technical assistance for...the breakdown of ghg emission trends in turkey by sector (1990-2015) ......
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National Programme for Turkey 2013 –
Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance
Technical Assistance for
Developed Analytical Basis for Formulating
Strategies and Actions Towards
Low Carbon Development
Project Identification No: EuropeAid/136032/IH/SER/TR
Contract No: TR2013/0327.05.01-01/001
Activity 1.1.2 Identification of the sectoral development
policies intended to meet the GHG emissions reduction
targets (Demand Status Report)
Ankara 2018
ii
Project Title: Technical Assistance for Developed Analytical Basis for Formulating Strategies and Actions
Towards Low Carbon Development
Service Contract No: TR2013/0327.05.01-01/001
Project ID No: EuropeAid/136032/IH/SER/TR
Project Value: € 3,865,010.00
Commencement Date: 29 May 2017
End Date / Duration: 29 May 2020 / 36 Months
Contracting Authority: Central Finance and Contracts Unit (CFCU), Ankara, Turkey
Contract Manager: Hacer BİLGE
Address: T.C. Başbakanlık Hazine Müsteşarlığı, E-Blok No:36 İnönü Bulvarı 06510 Emek/Ankara / TURKEY
Telephone: + 90 312 295 49 00
Fax: + 90 312286 70 72
E-mail: [email protected]
Beneficiary: Ministry of Environment and Urbanization Turkey
Address: Mustafa Kemal Mahallesi Eskişehir Devlet Yolu (Dumlupınar Bulvarı) 9. km. No: 278 Çankaya / Ankara
Telephone: + 90 312 410 10 00
Fax: + 90 312 474 03 35
Consultant: Hulla & Co Human Dynamics KG
Project Director: Rade Glomazic
Address: Kralja Milana 34, 1st Floor, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Telephone: + 381 11 785 06 30
Fax: + 381 11 264 30 99
E-mail: [email protected]
Project Team Leader: Mykola Raptsun
Address (Project Office): Mustafa Kemal Mahallesi, 2138. Sokak, No:5/3, Çankaya/Ankara
Telephone/Fax: +90 312 219 41 08
E-mail: [email protected]
This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union and the Republic of Turkey.
Disclaimer: The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the Consortium led by Hulla & Co Human Dynamics KG and
can in no way to be taken to reflect the views of the European Union nor the Republic of Turkey.
iii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................. v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................. vii
Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................................................................... viii
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
2. Development Policies and GHG Emission Reduction Targets in Buildings
Sector ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Review of Sector Policies and Obligations related to GHG Emission ...................... 4
2.1.1. International Commitments .............................................................................. 4
2.1.2. National Commitments ..................................................................................... 5
2.1.3. Evaluation of the implementation of country’s commitments by the EU
Commission Progress Reports ...................................................................................... 10
2.2. Assessment of Sector Development Trends and Private Sector Perspective ........ 11
2.2.1. Sector development trends ............................................................................ 11
2.2.2. Private Sector Perspective ............................................................................. 13
2.3. Analysis of GHG Emission Reduction Possibilities in the Sector based on Current
Trends and Policies ......................................................................................................... 13
2.3.1. The GHG Emission Trends of the Buildings Sector ........................................ 13
2.3.2. GHG emission reduction possibilities in the buildings sector .......................... 16
2.4. Policy Recommendation for Further Improvement of Key Sectoral Policies towards
Lowering GHG Emissions ............................................................................................... 18
3. Development Policies and GHG Emission Reduction Targets in Waste Sector 20
3.1. Review of Sector Policies and Obligations related to GHG Emission .................... 20
3.2. Assessment of Sector Development Trends and Private Sector Perspective ........ 25
3.3. Analysis of GHG Emission Reduction Possibilities in the Sector based on Current
Trends and Policies ......................................................................................................... 29
3.4. Policy Recommendation for Further Improvement of Key Sectoral Policies towards
Lowering GHG Emissions ............................................................................................... 36
4. Development Policies and GHG Emission Reduction Targets in Transportation
Sector ....................................................................................................................... 39
iv
4.1. Review of Sector Policies and Obligations related to GHG Emission .................... 40
4.2. Assessment of Sector Development Trends and Private Sector Perspective ........ 45
4.3. Analysis of GHG Emission Reduction Possibilities in the Sector based on Current
Trends and Policies ......................................................................................................... 52
4.4. Policy Recommendation for Further Improvement of Key Sectoral Policies towards
Lowering GHG Emissions ............................................................................................... 58
5. Development Policies and GHG Emission Reduction Targets in Agriculture
Sector ....................................................................................................................... 62
5.1. Review of Sector Policies and Obligations related to GHG Emission .................... 63
5.2. Assessment of Sector Development Trends and Private Sector Perspective ........ 65
5.3. Analysis of GHG Emission Reduction Possibilities in the Sector based on Current
Trends and Policies ......................................................................................................... 69
5.4. Policy Recommendation for Further Improvement of Key Sectoral Policies towards
Lowering GHG Emissions ............................................................................................... 74
6. Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................. 77
v
List of Figures
Figure 1. Number of new buildings and total floor areas built after 1954.................. 11
Figure 2. Number of buildings by building type in 1984 and 2000 ............................ 12
Figure 3. Number and distribution of buildings by construction period (2016) .......... 13
Figure 4. The breakdown of GHG emission trends in Turkey by sector (1990-2015)
................................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 5. GHG emissions from fuel combustion by sectors, 1990 (left) and 2015 (right)
................................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 6. GHG emissions of the residential, commercial, and institutional sector (1990-
2015) ........................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 7. Energy consumption in the buildings sector .............................................. 15
Figure 8. CO2 emission intensity of fuels consumed in Turkish buildings ................. 16
Figure 9. Average electricity consumption of electrified households and electricity
intensity of the service sector per value added in purchasing power parities (ppp),
(1990-2014) .............................................................................................................. 17
Figure 10. GHG emissions from waste sector, 1990-2015 ....................................... 26
Figure 11. Waste sector CO2 emissions (1990-2015) .............................................. 29
Figure 12. Waste sector CH4 emissions (1990-2015) .............................................. 30
Figure 13. Waste sector N2O emissions (1990-2015) .............................................. 31
Figure 14. Annual waste at solid waste disposal sites (1990-2015) ......................... 32
Figure 15. Change in road network length between (1990-2016) ............................ 46
Figure 16. a) Number of Vehicles by Type, b) Number of Cars by Fuel Type, c) Share
of Vehicles by Fuel Type between 2004 and 2016 (TurkStat, 2018) ........................ 47
Figure 17. Road Transport Statistics between 2001-2016 a) Intercity Vehicle-km b)
Passenger-km, c) Freight-km (TurkStat, 2018) ........................................................ 48
Figure 18. Railway statistics between 2001-2016 a) Length b) Passenger-km c)
Freight ton-km .......................................................................................................... 50
Figure 19. Airway Statistics between 1990-2016: a) Number of passengers b) Amount
of freight,................................................................................................................... 51
vi
Figure 20. International Seaborne Trade Statistics between 1980-2015 (Mt loaded)
................................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 21. GHG emissions by transport mode (1990-2015) ..................................... 53
Figure 22. Amount of GHG emissions from road motor vehicles by fuel type (1990-
2015) ........................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 23. The share of GHG emissions from road motor vehicles by fuel type (1990-
2015) ........................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 24. GHG emission vs fuel consumption for domestic aviation (1990-2015) .. 56
Figure 25. CO2 emissions per transport modes........................................................ 57
Figure 26. Shipping CO2 emissions by year ............................................................ 58
Figure 27. Agricultural share in GDP and employment (%) (1950-2017) ................. 66
Figure 28. Livestock number of Turkey (million head) (1990-2017) ......................... 68
Figure 29. GHG emissions from agriculture sector (1990-2015) .............................. 70
Figure 30. CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation (1990-2015)............................ 71
Figure 31. GHG emissions from manure management (1990-2015) ....................... 71
Figure 32. N2O emissions from agricultural soils (1990-2015) ................................. 72
vii
List of Tables
Table 1. The buildings sector-related of the NCCS .................................................... 6
Table 2. The buildings sector related purposes, objectives, and actions as stipulated
in the NCCAP ............................................................................................................. 7
Table 3. Targets and actions related to the buildings sector defined by the Energy
Efficiency Strategy...................................................................................................... 9
Table 4. List of WtE facilities in Turkey (landfill or wastewater gas to energy only) .. 27
Table 5. CH4 emissions from waste disposal sites (NIR, 2017)................................ 33
Table 6. Municipal wastewater collection and treatment (1994-2016) ...................... 34
Table 7. GHG emissions from wastewater treatment and discharge (1990-2015) ... 34
Table 8. Policy Recommendations towards Lowering GHG Emissions.................... 36
Table 9. Model shares of transport system, .............................................................. 39
Table 10. CO2 emissions intensity of fuels consumed in road transport ................... 54
Table 11. Number of road motor vehicles by age (2016) (x106) ............................... 55
Table 12. Transport priority areas for a low carbon development in Turkey ............. 59
Table 13. Agricultural production in selected groups or products in 1990-2017 ....... 66
Table 14. GHG emissions from agriculture sector (1990-2015) ............................... 69
viii
Abbreviations and Acronyms
BAU Business-As-Usual
BEP The Building Energy Performance
BOT Build-Operate-Transfer
ca. Circa
cal calorie
CAP Common Agricultural Policy
CBCCAM Coordination Board on Climate Change and Air Management
CH4 Methane
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO2-eq Carbon dioxide equivalent
ÇATAK Environmentally Based Agricultural Land Protection Program
ÇEVKO Environmental Protection and Packaging Waste Recovery and Recycling Trust
DSI General Directorate Of State Hydraulic Works
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
EC European Commission
EJ Exajoule
EIC Energy Identified Certificate
ELV End of Life Vehicles
EP European Parliament
EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
EU European Union
FAO The Food and Agriculture Organization
GDAR General Directory of Agricultural Research and Policy
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Greenhouse Gas
ha Hectare
HSR High Speed Rail
ix
IFC International Finance Corporation
IMO International Maritime Organization
INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contributions
IPA Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance
IPARD Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance in Rural Development
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPD Implementation of Integrated Project Delivery
ITS Intelligent Transport Systems
IWMP Implementation of Integrated Waste Management Plans
KGM General Directorate of Highways
kt Kilo tonne
kWh Kilowatt-hour
LCD Low Carbon Development
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
LULUCF Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry
m2 Square metre
MoD Ministry of Development
MoENR Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources
MoEU Ministry of Environmental and Urbanization
MoFAL Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock
MoLSS Ministry of Labour and Social Security
MoSIT Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology
MoTMC Ministry of Transport, Maritime Affairs and Communication
Mt Million tonne
Mtkm Million tonne-kilometre
MWe Megawatt electric
MWh Megawatt-hour
N2O Nitrous oxide
NADSAP National Agricultural Drought Strategy and Action Plan
NCCASAP National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan
NCCAP National Climate Change Action Plan
NCCS National Climate Change Strategy
x
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution
NGO Non-governmental Organization
NH3 Ammonia
NOX Nitrogen oxides
NWMAP National Waste Management Action Plan
nZEB Nearly Zero Energy Building
OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PAYT Pay-as-you-throw
PJ Petajoule
PMR Partnership for Market Readiness
PPP Public Private Partnership
R&D Research and Development
Ro-Ro Roll-on / Roll-of
SOX Sulphur oxides
SUMP Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan
t tonne
TCDD Turkish State Railways
toe tonne of oil equivalent
TurkStat Turkish Statistical Institution
TÜKÇEV Consumer and Environmental Education Foundation
UCES EU Integrated Environmental Approximation Strategy
UN United Nations
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
USD United States Dollar
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WEEE Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
WTAP Wastewater Treatment Action Plan
WtE Waste to Energy
YEKDEM Renewable Energy Resources Support Mechanism
yr year
1
1. Introduction
The Nations of the World have realized that there are severe problems threatening our
future as human beings in 1987 by the publication of the report known as the Bruntland
report. Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report, from the United
Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) was published
in 1987. Its targets were multilateralism and interdependence of nations in the search
for a sustainable development path. This was the report that paved the road to the
Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro and at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to
14 June 1992, The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) was first discussed and entered into force on 21 March 1994. To recall the
history, Turkey - a successful party at international treaties, such as the Montreal
Protocol on Substance that Deplete the Ozone Layer - has ratified UNFCCC on May
2004. The challenges of all nations are significant but in case of Turkey, a country that
has under 1% contribution to Global GHG emissions, the situation is relatively more
challenging. Although Turkey does not have any contribution to historic emissions, it
is rapidly developing country since 1990s and this puts Turkey under focus and
criticism as Turkey was identified as a country with the highest rate of growth in the
recent emissions. With these facts in mind, one must understand that the international
demand and the national reaction to it is a challenging one. This explains the delayed
ratification of the treaty. To be more specific, during the UNFCCC’s 7th Conference of
the Parties (COP7), which was held in Marrakesh in 2001, Turkey was removed from
Annex II, and parties to the convention were invited to recognise the special
circumstances of Turkey, which place the country in a situation different from that of
other parties included in Annex I. Following this development, Turkey became a party
to the Framework Convention in 2004, and from this date on, started to participate
more actively in climate policies. The numerous projects and successful activities that
are followed by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (MoEU) are the results
of these developments.
The purpose of the Demand Status Report is to identify how the current sectoral
development policies are able to meet the GHG emissions reduction targets that are
demanded by the international and national climate change related commitments in
buildings, transportation, waste, and agriculture sectors.
To achieve this purpose each sectoral chapter is designed to present development
policies and GHG emission reduction targets in the sector, by reviewing the sector
policies and obligations related to GHG emissions, by assessing sector development
trends and private sector perspective, by providing the analysis of GHG emission
reduction possibilities in the sector, based on current trends and policies, as well as
2
on available data and finally for each sector a policy recommendation for further
improvement of key sectoral policies towards lowering GHG emissions is provided.
This report also aims to pave the path for the development and shaping of activities
under the Components 3 and 4 of the project and targets to be a starting point for the
low carbon development modelling activities.
In order to achieve a precise idea about the demand status related to the target
sectors, the outputs of the models need to be taken into consideration. However, since
the modelling related activities of the project have not started yet this report will provide
an overview of the existing trends in buildings, transport, waste and agriculture
sectors.
Since the relevant national studies and policy papers were discussed under the
Activity 1.1.1 Status Report, only a list of the most significant national studies is
presented here, in this report to provide different perspective related to sectoral
demand and status. The relevant studies include the following:
World Bank funded PMR (Partnership for Market Readiness) Turkey project
that aims improvement and implementation of legislation on monitoring,
reporting and verification, and conducting studies on applicability of market-
based instruments in Turkey since 2013.
The recent World Bank study (2013) titled Green Growth Policy Paper (GGPP),
which reviews the scope for green growth development possibilities for Turkey
The study on Low Carbon Development Pathways and Priorities for Turkey by
WWF Turkey (2015).
Co-benefits of climate Action: Assessing Turkey’s Climate Pledge (2016)
prepared by Climate Network Turkey, New Climate Institute and with Climate
Action Network (CAN).
Energy Revolution, a Sustainable Turkey Energy Outlook (2015) by
Greenpeace.
The overall trends - based on the 6th National Communication Report to UNFCCC -
provides the following headline figures related to GHG emissions in key sectors:
The highest portion of total CO2 emissions originated from energy sector (energy,
industry, buildings, transport) with 86.1%. The remaining 13.6% originated from
industrial processes and 0.2% from agriculture in 2015. CO2 emissions from industrial
processes increased 0.4% compared to 2014 and 138.9% as compared to 1990. The
largest portion of CH4 emissions originated from agriculture activities with 59.3% while
28.8% from waste, and 11.8% from energy and industrial processes. CH4 emissions
3
from agriculture increased 22% compared to 1990 and CH4 emissions from waste
increased by 54.6% compared to 1990.
In the following sections, it is aimed to focus on to transport, waste, buildings, and
agriculture sectors and try to assess whether the existing strategies are appropriate to
reach INDC targets and objectives.
4
2. Development Policies and GHG Emission Reduction Targets in
Buildings Sector
The building sector is among the key target for decarbonisation policies. Buildings
contribute significantly to growing global energy consumption and climbing GHG
emissions. First, the 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) estimated that in 2010, the sector was responsible for 117 EJ or 32%
of global total energy consumption, 19% of energy-related CO2 emissions, and 51%
of global electricity consumption.1 Second, buildings offer large low cost opportunities
for energy savings and GHG emission reductions via improving carbon efficiency,
energy efficiency of technology system, and infrastructure efficiency, as well as
reducing service demand. In absolute terms, this presents the largest potential for
cost-effective CO2 emission reduction among all sectors, both globally and specifically
in economies in transition. Recognizing this fact, Turkey adopted or in the process of
adoption of numerous buildings-related pieces of legislation and plans; the country
lists the building sector among the key of its Intended Nationally Determined
Contributions (INDC) submitted under the Paris Agreement. The assessment of the
sector development trends, factors causing it, as well as the national actions for
limiting associated GHG emissions are presented in this chapter.
2.1. Review of Sector Policies and Obligations related to GHG Emission
2.1.1. International Commitments
Turkey is a party to the UNFCCC since 2004 and it is listed in Annex I to the
convention, among the countries, which were expected to adopt national policies and
measures and contribute to the global GHG mitigation efforts. By the year 2001. At
COP 7 Decision 1/CP.16 adopted by the Convention Parties recognized special
circumstances of Turkey and promoted its access to finance, technology, and
capacity-building to achieve low-carbon economy instead of obliging the country to
provide these conditions for developing countries. In 2009, Turkey ratified the Kyoto
Protocol expending the UNFCCC related good intentions and commitments to address
climate change related issues. However, Turkey is not included in Annex B among the
countries with quantitative commitments and therefore it is not assigned with a
particular GHG emission reduction target under it.
In 2016, Turkey signed the Paris Agreement under the UNFCCC but has not yet
ratified it. The agreement requires submitting NDCs to the global action of limiting
1 Lucon et al. 2014: Buildings. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the
Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter9.pdf
5
global warming below 2°C. On 30 September 2015, Turkey submitted its INDC, which
will become its NDC in case it will ratify the agreement. According to its INDC, the
country aims to reduce its GHG emissions, including LULUCF, by 21% as compared
to their BAU level in 2030.
Among the key plans and policies, which Turkey plans to rely on in achieving its INDC
targets, are related to the buildings sector. These include:2
Constructing new energy efficient residential and service buildings in
accordance with the Energy Performance of Buildings Regulation (BEP);
Issuing Energy Identity Certificates (EICs) for new and existing buildings to
control and reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions per m2;
Reducing the consumption of primary energy sources consumed by new and
existing buildings by means of design, technological equipment, and building
materials as well as development of instruments that promote the use of
renewable energy sources (loans, tax reduction, etc.);
Disseminating the design according to green building, passive energy, and
zero-energy principles in order to minimize energy demand and ensure local
production of energy.
Turkey plans to realize these measures through a set of national policies and actions.
These are described in the country’s 10th National Development Plan, NCCS, NCCAP,
and the Strategy on Energy Efficiency. The main buildings sector related provisions of
these documents are discussed in the next section.
2.1.2. National Commitments
10th National Development Plan
The 10th National Development Plan for 2014–20183 contains, among other programs,
the “Energy Efficiency Improvement Program”. The program relies on the “Energy
Efficiency Strategy Document (2012- 2023)”, which was adopted in 2012 and which
already contains the number of related activities.
There are two targets of the Energy Efficiency Improvement Program. The first relates
to the reduction of Turkey’s primary energy intensity from 0.2646 toe/1000 USD in
2011 to 0.243 toe/1000 USD in 2018. The second relates to decreasing energy
consumption of public buildings by 10% in 2018 as compared to 2012.
2 Republic of Turkey Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC)
http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Turkey/1/The_INDC_of_TURKEY_v.15.19.30.pdf
310th National Development Plan, Ministry of Development 2014-2018, Ankara, 2014,
http://www.mod.gov.tr/Lists/RecentPublications/Attachments/75/The%20Tenth%20Development%20Plan%20(2014-2018).pdf
6
Component 4 of the plan explicitly requires two actions related to energy performance
of public buildings: i) “disseminating energy efficiency investments in public buildings
by various financing methods including energy performance contract borrowing model
that allows debt repayment with savings obtained after project implementation”; and
ii) “converting the external structures surrounding the buildings and the heating
systems in old buildings with low and/ or insufficient insulation to thermally insulated
ones, which also meet the current standards”.
Furthermore, Component 1 and Component 2 of the plan indirectly target energy
efficiency in the buildings sector. Component 1 aims to promote administrative and
institutional capacity for energy efficiency whereas Component 2 aims to develop
sustainable financial mechanisms for financing energy efficiency studies and projects.
National Climate Change Strategy (2010-2023)4
NCCS for 2010-2023 sets the number of objectives related to climate change that have
to be implemented in Turkey in the short-term, mid-term, and long-term periods. Table
1 describes the strategy objectives, which are related to the buildings sector.
Table 1. The buildings sector-related of the NCCS4
Time period Objectives
Short-term An EIC practice shall be introduced for new buildings.
Renewable energy systems will be installed in new buildings, with an initial investment cost consistent with energy economics (e.g. with payback periods of 10 years for new buildings with floor space less than 20,000 m2 and 15 years for new buildings with floor space of 20,000 m2 and greater than 20,000 m2).
Solar power collectors for central heating and sanitary hot water will be installed at new hotels, hospitals, dormitories, other non-residential buildings used for accommodation purposes, as well as sports centres with a usage area of more than 1,000 m2.
Mid-term The infrastructure for the introduction of EID practices will be developed for existing buildings.
Long-term Improvements shall be ensured in energy consumption at existing public buildings and facilities.
National Climate Change Action Plan (2011-2023)5
NCCAP for 2011-2023 also sets purposes and objectives for each emitting sector and
sink as well as cross-cutting purposes and objectives. Table 2 summarizes the
purposes, objectives, actions, and timeframes for the buildings sector. Assuming the
actions for the period before 2014 have already been completed, only the actions
4 National Climate Change Strategy 2010-2023, Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, Ankara, 2010
5 National Climate Change Action Plan 2011-2023, Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, Ankara, 2011
7
covering 2014 are onwards and legislative actions are listed in it. Due to the lack of a
checking implementation list, the current status of the actions could not be determined.
Table 2. The buildings sector related purposes, objectives, and actions as stipulated in the
NCCAP5
Objective Action area Actions Time
Purpose 1: Increase energy efficiency in buildings
1 Establish standards for thermal insulation and energy-efficient systems in commercial/public buildings > 10,000 m2 and in at least 1 million residential buildings by 2023.
1 Identifying energy efficiency potential and priorities to ensure thermal insulation and energy efficient systems in buildings.
2 Identifying the technical specifications of model buildings set forth for building typologies.
2011-2017
3 Identifying short, medium and long-term targets for ensuring energy efficiency in buildings by comparing existing buildings against model buildings.
2011-2018
2 Implement BEP and other energy –efficiency regulations until 2017.
1 Improving and strengthening BEP to ensure use of thermal insulation and efficient energy systems in buildings.
3 Identifying and making the necessary changes in the related legal arrangements to support the implementation of BEP (Property Ownership Law, Municipalities Law, Building Inspection Regulation etc.).
2011-Sustained
4 Conducting technical assessment including cost/benefit analyses to upgrade EIC classification ranges (TS 825: lowering U-values of building components per years), ensuring coordination in revising BEP and TS 825.
2011-Sustained
5 Establishing the “Integrated Building Design Approach” and “Zero-Emission (Sustainable) Building” criteria; integrating them into BEP if deemed necessary.
2012-2015
2 Increasing the MEU capacity to implement BEP and other relevant legislation.
3 Assigning and training a team to supervise the regulated EICs.
2011 and onward
3 Increasing the capacity of other relevant organizations to implement BEP and other relevant legislation.
4 Making legislative amendments, if necessary, to increase the effectiveness of building inspections.
2011-2013
5 Increasing the effectiveness of standardizing the Building Energy Management system; aligning the relevant legislation (EE Law and regulations) with the Energy Management Standard (16001 EN-ISO 50001); implementing it in commercial & residential buildings.
2011-2015
3 Develop instruments providing financial support for building energy efficiency and integrated renewable energy until 2013.
1 Providing financing for implementation of BEP and increase of energy efficiency / renewable energy in buildings.
2 Researching, promoting and disseminating finance models that encourage investments necessary for energy efficiency measures in buildings.
2011-2015
4 Issue EICs to all buildings until 2017.
1 Strengthening necessary infrastructure to issue EICs to all buildings.
1 Monitoring and registering the certificates to be given to existing and new buildings by MEU, inspecting the implementation of the BEP Regulation and other energy efficiency practices through random inspections.
2011-2017
2 Developing a method for periodic inspection of building mechanic systems (central heating systems, HVAC systems), making designations for inspections and carrying out inspections.
2011-2017
5 Decrease annual energy consumption
1 Reducing the annual energy
2 Ensuring coordination for gradually issuing EICs for all public buildings
2011-2017
8
in buildings and premises of public institutions by 10% until 2015 and by 20% until 2023.
consumption of the buildings and premises of public institutions.
3 Issuing a Prime Ministry Circular for determination of threshold values for EICs for old and new buildings, determination of an energy efficiency improvement strategy for public buildings based on such EIC threshold value and ensuring necessary allocation.
2011-2018
4 Commissioning public institutions to carry out energy surveys, determining the necessary budget for improvements, preparing feasibility reports.
2011-2015
Purpose 2: Increase renewable energy use in buildings
1 Meet at least 20% of the annual energy demand of new buildings via renewable energy resources by 2017.
1 Promoting the use of renewable energy in buildings.
2 Making new arrangements to ensure the use of renewable energy in buildings.
2011-2015
Purpose 3: Limit GHG emissions originating from settlements
1 Reduce GHG emissions in new settlements by at least 10% per settlement in comparison to existing settlements by 2023.
2 Developing policies and legal arrangements for energy-efficient and climate-sensitive settlements; implementing these in pilots.
3 Identifying principles and procedures for energy-efficient, climate sensitive, sustainable urban settlement planning and using the results of pilot projects, transferring the outputs to physical development planning legislation so as to put sustainable urban plans into practice.
2015-2016
5 Preparing physical development plans in the form of climate-sensitive settlement plans by local governments.
2013-2015
Energy Efficiency Strategy Paper (2012-2023)6
Energy Efficiency Strategy Paper for 2012-2023 defined a set of strategic purposes
(SP) related to energy efficiency for the country. The strategic purpose SP-1 targets
energy intensity in service sectors. The strategic purpose SP-2 explicitly targets
energy efficiency in the buildings sector and requires i) decreasing energy demand
and carbon emissions of buildings; ii) promoting sustainable environment-friendly
buildings using renewable energy sources. The specific purpose SP-06 promotes
using energy effectively and efficiently in the public sector. Furthermore, the specific
purpose SP-07 aims to improve energy efficiency in buildings indirectly by
strengthening institutional structures, capacities, and collaboration; increasing the use
of state of the art technology and awareness activities; and developing other than
public financing mechanisms. Table 3 identifies targets and actions of the strategy to
implement purposes SP-1, SP-2, and SP-6:
6 Energy Efficiency Strategy Paper, 2012-2023, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Ankara, 2010
9
Table 3. Targets and actions related to the buildings sector defined by the Energy Efficiency
Strategy.6
Service sector
SP-1 Target Energy intensities in each service sub-sector shall be decreased. The rates shall be determined in close collaborations with sector stakeholders, but they shall not be less than a 10% of the intensity for each sub-sector in 2012-2022.
Implementing Actions
Business enterprises consuming at least 5.000 toe/yr. and buildings having a usage area more than 20.000 m2 for commercial and business purposes are required to conduct regular energy audits and establish action plans (2014).
Business enterprises operating in the service sectors are obliged to establish an energy management unit or nominate energy manager (2013).
The investments providing an increase in energy efficiency shall be encouraged (2014).
Public sector
SP-6 Target Annual energy consumption in the buildings of public enterprises and facilities shall be decreased by 10% and 20% in 2015 and 2023 respectively (2014).
Implementing Actions
Action plans shall be prepared by making energy audits in the buildings and facilities of the public enterprises. The budget allowances of the building maintenance shall be used for realization of these plans (2012.)
Minimum energy efficiency criteria for the commodities, service and construction works shall be introduced for the public procurements. The buildings exceeding maximum CO2 and energy consumption allowed shall not be rented by the public sector (2014).
Energy efficiency upgrades of public buildings and facilities shall be made based on the Energy Performance Contracting model with guaranteed savings. The preparations of the bill in parliament related to making changes in the Energy Efficiency Law and in the related laws and the secondary legislation arrangements, which shall be made in the framework of the legislation in force, shall be made by 2014.
All buildings
SP-2 Target In 2023, thermal insulation and energy efficient heating systems complying with the current standards shall be installed in all commercial and service buildings having the total usage area of more than 10.000 m2.
Implementing Actions
Buildings’ maximum energy requirement and maximum emission limitations shall be determined. The related legislation shall be revised and brought in line with the EU legislation (2015).
By 2017, administrative sanctions shall be applied to the buildings emitting more CO2 than it will be defined in the related legislation (2014).
SP-2 Target By 2023, at least one-fourth of 2010 buildings shall be converted to sustainable.
Implementing Actions
By 2017, new commercial buildings, luxury dwellings and residences having a usable area more than 10.000 m2 shall have certificates of sustainability within eighteen months following the issue of construction license (2014).
The use of renewable energy sources and cogeneration or microgeneration, central and regional heating and cooling and heat pump systems shall be analysed in public housing projects. The applications corresponding to at least 10% of the dwelling cost shall be encouraged (2013).
10
2.1.3. Evaluation of the implementation of country’s commitments by the
EU Commission Progress Reports
The 6th progress report of EU Commission7, which evaluated the progress made by
Turkey for EU membership, also assessed country’s efforts related to “energy
efficiency”, among other areas. The report concludes that the country has not achieved
the progress expected because it has not yet adopted its national energy efficiency
action plan as well as it has not set clear priorities with sectoral targets and milestones
in line with the requirements of the Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU. The report
also criticized the lack of a timetable for achieving the full alignment of country’s
national legislation with the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 2010/31/EU. It
stressed the urgent need to strengthen the institutional structure to improve
coordination between the different ministries for the implementation of energy
efficiency policies.
While the conclusions of the 6th Progress Report were indeed valid as of the date of
its publication, the country does progress towards the transposition of EU energy
efficiency acquis into its legislation, though with a slower speed than expected. For
instance, the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan was adopted on 27 November
2017 and published in the official gazette on 2nd January 2018.8 The plan identified the
number of actions to be implemented by the country. These include: the preparation
of studies for all sectors for the purpose of streamlining of energy efficiency support
mechanisms; the development of sustainable finance mechanisms; building up
sustainable purchase; the promotion of energy efficiency culture, awareness and
consumption in the private and public sectors; the encouragement of sustainable
energy production and consumption; the positioning of smart cities and smart grids;
the improvement of energy efficiency in the industry, transportation and agriculture;
the generalization of regional heating, within the frame of energy efficiency multiplying
of alternative fuel and resource usage; the expansion of sustainable environment-
friendly buildings; and other measures. The plan, therefore, includes the
comprehensive number of cross-cutting and sector-specific measures and, if
implemented, presents a significant step towards decarbonisation of the buildings
sector.
7 European Commission Staff Working Document, Turkey 6th Progress Report, Brussels, 2016
https://www.ab.gov.tr/files/pub/2016_progress_report_en.pdf
8 National Energy Efficiency Action Plan 2017-2023, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Ankara, 2017
http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2018/01/20180102M1-1-1.pdf
11
2.2. Assessment of Sector Development Trends and Private Sector
Perspective
2.2.1. Sector development trends
The construction sector has been at the forefront of economic development in Turkey
with a considerable share of GDP for a long time. Based on TurkStat data, in 2016, it
contributed around ₺224.3 billion at current prices or 8.6% to the Turkish GDP.9
According to European International Contractors, the construction sector also relates
to other parts of economy using a large share of materials, equipment, transport, etc.,
ultimately resulting in a GDP share of ca. 30% and providing employment for nearly
10% of the working population (Oxford Business Group, 2016).10
Due to Turkey’s growing urbanization rate (92.5% by the end of 2017), the building
stock is continuously expanding. Figure 1 presents the number of buildings and its
total floor area built in 1954–2016. It illustrates that while the number of buildings
increased only by 40% between 2000 and 2016, the floor areas grew by 124% during
this period.
Figure 1. Number of new buildings and total floor areas built after 195411
9 TurkStat, GDP indicators, http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=27817 Accessed: 08/05/2018
10 Oxford Business Group, 2016. The Report: Turkey 2015 - Turkey's construction sector to maintain its significant role in the
economy, with several large projects under way. URL: https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/overview/turkeys-construction-sector-
maintain-its-significant-role-economy-several-large-projects-under-way Accessed: 22/02/2018
11 TurkStat (2017), New buildings and additions by type of investor.
12
According to the statistics available,12 the share of residential buildings is ca. 86% of
the total building stock, followed by commercial buildings. Public buildings are the
smallest category of the stock (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Number of buildings by building type in 1984 and 200013
A large share of buildings older than 15-20 years represents a challenge for Turkey
towards its decarbonisation. As it will be discussed in section 2.3, the buildings
constructed before the year 2000 typically consume twice the energy laid down in
current building energy regulations.12,14 As shown in Figure 3, ca. 70% of the current
building stock (built after 1954) was constructed before the year 2000. Therefore, it is
important for Turkey to design and implement policies not only for buildings which are
still to be constructed but also for the existing buildings.
12
Keskin, T., 2010, Türkiye’nin İklim Değişikliği Ulusal Eylem Planı’nın Geliştirilmesi Projesi Binalar Sektörü Mevcut Durum
Değerlendirmesi Raporu,
http://iklim.cob.gov.tr/iklim/Files/Binalar%20Sektoru%20Mevcut%20Durum%20Degerlendirmesi%20Raporu.pdf Accessed:
20/02/2018
13 TurkStat (2001), Building Census 2000.
14 Promoting Energy Efficiency in Buildings in Turkey Project Brochure, General Directorate of Renewable Energy and UNDP,
http://www.tr.undp.org/content/dam/turkey/docs/projectdocuments/EnvSust/UNDP-TR-
brosur_revize%20edilen_baskiyagiden0213.pdf?download Accessed: 21/02/2018
13
Figure 3. Number and distribution of buildings by construction period (2016)11
2.2.2. Private Sector Perspective
This sub-section is supposed to include low carbon perspective of the private sector.
However, this part cannot be completed due to the lack of contributions from relevant
stakeholders. In the upcoming days, after the meeting with the institutions to be held,
the private sector perspective assessment will be submitted separately, based on the
data gathered from the stakeholders.
2.3. Analysis of GHG Emission Reduction Possibilities in the Sector based
on Current Trends and Policies
2.3.1. The GHG Emission Trends of the Buildings Sector
According to the latest GHG inventory of Turkey conducted for 2015,15 the total
national GHG emissions were 475.1 Mt of CO2-eq excluding LULUCF and 411.0 Mt
CO2-eq including it. These emissions increased by 122% and 124%, as compared to
1990 emissions respectively.
Calculated according to the IPCC methodology, the energy sector or fuel combustion
activities contributed 71.6% i.e. the largest share of the total country’s GHG emissions
excluding LULUCF in 2015. The emissions of the energy sector include the emissions
of the buildings sector, among others. The industrial processes and other product use
(IPPU) sector ranked second with 12.8%, agriculture – third with 12.1%, and the waste
sector - fourth with 3.5%. As Figure 4 illustrates, the energy sector emissions
increased by 153% in 2015 as compared to their 1990.
15
National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report 1990-2015, Annual Report for submission under the UNFCCC, Turkish
Statistical Institute, Ankara, 2017,
http://unfccc.int/national_reports/annex_i_ghg_inventories/national_inventories_submissions/items/10116.php
14
Figure 4. The breakdown of GHG emission trends in Turkey by sector (1990-2015)15
Within the structure of the energy sector, energy industries had the highest share in
GHG emissions with 40.8% in 2015. They were followed by the transport sector with
22.6%; manufacturing industries with 17.2%; the residential, commercial, and
institutional sector with 16.6%; as well as the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector
with 2.9% (Figure 5). It should be noted however that these figures represent “direct”
emissions, i.e. emissions allocated according to the points of their production. If the
emissions would also include “indirect” emissions, i.e. emissions associated with
electricity allocated to the point of their consumption, the share of the residential,
commercial, and institutional buildings would be much higher.
Figure 5. GHG emissions from fuel combustion by sectors, 1990 (left) and 2015 (right)
Whereas direct GHG emissions of the buildings sector increased by 105% in 2015 as
compared to their level in 1990 (Figure 6), their share in the total fuel combustion
emissions decreased from 20.8% to 16.6% within the same period (Figure 5). The
contribution of the buildings sector to the country’s total GHG emissions excluding
LULUCF was 12.7% in 1990 versus 11.7% in 2015 (Figure 6).
15
Figure 6. GHG emissions of the residential, commercial, and institutional sector (1990-2015)
The main driver of the increase in direct GHG emissions of the buildings sector in
absolute numbers during 1990-2015 was the increase in energy consumption from
fossil fuels. The total final energy consumption of the buildings sector was 643 PJ in
1990 and it increased to 1354 PJ in 2015. The largest contributor to this trend was the
increase in the sector’s fossil fuel consumption by 194% during 1990-2015, given that
the share of renewable energy decreased by 41.5% in the same period (Figure 7). In
1990 and 2015, the share of renewable energy was 49.4% and 13.7% whereas the
share of fossil fuels was 41.2% and 57.6% respectively.
Figure 7. Energy consumption in the buildings sector
Figure 7 shows CO2 emission intensity of fuels which is the CO2 emission per unit of
energy produced. Among fossil fuels, coal has the highest CO2 emission intensity and
natural gas is the lowest intensity. According to 2006 IPCC guidelines for GHG
inventories, CO2 from biomass is not added to the national total GHG emissions so
increasing the share of biomass in the energy mix of buildings can contribute to
emission reduction in this sector.
16
Figure 8. CO2 emission intensity of fuels consumed in Turkish buildings
In 2015, the share of the buildings sector in gross national energy consumption
reached 33%, exceeding the energy consumption of industry16. It is expected that the
energy consumption of the buildings sector in absolute values will further grow by at
least 50% in 2020 as compared to 2013.5
2.3.2. GHG emission reduction possibilities in the buildings sector
The assessment on the buildings sector presented in the previous section argues for
the urgency and priority of the buildings sector decarbonisation policies due to its
growing energy demand and GHG emissions in Turkey. Emission reduction
opportunities are associated with the implementation of technologies and practices
available on the country’s market such as passive architecture, advanced thermal
insulation, high efficient heating and cooling systems, advanced lighting systems,
energy efficient domestic appliances and service equipment, and clean water systems.
These technologies and practices could be applied both at the construction stage of
buildings and at their operation stage.
One of the important emission reduction possibilities is the insulation on existing
buildings to the level regulated by TS-825 standard “Thermal Insulation Requirements
for Buildings”. According to the “Energy Efficiency Research” conducted by GFK
Turkey in 2009, while 82% of the energy delivered to residential buildings is used for
space heating purposes, the insulation rate of these buildings is only about 20%. In
particular, the building stock constructed before 2000, i.e. before the TS-825 standard
was adopted, have poor thermal performance. Therefore, energy efficiency measures
in these buildings could realize high energy saving and therefore GHG emission
reduction potential.
16
6th National Communication of Turkey, under UNFCCC, Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, Ankara, 2016,
https://unfccc.int/files/national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/application/pdf/6_bildirim_eng_11_reducedfilesize.pdf
17
In new buildings, the application of passive building and nearly zero energy building
(nZEB) principles at the construction stage is among the measures to increase energy
efficiency and decrease GHG emissions. These concepts have already been
successfully tested in Turkey and the recent policies introduced in the country aim to
gradually transform the market towards their integration.
In both new and existing buildings, the use of renewable energy instead of fossil fuels
may have a big contribution to the reduction of sector’s GHG emissions. For instance,
Dikmen and Gültekin (2011)17 argued that if photovoltaics will be placed on houses,
office buildings, and factories of Turkey, this would allow producing 40 billion kWh/yr.
the electricity that is almost equivalent to the electricity demand of its residential
buildings.
Besides thermal efficiency improvement of building envelopes, large emission
reduction potential is associated with the exchange of inefficient domestic appliances
lights. Figure 9 presents the average electricity consumption of electrified households
in Turkey during 1990 – 2014, and it illustrates that consumption grew up with the rate
of 4.8%/yr. during this period. Therefore, curbing this trend could contribute a lot to
saving electricity and thus reducing GHG emissions. The technological options include
promoting LED lighting and using energy efficient household appliances with energy
performance classes higher than A+.
Figure 9. Average electricity consumption of electrified households and electricity intensity of
the service sector per value added in purchasing power parities (ppp), (1990-2014)18
17
Dikmen and Gültekin, 2011. Usage of Renewable Energy Resources In Buildings in The Context Of Sustainability. Journal
of Engineering Science and Design. Vol:1 No:3 pp.96-100, 2011. http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/195367
18 World Energy Council database. https://wec-policies.enerdata.net/ Accessed: 27/02/2018.
18
Similar, a large potential is associated with improving electrical efficiency and saving
electricity in commercial and public buildings. Although their number is smaller than
that of residential buildings, they contribute a large share to the sector energy
consumption. Figure 9 presents the electricity intensity of the commercial sector in
Turkey during 1990 – 2014 measured per value added in purchasing power parities.
The figure shows that similar to the electrical intensity of households, the commercial
electrical intensity grew at 4.4%/yr. during this period. The possibilities to reduce
energy demand in this sector is to improve the energy performance of heating, cooling,
and air-conditioning systems as well as of the equipment used in these buildings (data
centres, printers, fax machines, etc.). Thus, energy efficiency and GHG emission
reduction potentials are similarly high in commercial and residential buildings, but their
realization differs in terms of technological applications, peak demand, and financial
needs.
Of course, the GHG emission reduction possibilities discussed above can only be
realized on a large scale by turning Turkey into a low carbon economy, if the culture
of energy efficiency and climate protection will be taken over as a must by its
population. A detailed analysis of the options discussed above in terms of barriers and
opportunities will be conducted in the next steps of this project.
2.4. Policy Recommendation for Further Improvement of Key Sectoral
Policies towards Lowering GHG Emissions
As the chapter attests, the buildings sector in Turkey is growing with the aim to provide
more homes for its increasing population as well as more floor space for commerce
and administrations. The urbanization process multiplying energy consumption as
compared to rural areas and growing living standards contribute to a distinct upward
trend in energy consumption and GHG emissions, which is still far from its stabilization.
That means that to limit GHG emissions associated with the buildings sector energy
consumption, the country faces a challenge to design and implement very ambitious
mitigation policies.
As discussed in the chapter, Turkey submitted its INDC committing to 21% GHG
emission reduction by 2030 versus its business-as-usual trends. However, this target
includes LULUCF excluding which the target is equivalent to a 348% increase versus
its 1990 levels.19
The national strategic documents and plans discussed in the chapter contain the
energy- and climate-related targets for some segments of the buildings sector and
identify the number of actions to implement them. Whereas these sets of targets and
19
http://www.climate-transparency.org/g20-climate-performance/g20report2017/country-profiles Accessed: 23/02/2018
19
actions were a good start, many of them aim to deliver achievements already in 2015,
2018, and/or 2023, but there is a lack of evidence whether these have been already
delivered. As the chapter’s authors concluded, the country did not envision progress
and/or evaluation reports on the implementation of these commitments as well as on
the assessment of success and limitation factors, addressing which would help to
correct the country’s progress. This conclusion leads to the necessity to introduce
stronger implementation, monitoring, reporting, and enforcement mechanisms
additionally to the design and formulation of policies in the country.
As the review of the national policies illustrates, the country has achieved significant
progress on the transposition of the regulatory policies as required by EU energy
efficiency acquis i.e. building standards and mandatory building labelling and
certification. These policies typically work well for new buildings if they are updated
and tightened regularly, but they are not sufficient to deliver the impact on GHG
emission reduction in existing buildings. Therefore, more efforts are needed to design
relevant plans pushing for the design of building renovation strategies, the
establishment of financial mechanisms – either energy efficiency obligation schemes
or alternative approaches, and other enabling policies required by the EU energy
efficiency legislation that have not been yet addressed comprehensively by the
country.
There is also a need to introduce more policies for building the capacity of the
population, commerce, and the public sector to overcome their reluctance towards
investing into energy efficiency. The fact that the country fights its energy dependency
and continues providing subsidies for generation of domestic energy from fossil fuels
delivers, on one hand, a benefit for the population but becomes a disadvantage on the
other hand. Such energy prices do not allow households and commerce feeling the
real cost of energy and undermine their economic rationality and motivation to invest
in energy efficiency. Therefore, a tariff reform in combination with strong information
campaigns how to decrease energy bills in spite of higher energy prices is a must have
for the country. A detailed analysis of the options discussed above in terms of barriers
and opportunities will be conducted in the next steps of this project.
20
3. Development Policies and GHG Emission Reduction Targets in
Waste Sector
Waste sector plays an important role in climate change and global warming as one of
the main sectors generating methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Solid waste
disposal (“sanitary”/controlled landfilling or “wild”/open dump sites) and wastewater
treatment and discharge systems (municipal or industrial) are the main contributors to
the waste sector based GHG emissions.
INDC of Turkey includes plans and policies to be implemented for the waste sector:
Sending solid wastes to managed landfill sites;
Reuse, recycle and use of other processes to recover secondary raw materials
to utilize them as an energy source or to remove wastes;
Recovering energy from waste by using processes such as material recycling
of wastes, bio-drying, bio-methanisation, composting, advanced thermal
processes or incineration;
Recovery of methane gas from landfill gas from managed and unmanaged
landfill sites;
Utilization of industrial wastes as an alternative raw material or alternative fuel
in other industrial sectors, through industrial symbiosis approach;
Conducting relevant studies to utilize wastes generated from breeding farms
and poultry farms;
Rehabilitation of unmanaged waste sites and ensuring wastes to be deposited
at managed landfill sites.2
Besides, some policy documents supporting the waste part of INDC are discussed in
the next section.
3.1. Review of Sector Policies and Obligations related to GHG Emission
Solid waste disposal and wastewater discharge and treatment are the main sources
of GHG emissions from the waste sector. In Turkish waste legislation, policies and
strategy papers there are no direct targets or obligation for GHG emission mitigation.
However, reducing amounts of both solid waste and wastewater, diverting waste away
from landfills, increasing biological recovery of waste which replaces landfilling,
capturing or flaring methane from landfills and wastewater, rehabilitation of old
dumpsites, better source separation and collection of municipal waste and increasing
the use of nitrogen removal technologies in wastewater treatment contribute to GHG
emissions from waste sector. In this section, sectoral policy documents relevant to
above actions and practices are reviewed.
21
National Waste Management Action Plan (2016 – 2023)
NWMAP involves the status of waste management in Turkey based on analysis of 81
provinces’ data, future trends and projections of waste generation, areas of
improvement on waste management, planned actions and investments until 2023. The
plan has been prepared in accordance with the adaption of the EU acquis to the
national environmental legislation and implementation of the national legislation.
Plan analyses waste management cycle from collection to material recycling, energy
recovery or final disposal for various types of waste including municipal waste,
packaging waste, medical waste, special waste (waste electrical and electronic
equipment, waste batteries and accumulators, waste oils…etc.), hazardous waste,
and construction & demolition waste. It has been publicly available since 05.12.2017
(published on the MoEU’s web site). The plan aims to outline country wide “sustainable
waste management strategy” to prevent environmental degradation and rapid diminish
of natural resources. It also aims to positively contribute to economic development by
regaining the value of the waste materials. It includes some quantitative and qualitative
targets as listed below:
Increase material recycling rate of municipal waste (mainly packaging) from
5.4% in 2014 to 12% in 2023;
Increase biological treatment recovery rate of municipal waste from 0.2% in
2014 to 4% in 2023;
Increase mechanical biological treatment recovery rate of municipal waste from
5.4% in 2014 to 11% in 2023;
Increase thermal treatment recovery rate of municipal waste from 0.3% in 2014
to 8% in 2023;
Decrease landfilling rate of municipal waste from 88.7% in 2014 to 65% in 2023;
Rehabilitation and/or closure of old wild dumpsites;
Countrywide implementation of efficient construction & demolition waste
management;
Increase efficiency of collection and recovery of special wastes;
Ensure additional facility investments needed for hazardous waste recovery
and disposal;
Wastewater Treatment Action Plan (2015 - 2023)
Wastewater Treatment Action Plan involves and analyses; pollution status of 25 river
basins, pressures and impacts, wastewater legislation and status of infrastructure in
Turkey, barriers on wastewater pollution prevention, wastewater treatment strategies,
planned actions and investments on wastewater treatment plants and sewerage
22
systems including types, initial and operational costs. It has been publicly available
since 26.01.2016 (published on the MoEU’s web site).
Wastewater Treatment Action Plan aims to strengthen wastewater treatment capacity
of Turkey in line with the targets of the 10th Development Plan and Strategic Plan of
the MoEU. The Plan also promotes reuse of wastewater and clean production
technologies for wastewater treatment plants which contribute to climate change
mitigation. Some specific targets of the plan are listed below:
85% of the municipal population served by the wastewater treatment and
sewerage system until the end of 2017;20
100% of the municipal population served by the wastewater treatment and
sewerage system until the end of 2023;
Construction and commissioning of 1418 new wastewater treatment plants until
2023;
Renovation of 83 existing wastewater treatment plants until 2023;
Countrywide connection of pre-treated or treated industrial wastewater to the
municipal wastewater collection system;
Implementation of full cost-based wastewater tariffs.
10th National Development Plan (2014- 2018)3
The objectives are regarding waste sector:
Sanitation and wastewater treatment infrastructures in cities will be improved,
these infrastructures will be operated in line with the basin-specific discharge
standards, and reuse of treated wastewater will be encouraged;
Through efficient solid waste management, waste reduction, separation at
source, collection, transportation, recycle and disposal stages will be improved
as a whole in technical and financial aspects; raising awareness and improving
institutional capacity will be assigned priority. Usage of recycled materials in
production processes will be encouraged.
The targets are regarding waste sector:
Ratio of municipal population served with wastewater treatment plant to total
municipal population is planned to be 85% until the end of 2018;21
20
According to TurkStat 2016 data, 74.8% of the municipal population is served with wastewater treatment plant and 89.7% of
the municipal population is served by sewerage system.
21 According to TurkStat 2016 data, 74.8% of the municipal population is served with wastewater treatment plant.
23
The ratio of municipal population benefiting from the sanitary landfill is planned
to be 80% until the end of 2018.22
National Climate Change Strategy (2010 – 2023)4
In the waste chapter of the National Climate Change Strategy, relevant strategies are
divided into 3 parts as short, medium and long-term ones:
Short Term
Harmonisation of legislation managing municipal wastes will be finalised by the
end of 2010.23
Medium Term
The amount of waste reuse and recovery will be increased within the framework
of the Waste Action Plan (2008 - 2012);
104 sanitary landfill facilities will be constructed and 76% of municipal waste
will be disposed at these facilities by the end of 2012.24
Long Term
Waste management hierarchy of source reduction, reuse, recycling, and
recovery shall be implemented more efficiently;
The number of organic substances transferred to the sanitary landfills will be
reduced, and biodegradable wastes will be used in energy generation or
composting;
Landfill gas will be captured and recovered for energy generation directly or
after being processed; otherwise, they will be incinerated for disposal.
National Climate Change Action Plan (2011 – 2023)5
In the action plan, the objective of the waste sector is defined as “ensuring effective
waste management”. Under this objective, some targets and actions are listed
including the time period for accomplishment; benefits, outputs and performance
indicators; and responsible, coordinating and relevant organisations.
Targets and action areas for the waste sector are summarized below:
22
According to TurkStat 2016 data, 92.5% of the total population is served with waste collection service and 61.2 % of the
collected waste is disposed to sanitary landfills and 9.8% of the collected waste is sent to recovery facilities.
23 Harmonisation of legislation was completed by adoption of Waste Management Regulation in 2015.
24 According to 2016 data, total number of sanitary landfill facility is 83 in Turkey and 61.2 % of the collected municipal waste is
disposed to sanitary landfills.
24
Target 1: Reduce the quantity of biodegradable wastes sent to landfill sites, taking the
year 2005 as a basis, by 75% in weight till 2015, by 50% till 2018 and by 35% till
202525.
Action Area 1.1: Preparation and Implementation of Integrated Waste
Management Plans (IWMP) by Municipalities/Municipality Unions.
Action Area 1.2: Strengthening the institutional structure of Waste Management
Unions.
Action Area 1.3: Developing institutional capacity for monitoring and
supervision of IWMP practices.
Target 2: Establish integrated solid waste disposal facilities across the country and
dispose of 100% of municipal waste in these facilities until the end of 2023.
- Action Area 2.1: Developing the capacity of solid waste disposal facilities by
waste management consistent with national legislation and the EU acquis.
- Action Area 2.2: Recovery of the landfill gas.
Target 3: Finalise Packaging Waste Management Plans
Action Area 3.1: Effective implementation of a source-separated collection of
wastes.
Target 4: Establish the recovery facilities foreseen within the scope of the Solid Waste
Master Plan with the EU-compatible Integrated Waste Management approach.
Action Area 4.1: Increasing the number of compost and bio-methanisation
facilities.
Action Area 4.2: Supporting the waste reduction policy.
Target 5: Closure of wild dump sites 100% by 2023.
Action Area 5.1: Rehabilitation of wild dump sites.
In addition to the above strategy papers and action plans, Regulation on Sanitary
Landfill of Wastes (2010) requires reducing quantity of biodegradable wastes sent to
landfill sites, taking year 2005 as a basis, by 75% in weight till 2015, by 50% till 2018
and by 35% till 2025 and Waste Management Regulation (2015 - revised 2017)
requests dual collection system for recyclable and organic waste.26
25
Target is from Regulation on Sanitary Landfill of Wastes (2010).
26 Hitherto, both of the requirements have shown very little progress on implementation.
25
3.2. Assessment of Sector Development Trends and Private Sector
Perspective
According to the latest GHGs inventory of Turkey (NIR, 2017)15, total GHG emissions
generated from the waste sector is 16.9 Mt CO2-eq in 2015, which is 3.5% of the total
GHG emissions (excluding LULUCF). Starting from 2016 inventory submission, 2006
IPCC Guidelines have become mandatory and data has been revised retrospectively
for waste disposal sites. Emission estimates from Solid Waste Disposal (CRF
Category 5.A) are recalculated over the 1990-2013-time series.27 According to the
latest calculation of the time series, there is 52.2% increase in waste sector GHG
emissions between 1990 and 2015.
Main sources of waste sector based GHG emissions are solid waste disposal and
wastewater discharge and treatment. In 2015, “solid waste disposal” accounted for
73.8% and “wastewater discharge and treatment” accounted for 26.1% of the waste
sector based GHG emissions. Emissions from “open burning of waste” and “biological
treatment of waste” can be considered as negligible which together amount around
0.1% of waste sector emissions. Figure 10 shows the GHG emissions from waste
sector activities between 1990 and 2015.
27
Total amount of generated industrial waste had been used in the methane emission estimations from waste disposal sites
until 2016 inventory submission. However, based on the country-specific values for industrial waste disposed in the landfills
derived from waste statistics surveys performed by TurkStat, it was clarified that a significant amount of industrial waste was
included in the Municipal Waste and also only biogenic part of industrial waste should be considered in emission calculation not
the total amount of industrial waste. Therefore, CH4 emissions from solid waste disposal sites have been recalculated for the
years 1990-2013. Compared to the previous inventory submission, CH4 emissions in 2013 decreased by 45.1 per cent (9
707.34 kt), and decreased in 1990 by 30.6 per cent (2 962.18 kt). As an example, in the waste chapter of the National Climate
Change Action Plan (NCCAP), greenhouse gas emissions from waste sector was mentioned as second biggest among the
sectors after energy (33.8 Mt CO2-eq in 2009). According to today’s revised data, waste sector emissions are 17.9 Mt CO2-eq in
2009 (nearly half compared to the previous methodology).
26
Figure 10. GHG emissions from waste sector, 1990-2015
In the last decade, the waste sector has developed continually including an increase
in private sector investments in Turkey. In 1994, by far the main disposal method for
municipal waste was the open dumping of waste, nearly without the existence of any
composting of waste or other biological waste recovery methods and only 2 sanitary
landfills were existent. In 2007, the number of sanitary landfills increased to 32 and
according to latest NWMAP (2016 – 2023), 83 sanitary landfills are existent at the end
of 2016 receiving 61.2% of the total municipal waste collected and serving 59 out of
81 provinces. Supported by YEKDEM28 mechanism, landfill gas collection and
electricity generation facilities have become popular particularly in the last 5 years.
The biogas production (collected gas) on landfills and wastewater treatment has
reached to more than 200 MWe installed capacity and 1.5 million MWh29 annual
production capacity including another biological recovery for energy facilities.
Biological treatment of waste is also in developing trend; however annual capacity is
currently not satisfactory at a too low level of 1.5 Mt. There exist 8 biological waste
recovery facilities (6 composting, 2 bio-methanisation) for source-segregated
municipal waste; 6 mechanical and biological treatment facilities (1 composting, 4 bio-
methanisation, 1 bio-drying) for mixed municipal waste and 1 co-incineration plant for
28
YEKDEM is a support mechanism for electricity manufacturers from renewable energy resources, which has been regulated
in the Regulation on Documentation and Support of Electricity Manufacturing from Renewable Energy Resources which has
entered into force in 2013. Landfill gas to electricity facilities are supported by sale price of 13.3 US cent/kWh guarantee to the
electricity grid. There is also local equipment bonus.
29 YEKDEM (2018), http://www.epdk.org.tr/TR/Dokumanlar/Elektrik/Yekdem/2018
02468
101214161820
19
90
19
91
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
20
14
20
15
Solid waste disposal Waste water treatment and discharge
Open burning of waste Biological treatment of solid waste
(Mt CO2 eq)
27
mixed municipal waste. These biological recovery facilities are established in only 12
cities out of 81 cities of Turkey (NWMAP, 2016).30
Despite all these positive developments in waste management, there are still more
than 800 dump sites (unmanaged landfills) in Turkey (NWMAP, 2016) and about 29%
of the municipal waste was disposed to these sites in 2016 (TurkStat, 2016).31 22 out
of 81 cities are not served with sanitary landfills.
As most of the municipalities in Turkey tend to transfer their waste management
responsibility to the private sector, private sector investments on solid waste projects
have been n increasing trend, supported by existing incentives such as YEKDEM
mechanism. The private sector generally focuses on the rehabilitation of old dump
sites in the form of long-term (up to 49 years) build-operate-transfer (BOT) contracts
with the Municipalities. This public-private partnership (PPP) projects are popular on
integrated waste management for a city or a region including landfill gas capturing,
biological recovery, and waste to energy facilities. Table 4 shows the current list of
waste to energy facilities fed by landfill gas or biogas from wastewater treatment in
Turkey.
Table 4. List of WtE facilities in Turkey (landfill or wastewater gas to energy only)29
Name of the facility
Installed
capacity
(MWe)
Annual
production
capacity (kWh)
Arel Energy Manavgat Biomass Facility 3,600 25.200.000
Arel Energy Biomass Facility 2,400 26.670.000
Arel Renewable Energy Isparta Biomass Facility 2,826 19.740.000
Atlas Osmaniye Landfill Gas to Electricity Facility 3,120 21.840.000
Hatay Gökçegöz Landfill Gas Power Plant 4,239 39.564.000
Kumkısık Lfg Power Plant 0,635 5.080.000
Pamukova Biogas Power Plant 1,400 9.670.000
Amasya Landfill Gas to Electricity Facility 1,200 12.859.000
Trabzon Rize Landfill Gas Power Plant 4,350 29.673.000
Gaziantep B.B. Landfill 5,655 48.859.000
Bolu Landfill Biogas Project 1,131 8.143.200
Malatya 1 Landfill Gas to Electricity Facility 1,200 16.800.000
Şanlıurfa Power Plant 6,240 43.680.000
30
National Waste Management Action Plan 2016-2023, Ministry of Environmental and Urbanization, Ankara, 2016,
http://cygm.csb.gov.tr/ulusal-atik-yonetimi-ve-eylem-plani-2016-2023-hazirlandi.-haber-221234
31 TurkStat (2016), http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=24876 Accessed: 20/02/2018
28
Her Energy Kayseri Landfill 5,782 35.000.000
Itc Adana Energy Generation Facility 15,565 108.955.000
Itc Antalya Biomass Facility 14,150 99.050.000
Itc Bursa Hamitler Facility 9,800 85.848.000
Itc Aksaray Facility 1,415 9.905.000
Itc-Ka Biomass Gasification Facility 10,850 75.950.000
ITC-KA Elazığ Facility 2,830 15.848.000
Sincan Çadırtepe Power Plant 19,824 138.768.000
ITC-KA Çarşamba Facility 1,415 7.294.000
Aslım Energy Generation Facility 5,660 44.224.000
Karma Power Plant 1,487 10.409.000
Kipaş Kağıt Biomass Energy Generation Facility 1,200 8.400.000
Konya Wastewater Treatment Plant Biogas Facility
Elektrik Üretim Santrali
2,436 18.350.000
Dilovası Landfill Biogas Power Plant 2,126 14.882.000
Kocaeli Landfill Biogas Power Plant 5,445 45.556.000
Mas 1 Renewable Energy Facility 2,395 16.765.000
Malatya Gasification Incineration Plant 4,000 28.000.000
Sivas Landfill Gas to Electricity Facility 2,830 19.782.000
İskenderun Landfill Gas to Electricity Facility 4,233 29.673.000
Kömürcüoda Biogas Project 14,150 118.860.000
Odayeri Biogas Project 33,807 236.649.000
Maraş Biomass Facility 4,800 33.600.000
Samsun Avdan Biogas Facility 6,000 58.800.000
Vesmec Kırk-Kab 1 Biogas Power Plant 1,200 8.294.400
Kırıkkale Landfill Gas Power Plant 1,003 7.021.000
Private sector initiatives are also developing on producer responsibility schemes which
are mainly for packaging waste and other special waste types such as batteries and
accumulators, end of life tyres and waste oils. Separation of recyclable packaging
waste from biodegradable waste at source contributes diverting waste away from
landfill targets and fulfils a pre-condition for biological recovery (i.e. anaerobic
digestion).32 In that manner, packaging waste is also another important item to be
considered for reducing GHG emissions in Turkey. Currently, there are 4 packaging
waste recovery organisations which are authorised by the MoEU. These are ÇEVKO,
TÜKÇEV, PAGÇEV and AGED. In 2014, 2.4 Mt of packaging waste was collected
(with the considerable contribution of the authorised institutions) out of 4.2 Mt
32
Anaerobic digestion is a process in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen.
29
generated. 1.8 Mt (NWMAP, 2016) of this amount is from municipal waste which would
be sent to landfills, if not collected separately. There were only 23 licenced collecting
and sorting facility and 14 recycling facility in 2004, however, the number of both
collecting & sorting and recycling facilities has skyrocketed in the recent years in
Turkey and reached to 631 and 919 respectively in 2016 (NWMAP, 2016).
3.3. Analysis of GHG Emission Reduction Possibilities in the Sector based
on Current Trends and Policies
Waste sector is responsible for 28.8% of total CH4 emissions and 6.1% of total N2O
emissions in 2015.33 Waste sector-based methane emissions are mainly originating
from solid waste disposal sites, while N2O emissions are totally released from
wastewater discharge and treatment. CO2 emissions from landfills are considered as
biogenic source and not included in GHG inventory. This little amount of CO2
emissions comes from the open burning of waste.
As stated above, CO234 emissions are only calculated for open burning and this
practice tends to totally disappear in the recent future (Figure 11). So, we may remove
this item from our calculations for future projections.
Figure 11. Waste sector CO2 emissions (1990-2015)
33
TurkStat (2017), http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=24588 Accessed: 20/02/2018
34 The IPCC Tier 2a method recommended in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories is applied to estimate
CO2 emissions.
30
CH435 emissions have increased constantly until 2011 mainly because of the
increasing amount of organic waste landfilled and treated wastewater. After 2011, CH4
emissions have started a decreasing trend as the quantities of methane recovery
facilities were increasing from 2011 until 2015 (Figure 12). We may expect an
increasing trend on greenhouse gas emissions from biological treatment of solid waste
in the future, however, overall CH4 emissions will be less as the landfilling is replaced
by biological recovery and methane is captured or flared.
Figure 12. Waste sector CH4 emissions (1990-2015)
N2O36 emissions have also increased constantly until 2015 due to increasing amount
of treated wastewater (Figure 13). In the last 2 years of the time series, the trend has
been stabilised mainly by use of developed systems for nitrogen removal.
35
The IPCC T2 First Order Decay (FOD) method recommended in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories is
used to estimate CH4 emissions.
36 Turkey applies the default method from the 2006 IPCC Guidelines to estimate N2O emissions from domestic wastewater.
31
Figure 13. Waste sector N2O emissions (1990-2015)
Methane emissions from landfills are by far the most important source of GHG
emissions in this sector and the emissions need to be estimated and reported37 in
national GHG inventories. Methane is emitted during the anaerobic decomposition of
organic waste disposed of in solid waste disposal sites. Organic waste decomposes
at a diminishing rate and takes many years to decompose completely (IPCC, 2006).38
CH4 emissions from landfill sites were 269 kt in 1990 and increased to 498 kt in 2015.33
Increases in a municipal waste generation are related to rates of urbanization, types
and patterns of consumption, household revenue, and population growth. In Turkey,
after the year 2000, the total amount of municipal waste has reached and exceeded
the level of 25 Mt annually. Around 27.4 Mt waste was disposed to landfills in 2015
and as the historical record, 69.2% of that amount was sent to sanitary (managed)
landfill sites (Figure 14).
37
When solid waste is disposed in waste dumps and landfills, most of the organic material will be degraded over a longer or
shorter period, ranging in a wide span from less than one year to 100 years or more. The main degradation products are
carbon dioxide (CO2), water and heat for the aerobic process and methane (CH4) and CO2 for the anaerobic process. The CO2
produced originates from biogenic sources (e.g., food, garden, paper and wood waste) and the emissions need therefore not
be considered in national inventories (IPCC, Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse
Gas Inventories)
38 IPCC Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, IPCC,2006, Chapter
5, https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/english/5_Waste.pdf
32
Figure 14. Annual waste at solid waste disposal sites (1990-2015)
In 2016, 31,583,553 tonnes of municipal waste were collected and 61.2% of this
amount was sent to sanitary landfills (managed sites) whereas 26.8% was disposed
to dump sites (unmanaged sites). Remarkably, recovery facilities have reached a
portion of about 10% in 2016, compared to less than 1% in the previous years.39
Unmanaged solid waste disposal sites produce less CH4 from a given amount of waste
than managed ones because a larger fraction of waste decomposes aerobically in the
top layers of unmanaged sites (IPCC, 2006). However, in sanitary landfills, control of
methane emissions by installing gas collection systems is becoming widespread. In
addition, as part of integrated waste management strategy, biological waste recovery
facilities are being established in a number of sanitary landfill sites. Consequently, CH4
emissions from managed waste disposal sites are lower than that of unmanaged
landfill sites in Turkey (Table 5).
39
TurkStat has included waste recovery option to its surveys different from previous years. Municipalities are supposed to
report not only disposal activities but also recovery activities including composting, biomethanisation and material recycling in
their region.
33
Table 5. CH4 emissions from waste disposal sites (NIR, 2017)15
CH4 emissions Amount of CH4 for energy recovery
Managed waste disposal
sites
Unmanaged waste disposal sites
Total
1990 - 269.18 269.18 -
1995 5.69 300.40 306.09 -
2000 47.37 341.12 388.49 -
2005 113.68 369.75 483.43 1.67
2010 152.46 381.89 534.34 47.94
2011 167.20 378.57 545.77 56.72
2012 152.26 376.29 528.56 96.15
2013 101.07 371.80 472.87 172.79
2014 110.24 365.47 475.71 190.67
2015 137.51 360.70 498.21 189.28
Wastewater treatment and discharge is another GHG emission source category for
mainly N2O and CH4 emissions. In 2016, 84.2% of total population (67.2 million) has
access to municipal wastewater collection network and 70.2% of the population (56
million) served by wastewater treatment (TurkStat, 2016).40
The rate of wastewater treatment was quite low until 2000; only 10% of wastewater
collected by municipal sewerage systems was treated in 1994. As a result of effective
wastewater treatment policy implementation, it was improved and out of 4.5 billion
m3 of collected wastewater, 85.7% (3.8 billion m3) was treated in 2016. 76.1% of
collected wastewater was treated in biological and advanced treatment plants, and
23.9% was treated in physical and natural treatment systems (Table 6).
40
TurkStat (2016), http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=24875 Accessed: 20/02/2018
34
Table 6. Municipal wastewater collection and treatment (1994-2016)41
1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2012 2014 2016
Municipal population
served by sewerage
system
32 696 622 37 189 736 44 342 222 50 856 943 54 017 052 58 754 795 65 071 589 67 227 191
Wastewater discharged
from municipal sewerage
to receiving bodies
(thousand m3/year)
1 509 651 2 096 714 2 497 657 3 366 894 3 582 131 4 072 563 4 296 851 4 484 075
Amount of wastewater
treated by wastewater
treatment plants
(thousand m3/year)
150 061 589 515 1 312 379 2 140 494 2 719 151 3 256 980 3 483 787 3 842 350
Physical 77 725 281 374 344 509 714 404 751 101 929 334 869 248 906 221
Biological 72 335 308 142 745 852 926 581 931 356 1 072 873 1 155 353 1 214 977
Advanced - - 222 018 499 509 1 031 616 1 245 977 1 450 494 1 708 361
Natural ... ... ... ... 5 079 8 795 8 692 12 791
Municipal population
served by wastewater
treatment plants
6 044 364 10 449 370 18 955 305 29 643 258 38 050 717 43 543 737 49 358 266 56 016 738
(...) Data is not available, (-) Denotes magnitude null
N2O emissions show increasing trend during 1990 - 2015 due to the increased amount
of wastewater treated. Conversely, there is a decreasing trend in methane emission
after 1998. The main reason for that trend is the increasing amount of methane
recovery for energy purposes (Table 7).
Table 7. GHG emissions from wastewater treatment and discharge (1990-2015)15
CH4 emissions (kt)
Amount of CH4 for Energy Recovery (kt)
N2O emissions (kt)
1990 111.56 - 4.86
1995 121.67 - 5.27
2000 121.44 6.94 5.46
2005 122.53 11.90 5.70
2010 118.62 16.77 6.11
2011 117.58 21.29 6.25
2012 117.57 24.58 6.52
2013 105.75 24.71 6.64
2014 97.79 33.97 6.73
2015 94.8542 38.07 6.82
41
TurkStat (2018), http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1019 Accessed: 20/02/2018
42 75.83 kt CH4 is from municipal wastewater, whereas 19.02 kt CH4 is from industrial wastewater
35
GHG reduction potential (A rough estimation)
Projects such as rehabilitation of unmanaged waste disposal sites and recovery of
methane gas from landfills will play a major role in GHG reduction.
The Turkish government has targets and goals for the 100th anniversary of the Turkish
Republic including the waste sector. As stated in NCCAP, NWMAP, and WTAP, 100%
of municipal wastes will be disposed to integrate solid waste disposal facilities across
the country (with 65% sanitary landfilling target), %100 of wastewater will be treated,
and %100 of the old dump sites will be closed or rehabilitated. Moreover, it is aimed
to go towards the use of more advanced technologies, such as the energy production
from solid waste by biological and thermal processes43 and recycling of solid waste.
According to NWMAP (2016 – 2023), it is projected that amount of generated
municipal waste will reach 33 Mt by 2023. In 2014, the total amount of collected
municipal waste was recorded as 28 Mt (10 Mt was sent to sanitary landfills and 8 Mt
was sent to unmanaged landfills). Table 5 shows that CH4 emissions from sanitary
landfills and unmanaged landfills were 110 kt and 365 kt respectively (475 kt CH4 in
total) and 190 kt CH4 was recovered in 2014. It is planned that there will be no
unmanaged landfills by 2023 and the landfilling rate is targeted as 65 % of 33 Mt of
municipal waste (21.45 Mt). With a simple linear extrapolation44, if 110 kt CH4 is
emitted by 10 Mt of municipal waste (sanitary landfilling), then we may expect 235 kt
CH4 produced from landfills in 2023. As the biological treatment (composting) is
planned to increase from 0.2% in 2014 to 4% in 2023, an additional 8 kt of CH4
emission should be added to this amount which makes a total of 243 kt CH4 emission
from solid waste in 2023. Since the landfill gas collection systems are expected to be
more widespread in Turkey by 2023, we may accept this amount as a minimum.
Table 7 shows that CH4 emissions from wastewater treatment plants have stabilised
by the introduction of methane recovery systems in recent years. For example, based
on 2014 data 81 % of discharged wastewater was treated by wastewater treatment
plants which lead to 97.79 kt CH4 emissions and 6.73 kt N2O emissions. In 2023, the
population is estimated to be 84.247.088.45 According to WTAP (2015 – 2023), it is
targeted to reach 100 % treatment of generated wastewater. Again, with a simple
43
Waste incineration emissions are included in inventory however it is reported under energy sector.
44 This is a rough estimate that assumes the varying parameters are constant such as composition of waste, degradable
organic carbon (DOC), fraction of DOC which decomposes (DOCF), methane generation rate constant (k), fraction of methane
(F) and oxidation factor (OX) and assumes all conditions are same in both years. Industrial and municipal solid waste is not
differentiated.
45 http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=15844 , 80 million is accepted as municipal population
36
linear extrapolation46 as above, 5.3 billion m3 of wastewater is calculated for treatment
in 2023, which has emission potential of roughly 150 kt CH4 and 10 kt N2O. These are
conservative estimates which do not include the impact of possible integration of
nitrogen removal technologies before discharge and better methane capturing
practices in Turkey, which could decrease the amount of N2O and CH4 emissions.
As a result; the above rough calculations show that there is a potential to reduce GHG
emission from waste sector to 12.847 Mt CO2-eq in 2023, which corresponds to a
decrease of 24% compared to latest available data from 2015.
3.4. Policy Recommendation for Further Improvement of Key Sectoral
Policies towards Lowering GHG Emissions
Interventions and improvements in waste sector policy towards lowering GHG
emissions are contributing to emissions savings. Some policy recommendations for
the waste sector are summarised in Table 8:
Table 8. Policy Recommendations towards Lowering GHG Emissions
Further improvements of
waste management in
Turkey towards
environmentally sound
management and further
transposition of EU legal
framework regarding
waste sector.
This is a continuous process. Solid waste and wastewater
management legal framework in Turkey is mostly aligned with EU
acquis.7 Comprehensive list of relevant waste legislation is given in
Barrier and Opportunities Report. Turkey also has strategic
documents and action plans for better waste management, such as
EU Integrated Environmental Approximation Strategy for Turkey
(2007-2023) (UCES, 2006)48 and NWMAP (2016 – 2023). This
process includes moving from INDC2 to NDC) measures in the waste
sector.
Further development of
policy and legal tools and
economic instruments to
support implementation.
In order to ensure effective implementation, enforcement, monitoring
and auditing of the legislation, there is a need for strengthening the
institutional structure and capacity building. An extraordinary effort
and an improvement in communication and cooperation between the
government, local authorities, the public and private sectors, and
NGOs are required for proper implementation of the regulations in
the waste sector.
46
Varying parameters such as protein consumption (kg/person/yr) and fraction of N in protein are assumed as constant.
Amount of treated wastewater is calculated based on only population served. Industrial and municipal wastewater is not
differentiated.
47 Calculated by summing 393 kt CH4 (243 kt from solid waste disposal and 150 kt from wastewater treatment) and 10 kt N2O
(from wastewater treatment) after multiplying with their global warming potential factors 25 and 298 respectively.
48 EU Integrated Environmental Approximation Strategy (UCES), Ministry of Environmental and Forestry, Ankara, 2006,
https://www.ab.gov.tr/files/SEPB/cevrefaslidokumanlar/uces.pdf
37
Permission, monitoring, auditing, sanctioning, and reporting are still
unsatisfactory and have a non-integrated structure. Availability of
long-time series, as well as regional detailed data, is needed. New
indicators and data collection and verifications mechanisms are
needed for further assessment of the waste management
performances, as well as building waste management performance
indicators and tools to track progress against population growth,
economy and municipal waste targets.
Effective tools for streamlining a sustainable waste collection system
including source separation and dual (recyclables and organic)
collection is needed.
Financing mechanism of waste management should be
strengthened through realistic fees and taxes. To divert waste away
from landfills, economic instruments such as landfill fee and Pay-as-
you-throw (PAYT) schemes should be introduced in the medium
term.
Further development of
extended producer
responsibility (EPR)
legislation, and its
implementation.
Turkish Waste Management Regulation apply extended producer
responsibility (EPR) as an economic instrument for specific types of
waste such as packaging waste, WEEE, waste batteries and
accumulators and ELV. Compared to the traditional solid waste
management approach, EPR involves a shift in responsibility
(administratively, financially and/or physically) from governments or
municipalities (and thus taxpayers) to the entities that make and
market the products that are destined to become waste. In Turkey,
there are still conflicts of responsibilities between municipalities and
the entities that market the product. Roles and responsibilities should
be clarified in detail.
Legally mainstreaming of
the waste sector into other
different subsectors of
Chapter 27 (horizontal
legislation).
In this corpus, other laws and regulation from sectors out of the waste
sector, but-relevant for waste, should also be taken in account (like
for Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Impact
Assessment, Disaster Reduction, etc.). For Turkey it is the
importance of adapting the current and future waste management to
climate change, i.e. to integrate of climate change adaptation into the
waste management sector (as a mitigation measure to climate
change); Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Impact
Assessment have to have “strong” Climate Change and Disaster
Risk Analysis.
Legally mainstreaming of
the waste sector into other
different sectoral policies.
Solid waste management also includes indirect GHG emissions
potential through transport of waste (transport sector) and GHG
reduction potential through using recycled materials on
manufacturing (industry sector) or fossil fuel substitution by waste to
38
generate electricity (energy sector), as well as needs for
interventions in all sectors of development.
Policy measures towards
better standards in the
waste treatment facilities.
To consider interventions in public procurement policy and practice
towards choosing appropriate environmental/climate change sound
technologies in planning waste management and wastewater
treatment.
39
4. Development Policies and GHG Emission Reduction Targets in
Transportation Sector
In 2011, road transport share in overall transportation sector has been as high as 80%
and 89%, for freight and passenger, respectively (see Table 9); thus, national strategy
aimed to reach a more balanced road shares of 60% and 72%, respectively by 2023
(MoTCM (2011)49; NCCS (2010-2023)4; NCCAP (2011-2023)5; 10th Development Plan
(2014-2018)3; MoEU (2015)50).
As a result, transport sector received a considerable share of investment budget
suggested by National Development Plans: the transportation sector had 37% of the
budget (146,123 million TL) in the 9th Development Plan51, it was planned to have 34%
of the budget (141,914 million TL) in the 10th Development Plan for the period of 2014-
2018 (MoD, 2013)3. To achieve 2023 targets; for freight transport, a major increase is
needed in railway and maritime shares, while for passenger transport, rail and air
sectors are chosen as the critical shift areas. Also, shifts in the modal shares of these
transport sub-sectors do not cause a parallel effect on carbon emission reduction
capability as the energy use and efficiency in each subsector is different. Thus, any
LCD plan for transportation sector has to be developed based on both aspects. As of
2015, however, the road transport shares were reported still as high as 89.8% and
89.2%, which indicates that more has to be done beyond allocating infrastructure
investment budgets. Also, travel demand for urban, intercity or international scales
should be met by different modes/systems, which requires successful orchestration of
different policies and legislative changes in Turkey as discussed below.
Table 9. Model shares of transport system49,51
2011 (%) 2015 (%) 2023 Target (%)
Domestic Freight (tonne-km)
Road 80.6 89.8 60.0
Rail 4.8 3.9 15.0
Air 0.4 0.0 1.0
Maritime 2.7 6.3 10.0
Pipelines 11.5 -- 14.0
49
Transport and Communication Strategy 2011-2023, Ministry of Transport, Maritime Affairs and Communication, Ankara,
2011
50 Ministry of Environment and Urbanization Strategic Plan 2015-2017, Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, Ankara,
2015
51 9th Development Plan 2007-2013, Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry, Ankara, 2016
40
Domestic Passenger (passenger-km)
Road 89.6 89.2 72.0
Rail 2.2 1.1 10.0
Air 7.8 9.1 14.0
Maritime 0.4 0.6 4.0
4.1. Review of Sector Policies and Obligations related to GHG Emission
International and National Commitments
INDC2, which shall be converted to nationally determined contributions by ratification
of Paris Agreement, contains 11 elements about transportation as 1) ensuring
balanced utilization of transport modes in freight and passenger transport by reducing
the share of road transport and increasing the share of maritime and rail transport, 2)
enhancing combined transport, 3) implementing sustainable transport approaches in
urban areas, 4) promoting alternative fuels and clean vehicles, 5) reducing fuel
consumption and emissions of road transport with National Intelligent, Transport
Systems Strategy Document (2014-2023) and its Action Plan (2014-2016), 6) realizing
high speed railway projects, 7) increasing urban railway systems, 8) achieving fuel
savings by tunnel projects, 9) scraping of old vehicles from traffic, 10) implementing
green port and green airport projects to ensure energy efficiency, and 11)
implementing special consumption tax exemptions for maritime transport.
Additionally, INDC is supported by the national climate change policy documents
which also cover national commitments for mitigating the greenhouse gas emission.
For example, according to the 10th National Development Plan,3 Turkey has given
priority to transport systems that provide energy efficiency, clean fuel, and the use of
environmentally friendly vehicles. Use of smart applications in transportation will be
expanded. Also, green growth opportunities in transportation sector will be evaluated
and environmently sensitive economic growth will be supported. Improving “Energy
Efficiency in Transportation” is one of the important components of the program. And
related to this component, “Disseminating the use of public transportation, small
engine volume and electric and hybrid vehicles, establishing smart bike networks in
appropriate residential areas and creating pedestrian paths closed to traffic” and
“Disseminating the use of low fuel consumption vehicles in the public sector” come out
as the important steps.
National Climate Change Strategy (2010-2023)4 includes a set of objectives to be
implemented in the mid-term, and long-term and guides the actions related to
41
transportation which may help GHG emission reduction. According to the Plan, in the
mid-term:
plans will be developed to increase the share of railroads, sea routes and air
routes and the load factor in freight and passenger transport.
studies will be done to evaluating to the development potential of combined
transport.
Short-distance maritime and lake transport shall be encouraged.
Use of environment-friendly vehicles like bicycle will be encouraged.
The use of alternative fuels and clean vehicle technologies in public transport
vehicles will be expanded in cities.
R&D studies will be applied to raise the geometrical and physical standards of
road networks to ensure lower fuel consumption.
Smart transportation systems will be developed and the energy efficiency in the
transport system will be improved.
Besides,
encouragement of usage of alternative fuels, new technology engines which
can minimize both CO2 and NOx emissions and environment-friendly hybrid
transportation vehicles
Increasing the share of railways and seaways in freight and passenger
transportation over 2% and supporting of airway transportation are mentioned
the as long term.
This is followed by the development of National Climate Change Action Plan (2011-
2023)5, which had the objectives and some examples of specific targets for given
periods as follows:
Increasing the share of railroads in freight transportation to 15%, and in
passenger transportation to 10% by 2023.
Increasing the share of seaways in cabotage freight transportation to 10%, and
in passenger transportation to 4% as of 2023.
Decreasing the share of highways in freight transportation below 60%, and in
passenger transport to 72% as of 2023.
Preparing and putting in practice the “Transportation Master Plan” until 2023.
Preparing the Transportation Master Plan (Time Period: 2013-2023)
(Alignment with EU).
Limiting emission increase rate of individual vehicles in intra-city transport.
42
Developing the necessary legislation, institutional structure and guidance
documents until the end of 2023 for implementation of sustainable transport
planning in cities.
Reviewing and revising the “Regulation on Principles and Procedures to
Increase Energy Efficiency in Transport”.
Making legal arrangements and building capacity to increase use of alternative
fuels and clean vehicles until 2023.
Initiating studies on regulations in the taxing system to reduce GHG
emissions from motor vehicles (Time Period: 2020-2023).
Promoting alternative fuels and clean vehicles by making arrangements in
the tax legislation (Time Period: 2020-2023).
Taking local measures to encourage the use of alternative fuel and clean
vehicles in urban transport until 2023.
Adopting and putting into practice the strategy to introduce an age limit for
public transport vehicles (Time Period: 2015-2023).
Offering free or low-priced parking areas to clean fuel and clean vehicle users
in an urban centre (Time Period: 2015-2023).
Limiting the energy consumption in transport until 2023.
Creating incentive mechanisms in the production of land, sea, air vehicles
that have high energy efficiency, supporting investments (Time Period:
2015-2023).
Moreover, in the National Intelligent, Transport Systems Strategy Document
(2014-2023) and its Action Plan (2014-2016)52; adopting of a national legislation on
Intelligent Transport System (ITS), decreasing the emissions and fuel consumption in
the railroad transportation is mentioned as the requirements. In the other document
referred in INDC, Energy Efficiency Strategy Paper (2012-2023)6, “reducing the unit
fossil fuel consumption of motor vehicles, increasing the share of public transport in
highways, sea routes and railways and preventing unnecessary fuel consumption in
urban transport” are mentioned as strategical purposes. For this purpose, the
document mentioned the need for preparation of the bill in parliament related to
making changes in the related laws and the secondary legislation arrangements, and
the deadline to complete this requirement was twenty-four (24) months as of the date
of publication of the document.
52
National Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Strategy Paper 2014-2023, Ministry of Transport, Maritime Affairs and
Communications, Ankara, 2014, http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/10/20141025-21-1.pdf
43
Although INDC does not refer to it, New Energy Efficiency Action Plan emerges as an
important tool for the harmonisation to EU Energy Efficiency Directive. The Plan, which
regulates the terms of 2017-2023, proposes nine actions for ensuring sustainability
and energy efficiency in the transportation sector. These actions are: i) Promoting of
energy efficient vehicles; ii) developing of comparative studies on alternative fuels and
new technologies; iii) building and enhancing of bicycle and pedestrian transportation;
iv) mitigating of car usage for the purpose of easing the traffic density in the cities; v)
generalizing of public transportation, vi) improvement and application of institutional
restructuring for urban transportation; vii) strengthening of sea transport; viii)
strengthening of railway transportation and collection of data concerning
transportation.
Meanwhile, EU Commission Progress Report, which is the “Sixth Progress Report
of EU Commission”,7 measures related to mitigation of carbon emissions in the
“transportation” that should be completed are listed as follows:
Adoption of the legislation on intelligent transport systems (ITS) and improving
the capacity and resources for its implementation.
Key strategic documents such as the national transport strategy will have to be
revised to take into account the latest EU priorities in sustainable urban mobility
and in combating climate change.
Transport Master Plan covering all modes of transport needs to be approved.
Alignment with the ITSs legislation, the ‘clean power for transport’ package on
clean and energy-efficient road transport vehicles and the introduction of
infrastructure for alternative fuels.
Further efforts should be made to fully implement the legislation already aligned
with the Fuel Quality Directive,
Alignment with the EU Regulation on emissions standards for new cars should
be initiated.
Alignment regarding ozone-depleting substances should be completed.
Further efforts are required to align with the regulation on fluorinated
greenhouse gases.
Necessity of establishing a precise transposition plan for the Directive on
geological storage of CO2.
For maritime transport, although it is the most energy-efficient mode, IMO takes
responsibility to reduce GHG emissions from international shipping, as future
scenarios for 2050 project an increase by 50% to 250%.53 According to progress; IMO
53
Third IMO GHG Study 2014; International Maritime Organization (IMO) London, UK, April 2015; Smith, T. W. P.; Jalkanen,
J. P.; Anderson, B. A.; Corbett, J. J.; Faber, J.; Hanayama, S.; O’Keeffe, E.; Parker, S.; Johansson, L.; Aldous, L.; Raucci, C.;
44
may adopt stringent requirements by taking into account collected data of ships after
2019, report of working groups and new versions of GHG Studies. EU adopted
Regulation (EU) 757/2015 to annually monitor, report and verify CO2 emissions for
vessels larger than 5,000 gross tonnages (GT) calling at any EEA States (the EU
Member States, Iceland and Norway) port; while International Maritime Organization
(IMO) has not set global requirements yet. Beside IMO and EU efforts, there are also
community initiatives that require/promote GHG emission reduction such as; port
incentive programmes, a GHG rating of ships from A to G such as electrical household
goods by Existing Vessel Design Index (EVDI), logistic chain assessment, Clean
Cargo Working Group etc. Draft initial IMO Strategy54 on the reduction of GHG
emissions from ships report will be submitted to MEPC 72 in 2018.
In summary, majority of the climate change-related policy documents and legislation
are directly related to transport sector (i.e. Transport and Communication Strategy
Document by MoTMC in 2011)49, some of them are “cross-cutting” documents (i.e.
IPA II Indicative Strategy Paper for Turkey 2014-2020: European Commission, 201455)
and legislation (i.e. Regulation on Monitoring of Greenhouse Gas Emissions56).
Majority of the documents commonly and repetitively emphasized the following
policies:
To reach a more balanced modal shares in the transportation sector by
increasing the rail share in passenger and freight transport with the new HSR
and conventional rail investments (MoTCM (2011)49, NCCS (2010)4,
NCCAP(2011)5, 10th Development Plan3; MoEU Strategic Plan(2015)50).
To strengthen intermodal transport (NCCAP (2011), MoTMC (2011), MoEU
(2015)).
To give priority to the non-motorized and public transport in urban areas
(MoTMC (2011), 10th Development Plan, MoEU Strategic Plan (2015)).
To make Turkey a regional hub in logistics by decreasing logistics cost and
developing trade (by preparing Logistics Master Plan considering transport
modes, corridors and logistic centres) (10th Development Plan; MoTMC (2011)).
Traut, M.; Ettinger, S.; Nelissen, D.; Lee, D. S.; Ng, S.; Agrawal, A.; Winebrake, J. J.; Hoen, M.; Chesworth, S.; Pandey,
A.http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Documents/Third%20Greenhouse%20Gas%20
Study/GHG3%20Executive%20Summary%20and%20Report.pdf
54 International Maritime Organization (2017), Strategic Plan for the Organization for the Six-Year Period 2018 to 2023
(Resolution A .1110(30). http://www.imo.org/en/About/strategy/Pages/default.aspx. Accessed: 20/02/2018
55 IPA II Country Strategy Paper for Turkey 2014-2020, European Commission, 2014
56 Regulation on Monitoring of Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Ankara, Turkey.
45
To give priority to transport systems that improve energy efficiency and
increase use of clean fuels (10th Development Plan; NCCAP (2011); NCCS
(2010), MoEU Strategic Plan (2015)).
To utilize information technologies and Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)
in traffic management and public transport services (10th Development Plan,
ITS (2014-2023)52, MoEU Strategic Plan (2015)).
To expand the use of alternative energy and vehicle technologies, and to
reduce fossil fuel consumption of motorized vehicles. (10th Development Plan,
NCCAP (2011), NCCS (2010), MoEU Strategic Plan (2015)).
To increase the share of maritime transport, especially in short distance sea
and lake transport, wherever possible (NCCS (2010); 6th National
Communication of Turkey16; MoEU Strategic Plan (2015)).
For transport sector, developing the necessary legislation and institutional structure
for implementation of sustainable transport services as well as the information and
data collection infrastructure were stated as two main objectives (NCCAP (2011),
MoTMC (2011)).
4.2. Assessment of Sector Development Trends and Private Sector
Perspective
Road Transport
Ambitious investments for divided highways in the period 2001-2016 resulted in a
major increase of their length from 5,821 to 23,831 km as seen in Figure 15 (TurkStat,
2018).57 However, this increase has not resulted in a major change in the total highway
network length, as the majority of the divided highways were transformed from
originally undivided or low capacity segments (listed under “other” in Figure 15). The
change in the high capacity motorway length was very small in the same period. While
it is planned to reach 32,000 km by 2023 (10th Development Plan)3, the rate of increase
in the divided highway network length has dropped significantly in the last five years.
57
Turkish Statistical Institute (Turkstat) (2018), Transport Statistics, http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do ?alt_id=1051,
Accessed: 10/02/2018
46
Figure 15. Change in road network length between (1990-2016)57
Since 2004, a major change in road transport sector is observed in vehicle ownership
(Figure 16-a) as the number of total registered vehicles increased drastically (average
annual increase rate was 6% in the last decade). When analysed from fuel type base,
both the number and share of gasoline based vehicles dropped over the years, which
was compensated by the rapid increase in the LPG and diesel based ones (see Figure
16-b and Figure 16-c); currently, diesel vehicles have the 49% of the vehicle park
followed by gasoline-based one with 29.1% market share (see Figure 16-c).
47
Figure 16. a) Number of Vehicles by Type, b) Number of Cars by Fuel Type, c) Share of
Vehicles by Fuel Type between 2004 and 2016 (TurkStat, 2018)57
Parallel to the rapid motorization and ambitious investments in road infrastructure, total
intercity road vehicle-km and passenger-km were doubled (see Figure 17), while
freight tonne-km has increased fourfold. Though these indicators usually are a sign of
economic growth, because of strong linear increases in road transport trends there is
no sign of a decrease in road transport shares as expected in 2023 targets (see Table
48
9), especially when compared the rather slow increase in the rail freight trends
discussed below.
Figure 17. Road Transport Statistics between 2001-2016 a) Intercity Vehicle-km b) Passenger-
km, c) Freight-km (TurkStat, 2018)57
Rail Transport:
Rail transport has been perceived as a more sustainable transport due to the potential
use of alternative energy sources (based on the source of electricity) compared to road
and air transport. Based on this, there has been an increase in the investments
49
including conventional and high-speed railways in the last decade, despite the fact
that primary source of electricity in Turkey is still fossil fuels. Currently, there is 12,532
km of railway network consisting of 11,319 km conventional line, 1,213 km high-speed
railway line (HSR) (see Figure 18). The total rail network is planned to reach 18,508
km length with 6,441 km of HSR network by 2021 (MoTMC Strategic Plan, 2016).58
HSR passenger-km has been increasing continuously after its introduction in 2009.
Despite some fluctuations in the passenger-km of main lines, after the improvements
(modernization of the services, electrification, new wagons, etc.), it is expected that
the use of conventional rails in the mainline will increase. By 2023, 8000 km line is
expected to be electrified and signalized. Also, it is planned that 21 logistics centres
will be established (10th Development Plan)3. According to the specified target for
2023, the railway share is expected to be increased to 10% in passenger and 15% in
freight transport (MoTMC, 2011).49 However, no significant increase has been
observed in rail shares of passenger or freight transport, which even showed some
decrease in the recent years.
With the liberalization in the Turkish Rail Transport, a restructuring process towards
opening TCDD rail network to private freight operators and establishing a competitive
market has been initiated, but it is not clear how this will affect the rail transport shares
as liberalization of the railway market in the European Union countries produced a
variety of results, some of which were not successful to encourage rail transport.
Furthermore, the competition of rail in the freight sector still needs support for
intermodal transport, which not very strongly utilized in Turkey. Because the majority
of freight demand occurs between major cities in the western half of Turkey where
agricultural and industrial production, as well as consumption, are located. As the
majority of the trucks are on short-haul with an average trip distance of 491.6 km in
2009 (Ozen, Tuydes-Yaman, 2013)59 it is not long enough for railroad transportation
to become competitive in terms of total travel time due to shipping and handling.
58
Ministry of Transport, Maritime Affairs and Communications (2016), Strategic Plan 2017-2021, Ankara, Turkey.
59 Ozen, M., Tuydes-Yaman, H. (2013), Evaluation of Emission Cost of Inefficiency in Road Freight Transportation in Turkey,
Energy Policy, 62, 625–636
50
Figure 18. Railway statistics between 2001-2016 a) Length b) Passenger-km c) Freight ton-km57
Air:
Within the framework of revisions in air transport regulation, such as reductions in
taxes and charges, high growth has continued with the entry of new air carriers to the
market. According to TurkStat (2018) given in Figure 19, air passenger traffic, which
was 34 million passengers in 2002, reached 173 million passengers in 2016. Also, air
freight transport sector has been continuously increasing in this period. The active
number of airports, which was 42 in 2006, increased to 55 in 2017. According to 2021
targets, the number of air passenger is expected to increase 225 million per year in
2021 and the number of the airport is expected to reach 59 (MoTMC Strategic Plan,
51
2016). The impressive growth of air transport performance is not in favour of the policy
to restrict the GHG emissions.
Figure 19. Airway Statistics between 1990-2016: a) Number of passengers b) Amount of
freight57,60
Maritime:
When the maritime sector is evaluated it is seen that it has a share of 2.66% in freight
transport by 2011 and it is planned to reach 10% at the end of 2023. In terms of
passenger transport, its share is expected to increase from 0.37 to 4% by 2023 (Table
9). Turkish flag merchant fleet has grown from 7.3 million DWT in 2006 to 10.3 million
DWT (Dead Weight Tonnage) in 2012 and ranked 25th among world merchant fleets;
then decrease to 8.25 million DWT in 2016.61 However, while international seaborne
trade slightly increases given in Figure 20, foreign trade realized by maritime transport
60
Kögmen, Z (2014) Comparison of Road Transport with Other Transport Modes and Its Advantages, MoTMC, Expertise
Thesis,
61 Directorate General of Merchant Marine, Ministry of Transport, Maritime Affairs and Communication
https://atlantis.udhb.gov.tr/istatistik/istatistik_filo.aspx Accessed: 22/02/2018
52
via Turkish merchant fleet has decreased from 21% in 2006 to 14% in 2012 (10th
Development Plan) although carriage capacity (DWT) of Turkish fleet has been
increased between those years.
In 2017, the total number of ships in Turkish flag merchant fleet was 1,415 and it is
expected to increase to 1,500 in 2021 (MoTMC Strategic Plan, 2016). By taking into
account the plan to reach 10% at the end of 2023 for freight transport by seaway; there
is a need for detailed analyses of ongoing decrease of carriage capacity (DWT) of
Turkish fleet and the downfall of foreign trade realized by maritime transport via
Turkish merchant fleet; which is not in favour of the reduction of GHG emissions from
transport by increasing share of maritime transport. Both cabotage and international
shipping should be evaluated in terms of excessive fuel consumption of old ships
which lead to weak competitiveness, possible modernisation of the technologies for
the maritime transportation sector, the feasibility of ships (size, type, route, energy
efficiency etc.) and possible incentives to renew relatively old fleet.
Figure 20. International Seaborne Trade Statistics between 1980-2015 (Mt loaded)
4.3. Analysis of GHG Emission Reduction Possibilities in the Sector based
on Current Trends and Policies
According to the latest GHG inventory of Turkey (NIR, 2017),15 transportation sector
contributed 75.8 Mt CO2-eq, which is 16% of total GHG emissions (excluding LULUCF)
and 22.6% of total fuel combustion emissions. The major source of transport
emissions in Turkey is road transport (Figure 21). It accounts for 91.4% of transport
emissions. It is followed by domestic aviation, while other sources are far smaller:
domestic aviation with 5.5% and domestic navigation with 1.5%. Pipeline transport
53
contribution was 0.9% and railway contribution was 0.6%. Emissions from
transportation sector increased 181% in 2015 compared to 1990. In the same period
increase in road transport emissions was 179.7%, in domestic aviation it was 355.7%
and in domestic navigation, it was 125.5%. Emissions from railway transport
decreased by 33.4% between 1990 and 2015.
Figure 21. GHG emissions by transport mode (1990-2015)
Road Transport:
GHG emissions from road transport were 66.3 Mt CO2-eq in 2015, while it was 24.8
Mt CO2-eq in 1990, showing a great increase. When GHG emission amounts and
shares are analysed based on fuel type (see Figure 22 and Figure 23), it is seen that
in 2015, the highest portion of emissions was from diesel oil with 76.7%, followed by
LPG with 13.6%. Table 10 shows CO2 emission intensity of fuels used in road
transport: Diesel oil has the highest CO2 emission intensity and natural gas has the
lowest intensity. While 47.9% of road motor vehicle fleet is diesel, it is mostly trucks
with higher vehicle-kmh contributing greatly to the emissions.
54
Figure 22. Amount of GHG emissions from road motor vehicles by fuel type (1990-2015)
Figure 23. The share of GHG emissions from road motor vehicles by fuel type (1990-2015)
Table 10. CO2 emissions intensity of fuels consumed in road transport
Road Transport CO2 emissions intensity (tonnes CO2/TJ)
Gasoline Diesel oil LPG Natural gas Biofuel
69.30 73.43 63.07 55.09 70.71
The age of the road motor vehicles is very important since the motor technologies
directly affect the CH4 and N2O emission release. By looking at the age distribution of
road motor vehicles registered by 2016, a considerable number of the vehicles are
old. 22.3% of the fleet is 21 years and older, 24.5% is 11-20 years old and 19.3 is 6-
10 years old and 34% is 0-5 years old (Table 11).
55
Table 11. Number of road motor vehicles by age (2016) (x106)57
Age of vehicles
Total Car Minibus Bus Small truck
Truck Motorcy
cle
Special purpose vehicles
Tractor
21.090 11.318 0.464 0.220 3.442 0.825 3.004 0.051 1.766
0-5 7.166 4.098 0.135 0.068 1.231 0.227 1.004 0.020 0.383
06-10 4.072 1.807 0.095 0.054 0.949 0.142 0.866 0.009 0.150
11-15 2.612 1.371 0.084 0.030 0.555 0.106 0.354 0.006 0.105
16-20 2.542 1.513 0.085 0.029 0.391 0.139 0.159 0.007 0.217
21 and older 4.699 2.528 0.066 0.039 0.315 0.211 0.621 0.009 0.910
Based on the above data it can be estimated that in the maximum share of the vehicles
that meet the highest emission standards in force since 2008/2010 are as follows:
44% of the cars
48% of light commercial vehicles
35% of the heavy goods vehicles.
On the other hand, it is not clear, how much of the vehicle-km is performed by the old
vehicles, especially in the case of trucks. Analysis of the truck distribution of the annual
roadside axle load surveys by the General Directorate of Highways (KGM) showed
that most of the older trucks have not been circulating in the intercity roads59, while
they are expected to be used mostly for shorter hauls in or around the urban regions.
In longer distances (especially in international road freight movements), the new and
cleaner trucks (i.e. Euro V, EuroVI, EEV, etc.) have been mostly employed.59
Rail transport:
Even though railway systems seem to be more sustainable and carbon efficient
compared to other transport modes, the CO2 emission impact differs based on some
parameters such as occupancy levels and source of train electricity.62 In Turkey, still,
only one-third of the total rail network was electrified, however, based on increasing
electricity consumption in railways in the recent years, GHG emissions decreased from
0.7 Mt CO2-eq in 1990 to 0.5 Mt CO2-eq in 2015. High Speed Rail (HSR) development
also contribute to this reduction in rail sector due to its electricity consumption and
locating on main corridors. Currently, there are four operating HSR lines (Ankara-
İstanbul, Ankara-Konya, Ankara-Eskişehir and Konya-İstanbul) and three lines under
construction, which will connect Bursa, İzmir and Sivas to the network. A study on CO2
62
Dalkic, G., Balaban, O., Tuydes-Yaman, H., Celikkol-Kocak, T. (2017), An assessment of the CO2 emissions reduction in
high speed rail lines: Two case studies from Turkey, Journal of Cleaner Production, 165, 746-761.
56
reduction potential of HSR compared to alternative land-based modes (car, bus and
conventional rail), revealed that Ankara-Eskişehir and Ankara-Konya HSR lines
caused a total reduction of 24.3 ktCO2 and estimated a reduction of 452.7 ktCO2 in
2023 (with the completion of HSR lines under construction) if estimated ridership is
realized in all lines. Line based analyses showed that HSR performance in reducing
CO2 emissions was limited as highly demanded HSR lines currently serve short routes
and mostly cause modal shift from bus services, which were also efficient compared
to a car.62
Air Transport:
The second biggest contributor to GHG emissions is domestic aviation. GHG
emissions from domestic aviation were 4.2 Mt CO2-eq in 2015, it was 0.9 Mt CO2-eq
in 1990. The fuel type used in domestic aviation is jet kerosene. The trend of the
emissions is similar to the trend of fuel consumption in the sector (Figure 24).
Figure 24. GHG emission vs fuel consumption for domestic aviation (1990-2015)
Maritime Transport:
The contribution of domestic navigation to the total transport sector emissions is very
small. GHG emission from domestic navigation was 0.5 Mt CO2-eq in 1990 and
increased to 1.1 Mt CO2-eq in 2015. As indicated in Figure 25; maritime transport is
the most energy and GHG efficient transport among other modes. As slight decrease
year by year is shown in Figure 26, according to the “Third IMO GHG Study 2014”, in
2012 international shipping accounts for approximately 2.2% and 2.1% of global CO2
and GHG emissions on a CO2-eq. Mainly, ships powered by fossil fuels and the carbon
content of each fuel type is constant and is not affected by engine type, engine cycle
or other parameters, when looking on the basis of kg CO2 per tonne of fuel. Fuel used
57
in international aviation and marine bunkers is not included in the total national
emissions but reported separately. In 2015, international bunker GHG emissions were
13.9 Mt CO2-eq, including 11.1 Mt is from international aviation and 2.8 Mt is from
international navigation.
In urban scale, as a result of the Transformation in Transportation Project initiated in
Izmir in 2001, new ferry ports were constructed, new ferry purchases were made,
integration of bus lines to ports were reinforced and consequently, the share of
maritime travel has been increased in urban transport. In Istanbul, improving quality
of services that are provided by ferries and sea buses and increasing number of
cruises have made positive impacts. In the international scale, goods handling in
Turkish ports; increased from 189.9 Mt to 430.2 Mt during last 15 years. Average
increase of handling goods in ports is 127% (from 2003 to 2016). For transport of
goods and passengers within territory of Turkey; new lines have been opened and
new ships has been launched. Transport road vehicles by Ro-Ro ships has been
increased in some lines by 185%, 209%, 306%, 936%, and average increase is 110%
(from 2003 to 2016). Average increase of passengers is 48% (from 2003 to 2016).
Although there is an increase for transportation of road vehicles and passengers by
seaway; a big gap between planned targets and current status exists.
Figure 25. CO2 emissions per transport modes63
63
Word Shipping Council, http://www.worldshipping.org/industry-issues/environment/air-emissions/faqs-answers/a2-why-is-
the-shipping-industry-so-important-environmentally Accessed: 24/02/2018
58
Figure 26. Shipping CO2 emissions by year53
4.4. Policy Recommendation for Further Improvement of Key Sectoral
Policies towards Lowering GHG Emissions
When the relevant policy documents were analysed, it is seen that strategies for
shifting to a more sustainable transportation sector were emphasized, but in general,
they were lacking specific targets that can be measured, verified, and reported.
Harmonisation of the national transposition legislation with the relevant EU and other
international organisations’ legislation and requirements can be seen as an
opportunity. However, to reach the targets of these documents, the legislation in
relation with transport sector should be revised including the respective enforcement
strategies. Also, it is observed that lack of or insufficient coordination between the
institutions and various stakeholders is a barrier to coordinate the climate change
related policies and implementations. From the perspective of economic development,
Turkey is in a growing stage with its specific features which cause the increase in the
transport demand and thus increase in the GHG in the coming decades. When all the
transport demand trends and emission shares as well as their emission reduction
potentials are mapped together, it is seen that road transportation has to be replaced
by lower carbon modes as much as possible; however, such shift has to be planned
and created by focusing critical sub-segments of transport (urban, intercity and
international as shown in Table 12) to create roadmap in which different alternative
modes can be competitive, thus, priority should be given as follows:
59
In passenger transportation,
in urban scale, road transportation has to be shifted from private car usage to
i) public bus and bus rapid transit driven by alternative fuels and ii) rail-based
ones (metro, light rail transit, etc.) as well as iii) zero-carbon modes (such as
walking and biking), as much as possible. While urban sea transportation is
also encouraged in policies, it could be an option for coastal cities and it is not
a mode to be generalized for the whole country (thus, denoted by a question
mark); deployment of ITS to provide for higher reliability of public transport,
especially, when combined with charging measures to restrict the use of private
cars in city centres, could prevent the growth of GHG emissions due to urban
transport.
in regional scale with intercity travels, shared ride modes such as rail
(conventional or HSR) and intercity bus services, must continue to be
supported, and further modernized to increase their shares compared to private
car option. For HSR services, the emission reduction performance can
increase, if new HSR lines can create a network effect along the main corridor
and alternative low-emission electricity sources can be used. Supplementary
policies can be developed to generate high HSR demand that would be shifted
from the private car, and even air, on the longer routes. However, in long
distances (i.e. more than 5-6 hours) and in travels to east and southeast,
despite its high emission potential, air travel is expected to remain as a
preferred transport mode due to better comfort and security concerns, thus,
must be regarded with caution as a priority area. Another caution has to be
addressed to the encouragement of maritime transport in the intercity travels,
as it may not provide enough time savings (and have competitive power against
other modes) even though it has the lowest emission levels.
in the international scale, air travel is a definite prerequisite of tourism, a major
sector leading Turkish economic development, and expected to grow as a
market, but, emission reduction on the airport side and efficiency in the fuel
usage can be priority areas, thus, has to be addressed critically for LCD.
Table 12. Transport priority areas for a low carbon development in Turkey
Transport system Passenger (Pax) Freight (F)
Urban Intercity Int’l Urban Intercity Int’l
Highway (H) (?) (?)
Rail (R) (?)
Air(A) (?) (?)
Sea/Maritime(M) (?) (?) (?)
60
In freight transportation,
in urban scale, there is no visible city logistics concept in planning or in
operation, but, significant reduction can be achieved, if major delivery and
collection (waste collection, etc.) systems can be managed based on emission
reduction potentials in routing and storing (these systems can be promoted
under smart city initiatives, as well); introduction of zero-emission vehicles for
public services could support the efforts to restrict GHG emissions.
In the regional scale, it will be very difficult to change truck dominancy, but
efficiency in truck loading (such as minimization of empty runs, avoidance of
half-than-truck load conditions, etc.) can be increased by introducing load
sharing initiatives, consolidation centres, etc. Also, use of old trucks should be
minimized by continuing support on phasing-out old vehicles and introduction
of financial incentives for new environmentally friendly trucks. Intermodal
transportation should be encouraged between road-rail, rail-maritime, etc. as
much as possible, however, lack of infrastructure along coastal regions is a
challenge that should be addressed critically.
In the international scale, road transportation to neighbouring countries (in
Europe, in the Middle East) has to be shifted to rail options and maritime, as
much as possible, as well as multi-modal options as seen in Black Sea region.
To succeed with the above-mentioned roadmap, a stronger legislation and continuing
efforts with policy development are needed in the following areas:
For urban regions, sustainable urban development should be provided by
developing “Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs)” which should also be
monitored and evaluated by a central authority. These plans have to be
supported and mirrored by Transportation Master Plans that have been
developed but not necessarily followed.
Funding of ITS and rapid transit systems have to be coordinated and monitored
in terms of their contribution to a) modal shift towards shared ride uses and b)
reduction of emissions.
According to 2006 IPCC guidelines for GHG inventories, CO2 from biomass is
not added to the total national GHG emissions so increasing the share of biofuel
in road transport can contribute to emission reduction in this sector.
While addressing maritime options, besides ships, which are the main focus of
IMO, EU for maritime sector GHG issues, terminals and their infrastructures are
also to be considered for mitigating GHG emissions.
Additionally, to the above-mentioned policies for different sub-sectors, some changes
in the taxation policy may contribute to the decarbonisation of the transport sector.
61
Potential cancellation of some preferential tax rates or provision of subsidies may have
a positive impact for shifting to more sustainable modes or cleaner fuel usage.
62
5. Development Policies and GHG Emission Reduction Targets in
Agriculture Sector
Agriculture is both affected by and has an impact on climate change (both positive and
negative). The main ways in which agriculture is affected by climate change are
through the increased pressures on crop and livestock production resulting from water
availability, overall temperature variations, presence and persistence of pests and
diseases, as well as fire risks.
Agriculture plays a major role in development as the only provider of food for human
existence and the first step of the development efforts. Turkey, with a growing
population of approximately 80 million, is the 17th largest world economy and an upper-
middle income country in terms of per capita GDP (World Bank, 2016).64 Historically,
the agricultural sector has been Turkey’s largest employer and a major contributor to
the country’s GDP, exports, and rural development. Turkey is an important producer
and exporter of agricultural commodities on world markets and is estimated to be the
world’s 7th largest agricultural producer (OECD, 2016).65 Although, in relation to the
industrial and service sectors, agriculture has been declining in importance, agriculture
and food industry nonetheless continues to play a fundamental role in development,
supplying raw material to the other sectors mainly food industry, employing about 20%
of the workforce and generating most of the income and employment in rural areas,
and accounts for 6.1 percent of the country’s GDP in 2016. The sector’s GDP reaching
USD 52.3 billion in 2016. Turkey’s agricultural vision for the year 2023 is that being a
country which; provides its population with sufficient, best quality and safe food;
improves its net exporter position in agricultural products and; increases its
competitiveness in global market aiming to be among the top five overall producers
globally. Turkey’s vision for its centenary in 2023 includes other ambitious goals; i)
agricultural GDP reaching to 150 billion dollars; ii) agricultural exports over 40 billion
dollars; iii) sustainable agricultural growth iv) achievement and land consolidation on
14 million ha; and v) modern irrigation systems for all irrigable land.66
As seen above, even though there is no direct goal intended for supporting low carbon
agriculture among the main targets of Turkish agriculture up to 2023, and as a main
64
The World Bank, (2016), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=TR&year_high_desc=true
Accessed: 17/02/2018
65 OECD (2016), Innovation, Agricultural Productivity and Sustainability in Turkey, OECD Food and Agricultural Reviews,
OECD Publishing, Paris. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264261198-en
66 Structural Changes and Reforms in Turkish Agriculture 2003-2016, Ministry of Food Agriculture and Forestry, Ankara
63
target, it is aimed that increasing of the agricultural economy, however, some of them
might be considered as supportive of low carbon agriculture.
5.1. Review of Sector Policies and Obligations related to GHG Emission
International& National Commitments
INDC of Turkey shall be converted to NDC, nationally determined contributions
in case of ratification. That’s why the content of the document and supported
documents on “agriculture”, which is one of the GHG sources, are important. And the
plans & policies related to agriculture to be implemented for INDC are; i) fuel savings
by land consolidation in agricultural areas; ii) rehabilitation of grazing lands iii)
controlling the use of fertilizers and implementing modern agricultural practices; iv)
supporting the minimum tillage methods.
INDC is supported by national climate change policy documents which also cover
national commitments for mitigating the greenhouse gas emission from agriculture.
For example, 10th National Development Plan (2014-2018)3, stresses establishment
of agricultural techno-parks and use of renewable energy in agriculture within the
concept of “green growth”. Additionally, according to the Plan, uncertainties and
inadequacies in duties, powers and responsibilities in environmental management will
be resolved. As discussed in the Status Report, in NCCS (2010-2023)4 the short term,
the mid-term, and long term objectives are listed such as; promotion of rational use of
fertilizer and modern techniques for irrigation, soil cultivation, pesticide use, financial
support of producers, developing stock farming to prevent methane emissions,
increasing of soil carbon capture techniques; establishment of a central geographic
information system for all land use classes in Turkey, implementation and
enforceability of “The Law on Soil Protection and Land Use”, adaptation of secondary
legislations. The other related document concerning “agriculture” is NCCAP (2011-
2023)5. The plan envisages mitigating of GHG emissions through the protection of
natural resources and minimization of energy consumption in agriculture. The
following actions shall be taken according to the plan (specific time frame is defined
only for some of them):
Determining and increasing the quantity of carbon stock captured in the soil;
o Disseminating sustainable agriculture techniques including mitigation
and adaptation.
o Increasing the effectiveness of soil management.
o Increasing the effectiveness of pasture management.
Establishing an effective pasture management (Time Period:
2013-2018) – related legal arrangements.
64
Identifying and increasing topsoil and subsoil biomass.
o Completing the irrigation infrastructure.
o Improving agricultural infrastructure.
o Enabling management of vegetative production.
Identifying the potential GHG emissions limitation in agriculture sector.
o Identifying and assessing the options for GHG emissions limitation in
agriculture sector.
Slowing down the increase rate of GHG emissions originated from vegetal and
animal production.
o Limiting GHG emissions originated from vegetative production.
o Limiting GHG emissions from animal production.
o Limiting GHG emissions originated from energy consumption in
agriculture.
Making legal arrangements to balance electricity production by
ensuring that electro-pumped irrigations are done in the hours
during which nationwide energy consumption is at the lowest
(Time Period: 2012-2018).
Build the information infrastructure that will meet the needs of the agriculture
sector in adapting to and combating climate change.
Building the infrastructure and capacity for monitoring and evaluating the
impacts of climate change.
In addition to the sectoral policies analysed under Status report, in the Strategic Plan
of MoFAL67 for the period of 2018-2022, R&D studies will be performed to increase
the agricultural production efficiency and quality. General Directory of Agricultural
Research and Policy (GDAR) has been assigned to realize this purpose, through
measuring of probable effects of climate change on the agricultural systems and
developing suggestions concerning measures to be taken. Moreover, “the number of
model/suggestion/system developed to ensure emission mitigation” is considered as
one of the performance indicators. Besides this Strategic Plan, according to new
Energy Efficiency Action Plan for the period 2017-2023, actions shall be taken related
to increasing energy efficiency in the agriculture are listed in the section 2.2.5 under
six topics: encouraging the replacement of tractors and harvester with energy efficient
ones, adapting energy efficient irrigation methods, supporting energy efficiency
projects in the agriculture, encouraging renewable energy sources for agricultural
67
Strategic Plan (2018-2022), Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock, Ankara, 2017
65
production, determination of potential ancillary agricultural product and waste for the
purpose of obtaining biomass and encouraging of usage of them, supporting energy
efficiency in the aquaculture products sector.
5.2. Assessment of Sector Development Trends and Private Sector
Perspective
According to MoFAL, Turkey has 24 million ha of arable lands and these are separated
into 921 different agricultural basins which are classified by rainfall, temperature, and
topography. In those agricultural basins, above 250 agricultural products are produced
and marketed. Of the total arable land, 67% is cropland, 17% is fallow land and the
rest of them are cultivated as horticulture, vegetable, vineyards and olive garden
(TurkStat, 2017). The total of the economically exploitable water resources potential
amount to 112 billion m3/year and only 41% of total exploitable water is consumed
each year (46 billion m3 of water). Agriculture consumes 74% of this amount through
irrigation (DSI, 2009). According to the Agricultural Census, there are approximately 3
million farms in Turkey (compared to approximately 15 million in the EU-27), most of
which are small family farms employing family labour and they are smaller than EU
average (6 ha, compared to an EU-25 average of 13 ha) (Dellal, 2009).68
Although those farms are typically characterized by low productivity, Turkey is a
significant agricultural exporter with production from those small farms. For example,
Turkey is the world’s biggest producer of hazelnuts, figs, apricots, and raisins, the 4th
biggest producer of fresh vegetables and grapes, the 6th biggest producer of tobacco,
the 10th biggest producer of wheat and cotton.
On the other hand, the agricultural sector in Turkey is tending to shrink relative to the
rest of the economy, both in terms of its contribution to GDP and employment. For
example, in 1950’s agriculture accounted for roughly 40% of GDP and 85% of the
national employment; in recent years those figures have been below 10% and 25%
(Figure 27). But, those numbers are still higher than EU’s average.
68
Dellal, I. (2009), “The Role of Small Farms in Turkey”, the 111th Seminar of the European Association of Agricultural
Economics and the International Association of Agricultural Economics, “Small Farms: Decline or Persistence”, 26-27 June, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom.
66
Figure 27. Agricultural share in GDP and employment (%) (1950-2017)
Arable farming dominates the agriculture sector of Turkey, accounting for about 75%
of the output value, with the value share of fruit and vegetables at over 44%. And,
agricultural production has been growing rapidly since 1990 (Table 13). The main
crops are cereals (wheat, barley and corn); other crops (sugar beet, cotton, sunflower,
potatoes and tobacco); vegetables (tomatoes, cucumbers, dried onions and
watermelons); and fruits and other perennial crops (apples, citrus fruit, grapes, figs,
hazelnuts, olives and tea). The livestock sub-sector which consists mainly of cattle,
poultry, sheep and goats includes traditional and commercial activities. The country is
also one of the leading honey producers in the world. Turkey boasted production of
20.7 Mt of milk in 2017, making it the leading milk and dairy producer in its region. The
country also saw production totals of 36.1 Mt of cereal crops, 30.3 Mt of vegetables,
18.9 Mt of fruit, 2.2 Mt of poultry, and 1.1 Mt of red meat. In addition, Turkey has an
estimated total of 11,000 plant species, whereas the total number of species in Europe
is 11,500.
Table 13. Agricultural production in selected groups or products in 1990-2017
Cereals Oilseeds Tomatoes Citrus Hazelnuts Milk Meat Eggs
(million)
1990 30 201 1 134 6 000 1 474 375 10 240 796 7 668
2000 31 148 1 934 6 200 1 696 315 10 240 796 7 668
2005 29 157 2 061 6 450 1 674 520 10 279 767 8 215
2006 34 643 2 789 9 855 3 220 661 11 952 793 11 734
2007 29 257 2 352 9 937 2 989 530 12 330 576 12 725
2008 29 287 2 311 10 985 3 027 801 12 243 482 13 191
2009 33 577 2 396 10 746 3 514 500 12 542 413 13 833
67
2010 32 773 2 969 10 052 3 572 600 13 544 781 11 840
2011 35 202 3 228 11 003 3 614 430 15 056 777 12 955
2012 33 377 3 138 11 350 3 475 660 17 401 916 14 911
2013 37 489 3 300 11 820 3 681 549 18 224 996 16 497
2014 32 714 3 509 11 850 3 784 450 18 631 1 008 17 145
2015 38 637 3 442 12 615 3 976 646 18 655 1 149 16 728
2016 35 281 3 481 12 600 4 293 420 18 489 1 173 18 098
2017 36 133 3 883 12 750 4 770 675 20 700 1 126 19 281
%
Change
in 1990-
2017
20 243 113 224 80 102 42 151
Livestock production which has the biggest share of the agricultural GHG emissions
is an important part of Turkey’s agricultural sector, as natural conditions in the country
are generally favourable to the raising of livestock, and to grazing animals in particular.
In 2017 the total number of cattle is approximately 16 million, and for sheep and goats,
it is around 34 and 11 million, respectively (TurkStat, 2017, Figure 28).
The socio-economic factors, such as the rapid migration of young farmers to cities and
the increasing age of livestock farmers, contribute to the decline in livestock numbers
mainly sheep and goats for years. And GHG from the agriculture sector has declined,
too. After the 2000s by increasing livestock supports a reversal of this trend appeared
and the numbers have stabilised or even increased. The numbers for poultry have
more than doubled since the 1990s, and the poultry meat sector has taken on the role
of feeding growing population to meet the demand for meat. In terms of quantity, the
most important meat product in Turkey is from poultry. Turkey is now the world’s 11th
largest poultry meat producer, with output in excess of 2 Mt in 2017, showing an
ambitious increase (7.7 times) between 1995 and 2017. Over the same period, annual
egg production reached 20 billion (TurkStat, 2017).
68
Figure 28. Livestock number of Turkey (million head) (1990-2017)
Even though overall ambitious steps in agriculture, one of the barriers of Turkey's
agriculture affecting its development efforts is fragmented land. As a major structural
problem in Turkish agriculture, a typical farm is divided up into several distinct parcels
of land. This level of fragmentation limits decarbonisation efforts of agriculture but also
limits technology usages, adoption of new techniques, increased losses and higher
production costs.
To prevent continued fragmentation, there have been some efforts. For instance, the
Soil Conservation and Land Use Law (No. 5403) was amended in 2007. The amended
Law determines the minimum permissible size of a land-parcel as 20 hectares.
Following the amendment, the bylaw on the Conservation and Use of Agricultural
Lands and Land Consolidation, which lays down the principles of implementation of
the Law, was passed in 2009. There has been a noticeable acceleration in the
progress of land consolidation and the on-farm development works of the General
Directorate of Agricultural Reform, initiated under the GAP Action Plan. In this
framework, over 4 million ha area has been completed for land consolidation and on-
farm development works between 2003-2014 (MoFAL, 2017)69, and it is planned to be
completed on 14 million ha as to Vision 2023 paper. Besides, development of a land
parcel identification system is continuing with EU support.
69
MoFAL (2017), General Directory of Agricultural Reform data
69
5.3. Analysis of GHG Emission Reduction Possibilities in the Sector based
on Current Trends and Policies
According to the latest GHG inventory15 of Turkey, total GHG emissions from
agriculture sector were 57.4 Mt CO2-eq in 2015 which is 12.1% of total GHG emissions
(excluding LULUCF). There is 28.11% increase in agriculture sector GHG emissions
as compared to 1990 level.
The main sources of agriculture sector GHG emissions are enteric fermentation,
agricultural soils and manure management. Table 14 and Figure 29 show GHG
emissions from the agriculture sector. In 2015, 46.8% of the agriculture sector GHG
emissions was from enteric fermentation, 39.8% was from agricultural soils, 11% from
manure management, 1.4% was from urea application, and 1% was from rice
cultivation and field burning of agricultural residues.
Table 14. GHG emissions from agriculture sector (1990-2015)
Enteric
fermentatio
n
Manure
manageme
nt
Rice
cultivation
Agricultural
Soils
Field
burning of
agricultural
residues
Urea
application Total
1990 22 314 4 111 91 17 528 319 460 44 824
1991 23 129 4 352 70 17 507 328 436 45 822
1992 22 929 4 263 74 18 034 309 459 46 069
1993 22 536 4 385 77 18 804 333 627 46 762
1994 22 235 4 634 70 16 356 292 453 44 040
1995 21 705 4 427 86 16 408 299 426 43 351
1996 21 677 4 498 95 17 077 309 534 44 190
1997 20 205 4 169 95 16 834 312 532 42 146
1998 19 781 4 397 103 18 453 343 658 43 735
1999 19 850 4 479 112 18 883 301 733 44 360
2000 19 124 4 240 100 18 088 334 617 42 504
2001 18 606 4 243 102 16 055 309 527 39 842
2002 16 878 3 748 103 16 383 321 527 37 961
2003 18 464 4 149 112 17 549 313 565 41 152
2004 18 957 3 937 121 18 239 342 632 42 228
2005 19 663 4 133 147 18 429 351 613 43 335
2006 20 331 4 353 171 19 018 332 592 44 797
2007 20 552 4 445 162 18 374 283 566 44 383
2008 20 057 4 352 172 16 729 275 565 42 149
2009 19 576 4 343 167 18 362 318 593 43 359
2010 20 912 4 840 171 18 900 308 645 45 776
2011 22 806 5 039 171 19 239 332 558 48 145
2012 25 740 5 771 206 21 105 308 640 53 770
2013 26 850 6 188 191 22 827 335 807 57 198
2014 27 094 6 313 191 22 556 292 788 57 233
2015 26 888 6 304 200 22 878 342 811 57 422
Change
1990-2015
(%)
20.50 53.32 118.60 30.52 7.40 76.24 28.11
70
Figure 29. GHG emissions from agriculture sector (1990-2015)
The agriculture sector is responsible for 59.3% of total CH4 emissions, and 78.4% of
total N2O emissions in 2015. Methane emissions mainly is originated from enteric
fermentation while N2O emissions released from agricultural soils.
Figure 30 shows methane emissions from enteric fermentation. The highest portion of
CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation was from cattle. In 2015, the contribution of
cattle was 79.1% and it was followed by sheep with 15% and goats with 4.8% and
other livestock with 1.1%.
71
Figure 30. CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation (1990-2015)
Figure 31 shows GHG emissions from manure management. Total emissions from
this subsector were 4.1 Mt CO2-eq in 1990 and increased to 6.3 Mt CO2-eq in 2015
(53.3% increase). Manure management is responsible for 10.4% of CH4 and 12% of
N2O emissions within agriculture sector in 2015. As in the case of enteric fermentation,
the highest portion of both CH4 and N2O emissions within manure management was
from cattle.
Figure 31. GHG emissions from manure management (1990-2015)
72
Agricultural soils as a source of direct and indirect N2O emissions are the biggest
contributors to total N2O emissions. Direct N2O emissions include organic and
inorganic fertilizers application to soil, nitrogen input from above-ground and below-
ground crop residues, urine and dung deposited by grazing animals. Indirect N2O
emissions include atmospheric deposition and nitrogen leaching and run-off.
N2O emissions from agricultural soils were 22.9 Mt CO2-eq in 2015 while it was 17.5
Mt CO2-eq in 1990 (30.5% increase). This represents 87.6% of N2O emissions in the
agriculture sector, 68.7% of total N2O emissions. Direct N2O emissions were 17.4 Mt
CO2-eq, indirect N2O emissions were 5.5 Mt CO2-eq in 2015. The use of synthetic
fertilizer was the major contributor to direct N2O emissions (Figure 32).
The other subcategories, including rice cultivation, field burning of agricultural residues
and urea application have a minor contribution to agriculture sector GHG emissions.
Figure 32. N2O emissions from agricultural soils (1990-2015)
Especially for the main GHG contributors of agriculture sector of Turkey, some
mitigation options, which have been applied around the world, particularly in the
developed countries, should be integrated.
Most common methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) mitigation options are:70
70
Pérez Domínguez, I., T. Fellmann, F. Weiss, P. Witzke, J. Barreiro-Hurlé, M. Himics, T. Jansson, G. Salputra, A. Leip
(2016): An economic assessment of GHG mitigation policy options for EU agriculture (EcAMPA 2). JRC Science for Policy
Report, EUR 27973 EN, 10.2791/843461
73
Anaerobic Digestion (AD): Apart from being a source of renewable energy,
the AD is a technology that has proven to be especially effective for reducing
GHG emissions from livestock manure, particularly because it can considerably
reduce CH4 emissions from stored manure. The AD also reduces N2O
emissions from livestock slurries.
Nitrification Inhibitors (NI): The objective of using NI is to control leaching of
nitrate by keeping nitrogen in the ammonia form for a longer time, preventing
denitrification of nitrate and reducing N2O emissions caused by nitrification and
denitrification. Thus, via NI, crops have a better opportunity to absorb nitrate,
which increases nitrogen-use efficiency and at the same time reduces N2O
emissions from mineral fertilisers
Low Nitrogen Feed (LNF): LNF is a measure that aims to reduce ammonia
(NH3) emissions from livestock. Essentially, a lower nitrogen content of feed
reduces nitrogen excretion by animals and, consequently, NH3 emissions.
However, there are positive cross-over effects with regard to N2O and CH4
emissions. There is a direct linear relationship between the input of dietary
nitrogen and the nitrogen excretion via urine and faeces. N2O emissions
depend on the amount of nitrogen excreted by animals. Thus, if a lower nitrogen
content of the fodder reduces nitrogen excretion, this also positively affects the
N2O emissions from livestock.
Feed Additives for Animal Diets: Supplementing animal diets with lipids (i.e.
vegetable oils or animal fats) is used to increase the energy content of the diet
and to enhance energy utilisation by lowering dry matter intake and improving
digestion. The combination of decreased dry matter intake and (potentially)
maintained or increased (milk) production improves feed efficiency and results
in decreased CH4 emissions from cattle. Linseed is one of the most efficient
dietary lipids, however, the effectiveness of feeding linseed for decreasing
enteric CH4 emissions depends on the feed mix. Furthermore, feeding too much
linseed can have negative effects on the overall diet digestibility. Bacteria from
the rumen are able to use nitrate as alternative electron acceptors for hydrogen,
which reduces CH4 production. Thus, using nitrate as a feed additive can
reduce CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation. The CH4 reduction potential
seems to be quite high, but it requires a careful dosage to avoid negative health
effects to the livestock.
74
Other GHG mitigation options that suggested in the IPCC 5th Assessment Report
are:71
Improved feed and dietary additives to reduce emissions from enteric
fermentation; including improved forage, dietary additives (bioactive
compounds, fats), ionophores/antibiotics, propionate enhancers, archaea
inhibitors, and sulphate supplements.
Improved breeds with higher productivity (so lower emissions per unit of
product) or with reduced emissions from enteric fermentation; microbial
technology such as archaeal vaccines, methanotrophs, acetogens, defaunation
of the rumen, bacteriophages and probiotics; improved fertility.
Manipulate livestock diets to reduce N excreta, soil-applied and animal fed,
urease inhibitors, fertilizer type, rate and timing, manipulate manure application
practices, grazing management.
Manipulate bedding and storage conditions; biofilters, dietary additives.
Improved N use efficiency on crops in order to reduce N2O emission
Changing N fertilizer application rate, fertilizer type, timing, precision
application, inhibitors in order to reduce N2O emission.
Water management, mid-season paddy drainage, N fertilizer application rate,
fertilizer type, timing, precision application during rice cultivation in order to
reduce CH4 and N2O emissions.
5.4. Policy Recommendation for Further Improvement of Key Sectoral
Policies towards Lowering GHG Emissions
There are many and various laws, regulations, plans, programs and instruments,
directly or indirectly related to lowering GHG emissions in agriculture. However, some
further steps are needed.
Firstly, monitoring and evaluation of all legislation are needed. The targets and
actions should be measured. Despite the introduction of policies to address agri-
environmental issues, some problems persist (OECD, 2008). For example, while soil
erosion is, in part, a natural occurrence, the absence of a widespread system of soil
conservation practices has resulted in a failure to improve soil quality, with over-
grazing and the ploughing-up of grassland being important sources of the problem.
71
Smith P., M. Bustamante, H. Ahammad, H. Clark, H. Dong, E. A. Elsiddig, H. Haberl, R. Harper, J. House, M. Jafari, O.
Masera, C. Mbow, N. H. Ravindranath, C. W. Rice, C. Robledo Abad, A. Romanovskaya, F. Sperling, and F. Tubiello, 2014:
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of
Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R.
Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J.
Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
75
Notwithstanding the reforms, continued subsidies for water charges and electricity for
pumping (and diesel for machinery) are undermining efforts to achieve sustainable
agricultural water use, especially of groundwater, and – in the case of energy and
diesel – to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The agri-environmental monitoring
system needs to be considerably improved, to help enhance the quality of information
for policymakers to evaluate the environmental effectiveness of newly introduced agri-
environmental and environmental policy measures. Some areas of agri-environmental
monitoring are now well established, especially those related to irrigation water use
and management, and greenhouse gas emissions. But for most agri-environmental
issues, monitoring is weak or − where data exist − quality and reliability are poor
(OECD, 2008a).
Secondly, the agri-environmental programs should be increased. Agricultural
subsidies are the opportunity in the agricultural sector for reduction GHG. There are
many various agricultural subsidy instruments are offered by the government in order
to support and regulate to agriculture sector in Turkey, and its amount is constantly
increasing from year to year. There are also environmentally friendly subsidies such
as ÇATAK (The Environmentally Based Agricultural Land Protection Program), zero
tillage, organic farming, good farming practices, biological and biotechnological control
of insect. As an agri-environmental program, ÇATAK is the first one to be specifically
targeted at addressing the negative impacts of agricultural practices on the
environment. The ÇATAK program has some similarities with EU agri-environmental
measures in rural development programs. Despite some difficulties at the start, there
now seems to be widespread awareness of its environmental benefits and its coverage
has been expanded over the years (World Bank, 2009). The EU implementation of the
IPARD Program is another one which serves environmental protection. Priority Axis 2
of the IPARD program includes, inter alia, provisions for the implementation of pilot
agri-environmental measures.
In the meantime, adopting EU framework, Turkey should adopt the EU’s Common
Agricultural Policy (CAP). The CAP has been increasingly adopted for integrating
environmental concerns and to serve sustainability purposes better. The integration of
environmental concerns into the CAP is based on a distinction between:
ensuring a sustainable way of farming by avoiding environmentally harmful
agricultural activity
providing incentives for environmentally beneficial public goods and services.
For ensuring sustainable agricultural activities, farmers are obliged to respect common
rules and standards for preserving the environment and the landscape. The common
76
rules and standards are mandatory and form the very basis for ensuring that
agricultural activity is undertaken in a sustainable way. There are also several
regulations and initiatives adopted to EU CAP underway to implement various EU
Environmental Directives. For example, in the context of adopting and implementing
the EU Nitrate Directive, the Regulation on the protection of water from nitrate
pollution, caused by agricultural resources, was put into force in 2004. For its
implementation, five basic phases have been defined necessary: determination of the
water resources which are subject, or will be subject, to nitrate pollution;
description/determination of the vulnerable zones; development of good agricultural
codes and implementation; development of “Action Plans” for all vulnerable zones;
and the setting up of a national monitoring and reporting system.
Besides, as given in the barriers and opportunities report, CAP has some instruments
for reducing agricultural GHG, such as green payment. In Turkey current agricultural
support payments and some instruments are an opportunity for reducing GHG
emissions, and the share of environmentally friendly practices in the total subsidies
could be increased and widen through all country. Those instruments should be
converted to serve low carbon emission development. More measures should be
taken to t benefit from renewable energy sources in the agricultural sector.
Thirdly, as the agricultural sector needs to step up with its contribution towards the EU
environmental objectives, these commitments cannot be met without farmers, who
manage over half of Turkey's land, are key users and custodians of the related natural
resources and provide large carbon sinks as well as renewable resources for industry
and energy. Agricultural policies should enhance its contribution by reflecting a higher
level of environmental and climate ambition and address citizens' concerns regarding
sustainable agricultural production. In this regard awareness-raising activities, training
at all levels, including farmers, women, youth, engineers, vets, extension stuff,
consumers, etc. should be significantly expanded and improved.
77
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
Based on the review of the sector policies and obligations related to GHG emission,
assessment of sector development trends and private sector perspective, following
conclusions and recommendations can be made for further improvement of key
sectoral policies towards lowering GHG emissions in each of four target sectors:
For Buildings Sector:
The buildings sector in Turkey is growing with the pace higher than other
sectors of the economy. This is attributed to the increasing population,
urbanization process, and growing living standards, which contribute to a clear
upward trend in energy consumption and GHG emissions. As such Turkey
faces a challenge to design and implement effective sectoral policies to deal
with this growth trend.
While a number of national strategy documents and plans discussed in the
report contain the energy- and climate-related measures to meet national and
sectoral targets, as well as international obligations in the buildings sector, it is
necessary to introduce stronger implementation, monitoring, reporting, and
enforcement mechanisms in addition to the design and formulation of policies
on a sectoral level.
Turkey has achieved significant progress on the transposition of the regulatory
policies as required by EU energy efficiency acquis i.e. building standards and
mandatory building labelling and certification. These policies typically work well
for new buildings if they are updated and tightened regularly, but they are not
sufficient to deliver the impact on GHG emission reduction for the existing
building stock.
More efforts are necessary to design relevant incentives for the introduction of
building renovation strategies. Measures for the establishment of financial
mechanisms – either energy efficiency obligation schemes or alternative
approaches, and other facilitating policies are needed.
The information dissemination and awareness raising capacities should be built
for population, business and public sectors to overcome their reluctance
towards investing into energy efficiency.
A tariff reform, including gradual elimination of fuel subsidies, in combination
with strong information campaigns how to decrease energy bills in spite of
higher energy prices is a must have for Turkey.
In order to determine the impact of such recommendations or the secondary
impact of GHG reductions, modelling studies need to be conducted. Such
studies would help the sector and the decision makers determine and prioritize
78
the strategies to follow. This would enable transition to a low carbon economy
where the growth of the sector could persist while the trend of the emissions
could decouple from this growth.
For Waste Sector:
Although Turkey already has strategic documents and action plans for better
waste management, further improvements of waste management in country
towards environmentally sound approaches and further transposition of EU
legal framework regarding waste sector are necessary.
To ensure effective implementation, enforcement, monitoring and auditing of
the legislation, there is a need for strengthening the institutional structure and
capacity building.
Financing mechanism of waste management should be strengthened through
realistic economic instruments, such as landfill fees, Pay-as-you-throw
schemes and taxes.
Improved indicators and data collection and verifications mechanisms are
needed for further assessment of the waste management performances.
Broader implementation of extended producer responsibility) as an economic
instrument for specific types of waste such as packaging waste, or hazardous
waste such as waste batteries and accumulators, can be a useful tool for the
safe and sound elimination of this type of waste.
Integrating climate change adaptation principles to the waste management
sector via the Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Impact
Assessment can have a very positive impact not only to the mitigation side of
the equation but also to the adaptation part.
Significant potential exists for GHG emission reduction through using recycled
materials on manufacturing (industry sector) or fossil fuel substitution by waste
to generate electricity (energy sector). The emission reduction potential of the
waste sector should be taken into account and this can as well be supported by
the Market Based incentives that have been also studied by the PMR Project.
In order to determine not only the precise positive impact of the above
mentioned conclusions and recommendations related to the waste sector
modelling studies need to be implemented. This way not only the measures can
be prioritized but also their quantitative impact can be revealed. In addition to
this non-financial potential social benefits and possible risks and damages can
be evaluated.
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For Transportation Sector:
Passenger Transportation:
Additional policies and measures should be taken to encourage the shift in
urban scale road transportation from private car usage to i) public bus and bus
rapid transit driven by alternative fuels and ii) rail-based ones (metro, light rail
transit, etc.) as well as iii) zero-carbon modes (such as walking and biking), as
much as possible. In regional scale with intercity travels, shared ride modes
such as rail (conventional or HSR) and intercity bus services, must continue to
be supported, and further modernized to increase their shares compared to
private car option. In the international scale, where air travel is a clear
preference for tourism, a major sector leading Turkish economic development,
and expected to grow as a market, but, emission reduction on the airport side
and efficiency in the fuel usage can be listed as some of the priority areas.
Freight Transportation:
A significant reduction of GHG emission can be achieved in urban scale, if
major delivery and collection (waste collection, etc.) systems can be managed
based on emission reduction potentials in routing and storing (these systems
can be promoted under smart city initiatives, as well); introduction of zero-
emission vehicles for public services. In the regional scale, support of
implementation of such management practices as improvement of an efficiency
in truck loading (such as minimization of empty runs, avoidance of half-than-
truck load conditions) can be increased by introducing load sharing initiatives,
and consolidation centres. Use of old trucks should also be minimized by
continuing support on phasing-out of old vehicles and introduction of financial
incentives for new environmentally friendly trucks. In the international scale,
road transportation to neighbouring countries (such as Europe, and the Middle
East) has to be shifted to rail options and to maritime, as much as possible.
Both for freight and passenger transportation related policies are suggested to
be determined and /or prioritized based on detailed modelling studies for the
sector. In addition to this the secondary benefits related to the road and travel
safety and improvement of human health can be determined, by the help of the
modelling studies.
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For Agriculture Sector:
The agri-environmental monitoring system needs to be considerably improved,
to help enhance the quality of information for policymakers to evaluate the
environmental effectiveness of newly introduced agri-environmental and
environmental policy measures.
Further expansion of the agri-environmental programs, such as ÇATAK that
address the negative impacts of agricultural practices on the environment is
needed. The similarities of the ÇATAK and EU agri-environmental measures in
rural development programs, must be recognized and supported.
Policies and measures to oblige farmers to respect sustainable agricultural
activities, as well as rules and standards for preserving the environment and
the landscape should be introduced.
Current agricultural subsidies in Turkey are an opportunity for reducing GHG
emissions, and the share of environmentally friendly practices in the total
subsidies could be increased and widen throughout Turkey, without limiting
these subsidies to the geographies that are prioritized for development.
Specific measures should be taken to significantly increase usage of renewable
energy sources in the agricultural sector.
Some of the climate change related problems can be addressed by awareness-
raising activities, training at all levels, including farmers, women, youth,
engineers, veterinarians, extension stuff, and consumers. Such trainings and
awareness raising campaigns should be significantly expanded and improved.
To obtain the quantitative impact of the above mentioned measures detailed
modelling studies are needed. This would also help structure and prioritize the
implementation plans.
The above list of priority measures to mitigate GHG emissions in four target sectors in
Turkey, certainly, requires additional studies for further list’s extension and updates.
At the same time, it can be a good input to further project activities under modelling
Components 3 & 4, as the set of policies and measures to begin with when analysing
and evaluating potential GHG mitigation options and possible emissions scenarios in
buildings, waste, transportation and agriculture sectors.
We expect that after completing modelling process under Components 3 & 4, we will
have much broader list of the potential mitigation policy options with identified relevant
quantitative and qualitative indicators. It will allow us to update, extend and prioritise
the above list within the project timeframe.
This publication is prepared with financial contribution of the European Union and the
Republic of Turkey. Only the consortium led by the Hulla & Co Human Dynamics KG is
solely responsible for the contents of this publication, and such contents do not reflect
the opinions and the attitude of the European Union nor the Republic of Turkey.