taks biology review 1. many times the answers are in the question itself: underline key words ignore...
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TAKS biology review
1. Many times the answers are in the question itself:
• Underline key words
• Ignore extra information that doesn’t help
B
Reading graphs & charts: the
answer is there!
total volume: 2.3 kg
most precise balance that can hold 2.3 kg:
W
read question, evaluate graph, each statement
“well” is ambiguous, not what graph shows
graph shows heart rate variation according to temperature
not what graph shows
graph shows doubling during temperature change
graph does not show mutation
has to do with water being stored & not lost:
DESERT
Organisms
Organ systems
Organs
Tissues
Cells
Organelles
Molecules
Atoms
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Alive
Not Alive
we organize the world by
“complexity”
tissues are made of cells, etc.
Which is more complex, a bacteria or a frog?
“Complexity” in biology is talking about number of organ systems, specialized tissues.
Not about how hard it is to remember!!
the FROG is more complex (with more organ systems) than a bacteria!
Cells & cell theory:
Cell Theory states:
• All living things are made of cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in organisms.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells.
• Cells contain organelles with specialized functions
Cell as a City: label with names & functions
General Cell Anatomy• Cell as a City!
Membrane : controls entry & exit Fence: controls entry & exitNucleus: instruction center City hall: instruction center
DNA: instructions City records: instructions
Endoplasmic Reticulum: hold ribosomes that make protein
Factories: hold machines to makestuff
Ribosomes: make proteins Machines: that make stuff
Cell wall: made of cellulose City wall: protects
General Cell Anatomy • Cell as a City!
Membrane : controls entry & exitFence: controls entry & exitNucleus: instruction centerCity hall: instruction centerDNA: instructions City records: instructions
Endoplasmic Reticulum: hold ribosomes that make protein
Factories: hold machines to make stuff
Ribosomes: make proteins Machines: that make stuff
Mitochondria: make energy Power plants: make energy
Golgi: package and ship proteins Post office: package and ship
Vessicle: carrying Truck: carrying
Lysosome:Breaks down& Recycles
Recycling Ctr:Breaks down& Recycles
Vacuole:stores Warehouse
Chloroplasts: solar Solar power plants
Prokaryotic Cells• Simple cellular
organization with no nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.
• Example: Bacteria• Diseases caused by
bacteria: Cholera, diphtheria, Dysentery, Tetanus, MRSA, Strep Throat, Tooth Decay.
Eukaryotic Cells
Domain: Eukarya
Found in 4 kingdoms
• Protista
• Fungi
• Plantae
• Animalia (Cell Shown)
Ribosomes: site of protein
synthesis… a.k.a. translation
Polypeptide chain
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are Not membrane-bound
Bacteria have themToo!
What is unique to:Animal Cells:• Lysosomes – contain
digestive enzymes.• Centrioles – used in
cellular division.
Plant Cells:• Chloroplast – site of
photosynthesis• Cell Wall – formed of
proteins and cellulose and lies outside of the plasma membrane
• Vacuole – huge storage compartment for water and starch
Questions for you to answer #1
1. What is a difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
A. Eukaryotes have a nuclear membrane and therefore a nucleus.
B. Organelles are found only in prokaryotes.
C. The cells of prokaryotes only contain cytoplasm.
D. Prokaryotes contain an endoplasmic reticulum.
Question 2
A disease not caused by bacteria
A. Tetanus
B. Strep Throat
C. Dysentery
D. HIV
Question 3Match the function to the organelle:
Ribosome A. Packaging
Mitochondria B. Lipid Synthesis
Smooth ER C. Protein Synthesis
Golgi Apparatus D. Cellular Respiration
Membrane Structure: Phospholipid Bilayer
Some proteins, called peripheral proteins, are stuck to the surface of the membrane.
Glycolipids act as surface receptors and stabilize the membrane.
Some proteins completely penetrate the phospholipid layer, allow specific molecules through.
Glycoproteins play an important role in cellular recognition and immune responses. They help stabilize the membrane structure.
In’N’Out: No energy required:Passive Transport – relies on thermal
energy of matter and the cell does not work (No energy “ATP” used – High Concentration to Low Concentration). Four types:
• Diffusion (usually solutes)• Facilitated Diffusion – membrane
enzyme carries the substance• Osmosis – diffusion of WATER across a
semi-permeable membrane (usually solvent due to solute concentration)
• Bulk flow – movement of fluids affected by pressure.
ACTIVE transport: uses ATP (energy)!
• endo cytosis
• (to inside)
• exo cytosis
• (to outside)
Active Transport: uses ATP to move stuff through channels....
sodium potassium PUMP
Question 5Which of the following is an example of
osmosis?A. The movement of ions from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.B. The movement of ions from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration.C. The movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.D. The movement of water from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration.
Photosynthesis
Sugar(to rest of the
plant)
Oxygen gas(through stomata)
Water and nutrients
(via the roots)
Carbon dioxide gas
(through stomata)
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2OChlorophyll
Light
Sunlight
Photosynthesis Equation:“follow the money”, I mean “carbon”
Photosynthesis – First Stage
Light Dependent Reactions:
The captured light energy is transferred to electrons that come from H2O and O2 is the byproduct.
ATP is produced
Second Stage of Photosynthesis:
Light Independent Reactions: Energized electrons are
transferred to CO2 to form glucose in the Calvin-Benson Cycle.
Autotrophs use the energy from the sun to make organic compounds and are the basis of all terrestrial and most aquatic food chains.
Cellular Respiration
• Cells use OXYGEN to break down SUGAR
• to make: ATP
Cellular RespirationHighly energized electrons stored temporarily
in glucose are removed (oxidation reactions) in a stepwise fashion to maximize energy captured at each step (and avoid blowing things up).
All organisms must use energy and the energy is in the form of ATP.
ATP
• like a chemical battery
• it can store energy
• it can release energy when last P- bond is broken
Mitochondrial matrix
Cristae
ATP
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Substrate-level phosphorylation
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE
PHOSPHORYLATIONThe inner membrane of the
mitochondria
GLYCOLYSISThe cytoplasm
Glucose ➙Pyruvate
Electrons carried via
NADH
KREBS CYCLEMatrix of the mitochondria
Electrons carried by NADH and
FADH2
Oxidative phosphorylation
ATPATP
Mitochondrion
6CO2 + 12H2OC6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Idea: “Respiration”
co2
Oxygen34ATP
glucose
What if there’s not enough oxygen?
• is there another way to make ATP?
• Glycolysis then....
• Fermentation!
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Skeletal muscle
Pyruvate
Alcohol Fermentation
Pyruvate
Relationship between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Question 7
What two products of photosynthesis are reactants in cellular respiration?
A. Glucose and oxygen
B. Glucose and water
C. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
D. Sunlight and oxygen
Question 9
Which stage of cellular respiration occurs in all organisms under anaerobic conditions?
A. Glycolysis
B. Krebs Cycle
C. Electron Transport Chain
D. Calvin Cycle
Question 10What organelles are the locations of the
processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration?
A. Chloroplast and Ribosomes
B. Chloroplast and Golgi Apparatus
C. Chloroplast and Endoplasmic Reticulum
D. Chloroplast and Mitochondria
nucleic acidsStructural differences between DNA and RNA
include:
DNA RNA
Strands Double Single
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Bases Guanine Guanine
Cytosine Cytosine
Thymine Uracil
Adenine Adenine
DNA
DNA Replication(Semiconservative)
• allows cells to pass genetic information on to offspring.
• Errors in the process results in mutations.
• Remember A – T and G – C.
The letter “C” fits intoThe letter “G”…like they are cuddling.
Mnemonic
Question 11
The functional unit of both DNA and RNA is the nucleotide. What comprises the nucleotide?
A. Sugar, Protein, and a Base
B. Sugar, Phosphate, and a Base
C. Sugar, Protein, and a Ribosome
D. Sugar, Phosphate, and a Ribosome
Question 12
Which sequence of bases will pair with the base sequence CTAGGATTC in a DNA molecule?
A. GATCCTAAG
B. ATGTTGCCA
C. CTAGGATTC
D. GAATCCTAG
Protein Synthesis – 2 steps
Transcription – nucleus
DNA mRNA
Translation – cytoplasm
mRNA rRNA tRNA protein
DNA mRNA protein trait
TAC on the template DNA strand
GeneTranscription unit Three
nucleotides make up a triplet
GeneDNA
3 '5 'START Triplet STOPTriplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet TripletSTARTSTOP
This polypeptide chain forms one part of the functional protein.
Functionalprotein
This polypeptide chain forms the other part of the functional protein.
Amino acidsA triplet
codes for one amino acid
Polypeptide chain Polypeptide chain
Protein synthesis: transcription and translation
Nucleotide
In models of nucleic acids, nucleotides are denoted by their base letter.
GENE to PROTEIN RELATIONSHIP: 3 bases = a codon = an amino acid
Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
DNA nucleotide sequence mRNA Steps:1. Messenger (m)RNA is copied from DNA, by
unzipping a portion of the DNA helix that corresponds to a gene using RNA polymerase.
2. Only one side of the DNA will be transcribed, and nucleotides with the proper bases (A with U and C with G) will be sequenced to build mRNA.
3. mRNA leaves the nucleus.
Translation – occurs in the cytoplasm with ribosomes forming proteins
mRNA + rRNA + tRNA + amino acids = proteinsSteps:1. mRNA attached to a ribosome2. tRNA molecules pick up an amino
acid and carry them to the ribosome.
3. tRNA anticodon and the mRNA codon join together
4. As the amino acid chain lengthens enzymes form peptide bonds between amino acids.
5. The tRNA exit to locate a new amino acid and this process continues until the stop codon is reached.
Question 15
DNA RNA Protein (= trait)
In the diagram above, what is the function of RNA?A. Carry the set of instructions that replicates another DNA molecule in the protein chain.B. Carry the set of instructions that places amino acids in the protein chain in the correct order.C. Carry the set of instructions that places phosphate molecules in the protein chain.
D. Carry the set of instructions that bonds hydrogen to the protein chain
Question 16
What is the process in which mRNA is coded from the DNA and in what part of an eukaryotic cell does it occur?
A. Transcription, Nucleus
B. Transcription, Cytoplasm
C. Translation, Nucleus
D. Translation, Cytoplasm
Question 18
The DNA sequence, GATTACACG, would code which of the following mRNA sequence?
A. CTAATGTGC
B. CTUUTGTGC
C. CATATGTGC
D. CUAAUGUGC
Question 19
What process is being shown in the diagram to the left?
A. Transcription
B. Translation
C. Replication
D. Selection
MutationsAny random, permanent change in the DNA molecule.
Many are harmful, some have no effect, and some benefit the organism. Nature selects those mutations that are beneficial or adaptive in organisms to help shape the course of evolution.
DNA sequence: GCATACCA
Types of mutations:
Deletion – lost base GC*TACCA
Duplication – extra copies GCATCATACCA
Inversion – backwards CGATACCA
Cladistics & homologyHomology means “similarities”
• deciding how closely things are related = cladistics
comparative anatomy
comparative embryology
Taxonomy: naming things according to cladistics
old ways: 5 Kingdom vs 6 Kingdom5 Kingdoms: Monera (prokaryotic), Protista (eukaryotic),
Fungi* (eukaryotic), Plantae* (eukaryotic), Animalia (eukaryotic)
6Kingdoms: Eubacteria (prokaryotic), Archaebacteria (prokaryotic), Protista (eukaryotic), Fungi* (eukaryotic), Plantae* (eukaryotic), Animalia (eukaryotic)
* Cell Wall Present (Chitin in Fungi and Cellulose in Plantae)
What is the difference: Monera has been split into the Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.
What no Viruses?
older
old
New taxonomy: 3 domainsbased on cell type
DomainBacteria
DomainArchaea
DomainEukarya
Common ancestor
Eukaryotic Domain
• Protists
• Fungi
• Plants
• Animals
Animals: invertebrates• Porifera (sponges)
• Cnidaria (stingers)
• Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
• Nematoda (roundworms)
• Annelida (earthworms & leeches)
• Arthropoda (joined legs)
• Mollusca (snails, octopus)
• Echidnoderms (starfish)
Animals: chordates do have a spinal cord
• Fish (bony & cartilage skeletons)cartilage = sharks & rays GILLS for respiratory system
• Amphibianlungs & skin for respiratory system
• Reptilescan live in dry environment
• Birds (Aves)have 4 chambered heart
• Mammals4 chambered heart, feed young milk, give birth to live young
FilovirusThis newly emerged group of viruses, include the dangerous Marburg and Ebola.
Hepatitis virusesThe viruses responsible for hepatitis A, B and C.
HerpesvirusNearly 100 herpesviruses are known. Types found in humans include those that cause cold sores, chickenpox, shingles, and genital herpes.
InfluenzavirusThis virus causes influenza in humans. Rapid mutation has resulted in many strains.
PapillomavirusThis virus causes the formation of warts in humans.
RhinovirusMore than 100 rhinoviruses have been identified. They are the most common cause of colds.
HIVThe human immuno- deficiency virus (HIV) causes AIDS.
LyssavirusThis bullet-shaped virus causes rabies.
VIRUSES
Viruses• Viruses are either a segment of DNA or RNA with a
protein coat and are acellular. (Does not meet the life processes… it is not alive… no cells)
• Infection pattern of viruses is either lytic or lysogenic. Lysogenic pattern has a dormancy stage.
• Vaccinations is the most effective defense against viral infections. Antibiotics CANNOT treat viral infections.
• Viral Diseases: AIDS, Chickenpox, Common Cold, Hepatitis, Flu, Measles, Mumps, Polio, Rabies, Smallpox, Warts, Avian Flu, and West Nile Virus.
• Viruses that infect bacteria are Bacteriophage.
Virus Life Cycle
Lysogenic virusesAre like sleeper cells;They hang out andReplicate invisibly
Lytic viruses are likeTerrorists; theyDestroy the cell asThey replicate by theThousands and leave.
Do vaccines work on viruses?
• Vaccines are a piece of protein from the virus coat, or a weaker or
empty virus, in a shot that the doctor gives you.
• The bits train your immune system to recognize and attack when they see that protein or virus.
• But some viruses change proteins too quickly for us to keep up… like colds, and HIV
Question 21
How are viruses different from living organisms?
A. Viruses have no DNA or RNA.
B. Viruses use host cells to reproduce.
C. Viruses contain no proteins.
D. Viruses can be killed by antibiotics.
Ecology
• Autotrophs or producers are organisms that capture sunlight or other organic molecules to form an organic molecules. Photosynthesis. Examples: plants, algae, and bacteria
• Heterotrophs or consumers are organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy(food). Examples: Fungi, bacteria, animals.
Heterotrophs Relationship• Herbivore – Animals that eat only plants
(Cows)• Carnivore – Animals that eat only other
animals (Lions)• Omnivore – Animals that eat both plants
and animals (Humans, Wolves, Bears)• Detritivores – obtain energy from dead
organisms and organic waste. (Earthworms and fungi)
• Decomposers – are detritivores that cause decay. (Bacteria and fungi)
Trophic Pyramid: energy levels
Food Web:
Food web questions: the answer is usually in the food web itself.
Mice eat both plants (grass, grain, berries)and meat (grasshoppers)
the details give you the answer!
Energy and Matter in the Ecosystem
Matter is recycled through the ecosystem, where energy is lost between the trophic levels.
• Food Chain – shows direct relationshipsPlantsGrasshopperBlue JayProducer Primary Consumer Secondary Consumer (3 trophic levels)
• Food Web – interrelationships within an ecosystem between producers, consumers, and decomposers.
90% of energy is lost between each trophic level!
Symbiosis Relatioships
Symbiosis is a close relationship between two organisms that are different species.
• Commensalism – one organism benefits and the other does not benefit nor is harmed. Ex:Clown Fish and Sea Anemone (Finding Nemo)
• Mutualism – both species benefit. Ex: Lichens (which are fungi and algae)
• Parasitism – one organism lives directly on other organism. Ex: Tapeworm and Humans
• Predation – one organism captures and eating another. Ex: Gazelle and Lion
Biogeochemical Cycles
Water Cycle – Evaporation and Transpiration, Condensation, Precipitation, and Runoff
Carbon Cycle – Photosynthesis/Cell Respiration
Nitrogen Cycle – Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification, Assimilation, and Denitrification
Human Systems
Integumentary System
Structures: Skin, Hair, and Nails
Function: Protects the body from injury, defense against pathogens, regulate body temperature, and prevents the body from drying out.
Skeletal System
Structures: Bones, joints
Function: Provide protection to internal organs and work with muscles for movement.
Tendons attach muscles to bone. Ligaments connect bone to bone and limit the movement of bones.
Joints include Ball and socket(hip), pivot(neck), hinge(fingers), gliding(wrist), and saddle(thumb only).
Circulatory System
Structures: Heart, Blood, and Blood Vessels.
Heart – 4 chambers, atrium(2) receives blood and ventricles(2) pump blood
Blood – composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
Blood Vessels – arteries, veins, and capillaries
Function: connects all organs in the body and transports material throughout the body.
Pulmonary – Heart to Lungs & Systemic – Heart to Body
The Heart: 4 Chambers = high efficiency
• Atria:– Entrance
• Ventricle:– Exit Chamber– Power Pumper
Respiratory System
Structures: Diaphragm, Lungs, Pharynx, Trachea, Bronchi, and Alveoli
Function: Works with the circulatory system to transport oxygen to the cells of the body for cellular respiration and the removal of carbon dioxide.
Pathway of air: Pharynx Larynx TracheaBronchi Bronchioles Alveoli
Exchange occurs between the alveoli and capillaries
Destination: Lungs!! • It’s all about surface area!
• Your lungs have enough surface area to cover a tennis court!
Digestive System
Structures and Pathway: Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestines, Large Intestines, and Rectum. Accessory Organs: Liver, Pancreas, and Salivary Glands.
Function: To break down large organic molecules in food to usable smaller molecules.
Steps: Ingestion Digestion Absorption Elimination
Excretory System
Structure: Kidney, Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra
Function: The removal (excretion) of water soluble NITROGENOUS waste in blood from chemical activities in cells including ammonia from metabolism of proteins.
Two Steps: Filtration and Reabsorption
Nervous SystemStructures: Neurons, brain, and spinal cord.Function: Controls and coordinates functions throughout
the body. Uses both chemical and electrical signals.
Electrical impulse travels: DendriteCell Body Axon (neurotransmitter) Dendrite
Neurotransmitters are chemical/protein messengersCentral Nervous System – Brain and Spinal CordPeripheral Nervous System - Nerves
Immune System
Function: To protect the body from disease causing agents (pathogens).
Nonspecific defenses: Skin, Inflammatory response, histamine, tears, and increase in temperature.
White Blood Cells – 3 types – Neutrophils, Macrophages, and Killer T Cells
Endocrine System
Structure: Glands and Hormones
Function: Regulate the activity of the body using hormones.
Endocrine glands produce hormones and are secrete directly into the blood or fluid around cells.
Gland and Hormone pairs:
Adrenal–adrenaline, Ovaries-estrogen, Pancreas–insulin, and Testes–testerone
Reproductive System
Function: Reproduction of offspring
Male Reproductive System: Testes produces sperm (haploid cell 23 chromosomes)
Female Reproductive System: Ovaries produce ova (haploid cell 23 chromosomes), fallopian tube (fertilization occurs) and uterus (embryo development).
Basic Organs of Plants
• Roots – Anchorage and Absorption
• Stems – Supports leaves
• Leaves – Photosynthesis
• Flowers – Reproduction ( found only in Angiosperms)
Nonvascular Plants
Nonvascular plants lack roots, stems, and leaves.
Examples: Mosses, Liverworts, and Hornworts
Vascular Plants
Vascular tissues are xylem and phloem. (much like our vessels in our bodies) Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves for photosynthesis. Phloem transports sap (sugar and water) from the leaves to other areas of the plants.
Vascular Plants include Gymnosperms (pine trees) and Angiosperms (flowering plants).