be considerably reduced by inter- changing programmes between different institutes. Many hydrological programmes have considerable out- put and memory requirements. Direct access to a ter- minal of a large computer system is, therefore, highly desirable.

Subjects oflered

Only a limited number of hydrologists will work on pure research and most will be engaged in practical

design work. In the hydrological services or institutes in which they will later work, they will also have to conduct water use studies. It is recommended that, in addition to purely hydrological subjects, the programme should also include water use technologies, such as irrigation, hydropower and water supply. Examples of various programmes may be found in the Unesco publication Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology, issued in the same series as the present publication.

The wide social and economic impact of water- resources development schemes has led many universities and institutes to include water administration and law, water-resources economy, and other political and social sciences in the curricula.

The Unesco Secretariat, working in close co- operation with scientific and professional organizations, has gathered a great deal of information and acquired much experience in the area of teaching methods and the teaching of specific subjects related to water-resources development. Use should be made of this body of knowledge and experience in setting up new teaching programmes and in improving existing ones.

5.2.4 UNDERGRADUATE TEACHING OF HYDROLOGY IN THE U.S.S.R.I

Before 1930 there were no educational establishments for the professional training of hydrologists in the U.S.S.R. Several higher educational institutes in engineering trained specialists in hydroelectrical power, water management, irrigation and land reclamation, and in water transport, thereby providing sufficient hydrological information and knowledge for the practical work in these fields.

From the late 1930s onwards, the professional training of specialists in hydrology has been provided by ten universities (including Moscow and Leningrad State universities) and by two hydrometeorological institutes (in Leningrad and Odessa). All have an expert staff of professors and teachers and all the necessary training facilities and laboratories are available.

About 300 highly qualified hydrologists graduate annually for work in the various organizations of the Hydrometeorological Service of the U.S.S.R., in institutions for the design of water projects and in scientific research institutes, as well as in the operational centres of power and irrigation systems. A number of these graduates will undertake pedagogical work as teachers or assistants.

1. By Dr S. Vartazarov, Director, International Higher Hydro- logical Courses, Moscow State University, Moscow (U.S.S.R.).


Three forms of undergraduate studies are available in the field of hydrology in the U.S.S.R.: A five-year training programme in the day faculties of the higher training institutions mentioned above, with interruptions in the schedule for work experience. Applicants should not be over 30 years of age.

Extra-mural training of specialists in the evening faculties, without interruption of their studies for work experience.

Study by correspondence. All students of the day faculties who successfully carry out the work plans are provided with a fellowship. Extra-mural students enjoy some privileges: they have additional paid leave to do their laboratory studies, to take examinations and to prepare their graduation work. The programme for the students of the evening faculties, and for those studying by corespondence, does not differ from that of regular day faculties except for the fact that the period of training lasts six years instead of five.

Two levels of hydrological training should be rnen- tioned, although these levels are not officially acknow- ledged. The first is the university-level training of the ‘research hydrologist’ with a diploma of engineer-geographer, which generally prepares the hydrologist for a scientific and educational career. The second level is the ‘professional hydrologist’ who is mostly trained for

the organization and undertaking of hydrological investigations, for the study of hydrological processes and for hydrological forecasting.

When preparing the curricula and syllabi for various forms and at various levels of hydrological training, ‘hydrology’ is understood as a general science dealing with the hydrosphere in all its aspects. This concept also includes particular fields, such as the investigation of water resources, analyses of man’s impact on hydrological processes and on the water cycle, etc.

All graduate specialists may take, if they wish, a post-graduate course at one of the universities or institutes for advanced scientific training. This post- graduate education lasts three years and fellowships are provided. After the completion of a written thesis at the end of the course, a degree of ‘Candidate of Science’ is awarded. Extra-mural post-graduate training can be undertaken by those who do not wish to interrupt their work.

The doctorate degree (Doctor of Science) can be awarded and is based on a written thesis on new scientific problems which have been studied in personal research work. There are no specific requirements.

Several post-graduate short-term courses have been organized for specialists at different levels, including the technician level.

6 Technical-assistance policies

6.1 The need for planning Each technical-assistance activity, no matter how small it may be, should fit into a more general planning framework. With respect to education there are two dimensions: adaptation to the manpower planning of the employing agencies, and modification to suit the country's educational system. When the number of persons possessing the qualifications required for admission to institutes for hydrological education is limited, the same shortage will affect other technical fields. Consequently, one should be careful to make optimal use of the scarce manpower. Before initiating an educational programme or awarding fellowships, a thorough study based on existing water-development plans should be made of present and future manpower requirements, not only in hydrology but also in fields where similar skills are required. Wherever possible, individual career plans should be drafted to promote job satisfaction and consequently to minimize the number of employees leaving the service. These policies will help to prevent a criti- cal shortage of specialists in one field together with a surplus of specialized staff in another field.

As remarked earlier, the relatively limited manpower needs for hydrology and the interdisciplinary nature of the subject argue in favour of a close inte- gration of hydrological education into the national educational system.

It is primarily the responsibility of the country which receives technical assistance to ensure that this assistance fits into the national economic and educational plans; the assisting agency might, however, be able to give advisory support for this planning. Unesco has already done so for many countries.

6.2 The creation of new institutions The founding of a new institution for hydrology teaching, or the extension of an existing institution for this purpose, can be an effective means for the promotion of hydrological education. However, numerous univer-

sities, agencies and 'even individuals strive vigo- rously for the creation of new educational facilities under their aegis. They contact international agencies, donor countries and financing foundations to obtain support. Unfortunately, this often results in overlapping or in the unplanned creation of facilities for which there is no demand. Careful planning based on the anticipated needs of, and the demand for, graduates is therefore called for. Special care should be taken to ensure that a viable unit is created. What has been set up carefully with the aid of outside assistance too often dissipates after the assistance has ceased. To reduce this risk, small institutions should be attached to a university or other larger organization. The working conditions of the personnel should be sufficiently attractive to keep them at the institute after the outside assistance has ter- minated. They should be given opportunities for scientific work and professional development.

In some countries, circumstances warrant the organization of hydrological education within the framework of the national authority in charge of water-resources development. When a single authority is mainly responsible for such development this solution has many advantages; in particular, close liaison can be ensured between educational and manpower planning. Another advantage may be that the specific circumstances and working procedures of the ministry can be taken into account in the training, and experienced professionals from the ministry may be available for teaching. As a rule, however, such institutions cannot deal adequately with the introductory and auxiliary subjects and their educational bases are consequently too narrow. Where water development is in the hands of several ministries, each desiring to create a separate educational unit, there is a danger of creating too many weak units in competition with one another.

When a hydrology course is started at an existing educational institute, university or other, the educational

1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International Cour- ses in Sanitary and Hydraulic Engineering, Delft (Nether- lands).

3 1 Technical-assistance policies

programme will be given sufficient breadth. However, the exact scope of an aid project in such a multidisciplinary field may be difficult to define owing to the participation of several university departments. In the case of a comprehensive scheme for assistance to the university, the interests of hydrology may be assimilated easi'ly, provided that sufficient capability is available in allied fields. Only in rare cases will it be possible to strengthen, for instance, a department of geology or a water chemistry laboratory to enable it to co-operate in a hydrological education programme belonging to another department. The feasibility of the third possible solution, namely the organization of hydrological education within the framework of an independent natural resources or water resources institute, depends on the specific circumstances.

Nothing has a more pernicious influence on teaching programmes than a lack of employment possibilities for the graduates. Proper care should be taken to ensure that suitable employment is available for a period which will continue long after the end of the assistance programme. If necessary, the teaching programme should be adapted to provide for wider job mobility.

6.3 Forms of aid

6.3.1 EQUIPMENT AND BOOKS

Appropriate books and professional periodicals are often in short supply in the educational institutions of developing countries and to make them available is a relatively inexpensive but effective means of development aid. Books and periodicals can be put to wide use irrespective of the details of programme and organization of the receiving institute. A basic consideration, of course, is whether they are printed in a language which is understood in the receiving country.

Research and specialized teaching are often restricted by the absence of recent primary sources of documentation published in periodicals and reports. A working arrangement whereby an institution in a donor country will promptly make available literature, abstracts and photocopies of needed scientific articles when requested by an institute in a developing country will be of considerable help. Also the transfer of hydrological computer programmes is a commendable means of assistance.

Aid in the form of instruments and equipment can be very important if it is well planned. Too often instruments sent from abroad are not suited to the circumstances of the receiving country, or essential components and spare parts are not made available. A

working arrangement whereby an institute in a donor country will ensure the prompt supply of spare parts and components of instruments when requested by an institution in a developing country will be of considerable help. It is, of course, indispensable to build up the local capacity for manufacturing, repair and calibration of instruments.

In a number of developing countries with sufficient scientific manpower, such as India and Brazil, original designs of high-quality aids for hydrology teaching have been developed. Such work deserves encouragement.

A concerted effort to make available on a wide scale design drawings and descriptions of simple teaching aids that can be produced locally deserves serious consideration.

6.3.2 FELLOWSHIPS

From the beginning of the IHD, the granting of fellowships has been viewed as an important form of assistance to the promotion of hydrology. This is especially true for teaching staff. Care should be taken to avoid the granting of fellowships for study abroad to students from countries where there is already a sufficient teaching capacity. It is frustrating for professors to see their best students being enticed away by study possibilities in other countries.

For high-level professionals and university teachers however, a period of study abroad can be of capital importance. Confrontation with the procedures and theories in use elsewhere will deepen their insight into the prevailing circumstances of their own country and will help to reveal ways for improvement.

A student can only draw the full advantage from a period of study abroad if he remains in contact with the host institute after his return home. Keeping former students informed of new developments by sending them literature and replying quickly to their requests for specific information is a service that should be rendered without cost and as a matter of course. Other measures that might be considered are the organization of follow- up seminars and travel grants for working visits to the host institutes.l

6.3.3 VISITING LECTURERS

Visiting lecturers can be extrem'ely useful agents for

1. See the recommendations given in the report, Meeting of Directors of Unesco's Long-term Postgraduate Courses in the Basic Sciences, Vienna, December 1972, published by the Austrian National Commission for Unesco, 1973.


the introduction of recent developments or new methods. By means of personal contacts, the relevance of new ideas to the work of the host institute can be tested more easily than is possible by consultation of the literature alone. Discussions with visiting lecturers are particularly valuable for the staff of the host institute: they may be helped in the orientation of their research and may gain useful information about opportunities for improving their work.

Short-term guest lecturers should not be employed to teach a recurring series of courses because the lecturers’ relatively short stay prevents the building up of close working contacts with students and staff.

Visiting professors who are going to stay for at least one year could be employed when no permanent staff member is available, for example when nationals of the host country are still preparing for teaching posts. This situation occurs frequently at new institutes. Especially in the early years, the person appointed can make a considerable impact on the programme orientation and equipment of the institute. Much care should be taken, therefore, to ensure that the persons chosen

have sufficiently wide views and a feeling for the circumstances of the host country.

6.4 Affiliations between institutes in different countries

There are many reasons which may cause a visiting lecturer to leave his job unexpectedly. Immediate replace- ment should then be possible and this is best ensured by a permanent relationship between the receiving institute and an institute in a donor country. At the donor institute there should be a sufficient and continuing interest in the receiving country so that personnel who are familiar with the specific conditions of the other country are always available. Another advantage of a permanent af5liation is that it ensures a dependable interaction between institutes. Examples are the occa- sions when it is necessary to make a quick reference to literature, when an instrument must be repaired or spare parts are needed. Such interaction constitutes a definite advantage for both the receiving and the donor institute.

[B] SC.74/XXI.I3/A

ISBN 92-3-101 168-5

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