sustainable futures: natural space paper

8/8/2019 Sustainable Futures: Natural Space Paper

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(Cover image removed temporarily due to file size)

Natural Space and City Growth

MCA Planners


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Contents

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................... 3

2. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS ......................................................................................................................... 4

2.1 PUBLIC OPEN SPACE (POS) ............................................................................................................................... 42.2 NATURAL SPACE................................................................................................................................................ 42.3 NATURAL GREEN OPEN SPACE .......................................................................................................................... 62.5 ACCESSIBILITY................................................................................................................................................... 6

3. METROPOLITAN OPEN SPACE SYSTEM (MOSS) ........................................................................................ 6

4. FUNCTIONS OF NATURAL AND GREEN OPEN SPACE ........... .............. ............. .............. ............ .............. 8

4.1 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 84.2 ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS....................................................................................................................................... 84.3 ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 9

5. QUALITY AND ACCESSIBILITY HOW MUCH IS ENOUGH? .......... .............. ............. .............. ............. .. 9

6. STRATEGIC DIRECTION .................................................................................................................................. 10

7. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................................... 13


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1. Introduction

What would Cape Town be without Table Mountain?

Table Mountain means different things, and plays various roles, depending on who you are and what is

important to you. It forms the visual backdrop of the City. A botanist might see it as the last refuge of anendangered plant (the Cape Floral Kingdom is the smallest and most diverse of all the worlds floral

kingdoms, meaning that rare and endangered species can be found across the City). A youth leader inMitchells Plain may see it as a place to take groups on weekend outings. For the tourism marketing agency

it is a fantastic icon around which various economic opportunities are promoted. A newly arrived ruralmigrant living in Khayelitsha might see it a symbolic of what she has come to Cape Town for work and a

better life (and thus also the hardship, challenges and possible ennui).

In any place, natural and green open spaces play all these roles and more they are at once symbolic,

social/recreational, economic and a contributor to the services we get from ecosystems (such as storm water

detention, Co2

absorption and food production via urban agriculture).

However it is seen and used, natural and green open space forms a critical element of Cape Towns character

and protection of unique habitats. How the natural and green open space is used and looked after alsoreflects the spatial patterns and income distribution across the City. Cape Town was (and remains) a

spatially divided city. The high quality open spaces and natural space is often (although not exclusively)associated with the former white and currently wealthy parts of the city. Every year the city spends millions

on maintaining and looking after these spaces, whilst in poorer parts of the city they often remain unkemptand unused. For this reason environmental protection is often viewed as the preserve of the rich. This is the

case in some instances, but it is an unfortunate perception because investment in natural and green open

space is a fundamental part of maintaining the health of the city and maintaining species diversity.

Approaching the sustainable management of Cape Towns natural space raises questions of equity and value

(and how it is valued) as much as questions of its quantity and accessibility.

In spite of this, there is no doubt that ecosystems (and the natural spaces and systems within which they

exist) are under threat not just in cities, but wherever human activity, such as industrial agriculture, takesplace. As these natural spaces and systems are eroded, so to is the ability of our planet to renew and sustain

itself.

In exploring the role of natural space and city growth it is useful to look at the context of sustainable urbandevelopment. As the basis for this study notes, The availability of natural resources and the ability of

ecosystems to continue to absorb pollution and waste has become a major problem in cities across the globe.

Faced with high rates of urbanization, cities in developing economies are challenged with the additional

burden of balancing the increasing demand for natural resources with increasing costs of supplies, and in

many cases even shortfalls in supplies. Such challenges have become larger in scale as humans influenceecosystems on global and local levels. Worldwide, cities face challenges in delivering energy, water,

sanitation and waste removal services, housing, transport systems, and particularly issues surrounding

coordinated responses. The natural and green open space is one element of a sustainable city. As with anyof the other critical elements its mismanagement has widespread implications.

The initial research for this study has found that, in 2006-7 Cape Town spent R12 billion of its total annualbudget of R17 billion on energy, water, sanitation and waste services alone. This is a full 10% of the Gross

Geographic Product (GGP) of the metropolitan economy, even though it excludes the full environmental

costs arising from the free ecosystem services these systems depend on (such as CO2 sequestration,

catchment areas regulating water supplies, landfills to absorb waste, air quality and negative effects on

health). These excluded costs provided by the ecosystem are often located within the natural and green

open spaces of the City. The health and effective functioning of the citys natural spaces and green systemsthus forms a critical component of a sustainable city. The health of city from a sustainability perspective

can be determined as much by the pollution of its rivers, beaches and harbours as anything else.


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Natural open space is a resource. Some of it needs protection, but all of it needs good management. In CapeTown we have more than enough open space but it is often under-utilized and inaccessible. Paradoxically,

we also do not have enough of the right natural space to ensure effective operation of key ecosystems

(specifically lowland fynbos). How much open space and how accessible it is depends on how you look at itand what you want to use it for.

2. Definitions and concepts

The discussion around natural and green open space and how much of it is required and its level ofaccessibility hinges around key concepts which require definition.

2.1 Public Open Space (POS)

Public Open Space (or POS for short) is publically owned land that is open to all citizens and may be used bythem in accordance with whatever rules or restrictions are applicable. It includes parks and playgrounds, as

well as larger natural systems such as river corridors and forestry areas provided they are publically ownedand may be used by all citizens (in terms of whatever restrictions may apply). It thus exists to:

a) enable the functioning of the natural systems around (and within which) the city has developed,and

b) to accommodate community needs for various forms of physical recreation/play andpsychological development and health (play and games are recognised as a key form of learning

amongst children and accessible open space provides scope for creative play).

Its size and distribution is both a function of human need/demand (as in the case of parks) and urbansettlement planning and logic (such as flood-lines and high water marks). Some have cynically remarked

that POS is the space left over after planning. Whilst not true, this perception is based on the fact that many

pieces of our POS are derelict, neglected pieces of weed infested land that are sometimes a source of threat

to the communities surrounding them. On maps these pieces of land are coloured green. Hence POS is alsosometimes referred to as green open space. Whilst in reality this is often not the case, there is a strong and

positive connotation to the word green from a sustainability perspective. Thus the term green open space is

used in this paper to refer to the role of POS in sustainable urban management.

Yet another term (used in the Red Book, CSIR 200) is soft open space which is predominately vegetated orporous surface (vs. hard open space which is paved). It is similarly defined.

POS is a broad zoning category within which these different roles may be captured. It is thus also applicable

to the open spaces within urban settlements (within the urban edge).

Provision of POS is a requirement when any new settlement is planned. Set standards and criteria are used to

determine how many parks, playing fields and so-forth should be supplied per new household. The RedBook (CSIR, 2000 See Annexure 1) has clearly defined standards in this regard which are as good as any

when it comes to guidelines. However, many cities and provinces have applied their own standards to reflect

peculiarities of their context. As we shall discuss later, the problem of access is not a factor of proximity,lack of guidelines or even a lack of appreciation of its importance and role.

2.2 Natural Space

The concept of natural space is not one that is commonly used in South Africa. It is becoming anincreasingly important concept in urbanised countries where there is a greater scarcity of natural spaces.

For the purposes of this discussion, natural space is defined as all places within the city that are managed and

run in order to maintain and preserve their natural state or the natural functioning of ecological systems.

Natural space also plays a critical absorptive function assisting in the natural processing and recycling of

liquid and solid wastes, filtering atmospheric particulants and trapping CO2. Natural spaces can also play an

important productive role when it comes to urban agriculture (indeed the nutrients we put into the system aswaste could form an important input into the urban agriculture).


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Natural space also plays a role in mitigating natural or extreme environmental hazards such as wetlandsregulating run-off from heavy storms.

Examples of large natural spaces include nature reserves (such as Table Mountain National Park/CapePeninsula), protection of critical habitats and wetlands (Edith Stephens Nature Reserve), river corridors

(Kuils River) and dune systems (False Bay Coastal Park and Macassar Dunes).

They may be part of the official, zoned, Public Open Space. Their role however, is essentially to enable

ecological processes to continue to occur sustainably and safely within environments significantly altered byhuman action. They would incorporate sensitive environments, like wetlands, rivers, coastlines and remnant

patches of indigenous flora, which are necessary to maintain the diversity of indigenous flora and faunahabitats. Natural Space thus often extends beyond POS to capture the full extent of a dynamic natural

system.

Their size is thus not only a function of direct human need, but a function of the natural processes they are

expected to support. Sometimes its protection is simply for the fact that it represents something unique.

However, natural space does also play a critical psycho-social or spiritual role. Using it (and being in it)

enables the connection to be made between ourselves and the natural system upon which we depend.

Engaging with and observing the complexity of a natural system helps build the understanding that humansare but one piece in the ecological chain of existence. This psycho-social or spiritual dimension is becoming

increasingly important as we seek to build awareness amongst urban dwellers of the fragility of this chain.I have never been to the wild before and seen nature so close and beautiful. I believe animals also need a

place to be safe and feel comfortable about their nature - Khanya Moni, quoted in Environworks (City ofCape Town b).

Ideally, natural spaces should be created and managed to ensure sustainability in terms of:

1. location (incorporating wetlands, rivers, coastlines and key areas of indigenous flora and fauna),2. size (large enough to maintain the natural populations viably and with sufficient/healthy genetic

variety and /or large enough to absorb and manage waste the system is expected to absorb),

3. dimension (shaped so as to provide sufficient protection to core areas round and fat is generallybetter that long and thin), and

4. connected (relationships to other pieces of natural space are important factors in ensuring theeffective and sustainable operation of the system, genetic interchange and migration between one

part and another).

The concepts associated with how this is determined has been explored in the theories relating to Island

Biogeography and has led to various debates about appropriate approaches to conservation in cities(conservation biology)

1. This is also an underlying principle in the Citys own Biodiversity Strategy (Primary

Biodiversity Conservation City of Cape Town, 2003).

ICLEIs Local Action for Biodiversity (LAB) initiative recognises that whilst cities cover just 2% of the

earth, they consume 75% of its natural resources. Managing biodiversity in Cape Town (and especially

critical habitats such as lowland fynbos) is a key challenge. Urbanisation, invasive vegetation, climatechange, poor communication and lack of capacity are some of the challenges faced the City in achieving this

(City of Cape Town b).

1Conservation biology, or conservation ecology, is the science of analyzing and protecting Earth's biological diversity. Conservation biology is an

interdisciplinary subject drawing on biological, physical and social sciences, economics, and the practice of natural-resource management. The rapid

decline of biological systems around the world means that conservation biology is often referred to as a "Discipline with a deadline". Conservation

ecology addresses population dynamics issues associated with the small population sizes of rare species (e.g., minimum viable populations). The term"conservation biology" refers to the Conservation biology is the scientific study of the phenomena that affect the maintenance, loss, and restoration of

biological diversity and the application of science to the conservation of genes, populations, species, and ecosystems.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_biology#Threats_to_biological_diversity


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2.3 Natural Green Open Space

The term Natural Green Open Space is used here to capture the combination of both natural space and POS.The scaled application of this generally means that at the City and District level the emphasis is on systems

and thus natural space system, whilst at the neighbourhood and site level the focus is primarily on publicopen space.

2.5 Accessibility

For the purposes of this paper a broad definition of accessibility is used. In general terms, accessibility refersto the ease with which a place or activity is physically reached. In an urban context physical accessibility isa function of:

o Distanceo Location (top of a mountain vs. near a major road)o Travel mode by which it is/can be reached (foot, cycle, public transport, car, etc)o The quality of the infrastructure (quality of road, public transport frequency)

Mobility (and thus accessibility) is also a function of income. Higher-income households generally have agreater range and choice when it comes to mobility. Lower-income households will tend to place greaterreliance on use of foot and public transport. Walking distance to a facility and or public transport stop thus

becomes a critical factor in determining accessibility.

However, there are in fact many other factors which in reality determine whether an urban activity (such asnatural space or public open space) is accessible. It is these factors which pose the greatest challenge. Theyare effectively management challenges. These include:

o Cost of access (this may include the cost of travel or the fees applicable to gain entry)o Opportunity cost (linked to the cost of access is the opportunity cost of access. Going to

Kirstenbosch vs. making the payments on the lounge suite)o Awareness, knowledge and perception (if people are not aware of a facility or opportunity, or have

no knowledge of its benefits or perceive themselves to be excluded then it effectively becomes

inaccessible)o Security and safety (perhaps one of the biggest challenges to natural and green open space access in

Cape Town is the security and safety issue. Table Mountain and the local play park are potentiallyboth easily accessible from a physical perspective, but remain unusable because of the threat of

mugging, rape or other physical violence. Living next to a park that is the domain a local gangmeans it is inaccessible to the parent wishing to take the children out to play)

o Quality/Maintenance and Management (the quality of a space forms a critical component of its use.If the local park is overgrown or barren, the swings and play equipment broken and the area littered

and used as a dump, then it is also effectively inaccessible. This is a function of management and

maintenance. Next to safety and security, this is the next largest issue facing natural and green openspace accessibility in Cape Town). Vandalism in poorer communities is often blamed for the state of

disrepair, but this need to be explored in more detail.

Ideally every citizen in the City of Cape Town should have equitable access to a range of open space

facilities, resources and opportunities. The lack of safety and poor management/maintenance of POS in

poorer communities, specifically, means is not generally accessible.

3. Metropolitan Open Space System (MOSS)Pulling together both the Natural Space and the Green Open Space across the metropolitan area is theMetropolitan Open Space System (MOSS). MOSS is defined in the Metropolitan Spatial Development

Framework (MSDF, 2000), as follows:

A Metropolitan Open Space System (MOSS) is an inter-connected and managed network of open space,

which supports interactions between social, economic and ecological activities, sustaining and enhancing

both ecological processes and human settlements. MOSS comprises public and private spaces, human-made

or delineated spaces, undeveloped spaces, disturbed 'natural' spaces, and undisturbed or pristine natural

spaces.


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The MOSS strategy aims to identify the MOSS elements and their associated management strategies. It isthus an attempt to draw together both the physical delineation of the system and to address the management

challenges posed by managing and maintaining this system. The figure below shows the MOSS system at a

general level.

The MOSS generally focuses on large scale natural systems such as riverine/wetlands environments and

mountain chains but incorporates a range of aspects such as scenic landscapes, protected natural areas,sensitive environments, formal and informal recreation areas. The MOSS offers an integrated system ofelements linked into a network of green open spaces for conservation, recreation and farming, throughout the

metropolitan region.

The figure below is extracted from the 1996 MSDF and it conceptually draws together the various elements

that would be included in the MOSS.


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4. Functions of natural and green open space

Natural and green open space provides a range of functions within the City, all of which are necessary for the

healthy and sustainable operation of the City.

4.1 Social functions

Open spaces provide for critical social functions especially in the context of higher densities and wherethere are large households on small properties. It provides space to socialise, relax, play and escape the close

confines of small homes and spaces.

The current state of most of our public open spaces (community parks and sport fields) is poor. This is areflection of lack of safety and poor management. The spaces are available, but not usable. This is the key

challenge.

Quotes from Grade 11 learners involved in a GIS mapping exercise in Rondevlei Nature Reserve make the

point, It is good to have nature in a city, and not just buildings and roads , said David Baak. I justrealised that the life of animals and other creatures are much more important in our daily lives, so we should

not destroy our environment. Rondevlei is valuable to me because its where you can forget about your

problems, sitting there watching the birds Bonga Mboyiya. Quotes from City of Cape Town b

(Enviroworks).

4.2 Economic functionsA recent study undertaken by the Citys Environmental Management Department illustrates that open spacein the metropolitan area is highly valuable due to the ecological and social functions that it performs (Turpieet al, 2002). Turpie et al valued the value of ecosystem services by estimating the costs to the City of having

to artificially provide the services which are given by the environment. The open spaces within the CapeMetropolitan Area provides hundreds of millions of Rands worth of services every year to the City and yet

the maintenance budget for these service areas is general extremely low and often are thought of as aluxury by administrations instead of viewing them as essential to ensure future services.

Further, well-managed open space can increase the value of adjacent properties (Van Zyl and Leiman, 2002)

leading to a healthier rates base for local administrations. The property values were found to have a 10%


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discount rate or premium depending on the management of the adjacent open space. In neighbourhoodsintegrated into well-managed open space and conservation areas the property values of adjacent houses were

on average 40% higher than other comparable properties.

The greatest asset and competitive advantage, to the City of Cape Town, is the unique environment. The city

has all the qualities of a great tourist destination and therefore tourism plays an important role in generating

income into the city. Eco-tourism as well adds economic value to recreational areas, with the CapeMetropolitan Areas being a popular destination for both local and international tourists.

Green spaces show significant returns considering how much actually gets invested in it. With an added

increase in properly maintaining and managing the natural open spaces, land could be made more attractivethereby effectively enhancing its neighbouring developments and at the same increasing property values.

4.3 Ecological functions

The biodiversity in Cape Town is of highest priority, it is ranked one of only three cities in the world as a

hotspot. The city of Cape Towns biodiversity strategy defines biodiversity (biological diversity) as the

totality of the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, and the communities andecosystems in which they occur. It is the natural wealth of the earth, which supplies all our food and much

of our shelter and raw materials.

Ecological conservation areas include the mountain, coast, unique habitats and the rivers. These areas areessential to the future survival of Cape Towns rich but threatened biodiversity and have been defined in the

Citys biodiversity network. Core conservation areas (where only strictly controlled public access isallowed), buffer areas (where limited, short-stay public access is allowed) and transition areas (where active

public access and a wide range of activities is allowed) all form part of this network.

In the context of Cape Town biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms, which occur naturally in

the Cape Town area. The Citys biodiversity strategy notes that the value of biodiversity can be measured by

its:o Economic value of functioning ecosystems (e.g. clean water and clean air)o Intrinsic value through its mere existenceo Contribution to tourismo Consumptive use value e.g. harvesting

o Educational valueo Social value through recreation and open spaceo Aesthetic value through beauty and scenic driveso Spiritual valueo Bequest value the value of retaining biodiversity for future generationso Option value the value of retaining biodiversity for future use

The remnants of the unique biodiversity of an area consist of valuable plant communities, wetlands anddunes, which are critical to the ecological sustainability of the open space system, as well as having

economic potential.

The open space system is both a means to conserve indigenous flora and fauna, and an important step in

maintaining ecological balance within the city.

5. Quality and Accessibility how much is enough?

The MOSS is contained within the urban edge. The urban edge is designed to prevent sprawl and to protect

abutting natural resources and generally identifies the maximum limit of urban development for the next 20

years. It is calculated that some 14 000ha of land is available within the edge to accommodate the projectedpopulation growth of the City. In the City of Cape Town Sustainability report of 2006, it is stated that there

is approximately 160 sq meters of Green space (nature reserves, parks and public open space) per person in

Cape Town. There is also 300km of coastline. This means that Cape Town has more green space than most

other large cities in the world.


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The issue then is not one of quantity or physical accessibility, it is about accessibility in terms of safety,security and the proper management of the spaces that are available.

Research shows that even in developed countries such as the UK, access to and use of natural open spacewas less an issue of physical proximity and more an issue of management. The example below is research

done in the District of Rother in the UK.

Of respondents who use a natural/semi natural site as their primary open space, 41% walk less than five

minutes to reach it and a further 29% walk between five and ten minutes. The most significant problemswere vandalism/graffiti and dog fouling. The consultation showed that the majority of respondents are

content with the current quantity of natural/semi natural sites in the District. (www.rother.gov.uk/)

Interestingly, there are 15ha of natural or semi-natural open space per 1000 people in Rother (or 150m2

per

person equivalent to that available to residents of the Cape Metropolitan Area).

The study recommended that for new large scale developments (only) 2ha of natural or semi-natural openspace should be set aside per 1000 population. It was further recommended that this should be accessible

within 1.2km (15 minute walk).

Whilst it is possible to review local standards (such as those in the Red Book, CSIR 2000) and apply it backto Cape Town, this would reveal little about the actual use, value and accessibility of the available natural

open space. Indeed, there is more than enough open space public and natural - for all residents of CapeTown. The issue is its management, maintenance and control.

For example, we have referred to the spatial distortions in the quality and accessibility of open space

inherited from Apartheid. Monwabisi Resort and the Wolfgat Nature Reserve are located in close proximity

to Khayelitsha and are accessible by foot and public transport. However, the area is unsafe and is hardly

ever used. Monwabisi is used on Boxing Day and New Years Day. On these days it is massively overusedand overcrowded, and people frequently drown. The issue is thus one of management and ensuring effective

safety so that people can use it and enjoy it the whole year round.

The same can be applied to the open space system in Khayelitsha and Mitchells Plain. In both areas, green

belts run through the settlement. However, these are unsafe and in Khayelitsha not managed or maintained.

The bottom line is that the City has Natural and Green Open Space but this is often poorly managed and/ormaintained and is often unsafe.

6. Strategic Direction

In looking at the way forward for the use, management, conservation and health of the Natural Green Open

Space in the City of Cape Town the approach has been broken up into various levels of action, namely:

1. Metropolitan or City-wide level2. District level3. Neighbourhood level4. Erf/site development level

At each one of these levels different issues and systems come to the fore.

6.1 Metropolitan and City-wide

Contextual informants

Cape Town will need to accommodate an estimated population of 5million people by 2025, thereforeappropriate areas needs to be identified for development and if there is an unanticipated population growth

Cape Town needs to be able to manage it in a way that does not destroy the City. With growing energy costsand an increasing shortage of water, steps must also be taken to localise food production and adopt waterefficient strategies (primarily through water demand management).


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Institutionally, there is still too much fragmentation in the management of Natural Space. The result is thatdifficult areas fall between the cracks and are left unmanaged. A good example of this is the open space

south of Khayelitsha. Nobody has taken responsibility for the management of this land, and it is being

invaded.

Goals

1. The critical challenge is to ensure that the institutional mechanisms are in place to enable the

implementation of what are already good existing strategies and plans (some review ay be necessaryas some are five years old).

2. Areas with high biodiversity or agricultural value must be identified and their protection andmanagement enhanced

3. Areas exposed to natural or man-made hazards must be identified and incorporated into the MOSS.4. The Citys Biodiversity strategy, which covers key areas for biodiversity management, must be

reviewed and the implementation mechanisms strengthened. In reviewing the biodiversity strategy

attention must be paid to the institutional mechanisms and capacity challenges faced in managing

Cape Towns Natural Space. This function will only increase in importance as energy and waterconstraints become more apparent.

5. Opportunities for well managed, productive and integrated urban agriculture (such as at PhilippiAgricultural Area), should be encouraged.

6. Subsistence urban agriculture is important, but highly problematic and resources should rather bedirected to where they have most benefit in terms of poor livelihoods.

6.2 District level

Contextual informantsThe City has embarked on a process of preparing District level Spatial Development Frameworks (SDFs)

and Environmental Management Frameworks (EMFs). From a Natural Space perspective, the City has alsoidentified opportunities for new urban green spaces; these include urban agricultural complexes, multi-purpose city parks, active recreational parks and collective sport facilities. Considerable work has been

undertaken to consolidate coastal nature areas on the Cape Flats.

Goals1. Create a structured green and conservation web for the protection of biodiversity and for access to

green and urban conservation areas2. Identify where public planting can reinforce this web, which includes rivers, canals, the stormwater

and detention systems

3. Powerline and major road servitudes present opportunities to conserve and connect key lowlandfynbos areas special attention should be paid to their management and control to this end

4. Identify where the need exists for major/regional sporting and recreational facilities of a higherorder. For the most part, these facilities exist, but in the poorer areas they suffer from neglect andlow maintenance. Programmes for the proper maintenance and operation of sports facilities

(especially) in poor areas should be put in place.

6.3 Neighbourhood level

It is at a neighbourhood level that open space for recreational, play, sporting and psychological needs comesto the fore. Different age groups, genders and cultural groups have different needs. Many of these can bemet through single facilities if properly designed and (importantly) managed.

Over the past 5 years, the City of Cape Towns Dignified Places Programme has also been investing in

creating open spaces in neglected parts of the city, but for a greater impact this programme needs to be

scaled up.

Goals


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1. There is also the need to, at this level, to both increase community awareness of biodiversity issuesand to improve the safety and security of local neighbourhoods so as make them safe places for

children to grow, play and learn.

a. Joint initiatives with the Dept. of Education and Safety Forums should be considered (Parksfor the People type initiative).

b. Community involvement in local greening, especially with a fynbos (and thus water-wise)approach should be encouraged. The BOSSIEs project supported by the City is an exampleof this. NGOs such Abalimi Bezekhaya are also key role-players that the City is already

working with on other programmes (e.g. the Aachen Partnership)c. The general education and awareness programmes of the City are excellent and should be

extended but links with community safety and education are nevertheless encouraged.2. New neighbourhood development should be designed so as to ensure that open space, and especially

local parks, have good visual surveillance (create defensible spaces) and are safe from major traffichazards (e.g. fast roads).

3. Existing drainage patterns must identified, along with wetlands, stream and aquifers4. Open spaces should form a network to accommodate natural water flows

6.4 Site development level

At the level of individual erven is the opportunity to introduce a whole host of initiatives that ultimatelyimpact positively on Natural Space, biodiversity and the open spaces of the city. The principle here is that

all new development and any re-development should be low impact. This implies a host of measures andstrategies that should be considered when approving buildings or site development plans.

Goals

1. Promote and encourage Low Impact Development (LID)2 so that run-off is reduced and maximumwater absorbtion takes place on or near-site. This includes initiatives such as porous paving and

creative design of open space to enable local absorbtion (see Annexure 2 for examples). LIDtechniques can be used for a particular site, the aim is mimic the watersheds natural hydrologicfunctions or the water balance between runoff, infiltration, storage, groundwater recharge, and

evapotranspiration. With the LID approach, receiving waters may experience fewer negativeimpacts in the volume, frequency, and quality of runoff, so as to maintain base flows and more

closely approximate predevelopment runoff conditions. Done well, LID can:a. Help maintain drinking water suppliesb. Reduce maintenance costs of stormwater facilities design drainage channels and retention

areas into green open space)

c. Lower costs of streets, curbs, gutters and other infrastructured. Increase property and community appearance and aestheticse. Increase property resale values due to curb appeal of landscapingf. Provide new tools for cost-effective urban retrofitg. Reduce chance of contamination of sediments in bays (and ensure blue flag status is

retained!)

h. Increase opportunities for public/private partnerships and public education2. Encourage use of low-flo water technology so as to reduce water wastage and improve water quality3. Encourage renewable energy usage and reduce energy demand such as solar geysers and insulation

of hot-water pipes

4. Encourage water-wise and indigenous landscaping5. Buildings must be sited so as to preserve sensitive areas6. Buildings should follow appropriate green building codes in terms of things like passive heating

and cooling

2 Low Impact Development is a land-use planning and engineering design approach aimed at maintaining and enhancing the pre-development

hydrologic regime of urban and developing watersheds. The Low Impact Development Center is a non-profit organization dedicated to the

advancement of Low Impact Development technology. http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org


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7. Conclusion

There is sufficient natural and green open space for all residents of Cape Town. The issue is not the quantity(and thus physical accessibility) of open space. Neither is the problem a lack of understanding or

appreciation of the role and importance of Natural Green Open Space amongst the City Departments. Thekey challenge is bringing together the various role-players to ensure the plans and projects are properly

implemented and that these places are properly managed and maintained. Natural Space in the City of CapeTown is about establishing effective institutional structures (management) and effective maintenance

(budgets and human capacity) regimes, coupled to greater community awareness, ownership and control oftheir own public spaces. It is often unsafe for people to use these assets and resources. Accessibility is thus

fundamentally an urban management issue and not an urban development issue.

In managing and developing Natural Green Open Space,

1. the ecological systems and assets it represents must be acknowledged and catered for, and2. the human development role it plays must also be addressed, especially at a neighbourhood

level.


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References

Burgess, Carmona and Kolstee (eds), 1997, The Challenges of Sustainable Cities, Neoliberalism and Urban

Strategies in Developing Countries, ZED Books

Cape Metropolitan Council, 1996, MSDF: The Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework, CapeMetropolitan Council, 1996.

City of Cape Town, Biodiversity Strategy, 2003

City of Cape Town a, Enviroworks, Volume 2/07, August 2007.

City of Cape Town b, Enviroworks, Volume 1/08, May 2008

CSIR, 2000, The Red Book, Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design, Dept of Housing (CSIR

Building and Construction Technology), 2000, CSIR, Pretoria.

Nelissen, Van der Straaten & Klinkers (eds),1997, Classics in Environmental Studies, An Overview of

Classic Texts in Environmental Studies, International Books

Prince George.s County, June 1999, Low-Impact Development Design Strategies, An Integrated DesignApproach, Maryland Department of Environmental Resources and Planning Division

Snohomish County Tomorrow, 1992, Residential Development Handbook for Snohomish County

Communities, Techniques to increase liveability, affordability and community viability, MAKERS

Architecture and Urban Design, 1992

Wackernagel, M. and Rees, W, 1962, Our Ecological Footprint, New Society Publishers

Websites

www.sacities.co.zawww.capegateway.gov.za

www.capetown.gov.zawww.environment.gov.za

www.info.gov.zawww.lowimpactdevelopment.orgwww.rother.gov.uk


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Annexure 1: Extract from the Guidelines for the Planning and Design of Networks of Soft Open Space

from The Red Book (CSIR, 2000)

Important considerations in the planning and design of networks of soft open space are: (a) location, (b)quantity (i.e. how much space there should be relative to other land uses), (c) connection (i.e. how individual

spaces should connect with each other), and (d) vegetation (i.e. the nature of surfaces, and the balancebetween pristine and artificial landscapes).

Table 5.4.2: Guidelines for the planning and design of networks of soft open space

LOCATION

Sustaining ecological processes Accommodating user needs

The location of networks should incorporate

remnant patches of representative indigenousflora, and sensitive natural areas like wetlands,

slopes, rivers and coastlines that are critical tothe continued operation of natural systems.

Empirical studies indicate that the needs of frequent space

users can be accommodated in most forms of space. Thequestion of how far users should have to walk or travel in

order to gain access to soft open space amenities thereforerelates more to access to a network of space, than access to

individual generic space forms. A distance of 500m is

recommended as the maximum a person should have to

walk to gain access to the network. When determining the

pedestrian catchment area of a public soft open spacenetwork in accordance with a maximum 500m walking

distance, it is important to avoid simply measuring off therelevant walking distance on a compass and drawing a

perfect circle around the space. Barriers like water courses,railway lines and limited access freeways often inhibit

pedestrian movement, making a circle around the space anunrealistic reflection of the potential pedestrian catchment

area.

QUANTITY


Networks of pristine or natural open space

should be sufficiently large, to maintain the seedbanks necessary to preserve the flora and thebreeding stocks necessary to preserve fauna

species, and to enable the biophysicalenvironment to renew resources and absorb andrecycle liquid and solid wastes. This is a

contextual issue, depending on the nature of the

resources or wastes in question, and the diversityof habitats for indigenous flora and fauna.

Networks should be sufficiently large to accommodate the

amount and frequency of need, yet sufficiently small toavoid reducing gross residential densities to levels that donot provide the necessary thresholds of support. Quantity

relates more to the total amount of space within asettlement and the access that users have to this space thanto the size and dimensions of individual forms of space.

Appropriate quantities of space are a contextual issue, with

geographical location and residential density beingimportant considerations. Decisions relating to quantity

cannot therefore be made purely on the basis of formulas or

on cumulative totals resulting from the mechanisticapplication of standards for individual space types.

International comparisons indicate that open space should

typically account for between 10% and 17% of land in adevelopment depending on factors such as populationdensity and proximity to natural open space. An important

way of reducing the land required to accommodate user andecological soft open space needs, is the sharing of amenities

by different users, and the multifunctional use of the space.South African society can no longer afford the luxury,within an urbanising area, of having certain spaces set aside

for single open space use. Wherever possible, different but

compatible uses should be accommodated on the same open

space. In essence, a shift in concern from quantity to quality


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is required.

CONNECTION


Networks of soft open space should be

sufficiently interconnected to enable the

movement of pollinators and the dispersal ofseed from habitat to habitat. These connections

are necessary at a range of scales. At the largerscale connect natural features such as mountains,

coastlines and rivers. At the smaller scale they

connect remnant patches of indigenous habitats.

Networks of soft open space should be connected to create

continuous recreational walking, jogging, and cycling

opportunities, not possible in spatially isolated spaces.

VEGETATION


The vegetation covering those portions of a

network of soft open space that primarily

accommodate ecological need should obviouslybe as pristine or natural as possible, and when

these portions of the network have beensignificantly degraded, they need to be

rehabilitated. The advantages of locally

indigenous vegetation relate primarily tomaintenance costs, pollution avoidance, theenhancement of uniqueness in settlement

formation, and biodiversity. Indigenousvegetation typically requires less irrigation and

fertiliser than exotic species.

The vegetation covering those portions of a network that

primarily accommodate human need essentially need to

accommodate areas of shade and wind protection, softdurable surfaces for playing games, and hardened durable

pathways for frequent pedestrian, bicycle and wheelchairmovements. When possible, local indigenous plant species

that have these characteristics should be used in

landscaping. In situations where indigenous plant speciesare not suited to the requirements and functions of the openspace, exotic species that are suited to the climate of the

region, and which do not present an invasive danger topristine environments, should be used. Whenever possible,

established trees should be incorporated into landscapedesigns.

GUIDELINES FOR THE PLANNING AND DESIGN OF GENERIC FORMS OF SOFT OPEN SPACE

Important considerations in the planning and design of generic forms of soft open space are:

Location where different forms of soft open space should be located within human settlements:

Access the maximum distance users should have to travel in order to use different forms of softopen space:

Size and dimensions the area, width and length of different forms of soft open space;

Use capacities and thresholds the number and frequency of users a space can accommodate beforethe space begins to degrade, and the number and frequency of users that are required for efficient

utilisation;

Edges the boundaries and definition of different forms of soft open space;

Surfaces the appropriate horizontal covering of different forms of soft open space; and

Public furniture the physical objects in different forms of soft open space.


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Table 5.4.3: Guidelines for the planning and design of generic forms of soft open space

LOCATION

Parkways Parkways can be located along water courses, adjacent to floodplainsdetermined by the 1:50 year floodline, in order to act as part of a majorstormwater management system.

Parkways can be located as links between larger spaces, and can incorporatebuffer areas around incompatible or unsafe land uses.

Parks Larger parks should be located in areas with no or limited access to naturalamenities (in the form of mountains or coastlines). They should be fairly

evenly distributed throughout a settlement, and where possible, connected

by parkways.

Larger parks can be juxtaposed to, and incorporate, urban agriculture,fuelwood planting, solid waste disposal and nature conservation sites, inorder to enhance multifunctionality and visual interest.

Smaller parks can be located within easy walking distance (i.e.approximately 300m) of workers situated within busy commercial andindustrial centres in order to create contrasting spaces of relief within

predominately residential areas, so as to create easily surveilled child-play

spaces, and within school clusters, which create safe, shared playtimespaces.

Sportsfields Larger competitive sportsfields should be located within clusters of schoolsand close to private sports clubs, in order to facilitate the sharing ofamenities between different user groups and to avoid under-utilisation.

Schools can have allocated times of use during the day, while sports clubscan use the amenities mainly during the evening.

Competitive sportsfields should be located close to public transport services,in order to facilitate the access of visiting teams.

Sportsfields can be located on low-lying land adjacent to water courses andincorporated into parkways, in order to act as part of the major stormwater

management system in the event of severe storms.

Playspaces Wherever possible, playspaces should be incorporated with other publicopen spaces (for reasons of multifunctionality). Playspaces can be located within clusters of primary schools and close to

pre-school and day-care facilities, in order to facilitate the shared use ofthese amenities as safe and stimulating play-time areas.

Playspaces can be located within parks, relatively close to entrance points(but away from busy perimeter roads) and traversing pathways, so that theyare areas of greatest public surveillance and safety)

Urban agriculture Urban agriculture can be practised on land located next to sources ofirrigation water, in the form of rivers and stormwater retention ponds.

In instances where lower-income farmers need to walk to the cultivatedlands on a daily basis, urban agriculture should be located close toresidential areas.

Where appropriate, urban agriculture should be located close to markets. Urban agriculture is a useful way of productively utilising residual under-

utilised land such as servitudes.

ACCESS

Parks As larger parks serve sub-metropolitan as well as local users, maximum

distances will sometimes be greater than maximum walking distances (i.e. 500m or 10min). The implication of this is that the parks will often need to

be accessed by bicycles or public transport.

As smaller parks are likely to be used on a daily basis by children, elderlypeople and workers, and are accessed by foot, they should be located within


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300m to 700m of users. The maximum time spent walking to a smaller park

should therefore be approximately 10min.

Sportsfields School sportsfields should be located within easy walking distance (i.e. 300m) of school buildings with primary schools requiring closer locations

than secondary schools, and should be located within 500m to 1500m ofother user groups (e.g. sports clubs)

Playspaces Playspaces should be located within easy walking distance (i.e. 300m) ofprimary school buildings and crches, and should be located within 500m to

1500m of other users. As playspaces sometimes serve children fromsurrounding areas, maximum distances will occasionally be greater than

maximum walking distances (i.e. 500m or 10 min)

SIZE AND DIMENSIONS

Pristine areas It is not possible to generalise about the ideal size for pristine areas, or thewidth of effective corridors, as these will vary between flora and faunacommunities. Where appropriate, land preserved as a pristine area should be

nodal, as opposed to linear, in order to minimise exposure to human activity.

In the case of wetlands and drainage courses, setbacks, which protectdevelopment from flood waters, should ensure that development is restricted

to at least above the 1:50 year floodline. The setback also makes provisionfor a vegetated strip, which protects water courses from pollutants, prevents

bank erosion, secures habitat for birds and other wildlife, and provides

recreational opportunities through trails. The required width of such a stripdepends on soil and water- travel characteristics, slope, climate, vegetation

type, and the scale and density of proposed development (Figure 5.4.2)

Parkways The length, and therefore size, of linear parkway depends on the particularcontext. Widths should, for surveillance and safety reasons, not exceed

300m, with a width of 25-50m making it easier for more vulnerable users

to identify and avoid potential dangers.

Parks The area and dimensions of a park vary according to the functions the parkis intended to perform, and to proximity to the natural environment. Larger

parks should be able to accommodate a variety of collective events like

carnivals, fairs and concerts. Parks that are between 6ha and 10ha in size,with widths of between 200m and 300m, and lengths of between 300m and

500m, are generally flexible enough to accommodate these events.

The area and dimensions of smaller parks also vary according to thefunctions they are intended to perform. Smaller parks should, however, be

small enough to maintain a sense of intimacy, and enable easy visibility and

recognition (i.e. 25m maximum). Such parks should therefore be between

450 and 1000square meters in size, with widths of between 15m and 25m,and lengths of between 30m and 40m.

Sportsfields The area and dimensions of a sportsfield cluster vary according to thequantity and range of sports to be accommodated, their respective field

dimensions, and the degree to which field markings can be overlaid to

reduce space requirements. The specific field dimensions of commonoutdoor sports are illustrated in Figure 5.4.3. It should be noted that the

dimensions of larger field sports like cricket, rugby and soccer can varyconsiderably, and that only competitive matches need the specified field

dimension and marking. Non-representative team games, social leaguegames and other informal sporting activities do not necessarily require the

specified field dimensions.

Soccer: 65m x 105m (6825square meters) Rugby: 69m x 125m (8625square meters)

Cricket oval: 128m x 128m (16384square meters)

Hockey: 50m x 87m (4350square meters)


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Volley ball: 9m x 18m (162square meters)

Basketball: 14m x 26m (364square meters)

Netball: 15m x 30m (450square meters)

Playspaces The area and dimensions of a playspace vary according to the nature of theplay equipment (e.g. whether or not small animals are kept within the

space), and whether or not the playspace is part of a larger soft open space.Playspaces should however be small enough to enable easy supervision and

recognition (i.e. 25m maximum). Playspaces should therefore be between

450sq.meters and 1000sq.meters in size, with widths of between 15m and25m, and lengths of between 30m and 40m.

It should be kept in mind that the size and surface of playspaces could havean impact on their use, especially in areas where sufficient resources are notavailable to keep them in a state conducive to play activities. The resultcould be that smaller playspaces are used for rubbish dumping, parking, etc.

It might prove to be more suitable in some instances to develop these as hard

open spaces to allow for various games requiring a hard surface.

USE CAPACITIES AND THRESHOLDS

Pristine areas It is important that the frequency and the volume of users do not reach apoint where they compromise the environment and interfere with the natural

functioning of the ecosystem this varies according to context.Sportsfields The use threshold of sportsfields clusters depends on the size of the cluster,

the number of schools and sports clubs that share the amenity, the capacity

of the fields, the surface of the fields and the levels of use that are requiredto maintain efficiency.

Different surfaces have different capacities. When considering the sharing ofsportsfields, it is necessary to establish whether certain levels of sharing are

feasible from a surface capacity point of view. In Cape Town, for example, a

(kikuyu) grass playing field can typically accommodate only 6 matches orpractices per week, before the surface begins to degrade.

Playspaces Playspaces primarily serve the open-space needs of children. The usethreshold of playgrounds depends on the demographic characteristics of the

local community, and whether or not schools and crches make formal use

of these amenities.

EDGES

Parks and parkways Parks and parkways should be defined by perimeter roads and frontingbuildings, in order to improve surveillance and safety. Visual access or

visibility is important in order for people to feel free to enter a space.

Parks and parkways with direct road access should be protected by trafficbarriers (e.g. trees, bollards or railing), in order to prevent cars from parking

in the space, and prevent children from running into busy streets. Trees, in

particular, provide a definite visible line of transition between built areasand open spaces, and provide shade and windbreaks.

The fencing of parks facilitates collective events where entrance fees arecharged (e.g. fairs, open-air theatre). It is important that only a few parks in

a settlement are fenced off, to minimise restrictions on public access, andthat entrance points relate to approaches from public transport stops and

major pedestrian desire lines.

Sportsfields Sportsfields clusters should be defined by perimeter roads and frontingbuildings, in order to provide surveillance and safety. Depending on the

nature of the amenity sharing, fencing to limit public access to specific usergroups may be required. In these instances surrounding properties can back

onto the space directly without adversely affecting safety.

Playspaces Free-standing playgrounds should be defined by fronting buildings, in orderto provide shelter from the wind and sun, and enable adults to survey the

space from surrounding houses.


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Free-standing, unfenced playgrounds with direct road access should beprotected by traffic barriers (e.g. tress, bollards or railing), in order toprevent cars from parking in the space, and prevent small children from

running into busy streets.

Urban agriculture In most instances, urban agriculture needs to be fenced in order to preventtheft and vandalism, and protection from stray animals.

SURFACES

Pristine areas Surfaces should be left in a natural (i.e. locally indigenous) state, andriverbanks should be vegetated with riparian vegetation to decrease and slow

water runoff.

Parks and parkways Surfaces should match the frequency with which the space is used. Heavilyutilised spaces should be paved or gravelled, while less utilised spaces can

have a soft surface.

Surfaces should include hardened, tractive pathways of90cm withgradients not exceeding 1:12, in order to facilitate the easy movement of

wheelchair users, pedestrians and cyclists. Pathways should run through andacross the space, in order to create continuous walks and limit any

fragmentation of urban areas as a result of the space, and should also lead to

more seclude viewing sites.

Portions of larger parks (50m x 50m) should be left unplanted and open,

in order to accommodate informal ball games and other forms of play thatrequire free space (e.g. kite-flying)

Retention and retarding storm water ponds should be incorporated as waterfeatures, in order to improve the landscaping and recreational interest of the

space, and for the dual purpose of storm water attenuation. Paths crossing

watercourses, in the form of bridges or stepping-stones, should be made intochallenging child-play objects.

Plant and tree landscaping should avoid the creation of hidden places ofrefuge, in order to reduce opportunities to commit crimes in the space.

Sportsfields Surfaces should be appropriate to the range of sports to be accommodated.The use of an indigenous grass is preferable for ecological reasons. While

the cost of establishing indigenous grasses, like buffalo, is oftensignificantly higher, maintenance is cheaper. In some cases, an artificial

surface (e.g. astroturf) could be appropriate. Astroturf can be used 24hours aday, but the capital cost is high. It does not, however, need regular

maintenance or reinvestment.

There should be a differentiation between playing fields. In some instances(e.g. climatic conditions), less important, non-competitive fields can be

surfaced with earth. The advantage of earth surfaces is that there is no limit

to use, and maintenance costs are reduced.

Where possible and appropriate, field markings should be overlaid indifferent colours, to enable the same space to be used for a number ofdifferent sports.

If parking space is provided within the sportsfield cluster, hard surface fieldmarkings (e.g. basketball, netball) can be overlaid onto the space so that the

parking area can also be used as a sports facility when demand for parking islow.

Playspaces Areas of intense play and heavy use, requiring high durability, should have ahardened surface, while areas where children are likely to fall and hurt

themselves should have a soft surface.

Surfaces should demarcate playspaces for children of different age groups.Small soft spaces suit young children of pre-school age in theirpredominately passive engagement activities, while larger soft spaces suit

the more robust contact games of older children.

Servitudes To reduce maintenance costs, and increase habitats for indigenous flora andfauna, servitudes should be surfaced with indigenous vegetation.


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PUBLIC FURNITURE

Parkways Public furniture can include benches and waste bins at viewing sites.Parks Public furniture in larger parks can include benches and waste bins close to

entrances and play areas for less mobile elderly people and minding parents,

child play equipment away from busy perimeter roads, and ablution blockswhere required.

Public furniture in smaller parks can include childrens play equipment,public art or a stimulating water feature to add to the uniqueness and

character of the space, benches and tables (for lunch eaters, newspaperreaders, board games, etc), and game markings (e.g. hop-scotch).

Sportsfields Public furniture can include benches and stands for spectators. In the case ofpublic fields shared with sports clubs, adults who work during the day canonly play sport at night, and therefore often need lighting as well.

Depending on the size of the sportsfield cluster, and the range of usergroups, collective service points in the form of changing-rooms with toiletsand taps can be provided.

Playspaces Public furniture can include interactive and challenging play objects (e.g.wooden building blocks, stepping stones), play equipment (e.g. slides), and

benches overlooking play areas. Free-standing playgrounds with formalised use arrangements may require

water points for drinking and toilet facilities.

Urban agriculture Appropriate public objects in spaces used for urban agriculture are likely torelate to water irrigation systems and storage facilities for farmingimplements.


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Annexure 2: Low Impact Development

http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org


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Annexure 3: Demonstration Projects

Here are a few projects that demonstrate development of the Natural Green Open Space system:

Cape Flats ParkThe Cape Flats is devoid of quality recreation areas. A significant opportunity exists to provide a major

urban park in the vicinity of Manenberg and Hanover Park. The area is currently used for sand mining, but apark could be created as part of the ongoing restoration of areas already mined. Apart from active and

passive recreation opportunity, the park can provide for productive uses (including urban agriculture andnurseries), cultural activities and also attract high yielding uses to its edges (because of the potentially high

amenity value of the land).

A memorial park and cemetery

There is a shortage of dignified, accessible burial space in Cape Town. This project envisages creating amemorial park, somewhere on the Cape Flats (possibly on the edge of the Philippi horticultural area.

Functionally the park serves as a metropolitan cemetery and garden of remembrance, elevated well above the

water table. It also creates a major place-making element which contributes significantly to an otherwise

featureless landscape. The foundation of the park could be constructed with builders rubble, covered withsoil and sand. The project could be implemented as a public works initiative over a prolonged period.

The Civic Centre and Station Precinct

The Cape Town Civic Centre, City Hall, Station and Artscape precinct represent important public institutionsand huge investment. These are however located in a very hostile and unwelcoming environment. The lack

of amenity in the central city for ordinary citizens and those dependent on public transport is a majorconcern. The opportunity exists to build a new public square at the most accessible place for ordinary people

in the City, the Central Station. It could become the heart of the CBD and a place of 24-hour activity and

safety. The square could be used as an important lever to build confidence in the precinct and attract otherappropriate investments and facilities, including an inner-city crche, medi-clinic, apartments for young

people and places of entertainment.

sustainable futures: natural space paper

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