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TEACHING STRATEGY HANDBOOK

ALEXANDER SMITH a1607269

TEACHING STRATEGY

HANDBOOK

1

Alexander Smith 1607269 2014


(1.1) Introduction

The core of a classroom is not content but how that content is

carried across. For a class to fully realise their potential in the

classroom, there needs to be a positive environment. Positive

environments in the class room creates a constructive tone

where education can be fully realised. Roy Killen writes that “you

should not expect students to be engaged in meaningful learning

if the environment is not supportive, encouraging and focused

on learning” (Killen 2006, pp. 23). Therefore, we must strive to

create these positive learning environments.

(1.2) To create a positive learning environment, we need to:

- Create a safe and comfortable environment, both physically and

psychologically

- Structure learning towards meaningful long-term goals

- Create interesting, challenging and realistic learning

experiences

- Value student efforts and encourage them to put in effort

- Expect students to work hard to achieve high standards

(Killen 2006, pp 23-24)

Positive learning environments neatly fit under the umbrella of

preventative strategies as put forward by Dr C.M. Charles, who

divides teacher intervention into three groups. These groups are:

- Preventative: “those that prevent misbehaviour”

- Supportive: “those that support students who are wavering”

- Corrective: “those that correct misbehaviour and rechannel it in

positive directions”

(C.M. Charles 2002, p.236)

This handbook will focus on these three sub-sections, using

examples, to practically guide the teacher to both create a

positive learning environment and respond to issues as they

arise. Using preventative, supportive and corrective strategies

SUMMARY

1.1:

- Classroom needs a

positive environment

- Students can’t be

engaged unless the

environment is

“supportive,

encouraging and

focused on learning”

1.2:

- To create a positive

learning environment,

we need it to be safe,

well structured,

interesting and goal-

orientated amongst

other things

- C.M.Charles divides

teacher intervention

into Preventative,

Supportive and

Corrective.

1.3:

- When considering

which strategy to use,

refer to Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Needs

- What needs need be

met?

- What strategies

should we use to fulfil

these needs?

INTRODUCTION

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held within this handbook, teachers can hope to not only build

but foster a positive, constructive learning environment.

(1.3) What strategies should I use?

When referring to what a student needs in a classroom, it might

be useful to consult Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

which sets out the physiological and psychological needs of a

human being. Put forward in 1943, it gives teachers and parents

an understanding of what a student may need in the class room.

When we consider what the student needs at any given time, we

can consider where the needs are and aren’t met within the

hierarchy. Consider the bottom two sections in Fig. 1. If a student

isn’t receiving what they need physiologically and they aren’t

feeling safe, are they fully able to perform to a high standard in

the class room? How can we meet these needs?

Fig.1 Source: http://tinyurl.com/l7oxfgf

http://tinyurl.com/l7oxfgf

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(2.1) Preventative Strategies

“ When children are motivated because what they are learning is

interesting, exciting and relevant; when they feel respected and

cared for by their teacher even if they are not always able to get

all the answers right; when they feel they have a legitimate place

in our classroom; then inattentive, problem behaviour is most

unlikely to occur”

(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p.251)

Preventative strategies are those that circumvent corrective

strategies by creating a situation where the times that the latter

need be used is reduced significantly. The central idea of a

preventative strategy is to create an environment that keeps

students focused and engaged while being positive and

organised. Ideally, a well organised classroom that utilises

preventative strategies will create a situation where students do

not feel the need to act up or misbehave.

(2.2) what should we consider when using preventative

strategies?

According to Dr C.M. Charles, a classroom built on

preventative strategy should focus on:

Making the curriculum, lessons and topics engaging,

enjoyable and meaningful

Being aware of student’s needs, such as empowerment,

dignity and competence, and that these needs are met

in the classroom

Being positive in our classroom manner, taking effort to

be pleasant, helpful and respectful, creating a classroom

culture that promotes these attributes in the students

Teaching students to express their needs in ways that

do not disrupt the momentum of the class

(C.M. Charles 2002, p. 236)

Consider these aspects of preventative strategy in the

classroom to build a positive, constructive classroom that will

not only keep misbehaviour to a minimum, but also create real

opportunities for student academic growth.

(2.3) the Kounin Model

Developed in the 1970’s, Jacob Kounin’s model for classroom

behaviour management serves as both a recent and practical

SUMMARY

2.1

- Preventative

Strategies are those

that circumvent

corrective strategies by

creating positive

learning environment.

- Well organised

classrooms lead to less

misbehaviour

2.2

- C.M.Charles says we

should focus on:

1) Making curriculum

engaging and

meaningful

2) Being aware of

students needs

3) Being positive in our

classroom manner

4) Teaching students to

express their needs

2.3

Kounin’s model is based

on:

-“ With-it-ness”

- Overlapping Response

- Momentum

- Smoothness

- Group Focus/Alerting

PREVENTATIVE

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approach to preventative strategy. The theory was first put

forward in 1977’s Discipline and Group Management in

Classrooms, and its main focuses are “with-it-ness”,

overlapping, momentum, smoothness and group focus/group

alerting

(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p.259-261).

“With-it-ness”

Having “eyes in the back of your head”, being constantly

aware of what is going on in the classroom.

Identifying and acting promptly to prevent any disruptive

behaviour before it develops and upsets the learning

flow.

Overlapping Responses

The skill of dealing with two problems or incidents at the

same time without disrupting the class.

This might mean being prepared for scenarios where

these situations may arise.

Remember: “An important proviso for

‘withitness’ is that the action taken does not

interrupt the flow of the learning activity”

(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p. 259)

EXAMPLE: CASE

STUDY ONE

In “Praise and

Preparation”, Amy

Alexander uses a well-

laid out white board to

with all of the classes

tasks written on it fig 2.

When a student has

completed the current

task, they already have

another task to do,

circumnavigating any

disruption

Fig 2

The neatly organised, colour-

coordinated white board that gives the

students their tasks reduces the need for

confusion and therefore disruption in

the classroom.

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Momentum

Student behaviour is linked to the flow of a lesson –

when a lesson flows poorly, misbehaviour can occur

Keeping a steady momentum is important in preventing

misbehaviour in the classroom

A lack of momentum can lead to Slowdowns that create

opportunities for students to lose interest.

Smoothness

To avoid Slowdowns, move smoothly from one activity

to the other

A class with strong momentum will use strong

Movement Management (McInerney & McInerney

2002, p.261) to move the class between activities

without interrupting the flow of learning

Group Focus and Group Alerting

Group Focus and Group Alerting are key to strong

movement management.

Group Focus is the ability to keep a group of students

focused and attentive

Group Alerting is the ability to communicate quickly

and efficiently what task the group need to complete

EXAMPLE: CASE

STUDY TWO

In “The Need for

Structure”, an example of

a LACK of momentum

can be seen early on.

Michelle Rock stops in

the middle of her

introduction to the task

to correct the behaviour

of one student. This

disrupts the momentum

from the beginning and

sets up the class to be

unfocused

Michelle is already interrupting her

own lesson to correct behaviour,

disrupting the momentum of the class

early on

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(2.4) Pros and Cons of the Kounin Model

PROS:

Minimises disruption in the classroom

Keeps students on task

Creates easy transitions from one activity to the other

Properly utilises positive and negative reinforcement

CONS:

Very intensive

Requires constant alertness and focus to keep the class

on task

Can be difficult for beginning teachers due to the need

for focused attention on multiple spaces within the

classroom.

EXAMPLE: CASE STUDY THREE

In “Praise and Preparation”, Amy

Alexander quickly uses Group Focus

and Alerting in the first few

moments of the class to get the

students on task.

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(3.1) Supportive Strategies

“The masterful use of proactive skills diffuses many surface

behaviours and causes minimal disruptions to the teaching

act”

- Levin & Nolan 2003, p.26

Supportive discipline is a means by which to make quick and

reactive action against minor misbehaviour and disruptions.

This usually means dealing with minor misdemeanours such

as talking out of turn, lack of attention and attention-seeking

behaviour. Generally, supportive strategies are used when

preventative fails but the action is not serious enough for a

strong corrective. Rather than correct students, supportive

strategies are used to reinforce positive actions and

discourage negative behaviour.

(3.2) What should we consider when using supportive

strategies?

There are a number of different aspects that we should

consider when utilising supportive strategies in the classroom.

These include:

Making an effort to show interest in student work, and

rewarding both creativity, correct answers and the

willingness to attempt to answer questions

Learning to make eye contact with students

Learning to send private signals for negative behaviour

Using physical proximity to discourage negative

behaviour in students

Gently guiding students when they get stuck

Light challenges “Can you get five more problems

done before we stop?”

- C.M. Charles 2002, p.237

Consider these strategies when using a supportive approach,

to not only fix short-term problems but garner long-term trust

and teamwork between the students and yourself.

(3.3) Non-Verbal Strategies

As mentioned above, a large part of supportive strategies is

non-verbal communication. This might mean anything from a

subtle nod of the head towards a student working well or

SUMMARY

3.1

Supportive strategy is a

middle ground between

preventative and

corrective.

3.2

We should consider a

number of different

aspects including eye

contact, physical

proximity and

encouraging creativity

and the willingness to

try

3.3

Three non-verbal

strategies are:

Planned Ignoring

Proximity

Signalling

3.4

ABC Model

Antecedents

(influence)

Behaviour (which is

reinforced by)

Consequence

3.5

Pros and Cons

SUPPORTIVE

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gently moving closer to a student on the verge of misbehaving.

These strategies are quick and effective means of reigning in

behaviour without disrupting the class, and in some ways act

as an extension of Kounin’s idea of “with-it-ness”.

Planned Ignoring

“Planned ignoring is based on the reinforcement theory

that if you ignore a behaviour, it will lessen and

eventually disappear” (Levin and Nolan 2003,p.29)

The idea behind planned ignoring is not engaging with

negative student behaviour and attention seeking to the

end of reinforcing positive behaviour through attention

and ignoring negative behaviour.

Generally this is done to manage minor misdemeanours

such as not being prepared, speaking out of turn etc.

Proximity

“Proximity interference is any movement toward the

disruptive student” (Levin and Nolan 2003, p.30)

Proximity management works on the idea that there are

different proximities from student to teacher in the

classroom.

Far proximity indicates teaching, information giving

mode

A middle proximity means a closer focus, and may

mean working with a group of students rather than the

whole class.

Close proximity indicates private supportive language

and communication between the teacher and student.

EXAMPLE: CASE STUDY FOUR

In “Attention Seekers”, John

Bayley demonstrates planned

ignoring as a means of social

learning. By ignoring the

students that are constantly

acting up and praising students

that work well, he proposes a way

to build a positive learning

environment with minimal

disruption

Bayley demonstrates non-verbal

communication to reinforce

planned ignoring. Strong body

language dissaudes bad behaviour

and eye contact reinforces good

behaviour.

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This may mean going close to a student to remind them

to be on task or it may mean moving to a student to

quietly reinforce good behaviour.

If a student continues to be off task, conducting the

lesson closely to that student while utilising planned

ignoring can be quite effective.

Signalling

Signal interference refers to non-verbal communication

that indicates to a student that their behaviour is

inappropriate without disrupting the class.

Signal interference must be clear and direct so that there

is “no doubt in the students mind that the teacher is

aware of what’s going on [and that they are] responsible

for the behaviour” (Levin and Nolan 2003, p.29)

This might include: making eye-contact, head-shaking,

holding out an open palm while lecturing and so-forth.

(3.4) Supportive Behaviourist Model

This model breaks down the situational factors that influence

behaviour (positive and negative) into three categories. These

are Antecedents, Behaviour and Consequence. This ABC

model can be used to reinforce positive behaviour and

discourage negative behaviour.

Antecedents in this context mean pre-existing conditions

that effect outcomes. These include the physical

environment of a classroom, the learning program,

teacher behaviour, classroom routines and rules.

EXAMPLE: CASE STUDY

FIVE

In “Attention Seekers”, Jane

Wright moves to the back of

the class to have a one-on-

one chat with a student who

isn’t paying attention. This

close proximity doesn’t

disrupt the class and keeps

the student on task.

Jane Moves to a close proximity to

keep the student on task. Rather

than use supportive language from

across the classroom, this closeness

allows for directed support without

disruption.

When considering

Antecedents, it might be

helpful to refer to Piaget’s

Model of Moral and

Cognitive Development

found in Appendix Two. By

meeting the developmental

need of students when

setting classroom rules, you

give them agency and build

relational trust

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Behaviour is influenced by the Antecedents and

Consequence. Students will act in a way to gain a

positive consequence and shy away from negative

consequences. “The more pleasant the consequence,

the more reinforcing it becomes” ( DECS 1996)

Consequence means that every action and behaviour a

student does in the classroom has a consequence. This

means positive reinforcement for good behaviour and

negative reinforcement for bad behaviour.

Consequences can take a range of forms and usually

coincide with Skinner’s Model of positive reinforcement.

(3.5) Pros and Cons of Supportive Strategies:

Pros:

Strong use of proximity can mean building strong

classroom culture and a lack of repeat misbehaviour

Planned ignoring, when used correctly, can eliminate

minor problems in the class such as lack of

preparedness and disinterest

Signalling can mean communicating supportive

strategies without disrupting the class

The ABC model rewards good behaviour and gives

consequences for negative behaviour.

Cons:

ABC and Skinner’s Model can be interpreted as a

“carrot-and-stick” approach where operant conditioning

creates uniform behaviour, which can be very negative

Planned ignoring could be used by very wilful students

as an excuse for continued bad behaviour

REMEMBER: Positive reinforcement can

take a variety of forms under Skinner’s

Model. These are social reinforcement,

activity reinforcement, token reinforcement

and tangible reinforcement.

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4.1 Corrective Strategies

“If you approach misbehaving students in a sensitive manner,

you can help them return to proper behaviour with no ill feelings”

- C.M. Charles 2002, p. 237

When the preventative and supportive strategies fail in the

classroom, our focus must fall on the corrective behavioural

strategies. If we refer to the Hierarchy of Management of

Intervention (Appendix One), we can see that as we move from

non-verbal intervention (covered in the supportive section) into

the verbal intervention to be discussed in this section.

(4.2) Things to Consider when using Corrective Strategies

We should consider the following aspects when we are using

corrective strategies:

When we approach offending students to intervene, we

should do so in a positive manner while maintaining a

calm and respectful manner

Applying a discipline plan that you and the students have

agreed to consistently

When applying the discipline plan we should be

considerate of never lecturing or threatening students,

and without escalating the situation to a non-professional

level.

- C.M. Charles 2002, p.237

(4.3) Thomas Gordon’s Discipline Model

Gordon’s Model

Thomas Gordon’s model puts forward the idea that for a

teacher to really control the class they must use

“minimal control” and that they “must give up their

efforts to control student behaviour and instead help

students develop their own sense of control”

(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p.263)

Gordon stresses a focus on Critical Listening which the

practice of listening fully and critically to a students

needs.

This is followed by Active Listening, or a repetition of

the student’s needs are understood.

SUMMARY

4.1

Corrective strategies are

used when preventative

and supportive

strategies have failed

4.2

We should consider a

number of different

aspects including a

positive manner, being

respectful, having a

consistent discipline

plan and never

lecturing or

threatening students.

4.3

Thomas Gordon’s

model promotes a

sharing of control

between student and

teacher

He advocates Critical

and Active listening

followed by Directive

I-Messages to deal

with classroom

disputes

4.4

Pros and Cons

CORRECTIVE

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Through Active and Critical listening, the teacher can

determine who “owns” the problem, and if it something

they can help with.

If the teacher owns the problem and is therefore in a

position to help, this can lead to a directive I-message.

This is a description of the student’s misbehaviour that

doesn’t judge or demean the student and uses teacher-

focused language.

The use of Directive I-Messages not only act as a quick

corrective in the class-room but also serve as a way of

modelling behaviour. By putting the focus on the

teacher, the student can see that it is effecting the class

and will therefore be less likely to misbehave in the

future.

Example Directive I-messages:

Brief:

“I want you to get on with the work now, so that you can

leave on time”

“I want you to sit properly in your chair and focus on the

lesson, please” (Cowley 2006, p.44)

In-depth:

“When you forget to bring your homework in, I can’t

check all the work at the same time to see if everyone is

ready for me to teach the next topic. This makes me feel

very frustrated at the waste of time”

(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p. 264)

EXAMPLE: CASE STUDY SIX

In “Key Instructions:, Bayley

prompts Teddy Prout to use

Directive I-Messages to clearly

give instructions and reign in

his unruly music class.

“I need you to…” is a good example

of a brief directive I-message

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(4.4) Pros and Cons

Pros:

Gordon’s model creates long term solutions for

persistent negative behaviour

By shifting the focus from the student’s behaviour as a

single entity to how it effects the class as a whole,

Gordon’s model creates greater understanding of

empathy and correct behaviour

Active and Critical listening can build relational trust

between teacher and student

Cons:

More in-depth directive I-messages can be time

consuming

By not being as assertive, this model can allow for

manipulation of the relational trust to get away with

further misdemeanour

5.1: Conclusions

Ultimately the decisions made in the classroom have to be

made at the moment. While you can prepare and create

situations that put you in control, strategies to prevent

disruption and so on, the class can still be an unpredictable

place. I would say that while the strategies discussed in this

handbook are useful and that you should refer to them, over

time your natural instincts as a teacher will make this moot. But

until then, consider this as a guide.

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Appendices

Appendix One: Hierarchy of Management Intervention

We can see here a progression from non-verbal intervention to logical consequences

on a spectrum of student/teacher focus. All of the strategies discussed, bar

preventative, fall on this spectrum. This gives a clear progression from preventative,

to supportive, to corrective as we move down the spectrum.

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Appendix Two:

Piaget’s Theory of Moral and Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s work on the cognitive development of children can help us inform our

own preventative decision making in the classroom. Though Piaget’s work has been

disputed over the years, the foundational research he conducted would provide the

backbone for future developments in the field.

Piaget’s Stages

Piaget believed that rather than moving in a continuous, linear progression, a

child’s cognitive development was discontinuous and proceeded “sequentially

through a series of distinct ‘stages’ from birth to adulthood”, with each stage

being “ qualitatively different” from the next ( Krause et al 2003, p. 11)

Beyond cognitive development, Piaget also theorised and observed moral

development in the same discontinuous pattern.

Simply put, Piaget observed that the older children got, the more they began

to consider the nature of rules and regulation.

Children of 7 to 10 years of age regarded rules as “sacred pronouncements

handed down by older children or adults” (Snowman et al 2009, p. 85)

After the age of 11, however, children began to “lose interest in adult-imposed

regulations and take delight in formulating their own variations of rules to fit a

particular situation” (Snowman et al 2009, p. 85)

How can we apply this?

As high school students are in the 12-18 age bracket, we could regard

Piaget’s theory on their moral development as a preventative strategy for

classroom management

As part of building a positive learning environment, we can construct a series

of rules and regulations in consultation with the students in the class. By

moving away from the “sacred pronouncement” of early-childhood rule

making, we give both agency and trust to our older students to create

acceptable boundaries for behaviour and consequences for breaching these

boundaries.

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Bibliography:

DECS 1996, School Policy Discipline Policy Implementation Kit

Charles, C.M. 2002, Building Classroom Discipline, 7th Edition,

Pearson, New Jersey

Cowley, S 2006, Getting the Buggers to Behave, Continuum,

London

Killen, R 2006, Effective Teaching Strategies: Lessons for

Research and Practice, 4th Edition, Thomson Social Science

Press, Melbourne

Krause, Bochner & Duchese 2003, Educational Psychology:

For Learning and Teaching, Thomson, Melbourne

Levin J & Nolan J.F. 2003, What Every Teaching Should Know

About Classroom Management, Pearson, New Jersey

McInerney D & McInerney V 2002, Educational Psychology:

Constructing Learning, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey

Snowman, Dobozy, Scevak et al 2009, Psychology Applied to

Teaching, 1st Edition, Wiley and Sons, New Jersey

Teacher TV 2005, Teaching With Bayley: Attention Seekers,

Online video, Accessed 3rd of May 2014,

< http://www.schoolsworld.tv/node/1044>

Teacher TV 2005, Teaching With Bayley: Key Instructions,

Online video, Accessed 3rd of May 2014,


Teacher TV 2005, Teaching With Bayley: Praise and

Preparation, Online video, Accessed 3rd of May 2014,


Teacher TV 2005, Teaching With Bayley: The Need for

Structure, Online video, Accessed 3rd of May 2014,


http://www.schoolsworld.tv/node/1044




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